G23605

Digital Control of Solar Photovoltaic
Converters
A Thesis
Submitted for the Degree of
Master of Science
in the Faculty of Engineering
By
R.Srinath
Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore - 560 012
India
December 2009
Acknowledgements
I m greatly indebted to Prof V.Ramanarayanan for accepting me as a Research student in
Power Electronics Group and providing me a topic towards commercial application. His
unique way of simplifying complex concepts has brought in me a new perception towards
my research work as well as my career. His guidance, ideologies, practical approach etc has
served as constant motivation to me ever. I sincerely treasure all the moments spent in IISc
under his guidance.
I thank Prof V.T.Ranganathan for exposing me to course on electric drives which otherwise was an unknown paradox to me. I thank Prof G.Narayanan for introducing me to
various PWM techniques in the course PWM Converters and its Applications. I thank Prof
Vinod john for exposing me to the linear systems control theory and i greatly admire his
valuable inputs during my course of research work. The numerous discussions with the professors in Power Electronics Group has enlightened me in different facets of power electronics.
I thank Arun karuppaswamy for providing me enjoyable company in and out of my research work. I also thank my close labmates Pariksith, Arun Karuppaswamy and Sriram for
sharing/spending time with me through out my stay in IISc. I thank Soumitra for his help
in arranging the experimental hardware setup. I would like to thank Karuppu very much
for biasing me to join IISc.
I would like to thank Amit Jain, Kamalesh, Anirban, Dipankar, Dinesh, Sivaprasad,
Pavan, Debmalya, Anirudh, Sugantha for their many valuable suggestions and help towards
my research work. I thank Amit Karanth, Anusyutha, Zankhana, Binoj, Suresh Mathur. I
thank all the members of PEG group for providing me good research environment in the
department.
I thank Mr. Ramachandra, Mr. Ravi, Mr. Balu and other workshop staff for the help
that I received during research work. I thank Mrs. Silvi Jose for procuring the components
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Acknowledgements
and hardware towards building the hardware set-up. I thank Mr. Channegowda, Mr. Purushotaman, Mr. Kini, Mr.Rudresh of Electrical Engineering Department for their help in
official and administrative matters.
I would like to thank my other department friends Dilip, Arun Prasad, Raajay, Satish,
Harish, S.A.Kannan and many others for providing me enjoyable experience outside the
department. I thank them for keeping me in happy mindset and for precious fun-filled moments.
I would like to thank my Ex-college mates and school mates for providing me several
pleasant moments. And Finally my special thanks to my parents and my brother for providing me support through-out my journey of work. I thank Almighty for his blessings to
keep me in good spirit.
Abstract
A photo-voltaic system consists of solar cells, power converters, battery and the load. The
power converter interfaces the solar cells, battery and the load. The battery serves to equalise
the energy demand (load) and the energy supply (solar cell). Currently the solar cells and
the battery cost nearly 90% of the system cost.
A typical photo-voltaic system can adopt various power bus configurations. Battery tied
bus is the simplest of the power bus configurations. In this topology, the battery is always
attached to the bus. This system is extremely simple in terms of power circuit configuration
as well as control. Such systems weigh less and are more reliable. However, the battery
tied bus suffers certain disadvantages. The first among them is the poor utilisation of solar
panels. The load has to tolerate the full swing of the battery voltage variation. On account
of the constraint on the solar panel voltage, the solar panels may not be loaded to the
maximum power capacity. Such operating conditions lead to gross under-utilisation of the
expensive solar panels. The battery tied bus configuration is designed, built and evaluated
experimentally with 4 solar panels rated at 35 W each and a lead acid battery of 12 V 42 AH
rating. This thesis explores alternate power architecture to overcome the above limitations.
Load regulation and maximum power harvesting from the solar panels are the objectives.
In the proposed configuration, a bidirectional power converter is inserted between the
bus and the battery. The bidirectional power converter operates in boost mode and charges
the battery when the sunlight is available. During eclipse period, it operates in buck mode
and meets the load demand. The maximum power is extracted from the panels by controlling the voltage across the solar panels. The bus voltage reference is computed by MPPT
block and the bus voltage is regulated to the reference voltage through closed loop control.
So the maximum power is extracted from the panels at the expense of extra bidirectional
power converter. Even though there is an additional power loss due to the introduction of
iii
iv
Abstract
power converter, this power bus configuration is superior because it increases the output
power from the panel itself. The entire control logic implementation is done digitally using
dspic30F6010A. The simulation is done by writing script files in C language. The proposed
bus configuration is designed, built and evaluated experimentally with the same setup and
the results are then compared.
Contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract
iii
List of Figures
Nomenclature
xiii
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Scope of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Contributions of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Organization of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Battery tied power bus system
2.1 Solar array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Equivalent electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
Solar array Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Solar array operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.1.4
Variation with respect to insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.5
Variation with respect to temperature
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.1.6
MPPT methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.6.1
Look up table methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.6.2
Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.1.6.3
Voltage and current based tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.1.6.4
Perturb and observe method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
vi
Contents
2.2 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
13
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.2.1.1
Primary batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
2.2.1.2
Secondary batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
Charging Lead acid battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
2.2.2.1
Constant Current charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.2.2.2
Constant Voltage charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.3 Photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.2.2
2.3.1
Operating modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.3.1.1
Battery charge mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
2.3.1.2
Battery floating mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
2.3.1.3
Battery discharge mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Design objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.4 Design of a photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.3.2
2.4.1
Selection of battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
2.4.2
Selection of solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
2.5 Battery tied bus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.5.1
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
2.5.2
Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.5.3
Modelling of power circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.5.4
Control objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.5.5
Control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.5.6
Controller design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.5.7
Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.5.8
Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
2.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
3 Analysis and Implementation of Proposed architecture

3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking of solar panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
29
3.1.1
MPPT implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.1.2
MPPT Control block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.2 Proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.2.1
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
vii
Contents
3.2.2
Selection of converter topology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.2.3
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.2.3.1
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.2.3.2
Bidirectional converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.2.4
System objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.2.5
System Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.3 Design of proposed bus configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.3.1
Controller section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.3.2
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.3.2.1
Bus capacitor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.3.2.2
Switch and diode selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Bidirectional converter design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.3.3.1
Boost Inductor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.3.3.2
Boost capacitor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
3.3.3.3
Switch selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
Gate driver circuit design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
3.4 Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4.1
Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.4.2
Averaged model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
3.4.3
Small signal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.4.4
Control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.4.4.1
Voltage loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
3.5 Bidirectional converter in Boost mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.5.1
47
3.5.2
Modelling of power circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5.3
Small signal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5.4
Control loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.4.1
Current loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.5.4.2
Voltage loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.6 Bidirectional converter in Buck mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.6.1
51
3.6.2
Averaged model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.6.3
Small signal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
viii
Contents
3.6.4
Control loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.6.4.1
Voltage loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.7 Controller design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.7.1
Voltage Controller design of Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.7.2
Current controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost mode . .
54
3.7.3
Voltage controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost mode . .
56
3.7.4
Voltage Controller design of Bidirectional converter in buck mode . .
56
3.8 Hardware Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.8.1
Over all setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.8.2
Sensing circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.8.2.1
Current sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.8.2.2
Voltage sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
Implementation algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.8.3
4 Simulation and Experimental Results

4.1 Battery tied bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
63
63
Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.1.1.1
Panel current variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
4.1.1.2
Variations in load current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.1.2.1
Panel current variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.2 Proposed Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.1.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.2.1.1
MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.2.1.2
Variations in load current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.2.1.3
Variations in panel current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.2.2.1
MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.2.2.2
Natural variation of panel current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.2.2.3
Load variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.2.4
Manual disconnection of solar panels . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.2.2.5
Manual connection of solar panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Contents
4.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 Conclusions
5.1 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix
78
79
80
A Photographs of hardware setup
81
References
86
List of Figures
1.1 Power circuit of Battery tied bus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Power circuit diagram of proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Equivalent electrical circuit of solar cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Solar array characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Solar array operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.4 Variation with insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.5 Variation with temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.6 Battery charging mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
2.7 Battery floating mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
2.8 Battery discharging mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
2.9 Power circuit of Battery tied bus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
2.10 Model of power circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.11 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
2.12 Steady state DC equivalent circuit of PWM String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.13 Battery charging control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.14 Controller design of Battery tied bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.15 Experimental setup: Battery tied bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.1 Solar array characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.2 MPPT control algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
3.3 MPPT control algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
3.4 Block diagram of proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.5 Power circuit diagram of proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.6 Controller platform design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
xi
List of Figures
3.7 Voltage ripple in DC Bus capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
3.8 Power circuit of Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section . . . . . . . .
43
3.9 Single array equivalent circuit of S3R section
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.10 ON and OFF state equivalent circuits of PWM string section . . . . . . . . .
45
3.11 Voltage loop model of single string shunt regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.12 Bidirectional converter in Boost mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.13 a) (b) ON and OFF state equivalent circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.14 Current loop model of bidirectional converter in boost mode . . . . . . . . .
50
3.15 Voltage loop model of Bidirectional converter in boost mode . . . . . . . . .
51
3.16 Bidirectional converter in Buck mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.17 Voltage loop model of Bidirectional converter in buck mode . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.18 Shunt Regulator: Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer functions . .
54
3.19 Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer function of current loop . . . .
55
3.20 Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer function of voltage loop . . . .
56
3.21 Bidirectional converter in buck mode: Bode plots of plant and forward path
transfer function of voltage loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.22 Complete diagram of proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.23 Implementation algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.24 Implementation algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.1 Experimental setup: Battery tied bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
4.2 Battery current regulation on variation of panel current . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
4.3 Battery current regulation on variation of load current . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
4.4 Battery current regulation on variation of panel current . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
4.5 Complete diagram of proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
4.6 Experimental V-I characteristics of solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.7 MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.8 Simulation parameters: Battery voltage = 24 V, Vbus,ref = 10 V and ibat,ref =

0.5 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
4.9 Simulation parameters: Battery voltage = 24 V, Vbus,ref = 10 V and ibat,ref =

0.5 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.10 non MPPT to MPPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
xii
List of Figures
4.11 Natural variation of panel current CH1: DC Bus voltage 10 V/div CH2:
Battery charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 2 A/div CH4: Panel
current 1 A/div . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.12 Regulation on Load variations CH1: DC Bus voltage 10 V/div CH2: Battery
charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div CH4: Panel current
2 A/div . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.13 Experimental results: Proposed power circuit set up . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.14 Bus voltage regulation on forced turn off of solar panels CH1: DC Bus voltage
10 V/div CH2: Battery charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div
CH4: Panel current 1 A/div . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.15 Bus voltage regulation on forced turn on of solar panels CH1: DC Bus voltage
10 V/div CH2: Battery charging current 0.2 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div
CH4: Panel current 0.5 A/div . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
A.1 dspic30F6010A Controller board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
A.2 Gate driver board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
A.3 Shunt regulator board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
A.4 Bidirectional converter board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
A.5 Installed Solar panels setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
A.6 Closer view of Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
A.7 Complete view of Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
Units
Cbus
DC Bus capacitance
Capacitance across the battery
Vbus
DC Bus voltage
Vbat
Battery voltage
Ibat
Battery current
IL
Load current
Voc
Open circuit voltage
Isc
Short circuit current
Pmp
Maximum power extracted from a solar cell
Vmp
Peak power point voltage
Imp
Peak power point current
Ts
Switching period
Teclipse
Eclipse duration
hrs
Tsun
Sunlight duration
hrs
Duty ratio
DOD
Depth of Discharge
SOC
State of charge
voltage ripple
ig
Inductor current
inductor current ripple
xiii
xiv
Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
Units
Rch
Battery internal resistance in charging mode
ibus
DC bus current
ibus,avg
Average DC bus current
iCbus
DC Bus capacitor current
Number of panels connected to the DC Bus
vbus,ref
DC Bus reference voltage
vbat,ref
Battery reference voltage
ibat,ref
Battery reference current
bat
Energy Efficiency of Battery
AHbat
Ampere Hour rating of battery
AH
Vboc
Battery open circuit voltage
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Introduction
There is a world wide increase in the energy demand. The non-renewable energy
banks of coal and oil are getting depleted fast. There is a need to obtain clean energy on
account of environmental quality. Solar photo-voltaic energy is emerging as a viable energy
source in the near future. This thesis addresses several issues related to photo-voltaic power
conversion.
A photo-voltaic system consists of solar cells, power converters, battery and the load.
The solar cells convert solar energy into electrical energy. The power converter interfaces the
solar cells, battery and the load. The battery serves to equalise the energy demand (load)
and the energy supply (solar cell). Currently the solar cells and the battery cost nearly 90%
of the system cost. It is expected that this share will drop in the near future with economies
of scale.
Inexpensive solar photo-voltaic systems adopt the battery tied dc bus structure. In
such systems the solar cells and the load are connected across the battery. The solar cells
are arranged as several modules. The control exercised is in selecting the number of such
modules connected across the bus. The unused solar modules are shorted by a control switch
and isolated from the bus through a diode. The control concept is as shown in Fig. 1.1. In
the figure, the switch Sx is shorted for unused modules. Sx is open for used modules.
Such systems are inexpensive and very efficient. They weigh less and are more reliable.
The battery tied bus suffers certain disadvantages. The first among them is the poor utilisation of solar panels. The load has to tolerate the full swing of the battery voltage variation.
This will be about 20%. On account of the constraint on the solar panel voltage, the solar
1
Chapter 1. Introduction
D2
D1
D4
D3
Cbus
S
A
1
S1
S
A
2
S2
S
A
3
S3
S
A
4
L
O
A
D
+
Vbat
S4
Figure 1.1: Power circuit of Battery tied bus system
panels may not be loaded to the maximum power capacity. Such operating conditions lead
to gross under-utilisation of the expensive solar panels. This thesis explores alternate power
architecture to overcome the above limitations. Load regulation and maximum power harvesting from the solar panels are the objectives. On account of the complex control required,
a fully digital controller has been developed as part of this work.
1.2
Scope of work
In the proposed configuration shown in Fig. 1.2, the bidirectional power converter is inserted
between the bus and the battery. The bidirectional power converter operates in boost mode
and charges the battery when the sunlight is available. During eclipse period, it operates in
buck mode and meets the load demand. The maximum power is extracted from the panels by
controlling the voltage across the solar panels i.e. bus voltage. The bus voltage reference is
computed by MPPT block and the bus voltage is regulated to the reference voltage through
closed loop control. So the maximum power is extracted from the panels at the expense
of extra bidirectional power converter. Even though there is an additional power loss due
to the introduction of power converter, this power bus configuration is superior because it
increases the output power from the panel itself. The entire control logic implementation
1.3. Contributions of the thesis
Vbus
D1
D2
S
A S2
2
S6
D4
D3
Cbus
S
A S1
1
S
A S3
3
S
A S4
4
L
O
A
D
Sequential switching shunt
Vbat
+
S5
Bidirectional converter
Battery
Regulator section
Figure 1.2: Power circuit diagram of proposed configuration
is done digitally using dspic30F6010A. The simulation is done by writing script files in C
language. The battery tied bus configuration is evaluated experimentally with 4 solar panels
rated at 35 W each and a lead acid battery of 12 V 42 AH rating. Then the proposed bus
configuration is evaluated experimentally with the same solar panels setup and the results
are then discussed.
1.3
Contributions of the thesis
The contributions of the thesis is as follows.

Extraction of maximum power from several parallel solar panels
The maximum power from several solar panels is extracted by changing the DC Bus
voltage. The main features include accuracy, smaller converter size, minimum feedback
signals and simple control logic.
Design and development of Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator has been built and the closed loop DC Bus
Chapter 1. Introduction
voltage control is implemented by using both ON/OFF control and PWM control.
Design and development of bidirectional converter
Bidirectional converter has been designed and built. Different battery charging algorithms such as Constant current charging, Constant voltage charging can be implemented through the closed loop control of bidirectional converter.
Entire control logic implementation using simple inexpensive processor
The entire closed loop control of different subsystems of power circuit is implemented
using a very simple and inexpensive digital processor Dspic30F6010A. Perturb and
Observe control algorithm which aids in maximum power tracking of solar panels is
implemented using the same processor.
Simulation of the entire system
Different sections of the power circuit have been modelled using several dynamic equations. The controller implementation as well as the control algorithm are validated
with the modelled system. The entire simulation is done by writing script files in C
language.
Fabrication of the entire system and validation of the design and control methodology
using four 35 W solar panels and a 24 V, 28 AH Lead acid battery.
1.4
Organization of the thesis
Chapter 1 presents a brief overview of the context of the present work. It also gives a small
introduction about the battery tied bus and the proposed power bus configurations of the
photovoltaic system. It highlights the importance of the proposed configuration and improvements over the battery tied bus configuration.
Chapter 2 covers the basics of solar arrays which includes the equivalent circuit model, V-I
characteristics and its variation with various parameters. It presents the various operating
modes of the photovoltaic system. It further describes about the battery tied bus configuration and presents the control flow methodology adopted.
Chapter 3 describes about the proposed bus configuration and its power circuit and control
logic implementation. It explains in detail about the need for maximum power point tracking and the scenarios in which Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is beneficial. The
1.4. Organization of the thesis
bidirectional power converter and its closed loop control are presented. Small signal model
of the bidirectional power converter and the shunt regulator are then analysed. The transfer
functions of the converter are used in designing the closed loop controllers for meeting the
desired control objectives. The entire analysis, design, control and the hardware configuration of the proposed photovoltaic system are explained in chapter 3.
Chapter 4 presents the simulation and the experimental results of the battery tied bus as
well as the proposed photovoltaic system topology.
Chapter 5 gives the conclusions of the present work.
Chapter 2
Battery tied power bus system
A typical photovoltaic system consists of solar panels which are the main source of energy,
the battery which serves as the back up energy source and the load. When the generation is
available, the solar panels directly meet the load demand and the remaining power is used
to charge the battery. In case of insufficient generation, the excess load demand is met by
the battery. A typical photo-voltaic system can adopt various power bus configurations.
Battery tied bus is the simplest of the power bus configurations. In this configuration, the
battery is always attached to the bus. This system is extremely simple in terms of power
circuit configuration as well as control. This chapter describes the basics of solar arrays and
various operating modes of the photovoltaic system and the battery tied bus configuration.
In the next section, the basic concepts behind solar arrays is discussed.
2.1
Solar array
Solar array consists of numerous PV cells connected in series-parallel configuration to obtain

the required voltage and current. It works on the principle of photovoltaic effect. The
photovoltaic effect is the electrical potential developed across the common junction of a
semiconductor material on illumination with the photons.
2.1.1
Equivalent electrical circuit
The steady state performance of solar cell can be represented in terms of equivalent electrical
circuit as shown in Fig. 2.1. The equivalent model can be represented as a constant current
source Is shunted by a diode.
Rs represents the series resistance offered to the current flow.
7
Chapter 2. Battery tied power bus system
Rs
+
Is
Id
Voc
Ish
Rsh
Figure 2.1: Equivalent electrical circuit of solar cell
Rsh represents leakage across the junction.

Is is the generated photon current and it is proportional to the illumination level.
The PV conversion efficiency is limited by the series resistance Rs . The magnitudes of
constant current source Is , the diode current Id , Resistances Rs and Rsh vary with parameters
like temperature, illumination etc. Hence the V-I characteristics are significantly affected by
the external parameters such as temperature, illumination level etc.
2.1.2
Solar array Characteristics
Electrically, solar cells are two terminal devices. Illumination of solar cells causes some
voltage to be developed across them and it becomes capable of delivering electrical power
to the load connected to it. Figure 2.2 shows the V-I characteristics of the solar array. The
voltage across the solar array is plotted along X-axis. The current delivered by the solar
array is plotted along Y axis. It can be seen from the figure that solar array behaves as a
constant current source in some region and as a constant voltage source in some region.
Isc refers to short circuit current of solar array i.e. the current delivered by the solar array
when its terminals are short circuited.
Voc refers to open circuit voltage across the solar array i.e. the voltage across the solar array
when its terminals are open circuited.
Pmp refers to maximum power point i.e. the maximum power that can be delivered by the
2.1. Solar array
Isc
current [A]
Imp
Maximum power
Rectangle
voltage [V]
Vmp
Voc
Power [w]
Pmp
Vmp
Voc
voltage [V]
Figure 2.2: Solar array characteristics
10
RL1
RL2
Isc Ip1
current [A]
Imp Ip2
RL3
Ip3
Vp1
voltage [V]
Vp2Vp3Voc
Vmp
Figure 2.3: Solar array operating point
solar array.
Vmp refers to the voltage corresponding to the maximum power point. Imp refers to the
current corresponding to the maximum power point.
Figure 2.2 indicates that it is necessary to operate the solar array around the maximum
power point Pmp in-order to utilise the maximum power that can be generated from the
solar array. The solar panels are operated at maximum efficiency when maximum power is
extracted from them. This becomes a more important consideration while using solar panels
since the cost of solar panels is high.
2.1.3
Solar array operating point
The operating point of the solar array is decided by the intersection of solar array characteristics and the load characteristics. It can be seen from Fig. 2.3 that the operating point
changes with the load characteristics. The operating point is Vp1 , Ip1 corresponding to the
load resistance RL1 . The operating point shifts to Vp2 , Ip2 when load resistance is RL2 . In a
similar way, the operating point corresponding to load resistance RL3 is Vp3 , Ip3 . Figure 2.3
indicates that there is a particular value of load resistance for which maximum power is
extracted.
2.1. Solar array
11
current [A]
Isc3
Isc2
Increase in
Intensity of light
Decrease in
Intensity of light
Isc1
voltage [V]
Voc1Voc2Voc3
Figure 2.4: Variation with insolation
2.1.4
Variation with respect to insolation
Figure 2.4 shows the variation of solar array characteristics with the amount of incident solar
radiation. It can be seen that the short circuit current increases with the insolation level.
The variation is not so much in the case of open circuit voltage.
2.1.5
Variation with respect to temperature
Figure 2.5 shows the variation of solar cell characteristics with the temperature of the solar
cell. An increase in the cell operating temperature causes a slight increase in the cell short
circuit current and a significant decrease in the cell open circuit voltage. The increase in
short circuit current is a function of the illumination level. Its value is dependent on the
spectral response of the incident solar radiation and the spectral response of the solar cell
(i.e. the cell thickness, junction depth, antireflective coating etc). The change in voltage with
temperature is due to the change in diode conduction characteristics. As the cell temperature
increases, the open circuit voltage decreases and short circuit current increases. Relatively
the percentage decrease in open circuit voltage is more than the percentage increase in short
circuit current. This implies that the maximum power that can be delivered from the solar
cell Pmp decreases as the temperature rises. Hence it becomes necessary to maintain the cell
temperature near room temperatures in order to utilise the maximum power from a given
solar cell.
12
Voc1
Decrease
in
temperature
Increase
in
temperature
current [A]
Isc1
Isc2
Isc3
Voc2
Voc3
voltage [V]
Figure 2.5: Variation with temperature
The characteristics of solar arrays is highly nonlinear and the characteristics vary
widely with respect to many parameters such as amount of incident solar radiation, temperature, humidity etc. This makes the control of photovoltaic system complicated and calls
for proper control algorithms.
2.1.6
MPPT methods
Many methods have been adopted in the literature for maximum power tracking of panels.
2.1.6.1
Look up table methods
The maximum power point can be stored in the form of look up tables for different conditions
of insolation, temperature. Because of wide variations in environmental conditions and also
due to non-linear characteristics of solar panels, large memory is needed to exhaustively store
the desired information.
2.1.6.2
Analytical methods
Non-linear characteristics of solar panels can be modelled by means of mathematical equations. The mathematical equations can be solved analytically for determining the maximum
power point. The accuracy of these methods depend up on the accuracy of the mathematical
2.2. Battery
13
representation of the characteristics of solar panels. Complex functions have to be solved.

The solution time becomes longer.
2.1.6.3
Voltage and current based tracking
This method makes use of the assumption of linear dependence of maximum power point on
open circuit voltage Voc and short circuit current Isc . The linear dependence is arrived based
on the analytical methods and also can be verified experimentally. Even though the method
looks simple, it is difficult to sense the parameters such as open circuit voltage Voc and short
circuit current Isc appropriately. The sensing of open circuit voltage in the presence of PWM
switching voltages poses additional challenges.
2.1.6.4
Perturb and observe method
In this method, power delivered from the panels is calculated by computing the product of
voltage and current at various instants. The perturbation in voltage is given and current
delivered by the panels is measured. Depending on the calculated value of power at every
instant, the perturbation in voltage is given. This method is very popular as it does not
depend up on any analytical calculations or look up tables. Also, it can be easily implemented
using digital processor. It takes into account of the variations due to unpredictable factors
such as temperature, insolation, device degradation etc. The accuracy of these methods
depend on the sensed value of voltage as well as current. In the current work, this method
is adopted in determining the maximum power point.
2.2
2.2.1
Battery
Introduction
Battery is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy stored in the active materials into electrical energy. It consists of a number of cells electrically arranged in seriesparallel configuration to provide the required voltage and the current level. Batteries can be
classified as primary and secondary depending on their capability of getting recharged.
14
2.2.1.1
Primary batteries
Primary batteries are batteries that do not have the capacity of getting electrically recharged.
Once discharged, these batteries cannot be used further and are discarded. The advantages
of primary batteries include low cost, high energy density at low & moderate rate of discharge
and light weight. They are used in many low power rated portable consumer equipments.
2.2.1.2
Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries are those batteries that can be recharged by passing current in the opposite direction to that of discharge current. They are characterized by high energy density,
high discharge rate capability, flat discharge curves and good low temperature performance.
They are used as energy storage devices, generally connected to and charged by the primary
source and deliver the energy to the load on load demand. Compared with primary batteries,
these secondary batteries have lower energy densities and lower energy retention capacities
[1]. Out of various secondary batteries, lead acid battery is used in the work reported in this
thesis.
2.2.2
Charging Lead acid battery
A lead-acid battery can generally be charged at any rate that does not produce excessive
gassing, overcharging, or high temperatures. The battery can absorb a very high current
during the early part of the charge, but there is a limit to the safe current as the battery
becomes charged. A fully discharged battery can absorb high currents with the charging
voltage remaining relatively low. However, as the battery becomes charged, the voltage
increases to excessively high values if the charge is maintained at the high rate, leading to
overcharge and gassing. The charge current should be reduced to reasonable values at the
battery reaches full charge. There are several charging profiles that can be adopted. The
selection of the appropriate method depends on a number of considerations such as the type
and design of the battery, service conditions, time available for charging, number of cells or
batteries to be charged, and the application requirement. In the current work a combination
of constant current and constant voltage charging is discussed.
2.3. Photovoltaic system
15
IL Ibat
+
D
S
A
Cbus
RL Vbat
Isc
Is
current [A]
Is
Ibat
RL
IL
voltage [V]
Vbat Voc
Figure 2.6: Battery charging mode
2.2.2.1
Constant Current charging
In this method of charging, the battery is charged at constant current. In a typical photovoltaic system, the generation capacity of solar panel changes widely. In such a scenario, the
charging rate can be fixed at various levels depending on the available generation capacity.
In practise, the batteries are charged at constant current during the initial period of recharge.
This method of charging gives the flexibility of easy monitoring of Ampere Hours of battery.
2.2.2.2
Constant Voltage charging
After reaching a particular State of charge, the battery is charged at constant potential. As
the battery is getting charged to its full capacity, the charge current is gradually reduced.
This method of charging is essential from the point of view of life time of battery. If this
method of charging is omitted, the battery will lose the ability of charging upto its full
capacity.
2.3
2.3.1
Photovoltaic system
Operating modes
Different operating modes exist in the photovoltaic system based on the condition of battery.
16
Is
Cbus
RL Vbat
RL
current [A]
S
A
Isc
Is
IL
+
IL
voltage [V]
VbatVoc
Figure 2.7: Battery floating mode
2.3.1.1
Battery charge mode
Battery charging mode is shown in Fig. 2.6. In this mode, the generation capacity of solar
panels is greater than the load demand. The excess power is used to charge the battery.
During the process of charging, the battery can be considered as separate load with respect
to the solar panels.
Is = IL + Ibat
(2.1)
The battery charging current is controlled by altering the average current delivered into the
bus. The average current flowing into the bus is varied by the control of shunt switch across
the solar array.
2.3.1.2
Battery floating mode
Battery floating mode is shown in Fig. 2.7. In this mode, the generation capacity of solar
panels is such that it can feed the load power alone. The battery neither gets charged from
the bus nor it delivers the load power.
Is = IL
2.3.1.3
(2.2)
Battery discharge mode
Battery discharging mode is shown in Fig. 2.8. In this mode, the generation capacity of
solar panels is less than the load power requirement. Part of the load demand is met by the
2.4. Design of a photovoltaic system
17
Is
S
A
Cbus
D
IL Ibat
+
RL
Vbat
current [A]
Ibat
IL
RL
Isc
Is
voltage [V]
Vbat Voc
Figure 2.8: Battery discharging mode
generation from solar panels. The remaining load power is delivered by the battery.
IL = Is + Ibat
2.3.2
(2.3)
Design objectives
In the previous section, the various operating modes of the photovoltaic system had been
discussed in detail. This section describes the design objectives in brief.
The foremost objective in the photovoltaic system is to deliver the load power for
various conditions in insolation. During the sunlight period, the solar panels deliver the load
power and the battery delivers the load power during eclipse period.
Next is the charging of the battery during the sunlight period. During the sunlight
period, the excess generation from the solar panels is used to charge the battery. At the
end of the eclipse period, the energy available in the battery is less. The battery must be
brought to its full rated capacity with in the available sun hours. These design objectives
are met by proper selection of the solar panel and the battery.
2.4
Design of a photovoltaic system
The entire design of battery tied bus involves the selection of solar panels, battery, bus capacitor, diode and shunt switch MOSFET. The system design is based on the load power
18
requirement and the insolation profile available in the area of installation.

Let us assume
Load power as Pload watts.
eclipse duration as Teclipse hrs.
sunlight duration as Tsun hrs.
Average voltage of battery on charge and discharge = Vbat V.
Depth of discharge of battery = DOD
Energy efficiency of battery = bat
Energy efficiency of battery is defined as ratio of energy delivered by the battery on
discharge and the energy used in charging the battery to the same SOC. First let us consider
the eclipse period. The battery has to meet the load power in this period. The battery
design is based on the duration of eclipse period.
2.4.1
Selection of battery
This involves the selection of Ampere hour capacity of battery.

Energy required for the load = Pload Teclipse Watt hours
The load power has to be delivered by the battery during the eclipse period.
Total Watt hours delivered by the battery = Pload Teclipse
Actual battery rating is decided based on the allowable DOD. For maximum battery
life, it is necessary to restrict DOD as 0.2 [2]. In other words, it is necessary not to use
more than 20 percent of the available battery capacity.
Actual battery rating is given by
AHbat =
Pload Teclipse
AH.
DOD Vbat
(2.4)
The Ampere hour rating of the battery is chosen to be more than AHbat .
2.4.2
Selection of solar panel
During sunlight period, solar panel has to deliver both the load power and the power required
for charging the battery. Battery must be brought to fully charged state within the sunlight
period.
2.5. Battery tied bus system
19
Watt hours required to bring the battery to original state

Pload Teclipse
W Hcharge =
(2.5)
bat
Power required for battery charging
W Hcharge
(2.6)
Pbat =
Tsun
Power to be delivered by the solar panel = Load power + Power required for battery charging
PSA = Pload + Pbat
(2.7)
The solar panel with generation capacity more than PSA is chosen.
2.5
Battery tied bus system
Inexpensive solar photo-voltaic systems adopt the battery tied dc bus configuration. In this
system, the battery is directly connected to the solar panels. This system is described in
detail in this section.
Battery tied bus configuration has many advantages as follows.
Simple to implement
Direct energy transfer to battery and load without any converter in-between.
Low weight on account of low component count.
2.5.1
Description
The power circuit configuration used is shown in Fig. 2.9. Figure 2.9 shows the four solar
arrays connected to the bus through diodes. Each of the solar array SA1 to SA4 is shunted
by a shunt switch S1 to S4. The purpose of the shunt switch is to isolate the particular
solar array. The battery, load and bus capacitor are directly connected across the bus. This
configuration is called as battery tied as the battery is always connected to the bus. Out
of the 4 shunt switches, one shunt switch is controlled in PWM mode and the other shunt
switches are controlled in On-Off mode. PWM control of shunt switches enable fine control
of current. The current injected by the Solar arrays into the bus is fixed. It is dependent on
the panel characteristics and the battery voltage. Each of the Solar array SA1 to SA4 can
be replaced by a current source Is . The equivalent battery tied bus power circuit is shown
in Fig. 2.10.
20
D2
D1
D4
D3
Cbus
S
A
1
S1
S
A
2
S2
S
A
3
S3
S
A
4
L
O
A
D
+
Vbat
S4
Figure 2.9: Power circuit of Battery tied bus system
2.5.2
Principle of Operation
Figure 2.11 shows the modified equivalent power circuit of the battery tied bus configuration.
Each of the solar panels shunted with On-Off switch can be replaced by a single equivalent
current source (n 1)Is . Here n denotes the number of Solar array strings attached to the
DC bus. The battery can be modelled as a voltage source in series with a resistance during
the charging process. Let us consider the effect on DC bus current on account of PWM
switching operation. During the interval D Ts , the panel SA4 gets isolated from the bus.
During the interval (1 D) Ts , Is current flows into the bus from the panel SA4. The
net current entering the DC bus in this interval is given by nIs . As a result of switching
operation, high frequency switching current is injected into the DC bus. The switching bus
current is shown in Fig. 2.11. The high frequency ripple current flows into DC bus capacitor.
Figure 2.11 also shows the waveforms of DC bus capacitor current.
The steady state DC equivalent circuit of PWM string is shown in Fig. 2.12. The current
Is flows into the DC bus from the panel SA4 only during the interval (1 D) Ts . Hence
in the DC steady state equivalent circuit, PWM string can be replaced by a current source
Is (1 D). Here the PWM string is referred as the parallel combination of solar array and
a shunt switch operated in PWM mode.
21
iL
D4
D3
D2
D1
ibat
+
Cbus
Is
S1
Is
S2
Is
S3
Is
RL
Vbat
S4
Figure 2.10: Model of power circuit
2.5.3
Modelling of power circuit
As stated in the previous sections, the solar arrays can be represented as equivalent current
sources. Also each of the solar arrays is assumed to have similar characteristics. Keeping
this into consideration, the model can be further be simplified by using a single current
source in-place of three fixed current sources. The final equivalent power circuit model of
the battery tied bus is shown in Fig. 2.11. In Fig. 2.11, ibus,avg represents the average current
injected into the DC bus by the solar panels.
The average DC bus current is given by
ibus,avg = Is (1 D) + (n 1)Is
(2.8)
The battery current is given by

ibat = ibus,avg iL
(2.9)
n denotes the number of Solar array strings attached to the DC bus. The equation indicates
that any change in the panel current or load current leads to change in the battery current.
This is due to the influence of external system disturbances.
22
ibus
iCbus
D4
(n 1)Is
Is
Cbus
S4
ibat
iL
Rch
RL
+
Vboc
nIs
ibus
Bus current
PWM String
ibus,avg
(n 1)Is
nIs -iL -ibat

iCbus
capacitor current
(n 1)Is -iL -ibat

DTs
(1 D)Ts
Figure 2.11: Principle of Operation
23
iL
D4
ibat
vbat
RL
Is (1 D)
PWM String
Figure 2.12: Steady state DC equivalent circuit of PWM String
ibat,err Gc(s)
ibat,ref
+
ibat,f b
iL
ibus
G(s)
controller
ibat
Plant
Gf b (s)
Feedback sensor
Figure 2.13: Battery charging control loop
2.5.4
Control objective
The one and the only control objective in the battery tied bus configuration is the regulation
of battery charging current. During sunlight period, the excess generation capacity of solar
panels is used to charge the battery. The battery charging current should be regulated to the
desired reference current for variations in solar panel I-V characteristics. This is achieved by
performing closed loop control.
24
2.5.5
Control loop
The control loop used for designing the battery charging controller is shown in Fig. 2.13.
Variations in insolation, temperature lead to change in the panel characteristics. Any variation in the panel characteristics and load current leads to changes in the measured battery
charging current. The error in the battery charging current is fed to the controller. The
controller decides the duty ratio of the shunt switch. The duty ratio of shunt switch is to
be controlled so as to maintain constant battery charging current for variations in panel I-V
characteristics. The plant transfer function G(s) is given by
G(s) =
(s)
ibus
k
#
="
d(s)
Ts
1+s
2
(2.10)
The transfer function has a pole at 2/Ts . It represents the delay contributed by the PWM
switching action [3]. The feedback sensor consists of a RC filter. The transfer function of
the feedback loop is given by
Gf b (s) = "
kf b
1 + sTf b
(2.11)
The delay contributed by the feedback loop Tf b is about 100 s. The delay contributed by
the plant transfer function is around 5 s and can be neglected. The transfer function Gf b (s)
is used for designing the controller.
2.5.6
Controller design
The objective of the controller design is as follows

Closed loop stability
Zero steady state error
High Bandwidth
The bode plots of feedback and the forward path transfer function of the battery charging
current loop is shown in Fig. 2.14. Proportional Integral (PI) controller is chosen as the
25
Gf b (s)Gc (s)
Gf b (s)
gain dB
60
20
0
20
logw
1/Tf b
Phase (deg)
0
logw
90
Figure 2.14: Controller design of Battery tied bus
controller. The zero of PI controller is placed at the pole of the feedback path transfer
function. So the pole of the feedback path transfer function is cancelled by the zero of
the controller. The bandwidth can be altered by changing the proportional gain of the PI
controller. The feedback path transfer function has a -20 dB/decade rolloff. So the closed
loop will be stable. Hence the control objectives have been met by choosing the PI controller.
2.5.7
Experimental setup
An experimental setup was made to implement the charging of the battery from the solar
panels. The setup consists of 4 solar panels each rated at 35 W and a 12V 42 AH lead acid
battery.
Ratings of solar panel:
Open Circuit Voltage Voc = 21 V
Short circuit current Isc = 2.5 A
Voltage at Peak Power Point Vmp = 16 V
Peak power Pmp = 35 W
The above ratings are valid at Standard Test Conditions Of 100mw Per Sq. Cm of insolation
and cell temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. The panels have been purchased around 15 years
back. Because of ageing factor, the above parameters show drop in their values.
26
iL
D2
D1
D3
ibat
D4
+
Cbus
Is
S1
Is
S1
S2
S2
control
Is
S3
signals
dspic30F6010A
Vbat
S4
Is
S3
RL
S4
Feedback
signals
Figure 2.15: Experimental setup: Battery tied bus
Vbat
ibat
2.6. Conclusion
27
Measured parameters of solar panel:

Open Circuit Voltage Voc = 18.5 V
Voltage at Peak Power Point Vmp = 11 V
The above parameters are measured at cell temperature of 45 degrees Celsius.
switching frequency = 100 KHz
Bus capacitor = 2000 microfarad
The controller is developed using a Microchip pic dspic30F6010A. The battery current is
sensed for implementing the control. Since the current is bidirectional, the sensed signal is
scaled and shifted before being read by the Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) of dspic. Test
results are presented in chapter 4 along with those of the proposed converter for convenience
in comparison.
2.5.8
Drawbacks
Poor utilization of solar panels

Prone to battery latch-up problem [4]
2.6
Conclusion
This chapter discussed the basics of solar panels, the photovoltaic system with its various
operating modes and its design. The battery tied bus has been explained in detail. Eventhough the battery tied configuration is simple, it suffers drawbacks such as poor utilisation
of generation capacity and battery latch-up problem.
28
Chapter 3
Analysis and Implementation of
Proposed architecture
The previous chapter described the battery tied bus system and its drawbacks. In this
chapter, the proposed configuration is explained in detail. First, maximum power point is
highlighted. Then the implementation of MPPT algorithm is explained in detail. Then the
proposed architecture and its subsystems are explained. Small signal modelling of various
subsystems is carried out. Then the closed loop controllers have been designed using linear
control theory. Finally in the implementation section, the entire flow of control implementation is explained. The entire analysis, design, control and the hardware configuration of
the proposed photovoltaic system is explained in this chapter.
3.1
Maximum Power Point Tracking of solar panels
The need for extracting maximum power from the panels is more desired
when the battery is in low (SOC) State of Charge.
during cold weather conditions when the available charging time for the battery is less.
to obtain overall better system economy.
At the end of eclipse period, the battery is in drained state. As the system moves
into sunlight period, the battery starts charging. In discharged state, the battery can take
higher charging currents compared to that of battery in charged state. MPPT control can
be adopted in this scenario to enable quick charging of battery. During the cold weather
conditions, the available sunlight hours is less than that of summer season. There is less
29
30
Chapter 3. Analysis and Implementation of Proposed architecture
time available for charging the battery. MPPT helps in utilising the maximum power from
the solar panels enabling the battery to charge quickly within the available sun hours.
3.1.1
MPPT implementation
Different MPPT methods available in literature had been discussed in the previous chapter
[5]. In this thesis, Perturb and Observe method is adopted for the purpose of peak power
tracking. This section presents the detailed flow of Perturb and Observe method. Figure 3.1
indicates that as the operating voltage is increased, the power delivered by the panels keeps
increasing upto the maximum power point. The voltage corresponding to maximum power
point is denoted by Vmp . As the operating voltage is increased beyond Vmp , the power delivered from the panels decreases and becomes zero corresponding to open circuit voltage
Voc . The characteristics indicate that the maximum power can be extracted from the panels
if the operating point corresponds to (Vmp , Imp ). Hence by regulating the current delivered
from the panels corresponding to Imp or by regulating the voltage across the solar panels
corresponding to Vmp , the maximum power can be extracted from the solar panels. As the
environmental conditions such as insolation, temperature keep varying, the parameters Voc ,
Isc and Vmp of the panels change. It becomes essential to track the peak power point under
varying environmental conditions. In the proposed configuration, the MPPT block performs
this function of tracking the maximum power point for various conditions.
3.1.2
MPPT Control block
The control algorithm that is described in this section describes the over all functioning of
MPPT control block. The main function of MPPT block is to set the reference DC Bus voltage so as to track the peak power point voltage. It is to be noted that the peak power point
voltage varies with the variations in external environmental conditions.
Figures 3.2 and
3.3 present a detailed control flowchart used for MPPT implementation. As per the control
algorithm, the voltage perturbations are given at regular intervals. The mode indicates the
direction in which the voltage perturbations is to be given. It can be either increasing or
decreasing.
There are few important things to be considered here in the MPPT control block implementation part.
3.1. Maximum Power Point Tracking of solar panels
31
Isc
current [A]
Imp
Maximum power
Rectangle
voltage [V]
Vmp
Voc
Power [w]
Pmp
Vmp
Voc
voltage [V]
Figure 3.1: Solar array characteristics
32
START
Initialize Reference
DC Bus voltage
Initialize step size,

Pmax = 0, counter = 0
Initialize mode=
Increase
C
Measure panel current
Calculate power =
DC Bus voltage * Panel current
Is power >
Pmax
No
Yes
Pmax = power
A
Figure 3.2: MPPT control algorithm
Increment counter
3.1. Maximum Power Point Tracking of solar panels
33
No
Is counter >=
maximum value
Yes
Reduce step size
Is
Mode = increase
Yes
No
Yes
sign = 1
Is
Mode = increase
No
sign = -1
Update Reference DC Bus voltage

Vbus,ref = Vbus,ref + (sign stepsize)
Figure 3.3: MPPT control algorithm
sign = 1
34
MPPT loop must be fast enough to track the peak power voltage. It is to be noted that
dynamics of variations of external conditions such as temperature, insolation is much slower
of the order of seconds duration. The time taken to settle towards the peak power voltage is
decided by two factors. One is the magnitude of step size of the voltage perturbations given
by the MPPT block. The other is the time interval between the voltage perturbations.
Smaller the step size of voltage perturbations, the more is the time taken to track
the changed peak power voltage. Greater the step size of voltage perturbations, the system
enters into oscillation mode around the peak power point and it takes finite time to settle
in the peak power point. The step size of voltage perturbations is chosen as compromise
between the two.
The time interval between the voltage perturbations is dependent on the settling time
of the voltage loop. It is chosen to be more than the settling time of the voltage loop. Hence
by having high bandwidth current and voltage loops, the time interval between the voltage
perturbations can be reduced.
3.2
Proposed configuration
charging
discharging
Solar Array1
Sequential
Solar Array2
Bidirectional
Switching
converter
Shunt
Solar Array3
Regulator
(S3R)
Solar Array4
LOAD
Battery
Figure 3.4: Block diagram of proposed configuration
The block diagram of the proposed architecture is shown in Fig. 3.4. The battery voltage
3.2. Proposed configuration
35
is dependent on the depth of discharge (DOD). The peak power panel voltage depends on
external conditions such as temperature, insolation, ageing of panels etc. So in order to
perform MPPT, a DC-DC converter is introduced in-between the bus and the battery. The
converter acts as an interface between the bus and the battery. The DC Bus voltage has
to be regulated corresponding to the reference voltage decided by the MPPT block. MPPT
block in turn sets the reference DC Bus voltage depending on the peak power point voltage.
The topology of the DC-DC converter is decided based on the ratings of the bus voltage and
battery voltage.
3.2.1
Assumptions
1. DC Bus voltage is always less than the battery voltage.

2. All the solar panels exhibit similar V-I characteristics.
3. All the solar panels are subjected to same external conditions such as insolation, temperature.
3.2.2
Selection of converter topology
During sunlight period, the battery is charged from the bus through the DC-DC converter.
In other words, the DC-DC converter acts as a battery charger when the generation capacity
of solar panels is greater than the load demand. During eclipse periods or during instants
when the load demand exceeds the available generation from the solar panels, the battery
discharges in-order to meet the load demand. Hence the converter must have bidirectional
power flow capability to facilitate power flow from DC bus to the battery and vice versa. In
case of space applications, the converter size should be less. Inductor accounts for the major
portion of the converters size. The inductor size can be reduced by increasing the switching
frequency of the DC-DC converter. The bidirectional converter used in this proposed architecture satisfies the above conditions. The bidirectional converter operates in boost mode
while the battery is getting charged. It operates in buck mode when the battery is getting
discharged.
Thus with the addition of a DC-DC converter, it is possible to extract maximum
power from the several panels simultaneously by controlling the DC Bus voltage. With minimum sensing signals, it is possible to extract maximum power from several panels. The
36
S6
Vbus
D1
D2
D4
D3
Cbus
Is
S1
Is
S2
Is
Is
S3
S4
L
O
A
D
Sequential switching shunt

Regulator section
Vbat
+
S5
Battery
Figure 3.5: Power circuit diagram of proposed configuration
configuration aids in implementing separate battery current control as well.
3.2.3
Description
The complete power circuit configuration used for implementing MPPT control and battery
charging control is shown in Fig. 3.5. The power circuit can be separated out into two separate converters for the sake of simplicity. One is the Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
(S3R configuration) and the other is the bidirectional converter. It can be seen from Fig. 3.5
that S3R section consists of shunt switches across the solar panels and the diodes. The main
function of the S3R section is to extract the power from the solar panels and to deliver it
to the DC bus. The bidirectional converter acts as an interfacing converter between the DC
bus and the battery.
3.2.3.1
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
The function of S3R section is to deliver the necessary load power and the battery charging
power. The shunt switches serve the purpose of shunting the excess power. This regulator
is active only during the sunlight hours.
3.2. Proposed configuration

3.2.3.2
37
The bidirectional converter performs two major functions. One is charging the battery from
the DC bus when the generation capacity of solar panels is more than the load demand.
During the charging process, the bidirectional converter operates in boost mode. The other
function is regulating the DC bus voltage when the generation capacity of solar panels
is insufficient to meet the load power requirement. During this discharging process, the
bidirectional converter operates in buck mode.
3.2.4
System objectives
The main objectives of using the proposed power circuit configuration

1. Extraction of maximum power from solar panels.
2. Regulation of DC Bus voltage during all the periods.
3. Battery charging control.
The first system objective involves 2 steps. First step is the determination of reference DC
Bus voltage corresponding to peak power point by the MPPT block. Next is the regulation
of the DC Bus voltage according to the set reference voltage. The solar panel current and
bus voltage are the analog feedback signals needed for determining the MPPT voltage.
When the battery is in the charging state, DC Bus voltage is regulated by the closed
loop voltage control of the S3R section. The DC Bus voltage is compared with the reference
voltage and fed to the voltage controller of the S3R section. The voltage controller computes
the duty ratio for the shunt switches across the solar panels and thus the DC Bus voltage is
regulated.
When the battery is in discharging state, DC Bus voltage is regulated by the closed
loop voltage control of bidirectional converter section. The DC Bus voltage is compared
with the reference voltage and fed to the voltage controller of bidirectional converter section.
The voltage controller computes the duty ratio for the active switches of the bidirectional
converter and thus the DC Bus voltage is regulated. Hence the regulation of DC Bus voltage
is achieved during all the periods.
The third system objective is met by selecting suitable charging profile for the battery.
The battery charging profile can be selected based on the application requirement, type of
38
battery etc. The battery voltage and inductor current are the analog feedback signals needed
for performing battery charging control. The bidirectional converter is operated in boost
mode. It is voltage controlled or current controlled depending on the charging technique
adopted.
3.2.5
System Specifications
Maximum input power to the DC bus from the solar panels = 100 watts
Rating of Bidirectional converter = 100 watts
Maximum load power = 50 watts
DC Bus voltage Range = 10 to 12 V depending on MPPT
Battery voltage Range = 21 V to 24 V depending on its State Of Charge (SOC)
Switching frequency = 100 KHz
3.3
3.3.1
Design of proposed bus configuration

Controller section
The Controller section is developed based on the dspic processor dspic30F6010A. Figure 3.6
shows the schematic of the controller section. The controller platform consists of following
features.
Low cost dspic30F6010A of microchip make
10 MHz external crystal oscillator
House keeping power supply
On-Off control signals to shunt regulator section (J4)
PWM signals to shunt regulator and Bidirectional converter (J7,J8)
Interface with external DAC (J11)
Push Buttons (SW1 to SW5) for manual input
LED indication for Output signals
3.3. Design of proposed bus configuration
39
LCD interface (J9)

Programming interface (RJ1 connector)
ADC inputs (J3)
3.3.2
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section
Design of Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section involves the design of Bus capacitor
and the selection of switches and the diodes.
3.3.2.1
Bus capacitor design
The DC Bus voltage ripple is limited to 1 percent of the rated DC Bus voltage. The Bus
capacitor Cbus delivers the load current while the solar panel is short-circuited. Figure 3.7
shows the waveform of switching voltage ripple in DC bus.
Io (D Ts ) = Cbus V
Io (D Ts )
V
(3.2)
2 (0.5 10 106 )
0.01
(3.3)
Cbus =
Cbus =
(3.1)
Cbus = 1000F
(3.4)
Here Io = 2A, D = 0.5, Ts = 10S. Electrolytic capacitor of 1000 F is used as DC Bus

capacitor.
3.3.2.2
Switch and diode selection
The switch and diode must have a current rating atleast equal to the short circuit current of
a solar panel at maximum insolation. They must have a voltage rating atleast equal to the
DC Bus voltage. As per the specifications of solar panel, its maximum short circuit current
is equal to 2.5 A. The switching frequency is chosen to be 100 KHz. MOSFET IRF540N
[6] with voltage blocking capability of 100 V and forward current rating of 33 A is chosen.
Diode MUR420 [7] with forward voltage blocking capability of 200 V and forward current
rating of 4 A is selected.
40
Vdd Vss
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213
AD7628
J11
To DAC
Vss
0.1F
0.1F
Vss
Vss
DG1
RB7
RB6
RB5
RB4
RD13
RD12
RB3
RB2
RB1
Vdd
LCD0
LCD1
LCD2
LCD3
LCD4
LCD5
LCD6
DG3
0.47k
0.47k
LED
Vss
1 2 3 4
J10
1
4
2
3
Vdd
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910111213
J9
To LCD
DG7
0.47k
Vss
DG4
DG6
DG5
0.47k
LED
DG8
0.47k
LED
DG9
LED
DG10
0.47k
0.47k
0.47k
LED
LED
LED
AN1
AN2
AN3
AN4
LCD7
0.47k
RF0
RG0
RG1
RF1
RW
RS
RB0
EN
A/B
CS
WR
RA15
RA14
DG2
DG1
DG2
DG3
DG4
DG5
DG6
DG7
DG8
DG9
DG10
Vss
Vdd
0.1F
Vss
Vss
LCD0
LCD1
LCD2
LCD3
LCD4
LCD5
LCD6
LCD7
RW
EN
RS
Vdd
Vss
2
3
RE8
RE9
AN5
AN4
AN3
AN2
PGC
PGD
10k
RA15
Vss
80 79787776 7574 7372 717069 6867666564 6362 61

60
1
2
59
3
58
4
57
5
56
6
55
7
54
8
53
9
52
dspic0F6010A
10
51
11
50
12
49
13
48
14
47
15
46
16
45
17
44
18
43
42
19
41
20
21222324 252627282930 31323334353637383940
RB0
RB1
RB2
RB3
RB4
RB5
RB6
RB7
A/B
CS
WR
Vdd
Vss AN6
AN7
RA9
RA10
1
0
LM7805
0.1F
1
0
House keeping power supply
RA14
0.47k
PWM3H
PWM4L
PWM4H
RC1
RC3
DG1
DG2
Reset
DG3
DG4
Vss
Vdd
Vss
RAE9
1
0
0
1
1
0
0.1F
PWM4L
PWM4H
Vss
0.1F
AN12
AN13
AN14
AN15
DG7
DG8
DG5
DG6
10k
10 F
PWM3L
PWM2H
DG10
PWM1H
DG9
RF0
RG0
RG1
RF1
PWM3L
PWM3H
Vss
AN8
AN9
AN10
AN11
Vdd
RE8
10k
10k
SW5
Vdd
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 3 4
J4
To Gate driver ckt
J3
Sensed Signals
1
2
3
10k
PWM2L
PWM2H
Vss
Vdd
J8
0
1
1
0
Figure 3.6: Controller platform design
1
2
3
1
2
J2
Powermate
connector
SW1
Vin
1
2
3
J7
RJ1
Connector
Vin
Vss
PWM1L
PWM1H
Vss
SW4
Vdd
SW3
Vdd
0
1
1
0
1
2
3
2
3
4
5
SW2
00
11
11
00
PGD
PGC
J6
0
1
1
0
Vss
Vdd
J5
11
00
VPP
Vdd
3.3. Design of proposed bus configuration
41
Vbus (t)
Vbus
Vbus
(Is Io )
Cbus
Io
Cbus
t
DTs
Ts
Figure 3.7: Voltage ripple in DC Bus capacitor
3.3.3
Bidirectional converter design
3.3.3.1
Boost Inductor design
It is already discussed that the Bidirectional converter operates as a battery charger. In

Constant Voltage mode of charging the Lead acid battery, charging is carried out till the
charging current drops to less than 3 percent of the rated current. This aids in extending
life time of the battery. In our design, Ripple current chosen to be 50 mA. This makes sure
that even while the charging current is less, the converter operates in continuous mode.
Considering the worst case duty ratio(Dmax ) as 0.6 and the maximum DC Bus voltage and
the above chosen ripple current, the inductor value L is calculated.
Vbus (DTs ) = L I
Vbus (D Ts )
I
12 (0.6 10 106 )
L=
0.05
L 400H
L=
(3.5)
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
The boost inductor value is chosen as 400 H. The boost inductor is designed to carry peak
current(Ipk ) of 12 A.
The required Ac Aw product [8] is computed by
Ac Aw =
L Ipk Irms
kw Bm J
(3.9)
42
Ac Aw = 1.92 107 m4
(3.10)
Using this Ac Aw product [9], the following core is selected.

Material of core = Ferrite
core = E65/32/27
wire size = 13 SWG
Number of turns = 45
Length of air gap = 3.4 mm
3.3.3.2
Boost capacitor design
Boost capacitor is selected based on the ripple current requirement. As per the specifications,
the maximum ripple current of capacitor is calculated to be 6 A. 2 Electrolytic capacitors
each of 1000 F are connected in parallel across the battery. The maximum ripple current
rating of each 1000 F capacitor is 3.32 A as specified by the datasheets.
3.3.3.3
Switch selection
The switch must have a current rating atleast equal to the maximum value of inductor
current. It must have a voltage rating atleast equal to the maximum DC Bus voltage.
The switching frequency is chosen to be 100 KHz. MOSFET s can operate suitably in this
frequency range. MOSFET IRFZ44N [10] with voltage blocking capability of 55 V,maximum
current of 49 A and on-state resistance of 17m is chosen.
3.3.4
Gate driver circuit design
Gate driver circuit consists of an optocoupler HP3101 followed by MIC4424 driver chip. The
optocoupler HP3101 [11] isolates digital ground from the power ground. MIC4424 chip [12]
acts as buffer and provides gate drive signals.
3.4. Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
D4
D3
D2
D1
43
Cbus
Is
S1
Is
S2
Is
S3
Is
RL
Vbat
S4
Figure 3.8: Power circuit of Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section
3.4
3.4.1
Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator

Principle of operation
Figure 3.8 shows the power circuit of S3R section. Figure 3.8 shows the four solar arrays
connected to the bus through diodes. Each of the solar array SA1 to SA4 is shunted by a
shunt switch S1 to S4. The purpose of the shunt switch is to isolate the particular solar
array. Bus capacitor and the load are directly connected across the bus. Out of the 4 shunt
switches, one shunt switch is controlled in PWM mode and the other shunt switches are
controlled in On-OFF mode. PWM control of shunt switches enable fine control of current.
PWM control operation is same as the one explained in the previous chapter.
3.4.2
Averaged model
Our objective is to represent each of the converter of the regulator system through a single
equivalent dynamic representation which is valid for both the ON and OFF durations. The
ON state and OFF state equivalent circuits of each of the converter are considered and the
averaging action is done over a switching cycle. If we consider the variation of the dynamic
44
D4
is
Cbus
Vbus
S4
Figure 3.9: Single array equivalent circuit of S3R section
variables over one switching period, then

x = x avg TS = x dTS dTS + x (1d)TS (1 d)TS
(3.11)
This will be valid assumption only if the ON and OFF durations are much less compared to
natural time constants of the system. Since the averaging process is done over a switching
period, the model is valid for time durations much larger compared to the switching period.
The Averaged model is represented by the following equation
x = A x + b vg
(3.12)
vo = q x
(3.13)
Here x is the state variable derivative matrix, x is the state variable matrix, A is the averaged characteristic equation matrix, b is the averaged input voltage matrix, q is the output
voltage matrix.
The single array equivalent circuit (PWM string) of S3R section is shown in Fig. 3.9.
PWM string is alone relevant for deriving the averaged model. In Fig. 3.9, solar array is
modelled as ideal current source is for simplicity. The ON state and OFF state equivalent
circuits of the converter are shown in Fig. 3.10.
The ON state equation is
dvbus
vbus
=
dt
RCbus
(3.14)
3.4. Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator
is
Cbus
Vbus
45
is
Vbus
Cbus
b)
a)
Figure 3.10: ON and OFF state equivalent circuits of PWM string section
The OFF state equation is

dvbus
vbus
is
=
dt
Cbus
RCbus
(3.15)
Averaging the above equations, we get

vbus
is
dvbus
=
+ (1 d)
dt
RCbus
Cbus
(3.16)
Here the approximation of solar array characteristics is done by modelling the solar
array as a current source. As insolation varies, the quantity is changes. The above equation
suggests that output voltage is dependent on load resistance R, current source is and the
duty ratio D.
3.4.3
Small signal model
The Averaged system given by above Equations though linear is time variant. This is due
to the dependence of output voltage on duty ratio D. It is necessary to linearise the system
equations. The linear model of the system can then be used for deriving the transfer function
for the converter. Then control system theory can be used to design closed loop controllers
for the converter.
Let us consider that the inputs d and is are varying around their quiescent operating
points D, Is and Vbus respectively.
d
d = D + d ;
<< 1 ;
D
46
vbus = Vbus + vbus ;
vbus
<< 1 ;
Vbus
Only PWM string is alone considered for the small signal modelling of the shunt
regulator. The other ON/OFF strings do not create any impact on the small signal analysis
part. Lets introduce small perturbations in the input variables and the state variables to
obtain small signal model of the system. On introducing small perturbations, we obtain the
following equations
#
"
d(Vbus + vbus )
1
(Is + is )
(Vbus + vbus ) + (1 (D + d))
=
dt
R Cbus
Cbus
(3.17)
The equation can be expanded and split up in to DC terms, small signal terms and
nonlinear terms. When the perturbations are small in d and is are small, the effect of
nonlinear terms on the overall response will be small and can be neglected [8].
Finally we obtain,
#
"
#
#
"
"
(1 D)
d
vbus
1
Is
vbus +
=
d
is
dt
R Cbus
Cbus
Cbus
(3.18)
The Small signal control transfer function under the conditions of slow changes in insolation
(is =0) of the converter is as follows
vbus
(s)
Is R
#
="
d(s)
s
1+
1
R Cbus
(3.19)
The above control transfer function is used in modelling the voltage loop of shunt regulator
section.
3.4.4
Control loop
3.4.4.1
Voltage loop
The voltage loop model of the single string equivalent of shunt regulator is represented in
Fig. 3.11.
G1(s) =
vbus
(s)
Is R
#
="
d1 (s)
s
1+
1
R Cbus
(3.20)
3.5. Bidirectional converter in Boost mode
47
G1(s)
vbus,ref
d1
vbus,err
+
-
vbus,f b
vbus
vbus
d1
Plant
Controller
Figure 3.11: Voltage loop model of single string shunt regulator
L
+
Vbus
ig
Rch
D6
C
S5
vbat
+
Vboc
Figure 3.12: Bidirectional converter in Boost mode
The above equation represents the small signal transfer function of the voltage across the
bus capacitance vbus , to the duty ratio of the shunt switch operating in PWM mode d1 . This
transfer function is used in designing the voltage controller.
3.5
3.5.1
Bidirectional converter in Boost mode

The equivalent circuit of the bidirectional converter in the boost mode is shown in Fig. 3.12.
In boost mode, the power transfer is from the DC bus to the battery. The DC bus voltage
is modelled as constant voltage source. The battery takes some current during the charging
48
L
+
Vbus
L
Rch
ig
C
vbat
Vbus
ig
Rch
C
vbat
Vboc
Vboc
b)
a)
Figure 3.13: a) (b) ON and OFF state equivalent circuits
process and so the battery can be modelled as a voltage source in series with a resistance
during the charging process.
3.5.2
Modelling of power circuit
The power circuit is represented using the averaged model. The ON and OFF state equivalent circuits of bidirectional converter in boost mode is shown in Fig. 3.13. The averaged
model for the bidirectional converter operating in boost mode is derived [8].
(1 d)
dig
0
dt
L
(1 d)
1
dvbat
C
Rch C
dt
3.5.3
ig
vbat
vbus
L
+
boc
Rch C
(3.21)
Small signal analysis
Lets introduce small perturbations in the input variables d, vbus and the state variables to
obtain small signal model of the system. The dynamic variables of the system are inductor
current ig and the capacitor voltage vc . On introducing small perturbations, we obtain the
3.5. Bidirectional converter in Boost mode
49
following equations
d(Ig + ig )
dt
d(V + v )
bat
bat
dt

(1 (D + d))
0
(Ig + ig )
1
1 (D + d)
(Vbat + vbat )
C
Rch C
(Vboc + vboc )
Rch C
(Vbus + vbus )
+
+

(3.22)
On simplifying the expression, we obtain DC terms, first order terms and second order terms.
Since we are interested in small signal model, we can consider only the first order term and
neglect the other terms.
Finally we obtain,
(1 D)
dig
0
dt
(1 D)
d
1
vbat
C
Rch C
dt
Vbat

vbus +
d
boc
Ig
vbat
Rch C
C
(3.23)
ig (s) vbat (s)
From the above equation, the Small signal control transfer functions
,
under the
d(s)
d(s)
condition of slow changes in bus voltage (
vbus =0), battery voltage (
vboc =0) can be determined.
ig
1
L
+

0
These are given by

ig (s)
Vbus
(1 + sCRch )
#
"
=
3
Rch (1 D)
d(s)
Le
+ s2 Le C
1+s
Rch
1s
Le
Rch
vbat (s)
Vbus
#
"
=
(1 D)2
d(s)
Le
+ s2 Le C
1+s
Rch
(3.24)
(3.25)
L
is the effective inductance. The above expressions are small signal
(1 D)2
current and voltage control transfer function. The above expressions are used in modelling
where Le =
the voltage and the current loops.
50
ig,ref
+
ig,err
ig,f b
d2
?
G2(s)
ig
d2
ig
Plant
Controller
Figure 3.14: Current loop model of bidirectional converter in boost mode
3.5.4
Control loops
3.5.4.1
Current loop
G2(s) =
ig (s)
Vbus
(1 + sCRch )
#
"
=
Rch (1 D)3
d2 (s)
Le
+ s2 Le C
1+s
Rch
(3.26)
The above equation represents the small signal control transfer function. The current loop
is represented in Fig. 3.14. The reference current is compared with the actual current. The
error is fed into the current controller. The current controller generates the duty ratio signal.
The design of the current controller is dealt in the next section.
3.5.4.2
Voltage loop
In the Voltage loop model of bidirectional converter in boost mode, the current loop is
assumed to be unity gain block. The plant transfer function is obtained by dividing eqn.
3.24 by eqn. 3.23.
Le
vbat (s)
Rch
G3(s) =
= Rch (1 D)
ig (s)
1 + sCRch
1s
The above transfer function is used in designing the voltage controller.
(3.27)
3.6. Bidirectional converter in Buck mode
vbat,f b
ig
vbat
vbat
ig
G3(s)
ig,ref
vbat,err
vbat,ref
51
Plant
Controller
Figure 3.15: Voltage loop model of Bidirectional converter in boost mode
ig
+
Vbat
Cbus
S6
Vbus
D5
Figure 3.16: Bidirectional converter in Buck mode
3.6
3.6.1
Bidirectional converter in Buck mode

The equivalent circuit of the bidirectional converter in the buck mode is shown in Fig. 3.16.
In buck mode, the power transfer is from the battery to the DC bus. The battery is modelled
as constant voltage source.
3.6.2
Averaged model
The power circuit is represented using the averaged model. Similarly the ON, OFF state
equivalent states of bidirectional converter in buck mode is considered. The averaged model
52
is derived by repeating the procedure as described in the previous sections.
A=
1
C
3.6.3
D
1
L
L
; q = [0 1];
;b=
0
RC
Small signal model
Lets introduce small perturbations in the input variables d, vbat and the state variables to
obtain small signal model of the system. The dynamic variables of the system are inductor
current ig and the capacitor voltage vbus . On introducing small perturbations, we obtain the
following equations
1
d(Ig + ig )
0
L
dt
1
d(V + v )
1
bus
bus
Cbus
RCbus
dt
bat + vbat )
(D + d)(V
(Vbus + vbus )
0
(Ig + ig )
(3.28)
On simplifying the expression, we obtain DC terms, first order terms and second order terms.
Since we are interested in small signal model, we can consider only the first order term and
neglect the other terms.
Finally we obtain,
dig
dt
d
vbus
dt
1
L
1
1
Cbus
RCbus
ig

vbus
L
+
vbat
V
bat
L
+
From the above equation, the Small signal voltage control transfer function
determined.
(3.29)
vbus (s)
can be
d3 (s)
These are given by

vbus (s)
1
#
= Vbat "
d3 (s)
L
1 + s + s2 LCbus
R
(3.30)
3.7. Controller design
53
G4(s)
vbus,ref
d3
vbus,err
+
-
vbus,f b
Controller
vbus
d3
vbus
Plant
Figure 3.17: Voltage loop model of Bidirectional converter in buck mode
The above control transfer function is used in modelling the voltage loop of bidirectional
converter in buck mode.
3.6.4
Control loops
3.6.4.1
Voltage loop
The below equation represents the small signal control transfer function of bidirectional
converter in buck mode. Figure 3.17 shows the voltage loop model of the bidirectional
converter in buck mode.
G4(s) =
3.7
vbus (s)
1
#
= Vbat "
d3 (s)
L
1 + s + s2 LCbus
R
Controller design
The objective of the controller design is as follows

Closed loop stability
Zero steady state error
High Bandwidth
(3.31)
54
gain dB
60
20
0
20
G1(s)Gc(s)
G1(s)
logw
Phase (deg)
0
logw
90
Figure 3.18: Shunt Regulator: Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer functions
3.7.1
Voltage Controller design of Shunt Regulator
The bode plots of plant and the forward path transfer function of the voltage loop of shunt
regulator are shown in Fig. 3.18. Proportional Integral (PI) controller is chosen as the
controller. The zero of PI controller is placed at the pole of the plant transfer function.
So the pole of the plant transfer function is cancelled by the zero of the controller. The
bandwidth can be altered by changing the proportional gain of the PI controller. The plant
transfer function already has a -20 dB/decade rolloff. So the closed loop will be stable.
Hence the control objectives have been met by choosing the PI controller. Indirectly there
is a limit imposed on the bandwidth when the controller implementation is done by a digital
controller. Excessive gain in the PI controller introduces low frequency oscillations in the
output voltage. Hence the gain of the PI controller is chosen accordingly to avoid those low
frequency oscillations.
3.7.2
Current controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost

mode
The bode plots of plant and the forward path transfer function of the current loop of bidirectional converter in boost mode are shown in Fig. 3.19. The plant transfer function has
a zero at 1/RC. It also has a 20 dB/decade rolloff. So the closed loop system is stable. PI
gain dB
55
60
40
20
0
20
Gc(s)G2(s)
G2(s)
1/RC
1/ Le C
logw
Phase (deg)
90
45
0
45
90
logw
Figure 3.19: Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer function of current loop
56
gain dB
60
Gc(s)G3(s)
G3(s)
20
0
20
logw
Phase (deg)
0
logw
45
90
Figure 3.20: Bode plots of plant and forward path transfer function of voltage loop
controller is chosen so as to improve the steady state performance. The Bandwidth can be
adjusted by changing the gain of PI controller.
3.7.3
Voltage controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost

mode
The bode plots of plant and the forward path transfer function of the voltage loop of bidirectional converter in boost mode are shown in Fig. 3.20. The plant transfer function has a
right half zero at R/Le . As in the previous case, PI controller is chosen.
3.7.4
Voltage Controller design of Bidirectional converter in buck

mode
The bode plots of plant and the forward path transfer function of the voltage loop of bidirectional converter in buck mode are shown in Fig. 3.21. The plant transfer function has a
40 dB/decade rolloff near the 0 dB line. The lead-lag compensator is chosen to bring the
slope of the cross section of loop gain to 20 dB/decade. PI controller ensures the steady
state performance.
57
60
G4(s)
G4(s)Gc(s)
gain dB
40
20
0
20
Phase
logw
45
0
45
logw
90
Figure 3.21: Bidirectional converter in buck mode: Bode plots of plant and forward path
transfer function of voltage loop
58
Vbus
D1
D2
D4
D3
Cbus
isa
Is
S1
Is
S2
Is
Is
S3
S4
ig
S5
Vbus
isa
S3
S4
Vbat
L
O
A
D
S3R Section
S1 S2
S6
S5
Battery
S6
control signals
control signals
Feedback
Feedback
dspic30F6010A
signals
signals
Vbat
ig
Figure 3.22: Complete diagram of proposed configuration
3.8
Hardware Implementation
The complete power circuit of the regulated system along with the controller is shown in
Fig. 3.22.
3.8.1
Over all setup
An Experimental setup was made to implement the MPPT control as well as charging of the
battery from the solar panels. The setup consists of 4 solar panels each rated at 35 W and
24V 28 AH lead acid battery.
Ratings of Solar panel:
Open Circuit Voltage Voc = 21 V
3.8. Hardware Implementation
59
Voltage At Peak Power Point Vmp = 16 V

The above ratings are valid at Standard Test Conditions Of 100mw Per Sq.Cm of insolation
and cell temperature of 25 degrees celsius. The panels have been purchased around 15 years
back. Because of ageing factor, the above parameters will show drop in their values.
Measured parameters of solar panel:
Open Circuit Voltage Voc = 18.5 V
Voltage At Peak Power Point Vmp = 11 V
The above parameters are measured at cell temperature of 45 degrees celsius.
Switching frequency = 100 KHz
DC Bus capacitance = 2000 microfarad
Bidirectional converter rating = 100 Watts
The feedback signals used in the implementation include DC Bus voltage, Battery voltage,
Inductor current and the panel current. The panel current signal is used by the MPPT
block in determining the DC Bus voltage reference. It also determines the inductor current
reference signal. The detailed control flow of MPPT has already been described in the first
section of this chapter.
3.8.2
Sensing circuits
The feedback signals that are sensed are DC in nature. Hence the sensing circuits do not
demand high speed analog chips.
3.8.2.1
Current sensing
Current sensing is done by measuring the voltage drop across precision low ohm resistor.
The current signals to be sensed are inductor current and the panel current. The sensed
inductor current signal is bipolar. So appropriate scaling and shifting circuit has been used
to make the sensed signal unipolar.
60
3.8.2.2
Voltage sensing
The voltage signals to be sensed include DC Bus voltage, Battery voltage and the voltage
drops across the sense resistors. The voltage sensing circuit performs 2 functions. It provides
isolation between the control and the power section. It also scales down the signals before
being read by the ADC.
3.8.3
Implementation algorithm
Figures 3.23 and 3.24 represent the detailed implementation of control flow. In the flowchart,
Vhys refers to the permissible variation in DC Bus voltage.
3.9
Conclusion
In this chapter, the importance of MPPT has been highlighted and its implementation has
been described in detail. It also presents the design, analysis, modelling of the proposed
regulated system. The controller design for the various subsystems have been explained. It
also explains the digital closed loop controller implementation of various subsystems. Finally,
the overall hardware implementation of the proposed configuration is presented. The next
chapter contains the simulation as well as experimental results of the battery tied bus and
the proposed configuration.
3.9. Conclusion
61
START
C
Measure DC Bus voltage
Compute Voltage Error =

Vbus Vbus,ref
Compute duty ratio of Gate Pulse
to shunt switch S4
Is
Voltage Error <
Vhys
No
Yes
Is
Voltage Error >
Vhys
No
Yes
Is
Gate pulse to shunt switch
S4 fully OFF
No No
Is
Gate pulse to shunt switch
S4 fully ON
Yes
Yes
Turn OFF shunt switch
Turn ON shunt switch
Figure 3.23: Implementation algorithm
No
62
Are
all the shunt
switches OFF
Is
Mode = battery
charging
No
Yes
Yes
Measure Battery current
Mode = Buck
Compute current Error =

Ibat Ibat,ref

to shunt switch S6

to shunt switch S5
No
Is
Timer interrupt for
MPPT = true
Yes
Execution of MPPT loop
Compute Vbus,ref
Figure 3.24: Implementation algorithm
No
Chapter 4
Simulation and Experimental Results
The previous chapters described the design, analysis and implementation of both the battery
tied bus & the proposed architecture. This chapter contains the simulation and experimental
results evaluating the performance of the power circuit and the control strategy of both.
4.1
Battery tied bus
In Chapter 2, the battery tied bus has been described in detail. The power circuit of battery
tied bus is shown in Fig. 4.1. This section contains the simulation as well as experimental
results of the battery tied bus architecture. The next section shows the simulation results of
the battery tied bus.
4.1.1
Simulation Results
In the figures, the panel current indicates the current delivered by a single solar panel into
the bus. The net available current from the solar panels can be taken as 4 times Panel current
for simplicity. The battery current is assumed to be positive for the charging condition and
negative for the discharging condition.
4.1.1.1
Panel current variation
Figure 4.2 shows the regulation on account of variations in the panel current. Notice the
2 Hz variation in the current injected by the solar panels. This variation reflects the changes
in insolation. The simulation results show the operation of fixed load current of 2 A and an
operating battery voltage of 13 V. In this simulation, the input disturbance is the variation
in panel current. The panel current is varied between 0.8 A and 1.2 A. The net available
63
64
Chapter 4. Simulation and Experimental Results
iL
D2
D1
D3
ibat
D4
+
Cbus
Is
S1
Is
S1
S2
S2
control
Is
S3
signals
dspic30F6010A
Vbat
S4
Is
S3
RL
S4
Feedback
signals
Figure 4.1: Experimental setup: Battery tied bus
Vbat
ibat
65
15
5
load current [A]
battery voltage [V]
4.1. Battery tied bus
14
13
12
11
10
0.5
1
1.5
time [s]
panel current [A]
battery current [A]
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
time [s]
3
2
1
0
1.5
0.5
1
time [s]
1.5
1
1.5
time [s]
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0
0.5
Figure 4.2: Battery current regulation on variation of panel current
66
15
5
load current [A]
battery voltage [V]
14
13
12
11
10
0.5
1
1.5
time [s]
2
1
0
0.5
1
time [s]
1.5
1
1.5
time [s]
2
panel current [A]
battery current [A]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
time [s]
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
Figure 4.3: Battery current regulation on variation of load current
current from the solar panels (4*panel current) now varies between 3.2 A and 4.8 A. It can
be seen that the battery charging current is regulated at 1 A irrespective of variations in the
panel current. It is to be noted that the battery current (1.0 A) plus the load current (2 A)
is less than the net available panel current (3.2 A to 4.8 A) on account of successful shunt
regulation.
4.1.1.2
Variations in load current
Figure 4.3 shows the regulation on account of load changes. The simulation results show
the operation of fixed panel current of 1.2 A and an operating battery voltage of about 13 V.
In this simulation, the input disturbance is the variations in load current. The load current
is switched between 1 A and 2 A. At 0.5 s, the load current is decreased from 2 A to 1 A.
Sudden spike in battery charging current is observed on account of this load decrease. The
battery charging controller then regulates the battery charging current to 1 A. At 1.5 s, the
67
14
load current [A]
battery voltage [V]
4.1. Battery tied bus
13.5
13
12.5
12
10
20 30
time [s]
40
50
panel current [A]
battery current [A]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
20 30
time [s]
40
50
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
10
20 30
time [s]
40
50
10
20 30
time [s]
40
50
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
Figure 4.4: Battery current regulation on variation of panel current
load current is increased from 1 A to 2 A. Again the battery charging current regulation is
achieved by the controller.
4.1.2
Experimental Results
This section contains the experimental results of the battery tied bus architecture.
4.1.2.1
Panel current variation
Figure 4.4 shows the regulation of battery charging current for the variations in the
panel current. Notice the variations in panel current with respect to time scale. It can be
seen that the dynamics of variations in panel current is much slower of the order of several
seconds. The readings have been taken at a particular time during the brief interval of clouds
passing over in the sky. The effect of insolation change can be clearly seen in the form of
variations reflected in the panel current.
68
Vbus
D1
D2
D4
D3
Cbus
isa
Is
S1
Is
S2
Is
Is
S3
S4
ig
S5
Vbus
isa
S3
S4
Vbat
L
O
A
D
S3R Section
S1 S2
S6
S5
Battery
S6
control signals
control signals
Feedback
Feedback
dspic30F6010A
signals
signals
Vbat
ig
Figure 4.5: Complete diagram of proposed configuration
The experimental results show the operation of fixed load current of 2.5 A, operating
battery voltage of around 13.3 V and a battery charging current of 1 A. It may be seen
that the battery charging current control is effective except for a small interval. The drop in
battery charging current is noticed around 20 s. At those instants, the battery current (1 A)
plus the load current (2.5 A) is more than the net available panel current(4*panel current).
It can be seen that the battery voltage also droops a little during this interval. This is due
to the effect of battery internal resistance.
4.2
Proposed Architecture
The proposed architecture has been described in detail in the previous chapter. The complete power circuit of the regulated system along with the controller is shown in Fig. 4.5.
Maximum power extraction from solar panels, DC bus voltage regulation and the battery
power [w]
current [A]
4.2. Proposed Architecture
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
69
10
panel voltage [V]
15
20
10
panel voltage [V]
15
20
Figure 4.6: Experimental V-I characteristics of solar panel
charging control are the fundamental objectives of the proposed architecture.
4.2.1
Simulation Results
4.2.1.1
MPPT
Figure 4.6 shows the simulated V-I characteristics of the solar panel. It can be seen that
the power is maximum at around 10 V.
Figure 4.7 shows the transition of panel voltage towards the maximum power point
voltage. Notice the changes in panel voltage, panel current and the power delivered by the
solar panel. The characteristics shown in Fig. 4.6 is given as input. It is seen that the
algorithm tracks the Maximum power point voltage in around 0.2 s.
70
panel voltage [V]
20
15
10
5
panel current [A]
0
1.8 1.9
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.8 1.9
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

time [s]
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

time [s]
power [w]
24
22
20
18
16
1.8 1.9
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

time [s]
Figure 4.7: MPPT
load current [A]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
71
0.5
1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.5
1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
1 1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
2
panel current [A]
Battery current [A]
bus voltage [V]
0.5
1 1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
Figure 4.8: Simulation parameters: Battery voltage = 24 V, Vbus,ref = 10 V and ibat,ref =

0.5 A
4.2.1.2
Variations in load current
Figure 4.8 shows the effect of variations in the load current. The simulation results
show the operation of fixed panel current of 1.0 A. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage
is regulated at around 10 V irrespective of load disturbances.
During 0 to 1.5 s, it can be seen that the battery is charged at the constant current of
0.5 A. In this interval, the load demand (2 A) is less than the available generation from 4
panels (4 A). At 1.5 s, the load current is commanded to increase from 2 A to 6 A. The
load demand (6 A) is more than the available generation from 4 solar panels (4 A). The
battery charging current drops to zero and then it turns negative. The battery now enters
discharging state. There is a brief interval where battery is in floating mode. It can be seen
that the bus voltage drops during this interval. At 2.5 s, the load current is decreased from
6 A to 2 A. It can be noticed that the battery changes from discharging to charging mode.
72
load current [A]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.5
1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
1
panel current [A]
Battery current [A]
bus voltage [V]
0.5
0
0.5
1
0.5
1 1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.5
1 1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
0.5
1 1.5 2
time [s]
2.5
Figure 4.9: Simulation parameters: Battery voltage = 24 V, Vbus,ref = 10 V and ibat,ref =

0.5 A
4.2.1.3
Variations in panel current
Figure 4.9 shows the control of battery charging current and the regulation of DC bus
voltage with the variations in the panel current. The simulation results show the operation
of fixed load current of 2.5 A. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage is regulated at around
10 V. In this simulation, the input disturbance is the variation in panel current. The panel
current is varied between 1 A and 0.1 A.
Notice the effect on battery charging current on account of change in the panel current.
It can be seen that for time 0.5 s, the generation is available for charging. The battery
is charged at 1 A. For time = 0.5 s to 1 s, there is a drop in battery charging current. For
time = 1 to 2.25 s, the battery remains in discharging mode. For time 2.5 s, the battery
73
starts charging again because of surplus generation.
4.2.2
Experimental Results
The experimental results can be organised into 2 different parts - MPPT and the battery
charging control & DC bus voltage regulation. This is done for the sake of clarity.
4.2.2.1
MPPT
The effect of MPPT can be shown clearly by comparing the power generated from the solar
panels in different power configurations namely battery tied bus and the proposed architecture. The comparison is valid only when the external conditions are identical. Due to
practical difficulties, it is difficult to ensure this condition. Indirectly, the battery tied bus
condition can be realised by setting the reference DC bus voltage equal to the battery voltage.
Figure 4.10 shows the effect of MPPT. Notice the change in the DC bus voltage.
Initially the bus voltage is set equal to the battery voltage. The command for MPPT is
given by the digital controller. It can be seen that the power delivered from a solar panel
increases on account of MPPT. The power delivered increases from 21 W to around 23 W.
There is a significant increase nearly 10 percent of the power generated from a single solar
panel because of MPPT.
4.2.2.2
Natural variation of panel current
Figure 4.11 shows the control of battery charging current and the regulation of DC
bus voltage with the variations in the panel current. The experimental results show the
operation of fixed load current of 1.8 A. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage is regulated
at around 12 V. Notice the variations in the current injected into the DC bus by a single
solar panel. It can be seen that the panel current varies widely from about 0.7 A to 1.1 A. It
is to be noted that the battery charging current is regulated at around 0.5 A irrespective of
variations in the panel current due to external conditions. The results show the regulation
in battery charging current validating the performance of controller.
74
panel voltage [V]
12
11.5
11
10.5
panel current [A]
10
4
6
time [s]
10
4
6
time [s]
10
4
6
time [s]
10
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
0
power [w]
24
22
20
18
16
0
Figure 4.10: non MPPT to MPPT
75
Figure 4.11: Natural variation of panel current CH1: DC Bus voltage 10 V/div CH2: Battery
charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 2 A/div CH4: Panel current 1 A/div
4.2.2.3
Load variation
Figure 4.12 shows the control of battery charging current and the regulation of DC bus
voltage with the variations in the load current. The experimental results show the operation
of panel current of around 2.0 A. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage is regulated at
around 11 V. The load current switches between 1 A and 2 A. It can be noticed that the
battery charging current is regulated at 0.25 A irrespective of load variations.
4.2.2.4
Manual disconnection of solar panels
The experimental circuit setup for performing the forced manual turn ON/OFF of solar
panels is shown in Fig. 4.13.
Figure 4.14 shows the regulation of DC bus voltage on manual disconnection of solar
panels from the bus. The panels are disconnected from the bus by turning off manual switch
SW1. This experimental condition resembles the worst case condition of drop in panel current. It can be seen that the panel current drops to zero instantly on manual disconnection
of solar panels.
The experimental results show the operation of fixed load current of 1.1 A. Initially all
76
Figure 4.12: Regulation on Load variations CH1: DC Bus voltage 10 V/div CH2: Battery
charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div CH4: Panel current 2 A/div
SW1
Solar Array1
Solar Array2
Solar Array3
Sequential
Bidirectional
converter
Switching
Shunt
Regulator
Solar Array4
LOAD
Battery
Figure 4.13: Experimental results: Proposed power circuit set up
77
Figure 4.14: Bus voltage regulation on forced turn off of solar panels CH1: DC Bus voltage
10 V/div CH2: Battery charging current 0.5 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div CH4: Panel
current 1 A/div
the 4 solar panels deliver the load current (1.1 A) and the battery charging current (0.25
A). The manual switch SW1 is turned off at around 5.6 s. It can be seen that the battery
current switches from 0.25 A to -0.50 A. The battery changes its mode from charging to
discharging mode. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage is regulated at 10 V independent
of the available generation from the solar panels.
4.2.2.5
Manual connection of solar panels
Figure 4.15 shows the regulation of DC bus voltage on manual connection of solar
panels to the bus. This experimental condition resembles the worst case condition of sudden
increase in panel current. It can be seen that the panel current increases from zero instantly
on manual connection of solar panels to the bus.
The experimental results show the operation of fixed load current of 0.5 A. Initially the
battery discharging current is around 0.3 A. The manual switch SW1 is turned ON at around
10 s. It can be seen that the battery current switches from -0.3 A to 0.1 A. The battery
78
Figure 4.15: Bus voltage regulation on forced turn on of solar panels CH1: DC Bus voltage
10 V/div CH2: Battery charging current 0.2 A/div CH3: Load current 1 A/div CH4: Panel
current 0.5 A/div
changes its mode from discharging to charging mode. It can be seen that the DC bus voltage
is regulated at 10 V independent of the available generation from the solar panels.
4.3
Conclusion
In this chapter, the simulation and the experimental results of the battery tied bus system
as well as the proposed photovoltaic system topology are presented.
Chapter 5
Conclusions
Solar photo-voltaic energy is emerging as a viable energy source rapidly. Currently, the use
of solar cells for generation of power is costlier compared to other systems. Therefore, much
emphasis is being laid on the efficient utilisation of solar panels. This thesis has demonstrated
proper control algorithm and power bus architecture to address this issue. In this thesis,
the proposed architecture assists in extraction of maximum power from several solar panels.
The following are few highlights of the proposed configuration.
The power circuit is highly reliable due to the presence of several solar array units in
parallel.
Usually, high frequency switching stresses the conductors, devices a lot. In this power
configuration, solar panels are arranged as several modules. The stress on the solar
modules, conductors, switching devices in the sequential shunt regulator section can be
evenly distributed. This is done by the proper time sharing of the control signals. The
module arrangement as well as the time multiplexing of control signals shall reduce
the stress drastically. This inturn maximises the operating life of the associated power
circuit components and solar modules.
In the control algorithm adopted, MPPT loop determines the DC bus voltage reference
as well as inductor current reference. All the solar panels assumed to inject equal
current into the DC bus. On the other hand, it is found experimentally that there are
minor variations in the current injected by each of the solar panels. On the positive side,
minimum feedback signals and simple control logic are the highlights of the adopted
control strategy.
79
80
Chapter 5. Conclusions
It is seen from the results that MPPT tracking increases the power available from each
solar panel by around 10 percent at a particular operating condition. In higher rating

systems, the surplus power available is more.
The effect of MPPT is at its best in systems capable of using the surplus generated
power because of MPPT. For example, in Grid-tied systems, the grid can be modelled
as perfect current sink. In such a system, the surplus power generated can be put into
proper use. In battery tied system, the effectiveness of MPPT depends on how well
the system design is optimised.
The bidirectional converter size is less on account of employing high frequency switch-
ing. In the present work, the inductor design is done so as to avoid the discontinuous
mode of conduction (DCM). DCM will allow smaller inductor size.
To summarize, the main features include accuracy, smaller converter size, minimum feedback
signals and simple control logic.
5.1
Future work
The proposed configuration suffers from problem of poor load regulation. The additional converter between the DC bus and the load shall address this problem.
The switches used in the bidirectional converter experience large voltage spikes because
of high Ldi/dt across the inductor. Several parallel bidirectional converters in place of
a single bidirectional converter can be a viable solution. Coupled inductor can be used
instead of a single inductor. In this case, now the converter can be switched at still
higher frequencies. Also resonant switching can be adopted to reduce the switching
losses. The reliability in the battery charging converter is an added advantage.
Appendix A
Photographs of hardware setup
The hardware setup consists of following units.
1. dspic30F6010A controller board
2. Gate driver board
3. Shunt regulator board
4. Bidirectional converter board
5. Current sensing unit
6. 4 Voltage sensing boards
7. 2 power supply cards
8. 8 solar panels each rated at 35 W
9. 2 lead acid battery each of 12 V 28 AH rating
81
82
Appendix A. Photographs of hardware setup
Figure A.1: dspic30F6010A Controller board
Figure A.2: Gate driver board
83
Figure A.3: Shunt regulator board
Figure A.4: Bidirectional converter board
84
Appendix A. Photographs of hardware setup
Figure A.5: Installed Solar panels setup
Figure A.6: Closer view of Experimental setup
85
Figure A.7: Complete view of Experimental setup
References
[1] David Linden and Thomas B.Reddy, Handbook of Batteries, McGraw-Hill Professional
Publications, 3rd Edition, 2001.
[2] R.M. Dell and D.A.J.Rand, Understanding Batteries, RSC Paperbacks, 1st Edition,
2001.
[3] Robert W. Erickson and Dragan Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics, 2nd .,
Edition Springer India Academic Publishers, 2001.
[4] Mukund R. Patel, Spacecraft Power Systems, CRC Press, 1st Edition, 2004.
[5] Trishan Esram and Patrick L. Chapman, Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum
Power Point Tracking Techniques, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 22, NO. 2, pp. 439-449, JUNE 2007
[6] IRF540N datasheet, International Rectifier, http://www.irf.com
[7] MUR420 datasheet, ON Semiconductor, http://www.onsemi.com
[8] V. Ramanarayanan, Course Material on Switched Mode Power Conversion, Indian Institute of Science, Dec 2007.
[9] Ferrite and Accessories Databook, Epcos, 2001. http://www.epcos.com
[10] IRFZ44N datasheet, International Rectifier, http://www.irf.com
[11] HCPL-3101 datasheet, Avago Technologies, http://www.avagotech.com
[12] MIC4424 datasheet, Micrel, Inc., http://www.micrel.com
86
87
References
[13] S. Giridharan, A Novel Transformer-less Uninterruptible Power Supply, M.Sc.(Engg),

IISc, Sep 1996.
[14] IR2110 datasheet, International Rectifier, http://www.irf.com
[15] dsPIC30F
Family
Reference
Manual
DS70046,
Microchip
Technology
Inc.
http://www.microchip.com
[16] A. G. Vishal Anand, Single and three phase power factor correction techniques using
scalar control, M.Sc.(Engg), IISc, June 2005.

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Digital Control of Solar Photovoltaic

Department of Electrical Engineering

1.2 Scope of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3 Contributions of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4 Organization of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Battery tied power bus system

2.1 Solar array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Equivalent electrical circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solar array Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Solar array operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variation with respect to insolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variation with respect to temperature

Look up table methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Voltage and current based tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Perturb and observe method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Charging Lead acid battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Constant Current charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Constant Voltage charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3 Photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Battery charge mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Battery floating mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Battery discharge mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4 Design of a photovoltaic system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection of solar panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5 Battery tied bus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Modelling of power circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Analysis and Implementation of Proposed architecture

MPPT Control block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2 Proposed configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection of converter topology

Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3 Design of proposed bus configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator section . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bus capacitor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Switch and diode selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bidirectional converter design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boost Inductor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Boost capacitor design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gate driver circuit design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4 Sequential Switching Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Small signal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.5 Bidirectional converter in Boost mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Modelling of power circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Small signal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.6 Bidirectional converter in Buck mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Small signal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.7 Controller design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Voltage Controller design of Shunt Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Current controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost mode . .

Voltage controller design of Bidirectional converter in boost mode . .

Voltage Controller design of Bidirectional converter in buck mode . .

3.8 Hardware Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Over all setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Simulation and Experimental Results

Panel current variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variations in load current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Panel current variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2 Proposed Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variations in load current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Variations in panel current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Natural variation of panel current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manual disconnection of solar panels . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Manual connection of solar panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Photographs of hardware setup