HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION FOR

EMBEDDED Z (EZ)-SOURCE FEED BASED

ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM
ABSTRACT
This paper represents the topology and hardware design of Embedded-Z (EZ)
source feed induction motor. Conventionally there are two converters used for
ASD systems i.e. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) and Current Source Inverter (CSI),
but they have a limited output voltage range. Conventional VSI and CSI support
only either buck or boost DC-AC power conversion and need a relatively complex
modulator. The problems in traditional source converters can be overcome by Z
source inverter. In this LC impedance are employed for fast power conversion. Due
to requirement of additional LC filter the cost of operation also increases.
Therefore, instead of using an external LC filter in Z-source inverters, this paper
gives an alternative family of Z-source inverters i.e. EZ source inverter. In which
input DC source has embedding between LC impedance, which perform the
current and voltage filtering operation in current type and voltage type EZ source
inverter. This paper illustrate the hardware design of EZ source inverter fed
induction motor which overcome problems of conventional VSI and CSI inverters.
And it gives the smooth speed control of induction motor.

INTRODUCTION
Today, Street lamp lighting is citys part of infrastructure, which plays major role at traffic safety,
illuminate the citys streets during dark hours of the day, society security, city appearance style
and feature. The main purpose of road lighting is to make people, vehicles and objects on the
road visible. Number of streets in the town and the city before were small, so controlling these
street lamps was not so hard, but growth in urbanization, has increased the number of streets in
the town rapidly which made street lamps control and management difficult. At present, street
lamps are controlled manually in most of the cities, a control switch set in each of the street
lamps, which is inefficient and a waste of manpower as well as electricity, also difficult to
operate street light opening and closing time, so large amount of power is wasted which leads to
street lights automation.
In view of the present specific situation in engineering field green issue has been raised where
many researchers and engineers are involving themselves to find the techniques to reduce energy
consumption, environment friendly equipment and to increase product efficiency. The best
method is the smart system when it is applied in industrial, residential and commercial areas etc.
Smart system is an autonomous operation which detects the change in environment with the help
of sensors and act to correct the offset cause of the environment. The systems perform
continually to reach the optimal solution. The main advantage of the street light is the extension
of human life quality for the dark period of the day. Life quality comprises the crime prevention,
traffic safety on road, aesthetic impact, behavior of human and many more. Street lighting
consumes two percent of global energy and also responsible for the annual exhaust of millions of
Co2.
Many researches and techniques are made by engineering students, faculty of universities,
colleges and research organizations to make the outdoor lighting system less power consuming.
The latest technology, which is used globally in these days is light emitting diode based system,
it is treated as energy efficient and reliable lighting technology, which reduced the public lighting
cost as well as energy consumption
up to 80% and also responsible for the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Life span of LED
lamps is about 50 times longer than other Conventional lamps. Busy areas should be lighten all
the time; however, this is not the case with rural areas. Sometimes, when people leave their
shops, restaurants, cinemas, they keep walking around midnight, latter, there are very few people
on the road at night. So, there is a temporary need for lighting streets or road, in relation to a
continuous illumination of streets or road in urban areas. For energy saving on street lights we
can install an automatic system which can turn on or off lighting system or the brightness of
lamps increase or decrease according to detection of traffic on the road.

Due to the recent advancements in the fields of power conversion and energy
storage, it is essential to design an new
topology of inverter which can operate efficiently with variable voltage sources. In
particular, the converter may
need to provide voltage enhancing capability in renewable energy (e.g. fuel cell
and solar energy) applications due
to unbalanced output voltage from the electrical sources, which are unnecessarily
affected by their output current
and the ambient condition. So an alternative solution for this is Z-source inverter,
which has an unique passive
elements structure which provide voltage buck-boost capability but Z-source
source inverter has some deficiencies
which overcome by advanced family of Z-source inverter i.e. Embedded Z-source
inverter. An EZ-source inverter
provides inherent features for ASD system. As we know, we have two conventional
converters i.e. VSI and CSI
where they have operate only in either voltage buck operation or boost operation at
a time.

LITERATURE REVIEW
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION FOR
EMBEDDED Z (EZ)-SOURCE FEED BASED
ADJUSTABLE SPEED DRIVE SYSTEM
Atmaram Chakor 1, A.V. Tamhane2
1PG Student, Electrical Engineering Department, SIT, Lonavala, Maharashtra, India
2Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Department, SIT, Lonavala, Maharashtra, India
This paper represents the topology and hardware design of Embedded-Z (EZ) source feed
induction motor.
Conventionally there are two converters used for ASD systems i.e. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
and Current
Source Inverter (CSI), but they have a limited output voltage range. Conventional VSI and CSI
support only either
buck or boost DC-AC power conversion and need a relatively complex modulator. The problems
in traditional
source converters can be overcome by Z source inverter. In this LC impedance are employed for
fast power
conversion. Due to requirement of additional LC filter the cost of operation also increases.
Therefore, instead of
using an external LC filter in Z-source inverters, this paper gives an alternative family of Zsource inverters i.e. EZsource
inverter. In which input DC source has embedding between LC impedance, which perform the
current and
voltage filtering operation in current type and voltage type EZ source inverter. This paper
illustrate the hardware
design of EZ source inverter fed induction motor which overcome problems of conventional VSI
and CSI inverters.
And it gives the smooth speed control of induction motor
Modified Embedded Switched Inductor Z Source Inverter
1V. Saravanan, 2R. Ramanujam and 1M. Arumugam 1Department of EEE, Arunai Engineering
College, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India
2Department of EEE, College of Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
A novel modified embedded switched inductor Z-source inverter is proposed by inserting the
photovoltaic panels at various locations to improve the output voltage boosting performance. The
proposed inverter have the concepts of embedded and switched inductor Z source network to
have better features in terms of increased voltage boost inversion ability, continuous input
current, reduced voltage stress on the switches/capacitors. Simulations are carried out by
employing (120) pulse width modulation scheme. Hardware implementation of the proposed

topology of rating 150 W, 60 V is made and the results are experimentally verified. Switch
device power and reliability evaluation of the proposed inverter are also calculated.
Z-Source Inverter for Motor Drives
Fang Zheng Peng, Fellow, IEEE, Alan Joseph, Jin Wang, Student Member, IEEE, Miaosen Shen,
Student Member, IEEE, Lihua Chen, Zhiguo Pan, Student Member, IEEE, Eduardo Ortiz-Rivera,
Member, IEEE, and Yi Huang
This paper presents a Z-source inverter system and control for general-purpose motor drives. The
Z-source inverter system employs a unique LC network in the dc link and a small capacitor on
the ac side of the diode front end. By controlling the shoot-through duty cycle, the Z-source can
produce any desired output ac voltage, even greater than the line voltage. As a result, the new Zsource inverter system provides ride-through capability duringvoltage sags, reduces line
harmonics, improves power factor and reliability, and extends output voltage range. Analysis,
simulation, and experimental results will be presented to demonstrate these new features. Index
TermsLine harmonics, motor drives, voltage sags, Z-source inverter.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING
The block diagram of single phase E-Z-source inverter using pic controller for
speed control of induction motor is shown in fig. It contains following main
section EZ-source inverter, pic controller, driver section, triggering circuit, speed
control circuit. The EZ-source inverter is utilized to realize inversion and boost
function.
The microcontroller has been programmed to the PWM signal of the inverter and
converts it to ac power to feed the motor under control. Fig shows the hardware
circuit implementation for this work

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

HARDWARE REQUIRMENT
BATTERY
DRIVER CIRCUIT
LCD DISPLAY
MOSFET
PIC
PWM

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
BATTERY
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy.[1] Since the invention of the first battery (or
"voltaic pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common
power source for many household and industrial applications. According to a 2005
estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales each
year,[2] with 6% annual growth.[3]
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded when they are exhausted, and secondary
batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used
multiple times. Miniature cells are used to power devices such as hearing aids and
wristwatches; larger batteries provide standby power for telephone exchanges or
computer data centers.

History

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram. It originated as a schematic drawing

of the earliest type of battery, a voltaic pile.
Strictly, a battery is a collection of multiple electrochemical cells, but in popular
usage battery often refers to a single cell.[1] The first electrochemical cell was
developed by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1792, and in 1800 he
invented the first batteryfor him, a "pile" of cells.[4]
The usage of "battery" to describe electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin,
who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars (early electrical capacitors) by analogy
to a battery of cannons.[5] Thus Franklin's usage to describe multiple Leyden jars
predated Volta's use of multiple galvanic cells. [6]. It is speculated, but not
established, that several ancient artifacts consisting of copper sheets and iron bars,
and known as Baghdad batteries may have been galvanic cells.[7]

Volta's work was stimulated by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi
Galvani, who in 1780 noticed that dissected frog's legs would twitch when struck
by a spark from a Leyden jar, an external source of electricity.[8] In 1786 he noticed
that twitching would occur during lightning storms. [9] After many years Galvani
learned how to produce twitching without using any external source of electricity.
In 1791 he published a report on "animal electricity." [10] He created an electric
circuit consisting of the frog's leg (FL) and two different metals A and B, each
metal touching the frog's leg and each other, thus producing the circuit A-FL-B-AFL-B...etc. In modern terms, the frog's leg served as both the electrolyte and the
sensor, and the metals served as electrodes. He noticed that even though the frog
was dead, its legs would twitch when he touched them with the metals.
Within a year, Volta realized the frog's moist tissues could be replaced by
cardboard soaked in salt water, and the frog's muscular response could be replaced
by another form of electrical detection. He already had studied the electrostatic
phenomenon of capacitance, which required measurements of electric charge and
of electrical potential ("tension"). Building on this experience, Volta was able to
detect electric current through his system, also called a Galvanic cell. The terminal
voltage of a cell that is not discharging is called its electromotive force (emf), and
has the same unit as electrical potential, named (voltage) and measured in volts, in
honor of Volta. In 1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many voltaic cells in
series, literally piling them one above the other. This voltaic pile gave a greatly
enhanced net emf for the combination,[11] with a voltage of about 50 volts for a 32cell pile.[12] In many parts of Europe batteries continue to be called piles.[13][14]
Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought
that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[15] and that the associated
chemical effects (e.g. corrosion) were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable

consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834.[16] According

to Faraday, cations (positively charged ions) are attracted to the cathode,[17] and
anions (negatively charged ions) are attracted to the anode.[18]
Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice
their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained
period. Later, starting with the Daniell cell in 1836, batteries provided more
reliable currents and were adopted by industry for use in stationary devices,
particularly in telegraph networks where they were the only practical source of
electricity, since electrical distribution networks did not exist at the time.[19] These
wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not
handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made
them fragile. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable
appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell
batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable
electrical devices practical.[20]
Since then, batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and useful for
a variety of purposes.[21]

How batteries work

A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are
linked by a salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions, but not water
molecules.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.[22]
It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One
half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged
ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate,
i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery,

reduction (addition of electrons) occurs to cations at the cathode, while oxidation

(removal of electrons) occurs to anions at the anode. [23] The electrodes do not touch
each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Many cells use two
half-cells with different electrolytes. In that case each half-cell is enclosed in a
container, and a separator that is porous to ions, but not the bulk of the electrolytes,
prevents mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to
drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the
cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta.
[12]

Therefore, if the electrodes have emfs

and

, then the net emf is

; in

other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the
half-reactions.[24]
The electrical driving force or

across the terminals of a cell is known as the

terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts.[25] The terminal voltage of a

cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and
equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance [26], the terminal voltage of
a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and
the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. [27]
An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant
terminal voltage of

until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell

maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete
discharge it would perform 1.5 joule of work.[25] In actual cells, the internal
resistance increases under discharge,[26] and the open circuit voltage also decreases
under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting

graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the
chemistry and internal arrangement employed.[28]
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the
energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline
and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of
1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but
approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. [29] On the other hand the high
electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give
lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[30]

Categories and types of batteries

From top to bottom: SR41/AG3, SR44/AG13 (button cells), a 9-volt PP3 battery,
an AAA cell, an AA cell, a C cell, a D Cell, and a large 3R12. The ruler's unit is in
centimeters.
Batteries are classified into two broad categories, each type with advantages and
disadvantages.[31]
Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform
chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is
exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical
means.[32]
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their
original composition.[33]
Historically, some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph
circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the components of the battery
consumed by the chemical reaction.[34] Secondary batteries are not indefinitely
rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and
internal corrosion.
Primary batteries
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable
batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly
used in portable devices that have low current drain, are only used intermittently,
or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and

communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available.

Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions
are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms.
Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.[35]
Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline
batteries. Generally, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries,
[36]

but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with

loads under 75 ohms (75 ).[31]

Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with
active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells
can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical
reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are
called chargers or rechargers.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery.[37] This battery is
notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the
battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of
the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid
battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite
this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use

common where a large capacity (over approximately 10Ah) is required or where

the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.
A common form of the lead-acid battery is the modern car battery, which can
generally deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.[38] An improved type of liquid
electrolyte battery is the sealed valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, popular
in the automotive industry as a replacement for the lead-acid wet cell. The VRLA
battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte, reducing the chance of
leakage and extending shelf life.[39] VRLA batteries have the electrolyte
immobilized, usually by one of two means:
Gel batteries (or "gel cell") contain a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent
spillage.
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special
fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several "dry cell" types, which are
sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances such as mobile phones and
laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost)
include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells.[40] By far, Li-ion has the highest share of the dry cell
rechargeable market.[3] Meanwhile, NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications
due to its higher capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios,
and medical equipment.[3] NiZn is a new technology that is not yet well established
commercially.

Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as

USBCELL, with a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format,
enabling the battery to be charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger,
[41]

and low self-discharge (LSD) mix chemistries such as Hybrio, [42] ReCyko,[43]

and Eneloop,[44] where cells are precharged prior to shipping.

CONCEPTS OF MICROCONTROLLER :
2. MICRO CONTROLLER

2.1 CONCEPTS OF MICROCONTROLLER :

Microcontroller is a general purpose device, which integrates a number of
the components of a microprocessor system on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU,
memory and peripherals to make it as a mini computer. A microcontroller combines
on to the same microchip:

The CPU core

Memory(both ROM and RAM)
Some parallel digital i/o

Microcontrollers will combine other devices such as:

A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain
time periods.
A serial i/o port to allow data to flow between the controller and other
devices such as a PIC or another microcontroller.
An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for
processing.

Microcontrollers are :

Smaller in size

Consumes less power

Inexpensive

Micro controller is a stand alone unit ,which can perform functions on

its own without any requirement for additional hardware like i/o ports and external
memory.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally
been based on a 8-bit microprocessor unit. For example Motorola uses a basic 6800
microprocessor core in their 6805/6808 microcontroller devices.
In the recent years, microcontrollers have been developed around
specifically designed CPU cores, for example the microchip PIC range of
microcontrollers.

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO PIC :

The microcontroller that has been used for this project is from
PIC series. PIC microcontroller is the first RISC based microcontroller fabricated in
CMOS

(complimentary metal oxide semiconductor) that uses separate bus for

instruction and data allowing simultaneous access of program and data memory.
The main advantage of CMOS and RISC combination is low power
consumption resulting in a very small chip size with a small pin count. The main
advantage of CMOS is that it has immunity to noise than other fabrication
techniques.

PIC (16F877) :

Various microcontrollers offer different kinds of memories.

EEPROM, EPROM, FLASH etc. are some of the memories of which FLASH is the most
recently developed. Technology that is used in pic16F877 is flash technology, so
that data is retained even when the power is switched off. Easy Programming and
Erasing are other features of PIC 16F877.

PIC START PLUS PROGRAMMER :

The PIC start plus development system from microchip technology
provides the product development engineer with a highly flexible low cost
microcontroller design tool set for all microchip PIC micro devices. The picstart plus
development system includes PIC start plus development programmer and mplab
ide.
The PIC start plus programmer gives the product developer ability to
program user software in to any of the supported microcontrollers. The PIC start
plus software running under mplab provides for full interactive control over the
programmer.

2.3 SPECIAL FEATURES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER :

CORE FEATURES :
o

High-performance RISC CPU

Only 35 single word instructions to learn

All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are
two cycle

Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input

DC - 200 ns instruction cycle

Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory,

Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM)

Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory

Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73/74/76/77

Interrupt capability (up to 14 internal/external

Eight level deep hardware stack

Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes

Power-on Reset (POR)

Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)

Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC Oscillator for

reliable operation

Programmable code-protection

Power saving SLEEP mode

Selectable oscillator options

Low-power, high-speed CMOS EPROM/EEPROM technology

Fully static design

In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP) via two pins

Only single 5V source needed for programming capability

In-Circuit Debugging via two pins

Processor read/write access to program memory

Wide operating voltage range: 2.5V to 5.5V

High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA

Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges

Low-power consumption:
2mA typical @ 5V, 4 MHz
20mA typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
1mA typical standby current

PERIPHERAL FEATURES :
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during sleep
via external crystal/clock

 Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns,
Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns,
PWM max. resolution is 10-bit
10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI. (Master Mode) and I2C. (Master/Slave)
Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with
9- bit address detection.
Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

2.4 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877 :

The complete architecture of PIC 16F877 is shown in the fig 2.1. Table
2.1 gives details about the specifications of PIC 16F877. Fig 2.2 shows the complete
pin diagram of the IC PIC 16F877.

FIG 2.1 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877

TABLE 2.1 SPECIFICATIONS

DEVICE
PIC
16F877

PROGRAM FLASH

DATA MEMORY

DATA EEPROM

8K

368 Bytes

256 Bytes

FIG 2.2 PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877

TABLE 2.2 PIN OUT DESCRIPTION

Legend:

I = input O = output I/O = input/output P = power

= Not used

TTL = TTL input

ST = Schmitt Trigger input

Note
1. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured as an external interrupt
2. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when used in serial programming mode.
3. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured as general purpose I/O and
a TTL

input when used in the Parallel Slave Port mode (for interfacing to a
microprocessor bus).
4. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured in RC oscillator mode and a
CMOS input otherwise.

Legend:

I = input O = output I/O = input/output P = power

= Not used TTL = TTL input ST = Schmitt Trigger input

Note :
1. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured as an external interrupt.
2. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when used in serial programming mode.
3. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured as general purpose I/O and
a TTL
input when used in the Parallel Slave Port mode (for interfacing to a
microprocessor bus).
4. This buffer is a Schmitt Trigger input when configured in RC oscillator mode and a
CMOS input otherwise.

2.5 I/O PORTS :

Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate
function for the peripheral features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is
enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose I/O pin.
Additional Information on I/O ports may be found in the IC
micro Mid-Range Reference Manual,

PORTA AND THE TRISA REGISTER :

PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (=1) will make the corresponding
PORTA pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a Hi-impedance
mode. Clearing a TRISA bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output,
i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. Reading the PORTA
register reads the status of the
pins whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are readmodify-write operations. Therefore a write to a port implies that the port pins are

read; this value is modified, and then written to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is
multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The
RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open drain output. All other RA port
pins have TTL input levels and full CMOS output drivers. Other PORTA pins are
multiplexed with analog inputs and analog VREF input. The operation of each pin is
selected by clearing/setting the control bits in the ADCON1 register (A/D Control
Register1).
The TRISA register controls the direction of the RA pins, even when they are
being used as analog inputs. The user must ensure the bits in the TRISA register are
maintained set when using them as analog inputs.

TABLE 2.3 PORT A FUNCTION

Legend: TTL = TTL input, ST = Schmitt Trigger input

TABLE 2.4 SUMMARY OF REGISTERS ASSOCIATED WITH PORTA

Legend:

x = unknown,

u = unchanged,

- = unimplemented locations

read as '0'. Shaded cells are not used by PORTA.

PORTB AND TRISB REGISTER :

PORTB is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data

direction register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (=1) will make the corresponding
PORTB pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance
mode. Clearing a TRISB bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output,
i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. Three pins of PORTB
are multiplexed with the Low Voltage Programming function; RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC
and RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these pins are described in the Special
Features Section. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single
control bit can turn on all the pull-ups.
This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pull-up
is automatically turned off when the port pin is configured as an output. The pullups are disabled on a Power-on Reset.
Four of PORT Bs pins, RB7:RB4, have an interrupt on change feature. Only
pins configured as inputs can cause this interrupt to occur (i.e. any RB7:RB4 pin
configured as an output is excluded from the interrupt on change comparison). The
input pins (of RB7:RB4) are compared with the old value latched on the last read of
PORTB. The mismatch outputs of RB7:RB4 are ORed together to generate the RB
Port Change Interrupt with flag bit RBIF (INTCON<0>). This interrupt can wake the

device from SLEEP. The user, in the interrupt service routine, can clear the interrupt
in the following manner:
a) Any read or write of PORTB. This will end the mismatch condition.
b) Clear flag bit RBIF. A mismatch condition will continue to set flag bit
RBIF. Reading PORTB will end the mismatch condition, and allow flag bit RBIF to be
cleared. The interrupt on change feature is recommended for wake-up on key
depression operation and operations where PORTB is only used for the interrupt on
change feature. Polling of PORTB is not recommended while using the interrupt on
change feature. This interrupt on mismatch feature, together with software
configurable pull-ups on these four pins, allow easy interface to a keypad and make
it possible for wake-up on key depression

TABLE 2.5 PORT B FUNCTIONS

TABLE 2.6 SUMMARY OF REGISTERS ASSOCIATED WITH PORTB

PORTC AND THE TRISC REGISTER :

PORTC is an 8-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (=1) will make the corresponding
PORTC pin an input, i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a hi-impedance
mode. Clearing a TRISC bit (=0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output,
i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin. PORTC is multiplexed
with several peripheral functions. PORTC pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.

When the I2C module is enabled, the PORTC (3:4) pins can be
configured with normal I2C levels or with SMBUS levels by using the CKE bit
(SSPSTAT <6>). When enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in
defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to
make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an
input. Since the TRIS bit override is in effect while the peripheral is enabled, readmodify write instructions (BSF, BCF, XORWF) with TRISC as destination should be
avoided. The user should refer to the corresponding peripheral section for the
correct TRIS bit settings.

TABLE 2.7 PORTC FUNCTIONS

TABLE 2.8 SUMMARY OF REGISTERS ASSOCIATED WITH PORTC

PORTD AND TRISD REGISTERS :

This section is not applicable to the 28-pin devices. PORTD is an 8-bit
port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable as an
input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor Port
(parallel slave port) by setting control bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the
input buffers are TTL.

TABLE 2.9 PORTD FUNCTIONS

TABLE 2.10 SUMMARY OF REGISTERS ASSOCIATED WITH PORTD

PORTE AND TRISE REGISTER :

PORTE has three pins RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7,
which are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt
Trigger input buffers.
The PORTE pins become control inputs for the microprocessor port
when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make sure that

the TRISE<2:0> bits are set (pins are configured as digital inputs). Ensure ADCON1
is configured for digital I/O. In this mode the input buffers are TTL.
PORTE pins are multiplexed with analog inputs. When selected as an
analog input, these pins will read as '0's. TRISE controls the direction of the RE pins,
even when they are being used as analog inputs. The user must make sure to keep
the pins configured as inputs when using them as analog inputs.

TABLE 2.11 PORTE FUNCTIONS

TABLE 2.12 SUMMARY OF REGISTERS ASSOCIATED WITH PORTE

2.6 MEMORY ORGANISATION :

There are three memory blocks in each of the PIC16F877 MUCs. The
program memory and Data Memory have separate buses so that concurrent access
can occur.

PROGRAM MEMORY ORGANISATION :

The PIC16f877 devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of
addressing 8K *14 words of FLASH program memory. Accessing a location above the
physically implemented address will cause a wraparound. The RESET vector is at
0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h.

DATA MEMORY ORGANISTION :

The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the
General Purpose Registers and the special functions Registers. Bits RP1 (STATUS<6)
and RP0 (STATUS<5>) are the bank selected bits.
RP1:RP0

Banks

00

01

10

11

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (1238 bytes). The lower locations of each
bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function

Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM.

implemented banks contain special function registers.

All

Some frequently used

special function registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for code
reduction and quicker access.

PIC16F877 REGISTER FILE MAP

GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER FILE :

The register file can be accessed either directly or indirectly through
the File Selected Register (FSR). There are some Special Function Registers used by
the CPU and peripheral modules for controlling the desired operation of the device.
These registers are implemented as static RAM. The Special Function Registers can
be classified into two sets; core (CPU) and peripheral. Those registers associated
with the core functions.

2.7 INSTRUCTION SET SUMMARY :

Each PIC 16f877 instruction is a 14-bit word, divided into an OPCODE
which specifies the instruction type and one or more operand which further specify
the operation of the instruction. The PIC16F877 instruction set summary in Table
2.13

lists byte-oriented, bit-oriented, and literal and control operations. It

shows the opcode Field descriptions.

TABLE 2.13 OPCODE FIELD DESCRIPTIONS

For byte-oriented instructions, f represents a file register designator

and d represents a destination designator. The file register designator specifies
which file register is to be used by the instruction.

The destination designator

specified where the result of the operation is to be placed. If d is zero, the result is
placed in the w register. If d is one, the result is placed in the file register specified
in the instruction.

For bit-oriented instructions, b represents a bit field designator

which selects the number of the bit affected by the operation, which f represents
the address of the file in which the bits is located. For literal and control operations,
k represents an eight or eleven bit constant or literal value.

The instruction set is highly orthogonal and is grouped into three basic
categories:
Byte-oriented operations

 Bit-oriented operations
Literal and control operations
All instructions are executed within one single instruction cycle, unless
a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an
instruction. In this case, the execution takes two instruction cycles with the second
cycle executed as a NOP. One instruction cycle consists of four oscillator periods.
Thus, for an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz, the normal instruction execution time is 1
ms. If a conditional test is true or the program counter is changed as a result of an
instruction, then the instruction execution time is 2 ms.

TABLE 2.14 16F877 INSTRUCTION SET

GENERAL FORMAT FOR INSTRUCTIONS :

PCB LAYOUT:

Microcontroller is a general purpose

device, which integrates a number of the components of a microprocessor system
on to single chip. It has inbuilt CPU, memory and peripherals to make it as a mini
computer. A microcontroller combines on to the same microchip:

The CPU core

 Memory(both ROM and RAM)

Some parallel digital i/o

Microcontrollers will combine other devices such as:

A timer module to allow the microcontroller to perform tasks for certain
time periods.
A serial i/o port to allow data to flow between the controller and other
devices such as a PIC or another microcontroller.
An ADC to allow the microcontroller to accept analogue input data for
processing.

Microcontrollers are :
Smaller in size
Consumes less power
Inexpensive

Micro controller is a stand alone unit ,which can perform functions

on its own without any requirement for additional hardware like i/o ports and
external memory.
The heart of the microcontroller is the CPU core. In the past, this has traditionally
been based on a 8-bit microprocessor unit. For example Motorola uses a basic
6800 microprocessor core in their 6805/6808 microcontroller devices. In the recent
years, microcontrollers have been developed around specifically designed CPU
cores, for example the microchip PIC range of microcontrollers.

DRIVER CIRCUIT

In electronics, a driver is an electrical circuit or other electronic component

used to control another circuit or other component, such as a high-power transistor.
The term is used, for example, for a specialized computer chip that controls the
high-power transistors in AC-to-DC voltage converters. An amplifier can also be
considered the driver for loudspeakers, or a constant voltage circuit that keeps an
attached component operating within a broad range of input voltages.
The following circuit will allow you to drive a 12V relay using logic voltage
(an input of 4V or greater will trip the relay). The circuit has its own 12V power
supply making it self contained but the power supply portion can be left out if an
external supply will be used. The circuit shows an output from the power supply
that can be used to power other devices but it should be noted that the supply is
unregulated and not particulary powerful with the parts stated. The 12V DC output
is suitable for powering a few LEDs or low voltage lights but should not be used to
power other electronic boards or motors.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS (LCDS)

INTRODUCTION:
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties
of both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a
temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would
be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with
transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be
displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers
would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction
When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.

When sufficient voltage

is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules would be aligned in a

specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the
polarisers, which would result in activating / highlighting the desired characters.
The LCDs are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCDs consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic
circuits, and can be powered for long durations.

The LCDs dont generate light

and so light is needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is

possible in the dark. The LCDs have long life and a wide operating temperature

range. Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes
the LCDs more customer friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches,

calculators and measuring instruments are the simple seven-segment displays,

having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have
resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider
temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in
telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started
replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics,
and also in small TV applications.

1.1.1 CRYSTALONICS DISPLAY

INTRODUCTION:
Crystalonics dot matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available
in TN, STN types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller
and driver ICs result in low power consumption. These modules can be interfaced
with a 4-bit or 8-bit micro processor /Micro controller.
The built-in controller IC has the following features:
Correspond to high speed MPU interface (2MHz)
80 x 8 bit display RAM (80 Characters max)
9,920 bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts. 208
character fonts (5 x 8 dots) 32 character fonts (5 x 10 dots)
64 x 8 bit character generator RAM 8 character generator RAM 8 character
fonts (5 x 8 dots) 4 characters fonts (5 x 10 dots)

 Programmable duty cycles

1/8 for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
1/11 for one line of 5 x 10 dots with cursor
1/16 for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
Wide range of instruction functions display clear, cursor home, display
on/off, cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, display shift.
Automatic reset circuit, that initializes the controller / driver ICs after power
on.
BUSY FLAG:
When the busy flag is1, the controller is in the internal operation mode, and
the next instruction will not be accepted.
When RS = 0 and R/W = 1, the busy flag is output to DB7.
The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag is 0.
ADDRESS COUNTER:
The address counter allocates the address for the DD RAM and CG RAM
read/write operation when the instruction code for DD RAM address or CG RAM
address setting, is input to IR, the address code is transferred from IR to the
address counter. After writing/reading the display data to/from the DD RAM or CG
RAM, the address counter increments/decrements by one the address, as an
internal operation. The data of the address counter is output to DB0 to DB6 while
R/W = 1 and RS = 0.
DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM)

The characters to be displayed are written into the display data RAM (DD
RAM), in the form of 8 bit character codes present in the character font table. The
extended capacity of the DD RAM is 80 x 8 bits i.e. 80 characters.
CHARATCER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM)
The character generator ROM generates 5 x 8 dot 5 x 10 dot character patterns
from 8 bit character codes. It generates 208, 5 x 8 dot character patterns and 32, 5 x
10 dot character patterns.
CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM)
In the character generator RAM, the user can rewrite character patterns by
program. For 5 x 8 dots, eight character patterns can be written, and for 5 x 10
dots, four character patterns can be written.
INTERFACING THE MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLER:
The module, interfaced to the system, can be treated as RAM input/output,
expanded or parallel I/O.Since there is no conventional chip select signal,
developing a strobe signal for the enable signal (E) and applying appropriate
signals to the register select (RS) and read/write (R/W) signals are important.The
module is selected by gating a decoded module address with the host
processors read/write strobe. The resultant signal, applied to the LCDs enable (E)
input, clocks in the data.The E signal must be a positive going digital strobe,
which is active while data and control information are stable and true. The falling
edge of the enable signal enables the data / instruction register of the controller.
All module timings are referenced to specific edges of the E signal. The E signal
is applied only when a specific module transaction is desired.The read and write
strobes of the host, which provides the E signals, should not be linked to the

modules R/W line. An address bit which sets up earlier in the hosts machine cycle
can be used as R/W.When the host processor is so fast that the strobes are too
narrow to serve as the E pulse
a. Prolong these pulses by using the hosts Ready input
b. Prolong the host by adding wait states
c. Decrease the Hosts Crystal frequency.
Inspite of doing the above mentioned, if the problem continues, latch both the data
and control information and then activate the E signal
When the controller is performing an internal operation he busy flag (BF) will set
and will not accept any instruction. The user should check the busy flag or should
provide a delay of approximately 2ms after each instruction.The module presents
no difficulties while interfacing slower MPUs.The liquid crystal display module
can be interfaced, either to 4-bit or 8-bit MPUs.
For 4-bit data interface, the bus lines DB4 to DB7 are used for data transfer, while
DB0 to DB3 lines are disabled. The data transfer is complete when the 4-bit data
has been transferred twice.
The busy flag must be checked after the 4-bit data has been transferred twice. Two
more 4-bit operations then transfer the busy flag and address counter data.For 8-bit
data interface, all eight-bus lines (DB0 to DB7) are used.

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the
light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors,
television, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are
common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks,
watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube(CRT)

displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight,

portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available
in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do
not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.LCDs are more energy
efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption
enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled
with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to
produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the
development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.
By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale
of CRT units

POWERSUPPLY:
The power supply should be of +5V, with maximum allowable transients of
10mv. To achieve a better / suitable contrast for the display, the voltage (VL) at pin
3 should be adjusted properly.
A module should not be inserted or removed from a live circuit. The ground
terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that no voltage is
induced in it. The module should be isolated from the other circuits, so that stray
voltages are not induced, which could cause a flickering display.

HARDWARE:
Develop a uniquely decoded E strobe pulse, active high, to accompany
each module transaction. Address or control lines can be assigned to drive the RS
and R/W inputs.
Utilize the Hosts extended timing mode, if available, when transacting with
the module. Use instructions, which prolong the Read and Write or other
appropriate data strobes, so as to realize the interface timing requirements.
If a parallel port is used to drive the RS, R/W and E control lines, setting
the E bit simultaneously with RS and R/W would violate the modules set up
time. A separate instruction should be used to achieve proper interfacing timing
requirements.
MOUNTING:
Cover the display surface with a transparent protective plate, to protect the
polarizer.

Dont touch the display surface with bare hands or any hard materials.

This will stain the display area and degrade the insulation between terminals.Do
not use organic solvents to clean the display panel as these may advesely affect
tape or with absorbant cotton and petroleum benzene.

The processing or even a

slight deformation of the claws of the metal frame will have effect on the
connection of the output signal and cause an abnormal display. Do not damage or
modify the pattern wiring, or drill attachment holes in the PCB. When assembling
the module into another equipment, the space between the module and the fitting
plate should have enough height, to avoid causing stress to the module surface.
Make sure that there is enough space behind the module, to dissipate the
heat generated by the ICs while functioning for longer durations.
When an electrically powered screwdriver is used to install the module,
ground it properly. While cleaning by a vacuum cleaner, do not bring the sucking
mouth near the module. Static electricity of the electrically powered driver or the
vacuum cleaner may destroy the module.
ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS:
Operate the LCD module under the relative condition of 40C and 50%
relative humidity. Lower temperature can cause retardation of the blinking speed of
the display, while higher temperature makes the overall display discolor.

When

the temperature gets to be within the normal limits, the display will be normal.
Polarization degradation, bubble generation or polarizer peel-off may occur with
high temperature and humidity. Contact with water or oil over a long period of
time may cause deformation or colour fading of the display. Condensation on the
terminals can cause electro-chemical reaction disrupting the terminal circuit.

TROUBLE SHOOTING

INTRODUCTION:
When the power supply is given to the module, with the pin 3 (VL)
connected to ground, all the pixels of a character gets activated in the following
manner:

All the characters of a single line display, as in CDM 16108.

The

first eight characters of a single line display, operated in the two-line display mode,
as in CDM 16116.
The first line of characters of a two-line display as in CDM 16216 and
40216. The first and third line of characters of a four-line display operated in the
two-line display mode, as in CDM 20416.

If the above mentioned does not

occur, the module should be initialized by software.

Make

sure

that

the

control signals E , R/W and RS are according to the interface timing

requirements.

IMPROPER CHARACTER DISPLAY:

When the characters to be displayed are missing between, the data read/write
is too fast. A slower interfacing frequency would rectify the problem. When
uncertainty is there in the start of the first characters other than the specified ones
are rewritten, check the initialization and the software routine. In

multi-line

display, if the display of characters in the subsequent lines doesnt take place
properly, check the DD RAM addresses set for the corresponding display lines.
When it is unable to display data, even though it is present in the DD RAM,
either the display on/off flag is in the off state or the display shift function is not set

properly. When the display shift is done simultaneous with the data writa
operation, the data may not be visible on the display.
If a character not found
in the font table is displayed, or a character is missing, the CG ROM is faulty and
the controller IC have to be changed If particular pixels of the characters are
missing, or not getting activated properly, there could be an assembling problem in
the module. In case any other problems are encountered you could send the
module to our factory for testing and evaluation.

MOSFET operation
For the operation of MOS devices discussed next, an authoritative reference is
Tsividis [2].
Metaloxidesemiconductor structure

Metaloxidesemiconductor structure on P-type silicon

A traditional metaloxidesemiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by
depositing a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and a layer of metal (polycrystalline
silicon is commonly used instead of metal) on top of a semiconductor die. As the
silicon dioxide is a dielectric material its structure is equivalent to a planar
capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a semiconductor.
When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of
charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a P-type semiconductor (with NA the
density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive
voltage, VGB, from gate to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the
positively charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface,
leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor
ions. See doping (semiconductor). If VGB is high enough, a high concentration of
negative charge carriers forms in an inversion layer located in a thin layer next to
the interface between the semiconductor and the insulator. (Unlike the MOSFET,
discussed below, where the inversion layer electrons are supplied rapidly from the
source/drain electrodes, in the MOS capacitor they are produced much more
slowly by thermal generation through carrier generation and recombination centers

in the depletion region.) Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume
density of electrons in the inversion layer is the same as the volume density of
holes in the body is called the threshold voltage.
This structure with P-type body is the basis of the N-type MOSFET, which requires
the addition of an N-type source and drain regions.
1 MOSFET structure and channel formation

Cross section of an NMOS without channel formed: OFF state

Cross section of an NMOS with channel formed: ON state

A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is based on the
modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a body
electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other
device regions by an oxide. The MOSFET includes two additional terminals

(source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are
separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they
must both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The highly
doped source and drain regions typically are denoted by a '+' following the type of
doping. The body is not highly doped, as denoted by the lack of a '+' sign.
If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'n+'
regions and the body is a 'p' region. As described above, with sufficient gate
voltage, above a threshold voltage value, electrons from the source (and possibly
also the drain) enter the inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p
region and the oxide. This conducting channel extends between the source and the
drain, and current is conducted through it when a voltage is applied between source
and drain.
For gate voltages below the threshold value, the channel is lightly populated, and
only a very small subthreshold leakage current can flow between the source and
the drain.
If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and drain are 'p+'
regions and the body is a 'n' region. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive
source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region,
analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and
voltages. When a voltage less negative than the threshold value (a negative voltage
for p-Channel) is applied between gate and source, the channel disappears and only
a very small subthreshold current can flow between the source and the drain.

The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for
n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain
is where the charge carriers leave the channel.
1.1.2 Modes of operation
The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes,
depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a
simplified algebraic model is used that is accurate only for old technology. Modern
MOSFET characteristics require computer models that have rather more complex
behavior. For example, see Liu [3] and the device modeling list in [1].
For an enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET the three operational modes are:
Cut-off or Sub-threshold or Weak Inversion Mode
When V GS < Vth:
where Vth is the threshold voltage of the device.
According to the basic threshold model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no
conduction between drain and source. In reality, the Boltzmann distribution of
electron energies allows some of the more energetic electrons at the source to enter
the channel and flow to the drain, resulting in a subthreshold current that is an
exponential function of gatesource voltage. While the current between drain and
source should ideally be zero when the transistor is being used as a turned-off
switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold
leakage.
In weak inversion the current varies exponentially with gate-to-source bias VGS as
given approximately by:[4][5]

,
where ID0 = current at VGS = Vth and the slope factor n is given by
n = 1 + CD / COX,
with CD = capacitance of the depletion layer and COX = capacitance of the
oxide layer. In a long-channel device, there is no drain voltage dependence of the
current once VDS > > VT, but as channel length is reduced drain-induced
barrier lowering introduces drain voltage dependence that depends in a
complex way upon the device geometry (for example, the channel doping, the
junction doping and so on). Frequently threshold voltage V th for this mode is
defined as the gate voltage at which a selected value of current I D0 occurs, for
example, ID0 = 1 A, which may not be the same Vth-value used in the equations for
the following modes.

Power supply

1.1 Block diagram

Block diagram (Power supply)

The ac voltage, typically 220V rms, is connected to a transformer,

which steps that ac voltage down to the level of the desired dc
output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage
that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc
voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac
voltage variation.
A regulator circuit removes the ripples and also remains the
same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies. This voltage
regulation is usually obtained using one of the popular voltage
regulator IC units.

2 Schematic diagram

Circuit diagram (Power supply)

2.2 Working principle

2.2.1 Transformer
The potential transformer will step down the power supply
voltage (0-230V) to (0-9V) level. If the secondary has less turns in
the coil then the primary, the secondary coil's voltage will
decrease and the current or AMPS will increase or decreased
depend upon the wire gauge. This is called a STEP-DOWN
transformer. Then the secondary of the potential transformer
will be connected to the rectifier.

2.2.2 Bridge rectifier

When four diodes are connected as shown in figure, the
circuit is called as bridge rectifier. The input to the circuit is
applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the
output is taken from the remaining two corners.
Let us assume that the transformer is working properly and
there is a positive potential, at point A and a negative potential at
point B. the positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and
reverse bias D4.
The negative potential at point B
will forward bias D1 and reverse D2. At
this time D3 and D1 are forward biased
and will allow current flow to pass
through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block
current flow.

The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up

through Load, through D3, through the secondary of the
transformer back to point B.
One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the
transformer reverse, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse
biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through
D4, up through Load, through D2, through the secondary of
transformer, and back to point A. Across D2 and D4. The current
flow through Load is always in the same direction. In flowing
through Load this current develops a voltage corresponding to
that. Since current flows through the load during both half cycles
of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier.
One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is
that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is
nearly twice that of the conventional half-wave circuit.
This bridge rectifier always drops 1.4Volt of the input voltage because of the diode.
We are using 1N4007 PN junction diode, its cut off region is 0.7Volt.
So any two diodes are always conducting, total drop voltage is 1.4 volt.
1.2.3 Filter
If a Capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor of a Rectifier to form
a simple Filter Circuit, the output of the Rectifier will be transformed into a more
stable DC Voltage. At first, the capacitor is charged to the peak value of the
rectified Waveform. Beyond the peak, the capacitor is discharged through the load
until the time at which the rectified voltage exceeds the

capacitor voltage. Then

the capacitor is charged
again and the process
repeats itself.

1.2.3 IC voltage regulators

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs.
Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source,
comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection all
in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive
voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set voltage.
A fixed three-terminal voltage regulator has an unregulated
dc input voltage, it is applied to one input terminal, a regulated dc
output voltage from a third terminal, with the second terminal
connected to ground.
The series 78 regulators provide fixed positive regulated
voltages from 5 to 24 volts. Similarly, the series 79 regulators
provide fixed negative regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts.
This is a regulated power supply circuit using the 78xx IC
series. These regulators can deliver current around 1A to 1.5A at
a fix voltage levels. The common regulated voltages are 5V, 6V,
8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, and 24V. It is important to add

capacitors across the input and output of the regulator IC to

improve the regulation.
In this circuit we are using 7805 regulator so it converts
variable dc into constant positive 5V power supply. If the input
voltage goes to below 7.3Volt means the output also varied. That
is why we are using 230/9V step-down transformer. Transformer
output is higher than the regulator minimum level input.

PCB LAYOUT:

Component description:

1) Input
2) Ground
3) Output

Types of Positive voltage regulator:

LCD DISPLAY

INTRODUCTION:
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties of
both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a
temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would
be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with
transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be
displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers
would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular
direction
When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal
molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through
the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating /
highlighting the desired characters.
The LCDs are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCDs consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits,
and can be powered for long durations.
The LCDs dont generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By
using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCDs have long life and a
wide operating temperature range.
Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes
the LCDs more customer friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments

are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data.
The recent advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more
information displaying capability and a wider temperature range. These have
resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in telecommunications and
entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started replacing the cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV
applications.

POWER

SUPPLY:

The power supply should be of +5V, with maximum allowable transients of

10mv. To achieve a better / suitable contrast for the display, the voltage (VL) at pin
3 should be adjusted properly.
A module should not be inserted or removed from a live circuit. The ground
terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so that no voltage is induced
in it. The module should be isolated from the other circuits, so that stray voltages
are not induced, which could cause a flickering display.

HARDWARE:
Develop a uniquely decoded E strobe pulse, active high, to accompany each
module transaction. Address or control lines can be assigned to drive the RS and
R/W inputs.
Utilize the Hosts extended timing mode, if available, when transacting with
the module. Use instructions, which prolong the Read and Write or other appropriate
data strobes, so as to realize the interface timing requirements.
If a parallel port is used to drive the RS, R/W and E control lines, setting the
E bit simultaneously with RS and R/W would violate the modules set up time. A

separate instruction should be used to achieve proper interfacing timing

requirements.

MOUNTING:
Cover the display surface with a transparent protective plate, to protect the
polarizer.
Dont touch the display surface with bare hands or any hard materials. This
will stain the display area and degrade the insulation between terminals.
Do not use organic solvents to clean the display panel as these may
adversely affect tape or with absorbant cotton and petroleum benzene.
The processing or even a slight deformation of the claws of the metal frame
will have effect on the connection of the output signal and cause an abnormal
display.
Do not damage or modify the pattern wiring, or drill attachment holes in the
PCB. When assembling the module into another equipment, the space between the
module and the fitting plate should have enough height, to avoid causing stress to
the module surface.
Make sure that there is enough space behind the module, to dissipate the
heat generated by the ICs while functioning for longer durations.
When an electrically powered screwdriver is used to install the module,
ground it properly.
While cleaning by a vacuum cleaner, do not bring the sucking mouth near the
module. Static electricity of the electrically powered driver or the vacuum cleaner
may destroy the module.

ENVIRONMENTAL PRECAUTIONS:
Operate the LCD module under the relative condition of 40C and 50%
relative humidity. Lower temperature can cause retardation of the blinking speed of
the display, while higher temperature makes the overall display discolor.
When the temperature gets to be within the normal limits, the display will be
normal. Polarization degradation, bubble generation or polarizer peel-off may occur
with high temperature and humidity.
Contact with water or oil over a long period of time may cause deformation or
colour fading of the display. Condensation on the terminals can cause electrochemical reaction disrupting the terminal circuit.

1.1.3 TROUBLE SHOOTING

INTRODUCTION:
When the power supply is given to the module, with the pin 3 (VL) connected
to ground, all the pixels of a character gets activated in the following manner:
All the characters of a single line display, as in CDM 16108.
The first eight characters of a single line display, operated in the two-line
display mode, as in CDM 16116.
The first line of characters of a two-line display as in CDM 16216 and 40216.
The first and third line of characters of a four-line display operated in the two-line
display mode, as in CDM 20416.
If the above mentioned does not occur, the module should be initialized by
software.
Make sure that the control signals E , R/W and RS are according to the
interface timing requirements.

IMPROPER CHARACTER DISPLAY:

When the characters to be displayed are missing between, the data
read/write is too fast. A slower interfacing frequency would rectify the problem.
When uncertainty is there in the start of the first characters other than the
specified ones are rewritten, check the initialization and the software routine.
In a multi-line display, if the display of characters in the subsequent lines
doesnt take place properly, check the DD RAM addresses set for the corresponding
display lines.
When it is unable to display data, even though it is present in the DD RAM,
either the display on/off flag is in the off state or the display shift function is not set
properly. When the display shift is done simultaneous with the data writa operation,
the data may not be visible on the display.
If a character not found in the font table is displayed, or a character is
missing, the CG ROM is faulty and the controller IC have to be changed
If particular pixels of the characters are missing, or not getting activated
properly, there could be an assembling problem in the module.
In case any other problems are encountered you could send the module to
our factory for testing and evaluation.

1.1.4 CRYSTALONICS DISPLAY

INTRODUCTION:
Crystalonics dot matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available in
TN, STN types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller and
driver ICs result in low power consumption. These modules can be interfaced with a
4-bit or 8-bit micro processor /Micro controller.

The built-in controller IC has the following features:

Correspond to high speed MPU interface (2MHz)
80 x 8 bit display RAM (80 Characters max)
9,920 bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts. 208
character fonts (5 x 8 dots) 32 character fonts (5 x 10 dots)
64 x 8 bit character generator RAM 8 character generator RAM 8 character
fonts (5 x 8 dots) 4 characters fonts (5 x 10 dots)
Programmable duty cycles
1/8 for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
1/11 for one line of 5 x 10 dots with cursor
1/16 for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor
Wide range of instruction functions display clear, cursor home, display on/off,
cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, display shift.
Automatic reset circuit, that initializes the controller / driver ICs after power
on.

1.2 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTROLLER IC

REGISTERS:
The controller IC has two 8 bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and a data
register (DR). The IR stores the instruction codes and address information for

display data RAM (DD RAM) and character generator RAM (CG RAM). The IR can be
written, but not read by the MPU.
The DR temporally stores data to be written to /read from the DD RAM or CG
RAM. The data written to DR by the MPU, is automatically written to the DD RAM or
CG RAM as an internal operation.
When an address code is written to IR, the data is automatically transferred
from the DD RAM or CG RAM to the DR. data transfer between the MPU is then
completed when the MPU reads the DR. likewise, for the next MPU read of the DR,
data in DD RAM or CG RAM at the address is sent to the DR automatically. Similarly,
for the MPU write of the DR, the next DD RAM or CG RAM address is selected for the
write operation.
The register selection table is as shown below:

RS

R/W

Operation

IR write as an internal operation

Read busy flag (DB7) and address counter

(DB0 to DB6)

DR write as an internal operation (DR to DD

RAM or CG RAM)

DR read as an internal operation (DD RAM

or CG RAM to DR)

BUSY FLAG:
When the busy flag is1, the controller is in the internal operation mode, and
the next instruction will not be accepted.
When RS = 0 and R/W = 1, the busy flag is output to DB7.
The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag is 0.

ADDRESS COUNTER:
The address counter allocates the address for the DD RAM and CG RAM
read/write operation when the instruction code for DD RAM address or CG RAM
address setting, is input to IR, the address code is transferred from IR to the address
counter. After writing/reading the display data to/from the DD RAM or CG RAM, the
address counter increments/decrements by one the address, as an internal
operation. The data of the address counter is output to DB0 to DB6 while R/W = 1
and RS = 0.

DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM)

The characters to be displayed are written into the display data RAM (DD
RAM), in the form of 8 bit character codes present in the character font table. The
extended capacity of the DD RAM is 80 x 8 bits i.e. 80 characters.

CHARATCER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM)

The character generator ROM generates 5 x 8 dot 5 x 10 dot character

patterns from 8 bit character codes. It generates 208, 5 x 8 dot character patterns
and 32, 5 x 10 dot character patterns.

CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM)

In the character generator RAM, the user can rewrite character patterns by
program. For 5 x 8 dots, eight character patterns can be written, and for 5 x 10
dots, four character patterns can be written.

INTERFACING THE MICROPROCESSOR / CONTROLLER:

The module, interfaced to the system, can be treated as RAM input/output,
expanded or parallel I/O.
Since there is no conventional chip select signal, developing a strobe signal for the
enable signal (E) and applying appropriate signals to the register select (RS) and
read/write (R/W) signals are important.
The module is selected by gating a decoded module address with the host
processors read/write strobe. The resultant signal, applied to the LCDs enable (E)
input, clocks in the data.
The E signal must be a positive going digital strobe, which is active while data and
control information are stable and true. The falling edge of the enable signal
enables the data / instruction register of the controller. All module timings are
referenced to specific edges of the E signal. The E signal is applied only when a
specific module transaction is desired.
The read and write strobes of the host, which provides the E signals, should not be
linked to the modules R/W line. An address bit which sets up earlier in the hosts
machine cycle can be used as R/W.
When the host processor is so fast that the strobes are too narrow to serve as the
E pulse

d. Prolong these pulses by using the hosts Ready input

e. Prolong the host by adding wait states
f.

Decrease the Hosts Crystal frequency.

Inspite of doing the above mentioned, if the problem continues, latch both the data
and control information and then activate the E signal
When the controller is performing an internal operation he busy flag (BF) will set
and will not accept any instruction. The user should check the busy flag or should
provide a delay of approximately 2ms after each instruction.
The module presents no difficulties while interfacing slower MPUs.
The liquid crystal display module can be interfaced, either to 4-bit or 8-bit MPUs.
For 4-bit data interface, the bus lines DB4 to DB7 are used for data transfer, while
DB0 to DB3 lines are disabled. The data transfer is complete when the 4-bit data
has been transferred twice.
The busy flag must be checked after the 4-bit data has been transferred twice. Two
more 4-bit operations then transfer the busy flag and address counter data.
For 8-bit data interface, all eight-bus lines (DB0 to DB7) are used.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly
used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments
and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily
programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters
(unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In
this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,
namely, Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command
is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its

screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the
data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be
displayed on the LCD.

Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
Pin
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Function

Name

Ground (0V)
Ground
Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V 5.3V)
Vcc
Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor
VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register Register Select
when high
Low to write to the register; High to read from the register
Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given

8-bit data pins

Backlight VCC (5V)

Backlight Ground (0V)

73745 reads

PWM BASED MOSFET DRIVER

Read/write
Enable
DB0
DB1
DB2
DB3
DB4
DB5
DB6
DB7
Led+
Led-

PWM:
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the
modulation

of

its

duty

cycle,

to

either

convey

information

over

communications channel or control the amount of power sent to a load.

APPLICATION:
Power delivery:
PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load
without losses normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive
means. This is because the average power delivered is proportional to the
modulation duty cycle. With a sufficiently high modulation rate, passive
electronic filters can be used to smooth the pulse train and recover an

average analog waveform.

High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with
semiconductor switches. The discrete on/off states of the modulation are
used to control the state of the switch(es) which correspondingly control the
voltage across or current through the load. The major advantage of this

system is the switches are either off and not conducting any current, or on
and have (ideally) no voltage drop across them. The product of the current
and the voltage at any given time defines the power dissipated by the switch,
thus

(ideally)

no

power

is

dissipated

by

the

switch.

Reallistically,

semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs or BJTs are non-ideal switches, but

high efficiency controllers can still be built.

PWM is also often used to control the supply of electrical power to another
device such as in speed control of electric motors, volume control of Class D
audio amplifiers or brightness control of light sources and many other power
electronics applications. For example, light dimmers for home use employ a
specific type of PWM control. Home use light dimmers typically include
electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow during defined portions of
each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by
a light source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or phase) in
the AC cycle the dimmer begins to provide electrical current to the light
source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac). In this case the
PWM duty cycle is defined by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or
60 Hz depending on the country). These rather simple types of dimmers can
be effectively used with inert (or relatively slow reacting) light sources such
as incandescent lamps, for example, for which the additional modulation in
supplied electrical energy which is caused by the dimmer causes only
negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of
light sources such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off
extremely rapidly and would perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency

drive voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid response light
sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light
fluctuations are sufficiently rapid, the human visual system can no longer

resolve them and the eye perceives the time average intensity without flicker.
Voltage Regulation:
PWM is also used in efficient voltage regulators. By switching voltage to the
load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximate a voltage at
the desired level. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and

a capacitor.
One method measures the output voltage. When it is lower than the desired
voltage, it turns on the switch. When the output voltage is above the desired

voltage, it turns off the switch.

MOSFET:
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOSFET, or MOS FET), is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both
digital and analog circuits. The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or
p-type semiconductor material (see article on semiconductor devices), and is
accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET (also commonly nMOSFET,
pMOSFET, NMOS FET, PMOS FET, nMOS FET, pMOS FET).

The 'metal' in the name (for transistors up to the 65 nanometer technology

node) is an anachronism from early chips in which the gates were metal;
They use polysilicon gates. IGFET is a related, more general term meaning
insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is almost synonymous with
"MOSFET", though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is not oxide.
Some prefer to use "IGFET" when referring to devices with polysilicon gates,
but most still call them MOSFETs. With the new generation of high-k
technology that Intel and IBM have announced [1], metal gates in conjunction
with the high-k dielectric material replacing the silicon dioxide are making a
comeback replacing the polysilicon.

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers,

most notably IBM, have begun to use a mixture of silicon and germanium
(SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better
electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good
gate oxides and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs.

The gate terminal in the current generation (65 nanometer node) of MOSFETs
is a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon; why polysilicon is used will be
explained below) placed over the channel, but separated from the channel by
a thin insulating layer of what was traditionally silicon dioxide, but more
advanced technologies used silicon oxynitride. The next generation (45
nanometer and beyond) uses a high-k + metal gate combination. When a
voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, the electric field
generated penetrates through the oxide and creates a so-called "inversion
channel" in the channel underneath. The inversion channel is of the same
type P-type or N-type as the source and drain, so it provides a conduit
through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and
body modulates the conductivity of this layer and makes it possible to control
the current flow between drain and source

Circuit Working Description:

This circuit is mainly designed to control the speed of the AC induction motor
and DC motor. The MOSFET are used to control the speed of the motor by
varying the supply voltage to the motors. The MOSFET is switched with very
high speed with the help of PWM waves. The PWM waves are generated by
the PIC microcontroller. The PWM time period and duty cycle is controlled by

the software.
In the microcontroller we are generating two PWM waves with different time
period. They are used to drive the two set of MOSFET drivers through AND
gate. So the AND gate is used to change the switching time between the two
set of MOSFET drivers. When the duty cycle of both the PWM waves is high,
the output of the AND (IN1) gate is high which is given to transistor network.
The transistor network is consists of BC 547 and BC 557 transistor. Now the
both the transistor is conducting, due to that 12v is given to MOSFET Q1 and
Q2 gates. So the MOSFET are switched ON and delivered the output on the

center tapped transformer.

In the center tapped transformer, the DC input is given to middle terminal
and other two end terminals are connected in the each of the MOSFET drivers
Drain terminal. The DC input negative terminal is connected in the source

terminal. Similarly in the next of duty cycle, another AND gate (IN2) output is

high which drive another set of MOSFET drivers.

Due to high switching speed the given DC input is converted to related sine
wave which is step up through the transformer. This AC voltage is delivered in
the transformer secondary. This AC voltage can be used to drive the AC
induction

motor.

Suppose if you want to drive the DC motor the

corresponding AC voltage is rectified through bridge rectifier.

ADVANTAGES

The source can be either a voltage source or a current source. The DC source of a ZSI
can either be a battery, a diode rectifier or a thyristor converter, a fuel cell stack or a
combination of these.

The main circuit of a ZSI can either be the traditional VSI or the traditional CSI.

Works as a buck-boost inverter.

The load of a ZSC can either be inductive or capacitive or another Z-Source network.

Disadvantages
Typical inverters (VSI and CSI) have few disadvantages. They are listed as,

Behave in a boost or buck operation only. Thus the obtainable output voltage range is
limited, either smaller or greater than the input voltage.

Vulnerable to EMI noise and the devices gets damaged in either open or short circuit
conditions.

The combined system of DC-DC boost converter and the inverter has lower reliability.

The main switching device of VSI and CSI are not interchangeable.

APPLICATION
1. Renewable energy sources
2. Electric vehicles
3. Motor drives

CONCLUSION

This paper presents a hardware design of new topology for ASD system based on
the EZ-source inverter. This
design can be implementing in very low cost. The EZ-source inverter employs a
unique LC impedance network
couple to the inverter main circuit and thus it providing unique features that are
1. Can produce any desired output ac voltage, even greater than the line voltage,
2. Provides ride-through during voltage sags without any additional circuits and
energy storage, minimizes the
motor ratings to deliver a required power, and
3. reduces in-rush and harmonic current.

REFERENCES

[1] Fang Zhengpeng Z-source inverter,IEEE Transactions on industry applications, vol. 39, No.2, March/April
2003
[2] K Ravi Chandrudu, P SangameswaraRaju, G V P Anjaneyulu Case study of Embedded EZ-source inverter and
comparison with Z-source inverter," (IJAEST) International Journal of Advanced Engineering Sciences and
Technologies Vol. no. 6, Issue No. 2, 224 229
[3] Amol R. Sutar, SatywanR.Jagtap and Jakirhusen Tamboli Performance Analysis of Z-source inverter fed
induction motor drive, International Journal of scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 3,Issue 5,May2012.
[4] Poh Chiang Loh, Feng Gao and Frede Blaabjerg Embedded EZ-Source Inverters, IEEE Transactions on
industry applications, vol. 46, No.1, January/February 2010.
[5] N. Gurusakthi and R. sivaprasad Performance Enhancement of Ez-source Inverter Using Induction Motor,
International Journal of scientific and Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 4, April-2013.ISSN 2229-5518
[6] G. Pandian and S. Rama Reddy Embedded Controlled Z Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor Drive, Journal
of Applied Sciences Research, 4(7): 826-832, 2008, INSI net Publication.
[7] K. shrinivasan and Dr. S.S. Dash Performance Analysis of a Reduced Switch Z-Source Inverter fed IM Drives,
International Journal of Computer and Electrical Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 4, August, 20101793-8163.
8] K Ravi Chandrudu, P Sangameswara Raju, G V P Anjaneyulu EZ source fed induction Motor drive: an
experimental Investigation K Ravi Chandrudu et al. / International Journal of Engineering Science andTechnology
(IJEST).
[9] M.S.Aspalli, Swapna Kumari Karanam, Embedded Control of Z Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor
Proceedings of IRF International conference, 13th April-2014, Chennai, India, ISBN: 978-93-84209-05-6.