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Bernoulli'sprinciple
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Influiddynamics,Bernoulli'sprinciplestatesthatanincreaseinthespeed
ofafluidoccurssimultaneouslywithadecreaseinpressureoradecreasein
thefluid'spotentialenergy.[1][2]TheprincipleisnamedafterDaniel
BernoulliwhopublisheditinhisbookHydrodynamicain1738.[3]
Bernoulli'sprinciplecanbeappliedtovarioustypesoffluidflow,resulting
invariousformsofBernoulli'sequationtherearedifferentformsof
Bernoulli'sequationfordifferenttypesofflow.Thesimpleformof
Bernoulli'sequationisvalidforincompressibleflows(e.g.mostliquid
flowsandgasesmovingatlowMachnumber).Moreadvancedformsmay
beappliedtocompressibleflowsathigherMachnumbers(seethe
derivationsoftheBernoulliequation).

Aflowofwaterintoaventurimeter.
Thekineticenergyincreasesatthe
expenseofthefluidpressure,as
shownbythedifferenceinheightof
thetwocolumnsofwater.

Bernoulli'sprinciplecanbederivedfromtheprincipleofconservationof
energy.Thisstatesthat,inasteadyflow,thesumofallformsofenergyina
fluidalongastreamlineisthesameatallpointsonthatstreamline.This
requiresthatthesumofkineticenergy,potentialenergyandinternalenergy
remainsconstant.[2]Thusanincreaseinthespeedofthefluidimplyingan
increaseinbothitsdynamicpressureandkineticenergyoccurswithasimultaneousdecreasein(thesumof)its
staticpressure,potentialenergyandinternalenergy.Ifthefluidisflowingoutofareservoir,thesumofallforms
ofenergyisthesameonallstreamlinesbecauseinareservoirtheenergyperunitvolume(thesumofpressureand
gravitationalpotentialgh)isthesameeverywhere.[4]
Bernoulli'sprinciplecanalsobederiveddirectlyfromNewton's2ndlaw.Ifasmallvolumeoffluidisflowing
horizontallyfromaregionofhighpressuretoaregionoflowpressure,thenthereismorepressurebehindthanin
front.Thisgivesanetforceonthevolume,acceleratingitalongthestreamline.[5][6][7]
Fluidparticlesaresubjectonlytopressureandtheirownweight.Ifafluidisflowinghorizontallyandalonga
sectionofastreamline,wherethespeedincreasesitcanonlybebecausethefluidonthatsectionhasmovedfroma
regionofhigherpressuretoaregionoflowerpressureandifitsspeeddecreases,itcanonlybebecauseithas
movedfromaregionoflowerpressuretoaregionofhigherpressure.Consequently,withinafluidflowing
horizontally,thehighestspeedoccurswherethepressureislowest,andthelowestspeedoccurswherethepressure
ishighest.[8]

Contents
1 Incompressibleflowequation
1.1 Simplifiedform
1.2 Applicabilityofincompressibleflowequationtoflowofgases
1.3 Unsteadypotentialflow
2 Compressibleflowequation
2.1 Compressibleflowinfluiddynamics
2.2 Compressibleflowinthermodynamics
3 DerivationsofBernoulliequation
4 Applications
5 Misunderstandingsaboutthegenerationoflift
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5 Misunderstandingsaboutthegenerationoflift
6 MisapplicationsofBernoulli'sprincipleincommonclassroomdemonstrations
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

Incompressibleflowequation
Inmostflowsofliquids,andofgasesatlowMachnumber,thedensityofafluidparcelcanbeconsideredtobe
constant,regardlessofpressurevariationsintheflow.Therefore,thefluidcanbeconsideredtobeincompressible
andtheseflowsarecalledincompressibleflows.Bernoulliperformedhisexperimentsonliquids,sohisequationin
itsoriginalformisvalidonlyforincompressibleflow.AcommonformofBernoulli'sequation,validatany
arbitrarypointalongastreamline,is:

(A)

where:
isthefluidflowspeedatapointonastreamline,
istheaccelerationduetogravity,
istheelevationofthepointaboveareferenceplane,withthepositivezdirectionpointingupwardsoin
thedirectionoppositetothegravitationalacceleration,
isthepressureatthechosenpoint,and
isthedensityofthefluidatallpointsinthefluid.
Theconstantontherighthandsideoftheequationdependsonlyonthestreamlinechosen,whereas , and
dependontheparticularpointonthatstreamline.
ThefollowingassumptionsmustbemetforthisBernoulliequationtoapply:[9]
theflowmustbesteady,i.e.thefluidvelocityatapointcannotchangewithtime,
theflowmustbeincompressibleeventhoughpressurevaries,thedensitymustremainconstantalonga
streamline
frictionbyviscousforceshastobenegligible.
Forconservativeforcefields(notlimitedtothegravitationalfield),Bernoulli'sequationcanbegeneralizedas:[9]

whereistheforcepotentialatthepointconsideredonthestreamline.E.g.fortheEarth'sgravity=gz.
Bymultiplyingwiththefluiddensity ,equation(A)canberewrittenas:

or:

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where:
isdynamicpressure,
isthepiezometricheadorhydraulichead(thesumoftheelevationzandthepressure
head)[10][11]and
isthetotalpressure(thesumofthestaticpressurepanddynamicpressureq).[12]
TheconstantintheBernoulliequationcanbenormalised.Acommonapproachisintermsoftotalheadorenergy
headH:

Theaboveequationssuggestthereisaflowspeedatwhichpressureiszero,andatevenhigherspeedsthepressure
isnegative.Mostoften,gasesandliquidsarenotcapableofnegativeabsolutepressure,orevenzeropressure,so
clearlyBernoulli'sequationceasestobevalidbeforezeropressureisreached.Inliquidswhenthepressure
becomestoolowcavitationoccurs.Theaboveequationsusealinearrelationshipbetweenflowspeedsquared
andpressure.Athigherflowspeedsingases,orforsoundwavesinliquid,thechangesinmassdensitybecome
significantsothattheassumptionofconstantdensityisinvalid.

Simplifiedform
InmanyapplicationsofBernoulli'sequation,thechangeinthegztermalongthestreamlineissosmall
comparedwiththeothertermsthatitcanbeignored.Forexample,inthecaseofaircraftinflight,thechangein
heightzalongastreamlineissosmallthegztermcanbeomitted.Thisallowstheaboveequationtobe
presentedinthefollowingsimplifiedform:

wherep0iscalled'totalpressure',andqis'dynamicpressure'.[13]Manyauthorsrefertothepressurepasstatic
pressuretodistinguishitfromtotalpressurep0anddynamicpressureq.InAerodynamics,L.J.Clancywrites:"To
distinguishitfromthetotalanddynamicpressures,theactualpressureofthefluid,whichisassociatednotwithits
motionbutwithitsstate,isoftenreferredtoasthestaticpressure,butwherethetermpressurealoneisusedit
referstothisstaticpressure."[14]
ThesimplifiedformofBernoulli'sequationcanbesummarizedinthefollowingmemorablewordequation:
staticpressure+dynamicpressure=totalpressure[14]
Everypointinasteadilyflowingfluid,regardlessofthefluidspeedatthatpoint,hasitsownuniquestaticpressure
panddynamicpressureq.Theirsump+qisdefinedtobethetotalpressurep0.ThesignificanceofBernoulli's
principlecannowbesummarizedastotalpressureisconstantalongastreamline.

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Ifthefluidflowisirrotational,thetotalpressureoneverystreamlineisthesameandBernoulli'sprinciplecanbe
summarizedastotalpressureisconstanteverywhereinthefluidflow.[15]Itisreasonabletoassumethatirrotational
flowexistsinanysituationwherealargebodyoffluidisflowingpastasolidbody.Examplesareaircraftinflight,
andshipsmovinginopenbodiesofwater.However,itisimportanttorememberthatBernoulli'sprincipledoesnot
applyintheboundarylayerorinfluidflowthroughlongpipes.
Ifthefluidflowatsomepointalongastreamlineisbroughttorest,thispointiscalledastagnationpoint,andat
thispointthetotalpressureisequaltothestagnationpressure.

Applicabilityofincompressibleflowequationtoflowofgases
Bernoulli'sequationissometimesvalidfortheflowofgases:providedthatthereisnotransferofkineticor
potentialenergyfromthegasflowtothecompressionorexpansionofthegas.Ifboththegaspressureandvolume
changesimultaneously,thenworkwillbedoneonorbythegas.Inthiscase,Bernoulli'sequationinits
incompressibleflowformcannotbeassumedtobevalid.However,ifthegasprocessisentirelyisobaric,or
isochoric,thennoworkisdoneonorbythegas,(sothesimpleenergybalanceisnotupset).Accordingtothegas
law,anisobaricorisochoricprocessisordinarilytheonlywaytoensureconstantdensityinagas.Alsothegas
densitywillbeproportionaltotheratioofpressureandabsolutetemperature,howeverthisratiowillvaryupon
compressionorexpansion,nomatterwhatnonzeroquantityofheatisaddedorremoved.Theonlyexceptionisif
thenetheattransferiszero,asinacompletethermodynamiccycle,orinanindividualisentropic(frictionless
adiabatic)process,andeventhenthisreversibleprocessmustbereversed,torestorethegastotheoriginalpressure
andspecificvolume,andthusdensity.Onlythenistheoriginal,unmodifiedBernoulliequationapplicable.Inthis
casetheequationcanbeusediftheflowspeedofthegasissufficientlybelowthespeedofsound,suchthatthe
variationindensityofthegas(duetothiseffect)alongeachstreamlinecanbeignored.Adiabaticflowatlessthan
Mach0.3isgenerallyconsideredtobeslowenough.

Unsteadypotentialflow
TheBernoulliequationforunsteadypotentialflowisusedinthetheoryofoceansurfacewavesandacoustics.
Foranirrotationalflow,theflowvelocitycanbedescribedasthegradientofavelocitypotential.Inthatcase,
andforaconstantdensity,themomentumequationsoftheEulerequationscanbeintegratedto:[16]

whichisaBernoulliequationvalidalsoforunsteadyortimedependentflows.Here/tdenotesthepartial
derivativeofthevelocitypotentialwithrespecttotimet,andv=||istheflowspeed.Thefunctionf(t)depends
onlyontimeandnotonpositioninthefluid.Asaresult,theBernoulliequationatsomemomenttdoesnotonly
applyalongacertainstreamline,butinthewholefluiddomain.Thisisalsotrueforthespecialcaseofasteady
irrotationalflow,inwhichcasefisaconstant.[16]
Furtherf(t)canbemadeequaltozerobyincorporatingitintothevelocitypotentialusingthetransformation

resultingin

Notethattherelationofthepotentialtotheflowvelocityisunaffectedbythistransformation:=.

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TheBernoulliequationforunsteadypotentialflowalsoappearstoplayacentralroleinLuke'svariational
principle,avariationaldescriptionoffreesurfaceflowsusingtheLagrangian(nottobeconfusedwithLagrangian
coordinates).

Compressibleflowequation
Bernoullidevelopedhisprinciplefromhisobservationsonliquids,andhisequationisapplicableonlyto
incompressiblefluids,andcompressiblefluidsuptoapproximatelyMachnumber0.3.[17]Itispossibletousethe
fundamentalprinciplesofphysicstodevelopsimilarequationsapplicabletocompressiblefluids.Thereare
numerousequations,eachtailoredforaparticularapplication,butallareanalogoustoBernoulli'sequationandall
relyonnothingmorethanthefundamentalprinciplesofphysicssuchasNewton'slawsofmotionorthefirstlaw
ofthermodynamics.

Compressibleflowinfluiddynamics
Foracompressiblefluid,withabarotropicequationofstate,andundertheactionofconservativeforces,
[18]

(constantalongastreamline)

where:
pisthepressure
isthedensity
vistheflowspeed
isthepotentialassociatedwiththeconservativeforcefield,oftenthegravitationalpotential
Inengineeringsituations,elevationsaregenerallysmallcomparedtothesizeoftheEarth,andthetimescalesof
fluidflowaresmallenoughtoconsidertheequationofstateasadiabatic.Inthiscase,theaboveequationbecomes
[19]

(constantalongastreamline)

where,inadditiontothetermslistedabove:
istheratioofthespecificheatsofthefluid
gistheaccelerationduetogravity
zistheelevationofthepointaboveareferenceplane
Inmanyapplicationsofcompressibleflow,changesinelevationarenegligiblecomparedtotheotherterms,sothe
termgzcanbeomitted.Averyusefulformoftheequationisthen:

where:
p0isthetotalpressure
0isthetotaldensity

Compressibleflowinthermodynamics
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Themostgeneralformoftheequation,suitableforuseinthermodynamicsincaseof(quasi)steadyflow,is:[2][20]
[21]

Herewistheenthalpyperunitmass,whichisalsooftenwrittenash(nottobeconfusedwith"head"or"height").
Notethat

whereisthethermodynamicenergyperunitmass,alsoknownasthespecificinternal

energy.So,forconstantinternalenergytheequationreducestotheincompressibleflowform.
TheconstantontherighthandsideisoftencalledtheBernoulliconstantanddenotedb.Forsteadyinviscid
adiabaticflowwithnoadditionalsourcesorsinksofenergy,bisconstantalonganygivenstreamline.More
generally,whenbmayvaryalongstreamlines,itstillprovesausefulparameter,relatedtothe"head"ofthefluid
(seebelow).
Whenthechangeincanbeignored,averyusefulformofthisequationis:

wherew0istotalenthalpy.Foracaloricallyperfectgassuchasanidealgas,theenthalpyisdirectlyproportionalto
thetemperature,andthisleadstotheconceptofthetotal(orstagnation)temperature.
Whenshockwavesarepresent,inareferenceframeinwhichtheshockisstationaryandtheflowissteady,many
oftheparametersintheBernoulliequationsufferabruptchangesinpassingthroughtheshock.TheBernoulli
parameteritself,however,remainsunaffected.Anexceptiontothisruleisradiativeshocks,whichviolatethe
assumptionsleadingtotheBernoulliequation,namelythelackofadditionalsinksorsourcesofenergy.

DerivationsofBernoulliequation
Bernoulliequationforincompressiblefluids
TheBernoulliequationforincompressiblefluidscanbederivedbyeitherintegratingNewton'ssecond
lawofmotionorbyapplyingthelawofconservationofenergybetweentwosectionsalonga
streamline,ignoringviscosity,compressibility,andthermaleffects.
DerivationthroughintegratingNewton'sSecondLawofMotion
Thesimplestderivationistofirstignoregravityandconsiderconstrictionsandexpansionsinpipesthat
areotherwisestraight,asseeninVenturieffect.Letthexaxisbedirecteddowntheaxisofthepipe.
DefineaparceloffluidmovingthroughapipewithcrosssectionalareaA,thelengthoftheparcelis
dx,andthevolumeoftheparcelAdx.Ifmassdensityis,themassoftheparcelisdensitymultiplied
byitsvolumem=Adx.Thechangeinpressureoverdistancedxisdpandflowvelocityv=dx/dt.
ApplyNewton'ssecondlawofmotion(force=massacceleration)andrecognizingthattheeffective
forceontheparceloffluidisAdp.Ifthepressuredecreasesalongthelengthofthepipe,dpis
negativebuttheforceresultinginflowispositivealongthexaxis.

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Insteadyflowthevelocityfieldisconstantwithrespecttotime,v=v(x)=v(x(t)),sovitselfisnot
directlyafunctionoftimet.Itisonlywhentheparcelmovesthroughxthatthecrosssectionalarea
changes:vdependsontonlythroughthecrosssectionalpositionx(t).

Withdensityconstant,theequationofmotioncanbewrittenas

byintegratingwithrespecttox

whereCisaconstant,sometimesreferredtoastheBernoulliconstant.Itisnotauniversalconstant,
butratheraconstantofaparticularfluidsystem.Thedeductionis:wherethespeedislarge,pressureis
lowandviceversa.Intheabovederivation,noexternalworkenergyprincipleisinvoked.Rather,
Bernoulli'sprinciplewasderivedbyasimplemanipulationofNewton'ssecondlaw.

Astreamtubeoffluidmovingtotheright.Indicatedarepressure,elevation,flowspeed,distance(s),and
crosssectionalarea.Notethatinthisfigureelevationisdenotedash,contrarytothetextwhereitis
givenbyz.

Derivationbyusingconservationofenergy
AnotherwaytoderiveBernoulli'sprincipleforanincompressibleflowisbyapplyingconservationof
energy.[22]Intheformoftheworkenergytheorem,statingthat[23]
thechangeinthekineticenergyEkinofthesystemequalsthenetworkWdoneonthesystem
Therefore,

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Therefore,
theworkdonebytheforcesinthefluid=increaseinkineticenergy.
Thesystemconsistsofthevolumeoffluid,initiallybetweenthecrosssectionsA1andA2.Inthetime
intervaltfluidelementsinitiallyattheinflowcrosssectionA1moveoveradistances1=v1t,while
attheoutflowcrosssectionthefluidmovesawayfromcrosssectionA2overadistances2=v2t.The
displacedfluidvolumesattheinflowandoutflowarerespectivelyA1s1andA2s2.Theassociated
displacedfluidmassesarewhenisthefluid'smassdensityequaltodensitytimesvolume,so
A1s1andA2s2.Bymassconservation,thesetwomassesdisplacedinthetimeintervalthaveto
beequal,andthisdisplacedmassisdenotedbym:

Theworkdonebytheforcesconsistsoftwoparts:
TheworkdonebythepressureactingontheareasA1andA2

Theworkdonebygravity:thegravitationalpotentialenergyinthevolumeA1s1islost,andat
theoutflowinthevolumeA2s2isgained.So,thechangeingravitationalpotentialenergy
Epot,gravityinthetimeintervaltis

Now,theworkbytheforceofgravityisoppositetothechangeinpotentialenergy,
Wgravity=Epot,gravity:whiletheforceofgravityisinthenegativezdirection,thework
gravityforcetimeschangeinelevationwillbenegativeforapositiveelevationchange
z=z2z1,whilethecorrespondingpotentialenergychangeispositive.[24]So:

Andthetotalworkdoneinthistimeinterval

is

Theincreaseinkineticenergyis

Puttingthesetogether,theworkkineticenergytheoremW=Ekingives:[22]

or
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Afterdividingbythemassm=A1v1t=A2v2ttheresultis:[22]

or,asstatedinthefirstparagraph:

(Eqn.1),WhichisalsoEquation(A)

Furtherdivisionbygproducesthefollowingequation.Notethateachtermcanbedescribedinthe
lengthdimension(suchasmeters).ThisistheheadequationderivedfromBernoulli'sprinciple:

(Eqn.2a)

Themiddleterm,z,representsthepotentialenergyofthefluidduetoitselevationwithrespecttoa
referenceplane.Now,ziscalledtheelevationheadandgiventhedesignationzelevation.Afreefalling
massfromanelevationz>0(inavacuum)willreachaspeed
whenarrivingatelevationz=0.Orwhenwerearrangeitasahead:
Thetermv2/(2g)iscalledthevelocityhead,expressedasalengthmeasurement.Itrepresentsthe
internalenergyofthefluidduetoitsmotion.Thehydrostaticpressurepisdefinedas
,withp0somereferencepressure,orwhenwerearrangeitasahead:
Thetermp/(g)isalsocalledthepressurehead,expressedasalengthmeasurement.Itrepresentsthe
internalenergyofthefluidduetothepressureexertedonthecontainer.Whenwecombinethehead
duetotheflowspeedandtheheadduetostaticpressurewiththeelevationaboveareferenceplane,we
obtainasimplerelationshipusefulforincompressiblefluidsusingthevelocityhead,elevationhead,
andpressurehead.

(Eqn.2b)

IfweweretomultiplyEqn.1bythedensityofthefluid,wewouldgetanequationwiththreepressure
terms:

(Eqn.3)

WenotethatthepressureofthesystemisconstantinthisformoftheBernoulliEquation.Ifthestatic
pressureofthesystem(thefarrightterm)increases,andifthepressureduetoelevation(themiddle
term)isconstant,thenweknowthatthedynamicpressure(theleftterm)musthavedecreased.Inother

words,ifthespeedofafluiddecreasesanditisnotduetoanelevationdifference,weknowitmustbe

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words,ifthespeedofafluiddecreasesanditisnotduetoanelevationdifference,weknowitmustbe
duetoanincreaseinthestaticpressurethatisresistingtheflow.Allthreeequationsaremerely
simplifiedversionsofanenergybalanceonasystem.
Bernoulliequationforcompressiblefluids
Thederivationforcompressiblefluidsissimilar.Again,thederivationdependsupon(1)
conservationofmass,and(2)conservationofenergy.Conservationofmassimpliesthatinthe
abovefigure,intheintervaloftimet,theamountofmasspassingthroughtheboundarydefined
bytheareaA1isequaltotheamountofmasspassingoutwardsthroughtheboundarydefinedby
theareaA2:
.
Conservationofenergyisappliedinasimilarmanner:Itisassumedthatthechangeinenergyof
thevolumeofthestreamtubeboundedbyA1andA2isdueentirelytoenergyenteringorleaving
throughoneortheotherofthesetwoboundaries.Clearly,inamorecomplicatedsituationsuchas
afluidflowcoupledwithradiation,suchconditionsarenotmet.Nevertheless,assumingthistobe
thecaseandassumingtheflowissteadysothatthenetchangeintheenergyiszero,

whereE1andE2aretheenergyenteringthroughA1andleavingthroughA2,respectively.The
energyenteringthroughA1isthesumofthekineticenergyentering,theenergyenteringinthe
formofpotentialgravitationalenergyofthefluid,thefluidthermodynamicinternalenergyper
unitofmass(1)entering,andtheenergyenteringintheformofmechanicalpdVwork:

where=gzisaforcepotentialduetotheEarth'sgravity,gisaccelerationduetogravity,andz
iselevationaboveareferenceplane.Asimilarexpressionfor
mayeasilybeconstructed.So
nowsetting
:

whichcanberewrittenas:

Now,usingthepreviouslyobtainedresultfromconservationofmass,thismaybesimplifiedto
obtain

whichistheBernoulliequationforcompressibleflow.
Anequivalentexpressioncanbewrittenintermsoffluidenthalphy(h):

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Anequivalentexpressioncanbewrittenintermsoffluidenthalphy(h):

Applications
Inmoderneverydaylifetherearemanyobservationsthatcanbe
successfullyexplainedbyapplicationofBernoulli'sprinciple,eventhough
norealfluidisentirelyinviscid[25]andasmallviscosityoftenhasalarge
effectontheflow.
Bernoulli'sprinciplecanbeusedtocalculatetheliftforceonan
airfoil,ifthebehaviourofthefluidflowinthevicinityofthefoilis
known.Forexample,iftheairflowingpastthetopsurfaceofan
aircraftwingismovingfasterthantheairflowingpastthebottom
surface,thenBernoulli'sprincipleimpliesthatthepressureonthe
Condensationvisibleovertheupper
surfacesofthewingwillbelowerabovethanbelow.Thispressure
surfaceofanAirbusA340wing
differenceresultsinanupwardsliftingforce.[26][27]Wheneverthe
causedbythefallintemperature
distributionofspeedpastthetopandbottomsurfacesofawingis
accompanyingthefallinpressure.
known,theliftforcescanbecalculated(toagoodapproximation)
[28]
usingBernoulli'sequations establishedbyBernoulliovera
centurybeforethefirstmanmadewingswereusedforthepurposeofflight.Bernoulli'sprincipledoesnot
explainwhytheairflowsfasterpastthetopofthewingandslowerpasttheunderside.Seethearticleon
aerodynamicliftformoreinfo.
Thecarburettorusedinmanyreciprocatingenginescontainsaventuritocreatearegionoflowpressureto
drawfuelintothecarburettorandmixitthoroughlywiththeincomingair.Thelowpressureinthethroatofa
venturicanbeexplainedbyBernoulli'sprincipleinthenarrowthroat,theairismovingatitsfastestspeed
andthereforeitisatitslowestpressure.
Aninjectoronasteamlocomotive(orstaticboiler).
Thepitottubeandstaticportonanaircraftareusedtodeterminetheairspeedoftheaircraft.Thesetwo
devicesareconnectedtotheairspeedindicator,whichdeterminesthedynamicpressureoftheairflowpast
theaircraft.Dynamicpressureisthedifferencebetweenstagnationpressureandstaticpressure.Bernoulli's
principleisusedtocalibratetheairspeedindicatorsothatitdisplaystheindicatedairspeedappropriatetothe
dynamicpressure.[29]
TheflowspeedofafluidcanbemeasuredusingadevicesuchasaVenturimeteroranorificeplate,which
canbeplacedintoapipelinetoreducethediameteroftheflow.Forahorizontaldevice,thecontinuity
equationshowsthatforanincompressiblefluid,thereductionindiameterwillcauseanincreaseinthefluid
flowspeed.SubsequentlyBernoulli'sprinciplethenshowsthattheremustbeadecreaseinthepressurein
thereduceddiameterregion.ThisphenomenonisknownastheVenturieffect.
Themaximumpossibledrainrateforatankwithaholeortapatthebasecanbecalculateddirectlyfrom
Bernoulli'sequation,andisfoundtobeproportionaltothesquarerootoftheheightofthefluidinthetank.
ThisisTorricelli'slaw,showingthatTorricelli'slawiscompatiblewithBernoulli'sprinciple.Viscosity
lowersthisdrainrate.Thisisreflectedinthedischargecoefficient,whichisafunctionoftheReynolds
numberandtheshapeoftheorifice.[30]
TheBernoulligripreliesonthisprincipletocreateanoncontactadhesiveforcebetweenasurfaceandthe
gripper.

Misunderstandingsaboutthegenerationoflift
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Manyexplanationsforthegenerationoflift(onairfoils,propellerblades,etc.)canbefoundsomeofthese
explanationscanbemisleading,andsomearefalse,[31]inparticulartheideathatairparticlesflowingaboveand
belowacamberedwingshouldreachsimultaneouslythetrailingedge.Thishasbeenasourceofheateddiscussion
overtheyears.Inparticular,therehasbeendebateaboutwhetherliftisbestexplainedbyBernoulli'sprincipleor
Newton'slawsofmotion.ModernwritingsagreethatbothBernoulli'sprincipleandNewton'slawsarerelevantand
eithercanbeusedtocorrectlydescribelift.[32][33][34]
SeveraloftheseexplanationsusetheBernoulliprincipletoconnecttheflowkinematicstotheflowinduced
pressures.Incasesofincorrect(orpartiallycorrect)explanationsrelyingontheBernoulliprinciple,theerrors
generallyoccurintheassumptionsontheflowkinematicsandhowtheseareproduced.ItisnottheBernoulli
principleitselfthatisquestionedbecausethisprincipleiswellestablished(theairflowabovethewingisfaster,the
questioniswhyitisfaster).[35][36][37][38]

MisapplicationsofBernoulli'sprincipleincommonclassroom
demonstrations
ThereareseveralcommonclassroomdemonstrationsthataresometimesincorrectlyexplainedusingBernoulli's
principle.[39]Oneinvolvesholdingapieceofpaperhorizontallysothatitdroopsdownwardandthenblowingover
thetopofit.Asthedemonstratorblowsoverthepaper,thepaperrises.Itisthenassertedthatthisisbecause
"fastermovingairhaslowerpressure".[40][41][42]
Oneproblemwiththisexplanationcanbeseenbyblowingalongthebottomofthepaper:werethedeflectiondue
simplytofastermovingaironewouldexpectthepapertodeflectdownward,butthepaperdeflectsupward
regardlessofwhetherthefastermovingairisonthetoporthebottom.[43]Anotherproblemisthatwhentheair
leavesthedemonstrator'smouthithasthesamepressureasthesurroundingair[44]theairdoesnothavelower
pressurejustbecauseitismovinginthedemonstration,thestaticpressureoftheairleavingthedemonstrator's
mouthisequaltothepressureofthesurroundingair.[45][46]Athirdproblemisthatitisfalsetomakeaconnection
betweentheflowonthetwosidesofthepaperusingBernoullisequationsincetheairaboveandbeloware
differentflowfieldsandBernoulli'sprincipleonlyapplieswithinaflowfield.[47][48][49][50]
Asthewordingoftheprinciplecanchangeitsimplications,statingtheprinciplecorrectlyisimportant.[51]What
Bernoulli'sprincipleactuallysaysisthatwithinaflowofconstantenergy,whenfluidflowsthrougharegionof
lowerpressureitspeedsupandviceversa.[52]Thus,Bernoulli'sprincipleconcernsitselfwithchangesinspeedand
changesinpressurewithinaflowfield.Itcannotbeusedtocomparedifferentflowfields.
Acorrectexplanationofwhythepaperriseswouldobservethattheplumefollowsthecurveofthepaperandthata
curvedstreamlinewilldevelopapressuregradientperpendiculartothedirectionofflow,withthelowerpressure
ontheinsideofthecurve.[53][54][55][56]Bernoulli'sprinciplepredictsthatthedecreaseinpressureisassociatedwith
anincreaseinspeed,i.e.thatastheairpassesoverthepaperitspeedsupandmovesfasterthanitwasmoving
whenitleftthedemonstrator'smouth.Butthisisnotapparentfromthedemonstration.[57][58][59]
Othercommonclassroomdemonstrations,suchasblowingbetweentwosuspendedspheres,inflatingalargebag,
orsuspendingaballinanairstreamaresometimesexplainedinasimilarlymisleadingmannerbysaying"faster
movingairhaslowerpressure".[60][61][62][63][64][65][66]

Seealso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle#Incompressible_flow_equation

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Terminologyinfluiddynamics
NavierStokesequationsfortheflowofaviscousfluid
Eulerequationsfortheflowofaninviscidfluid
Hydraulicsappliedfluidmechanicsforliquids
Torricelli'sLawaspecialcaseofBernoulli'sprinciple
DanielBernoulli
Coandeffect

References
1.Clancy,L.J.,Aerodynamics,Chapter3.
2.Batchelor,G.K.(1967),Section3.5,pp.15664.
3."Hydrodynamica".BritannicaOnlineEncyclopedia.
Retrieved20081030.
4.Streeter,V.L.,FluidMechanics,Example3.5,
McGrawHillInc.(1966),NewYork.
5."Iftheparticleisinaregionofvaryingpressure(anon
vanishingpressuregradientinthexdirection)andifthe
particlehasafinitesizel,thenthefrontoftheparticle
willbeseeingadifferentpressurefromtherear.More
precisely,ifthepressuredropsinthexdirection(dp/dx
<0)thepressureattherearishigherthanatthefront
andtheparticleexperiencesa(positive)netforce.
AccordingtoNewtonssecondlaw,thisforcecausesan
accelerationandtheparticlesvelocityincreasesasit
movesalongthestreamline...Bernoulli'sequation
describesthismathematically(seethecomplete
derivationintheappendix)."Babinsky,Holger
(November2003),"Howdowingswork?"(PDF),
PhysicsEducation
6."Accelerationofairiscausedbypressuregradients.Air
isacceleratedindirectionofthevelocityifthepressure
goesdown.Thusthedecreaseofpressureisthecause
ofahighervelocity."Weltner,KlausIngelman
Sundberg,Martin,MisinterpretationsofBernoulli's
Law,archivedfromtheoriginalonApril29,2009
7."Theideaisthatastheparcelmovesalong,followinga
streamline,asitmovesintoanareaofhigherpressure
therewillbehigherpressureahead(higherthanthe
pressurebehind)andthiswillexertaforceonthe
parcel,slowingitdown.Converselyiftheparcelis
movingintoaregionoflowerpressure,therewillbean
higherpressurebehindit(higherthanthepressure
ahead),speedingitup.Asalways,anyunbalancedforce
willcauseachangeinmomentum(andvelocity),as
requiredbyNewtonslawsofmotion."SeeHowIt
FliesJohnS.Denker
http://www.av8n.com/how/htm/airfoils.html
8.Resnick,R.andHalliday,D.(1960),section184,
Physics,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
9.Batchelor,G.K.(1967),5.1,p.265.
10.Mulley,Raymond(2004).FlowofIndustrialFluids:
TheoryandEquations.CRCPress.ISBN08493
27679.,410pages.Seepp.4344.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle#Incompressible_flow_equation

11.Chanson,Hubert(2004).HydraulicsofOpenChannel
Flow:AnIntroduction.ButterworthHeinemann.
ISBN0750659785.,650pages.Seep.22.
12.Oertel,HerbertPrandtl,LudwigBhle,M.Mayes,
Katherine(2004).Prandtl'sEssentialsofFluid
Mechanics.Springer.pp.7071.ISBN0387404376.
13."Bernoulli'sEquation".NASAGlennResearchCenter.
Retrieved20090304.
14.Clancy,L.J.,Aerodynamics,Section3.5.
15.Clancy,L.J.Aerodynamics,Equation3.12
16.Batchelor,G.K.(1967),p.383
17.White,FrankM.FluidMechanics,6e.McGrawHill
InternationalEdition.p.602.
18.ClarkeC.andCarswellB.,AstrophysicalFluid
Dynamics
19.Clancy,L.J.,Aerodynamics,Section3.11
20.Landau&Lifshitz(1987,5)
21.VanWylen,G.J.,andSonntag,R.E.,(1965),
FundamentalsofClassicalThermodynamics,
Section5.9,JohnWileyandSonsInc.,NewYork
22.Feynman,R.P.Leighton,R.B.Sands,M.(1963).The
FeynmanLecturesonPhysics.ISBN0201021161.,
Vol.2,403,pp.406409.
23.Tipler,Paul(1991).PhysicsforScientistsand
Engineers:Mechanics(3rdextendeded.).W.H.
Freeman.ISBN0879014326.,p.138.
24.Feynman,R.P.Leighton,R.B.Sands,M.(1963).The
FeynmanLecturesonPhysics.ISBN0201021161.,
Vol.1,143,p.144.
25.PhysicsToday,May1010,"TheNearlyPerfectFermi
Gas",byJohnE.Thomas,p34.
26.Clancy,L.J.,Aerodynamics,Section5.5("Whena
streamofairflowspastanairfoil,therearelocal
changesinflowspeedroundtheairfoil,and
consequentlychangesinstaticpressure,inaccordance
withBernoulli'sTheorem.Thedistributionofpressure
determinesthelift,pitchingmomentandformdragof
theairfoil,andthepositionofitscentreofpressure.")
27.Resnick,R.andHalliday,D.(1960),Physics,
Section185,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,NewYork
("Streamlinesareclosertogetherabovethewingthan
theyarebelowsothatBernoulli'sprinciplepredictsthe
observedupwarddynamiclift.")

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28.Eastlake,CharlesN.(March2002)."An
43."IftheliftinfigureAwerecausedby"Bernoulli
Aerodynamicist'sViewofLift,Bernoulli,andNewton"
principle,"thenthepaperinfigureBshoulddroop
(PDF).ThePhysicsTeacher.40."Theresultantforceis
furtherwhenairisblownbeneathit.However,as
determinedbyintegratingthesurfacepressure
shown,itraiseswhentheupwardpressuregradientin
distributionoverthesurfaceareaoftheairfoil."
downwardcurvingflowaddstoatmosphericpressureat
29.Clancy,L.J.,Aerodynamics,Section3.8
thepaperlowersurface."Craig,GaleM."Physical
30.MechanicalEngineeringReferenceManualNinth
PrinciplesofWingedFlight".RetrievedMarch31,
Edition
2016.
31.GlennResearchCenter(20060315)."IncorrectLift
44."Infact,thepressureintheairblownoutofthelungsis
Theory".NASA.Retrieved20100812.
equaltothatofthesurroundingair..."Babinsky
32.Chanson,H.(2009).AppliedHydrodynamics:An
http://iopscience.iop.org/0031
IntroductiontoIdealandRealFluidFlows.CRC
9120/38/6/001/pdf/pe3_6_001.pdf
Press,Taylor&FrancisGroup,Leiden,The
45."...airdoesnothaveareducedlateralpressure(orstatic
Netherlands,478pages.ISBN9780415492713.
pressure...)simplybecauseitiscausedtomove,the
33."NewtonvsBernoulli".
staticpressureoffreeairdoesnotdecreaseasthespeed
34.Ison,David.BernoulliOrNewton:Who'sRightAbout
oftheairincreases,itmisunderstandingBernoulli's
Lift?(http://www.planeandpilotmag.com/component/zin
principletosuggestthatthisiswhatittellsus,andthe
e/article/289.html)Retrievedon20091126
behaviorofthecurvedpaperisexplainedbyother
35.Phillips,O.M.(1977).Thedynamicsoftheupperocean
reasoningthanBernoulli'sprinciple."PeterEastwell
(2nded.).CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
Bernoulli?Perhaps,butWhatAboutViscosity?The
298016.Section2.4.
ScienceEducationReview,6(1)2007
36.Batchelor,G.K.(1967).Sections3.5and5.1
http://www.scienceeducationreview.com/open_access/eastwell
37.Lamb,H.(1994)1729
bernoulli.pdf
38.Weltner,KlausIngelmanSundberg,Martin."Physics
46."Makeastripofwritingpaperabout5cmX25cm.
ofFlightreviewed"."Theconventionalexplanationof
Holditinfrontofyourlipssothatithangsoutand
aerodynamicalliftbasedonBernoullislawandvelocity
downmakingaconvexupwardsurface.Whenyoublow
differencesmixesupcauseandeffect.Thefasterflow
acrossthetopofthepaper,itrises.Manybooks
attheuppersideofthewingistheconsequenceoflow
attributethistotheloweringoftheairpressureontop
pressureandnotitscause."
solelytotheBernoullieffect.Nowuseyourfingersto
39."Bernoulli'slawandexperimentsattributedtoitare
formthepaperintoacurvethatitisslightlyconcave
fascinating.Unfortunatelysomeoftheseexperiments
upwardalongitswholelengthandagainblowalongthe
areexplainederroneously..."Weltner,KlausIngelman
topofthisstrip.Thepapernowbendsdownward...an
Sundberg,Martin."MisinterpretationsofBernoulli's
oftencitedexperiment,whichisusuallytakenas
Law".DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityFrankfurt.
demonstratingthecommonexplanationoflift,doesnot
ArchivedfromtheoriginalonJune21,2012.Retrieved
doso..."JefRaskinCoandaEffect:Understanding
June25,2012.
WhyWingsWork
40."ThisoccursbecauseofBernoullisprinciplefast
http://karmak.org/archive/2003/02/coanda_effect.html
movingairhaslowerpressurethannonmovingair."
47."Blowingoverapieceofpaperdoesnotdemonstrate
MakeMagazine
Bernoullisequation.Whileitistruethatacurved
http://makeprojects.com/Project/OrigamiFlying
paperliftswhenflowisappliedononeside,thisisnot
Disk/327/1
becauseairismovingatdifferentspeedsonthetwo
41."Fastermovingfluid,lowerpressure....Whenthe
sides...Itisfalsetomakeaconnectionbetweenthe
demonstratorholdsthepaperinfrontofhismouthand
flowonthetwosidesofthepaperusingBernoullis
blowsacrossthetop,heiscreatinganareaoffaster
equation."HolgerBabinskyHowDoWingsWork
movingair."UniversityofMinnesotaSchoolofPhysics
PhysicsEducation38(6)http://iopscience.iop.org/0031
andAstronomy
9120/38/6/001/pdf/pe3_6_001.pdf
http://www.physics.umn.edu/outreach/pforce/circus/Bernoulli.html
42."Bernoulli'sPrinciplestatesthatfastermovingairhas
lowerpressure...YoucandemonstrateBernoulli's
Principlebyblowingoverapieceofpaperheld
horizontallyacrossyourlips.""EducationalPacket"
(PDF).TallShipsFestivalChannelIslandsHarbor.
Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onDecember3,2013.
RetrievedJune25,2012.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle#Incompressible_flow_equation

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48."AnexplanationbasedonBernoullisprincipleisnot
54."Thecurvedpaperturnsthestreamofairdownward,
applicabletothissituation,becausethisprinciplehas
andthisactionproducestheliftreactionthatliftsthe
nothingtosayabouttheinteractionofairmasses
paper."NormanF.SmithBernoulli,Newton,and
havingdifferentspeeds...Also,whileBernoullis
DynamicLiftPartIISchoolScienceandMathematics
principleallowsustocomparefluidspeedsand
vol73Issue4pg333
pressuresalongasinglestreamlineand...alongtwo
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1949
differentstreamlinesthatoriginateunderidenticalfluid
8594.1973.tb09040.x/pdf
conditions,usingBernoullisprincipletocomparethe
55."Thecurvedsurfaceofthetonguecreatesunequalair
airaboveandbelowthecurvedpaperinFigure1is
pressureandaliftingaction....Liftiscausedbyair
nonsensicalinthiscase,therearentanystreamlinesat
movingoveracurvedsurface."AERONAUTICSAn
allbelowthepaper!"PeterEastwellBernoulli?
EducatorsGuidewithActivitiesinScience,
Perhaps,butWhatAboutViscosity?TheScience
Mathematics,andTechnologyEducationbyNASApg
EducationReview6(1)2007
26
http://www.scienceeducationreview.com/open_access/eastwell http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/58152main_Aeronautics.Educator.pdf
bernoulli.pdf
56."Viscositycausesthebreathtofollowthecurved
49."Thewellknowndemonstrationofthephenomenonof
surface,Newton'sfirstlawsaysthereaforceontheair
liftbymeansofliftingapagecantileveredinoneshand
andNewtonsthirdlawsaysthereisanequaland
byblowinghorizontallyalongitisprobablymorea
oppositeforceonthepaper.Momentumtransferlifts
demonstrationoftheforcesinherentintheCoanda
thestrip.Thereductioninpressureactingonthetop
effectthanademonstrationofBernoullislawfor,
surfaceofthepieceofpapercausesthepapertorise."
here,anairjetissuesfromthemouthandattachestoa
TheNewtonianDescriptionofLiftofaWingDavidF.
curved(and,inthiscasepliable)surface.Theupper
Anderson&ScottEberhardtpg12
edgeisacomplicatedvortexladenmixinglayerandthe
http://www.integener.com/IE110522Anderson&EberhardtPaperO
distantflowisquiescent,sothatBernoullislawis
57.'"Demonstrations"ofBernoulli'sprincipleareoften
hardlyapplicable."DavidAuerbachWhyAircreftFly
givenasdemonstrationsofthephysicsoflift.Theyare
EuropeanJournalofPhysicsVol21p295
trulydemonstrationsoflift,butcertainlynotof
http://iopscience.iop.org/01430807/21/4/302/pdf/0143
Bernoulli'sprinciple.'DavidFAnderson&Scott
0807_21_4_302.pdf
EberhardtUnderstandingFlightpg229
50."Millionsofchildreninscienceclassesarebeingasked
https://books.google.com/books?
toblowovercurvedpiecesofpaperandobservethatthe
id=52Hfn7uEGSoC&pg=PA229
paper"lifts"...Theyarethenaskedtobelievethat
58."Asanexample,takethemisleadingexperimentmost
Bernoulli'stheoremisresponsible...Unfortunately,the
oftenusedto"demonstrate"Bernoulli'sprinciple.Hold
"dynamiclift"involved...isnotproperlyexplainedby
apieceofpapersothatitcurvesoveryourfinger,then
Bernoulli'stheorem."NormanF.Smith"Bernoulliand
blowacrossthetop.Thepaperwillrise.Howevermost
NewtoninFluidMechanics"ThePhysicsTeacherNov
peopledonotrealizethatthepaperwouldnotriseifit
1972
wereflat,eventhoughyouareblowingairacrossthe
51."Bernoullisprincipleisveryeasytounderstand
topofitatafuriousrate.Bernoulli'sprincipledoesnot
providedtheprincipleiscorrectlystated.However,we
applydirectlyinthiscase.Thisisbecausetheaironthe
mustbecareful,becauseseeminglysmallchangesin
twosidesofthepaperdidnotstartoutfromthesame
thewordingcanleadtocompletelywrongconclusions."
source.Theaironthebottomisambientairfromthe
SeeHowItFliesJohnS.Denker
room,buttheaironthetopcamefromyourmouth
http://www.av8n.com/how/htm/airfoils.html#sec
whereyouactuallyincreaseditsspeedwithout
bernoulli
decreasingitspressurebyforcingitoutofyourmouth.
52."AcompletestatementofBernoulli'sTheoremisas
Asaresulttheaironbothsidesoftheflatpaper
follows:"Inaflowwherenoenergyisbeingaddedor
actuallyhasthesamepressure,eventhoughtheairon
takenaway,thesumofitsvariousenergiesisa
thetopismovingfaster.Thereasonthatacurvedpiece
constant:consequentlywherethevelocityincreaseesthe
ofpaperdoesriseisthattheairfromyourmouth
pressuredecreasesandviceversa.""NormanFSmith
speedsupevenmoreasitfollowsthecurveofthe
Bernoulli,NewtonandDynamicLiftPartISchool
paper,whichinturnlowersthepressureaccordingto
ScienceandMathematicsVol73Issue3
Bernoulli."FromTheAeronauticsFileByMaxFeil
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1949
https://www.mat.uc.pt/~pedro/ncientificos/artigos/aeronauticsfi
8594.1973.tb08998.x/pdf
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/2015051708163
53."...ifastreamlineiscurved,theremustbeapressure
0/https://www.mat.uc.pt/~pedro/ncientificos/artigos/aero
gradientacrossthestreamline,withthepressure
nauticsfile1.ps)May17,2015,attheWayback
increasinginthedirectionawayfromthecentreof
Machine.
curvature."Babinskyhttp://iopscience.iop.org/0031
9120/38/6/001/pdf/pe3_6_001.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle#Incompressible_flow_equation

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59."Somepeopleblowoverasheetofpapertodemonstrate
thattheacceleratedairoverthesheetresultsinalower
pressure.Theyarewrongwiththeirexplanation.The
sheetofpapergoesupbecauseitdeflectstheair,bythe
Coandaeffect,andthatdeflectionisthecauseofthe
forceliftingthesheet.ToprovetheyarewrongIuse
thefollowingexperiment:Ifthesheetofpaperispre
bendtheotherwaybyfirstrollingit,andifyoublow
overitthan,itgoesdown.Thisisbecausetheairis
deflectedtheotherway.Airspeedisstillhigherabove
thesheet,sothatisnotcausingthelowerpressure."
PimGeurts.sailtheory.com
http://www.sailtheory.com/experiments.html
60."Finally,letsgobacktotheinitialexampleofaball
levitatinginajetofair.Thenaiveexplanationforthe
stabilityoftheballintheairstream,'becausepressure
inthejetislowerthanpressureinthesurrounding
atmosphere,'isclearlyincorrect.Thestaticpressurein
thefreeairjetisthesameasthepressureinthe
surroundingatmosphere..."MartinKamelaThinking
AboutBernoulliThePhysicsTeacherVol.45,
September2007
http://tpt.aapt.org/resource/1/phteah/v45/i6/p379_s1
61."Aysmmetricalflow(notBernoulli'stheorem)also
explainsliftonthepingpongballorbeachballthat
floatssomysteriouslyinthetiltedvacuumcleaner
exhaust..."NormanF.Smith,BernoulliandNewtonin
FluidMechanics"ThePhysicsTeacherNov1972p455
62."Bernoullistheoremisoftenobscuredby
demonstrationsinvolvingnonBernoulliforces.For
example,aballmaybesupportedonanupwardjetof
airorwater,becauseanyfluid(theairandwater)has
viscosity,whichretardstheslippageofonepartofthe
fluidmovingpastanotherpartofthefluid."Bauman,
RobertP."TheBernoulliConundrum"(PDF).Professor
ofPhysicsEmeritus,UniversityofAlabamaat
Birmingham.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)on
February25,2012.RetrievedJune25,2012.

63."Inademonstrationsometimeswronglydescribedas
showingliftduetopressurereductioninmovingairor
pressurereductionduetoflowpathrestriction,aballor
balloonissuspendedbyajetofair."Craig,GaleM.
"PhysicalPrinciplesofWingedFlight".Retrieved
March31,2016.
64."Asecondexampleistheconfinementofapingpong
ballintheverticalexhaustfromahairdryer.Weare
toldthatthisisademonstrationofBernoulli'sprinciple.
But,wenowknowthattheexhaustdoesnothavea
lowervalueofps.Again,itismomentumtransferthat
keepstheballintheairflow.Whentheballgetsnearthe
edgeoftheexhaustthereisanasymmetricflowaround
theball,whichpushesitawayfromtheedgeofthe
flow.Thesameistruewhenoneblowsbetweentwo
pingpongballshangingonstrings."Anderson&
EberhardtTheNewtonianDescriptionofLiftonaWing
http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/2001/pub/Pub01036E.pdf
65."Thisdemonstrationisoftenincorrectlyexplainedusing
theBernoulliprinciple.AccordingtotheINCORRECT
explanation,theairflowisfasterintheregionbetween
thesheets,thuscreatingalowerpressurecompared
withthequietairontheoutsideofthesheets.""Thin
MetalSheetsCoandaEffect".UniversityofMaryland
PhysicsLectureDemonstartionFacility.Archived
fromtheoriginalonJune23,2012.Retrieved
October23,2012.
66."AlthoughtheBernoullieffectisoftenusedtoexplain
thisdemonstration,andonemanufacturersellsthe
materialforthisdemonstrationas"Bernoullibags,"it
cannotbeexplainedbytheBernoullieffect,butrather
bytheprocessofentrainment.""Answer#256".
UniversityofMarylandPhysicsLecture
DemonstartionFacility.Archivedfromtheoriginalon
December13,2014.RetrievedDecember9,2014.

Furtherreading
Batchelor,G.K.(1967).AnIntroductiontoFluidDynamics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521663962.
Clancy,L.J.(1975).Aerodynamics.PitmanPublishing,London.ISBN0273011200.
Lamb,H.(1993).Hydrodynamics(6thed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521458689.Originallypublished
in1879the6thextendededitionappearedfirstin1932.
Landau,L.D.Lifshitz,E.M.(1987).FluidMechanics.CourseofTheoreticalPhysics(2nded.).PergamonPress.
ISBN0750627670.
Chanson,H.(2009).AppliedHydrodynamics:AnIntroductiontoIdealandRealFluidFlows.CRCPress,Taylor&
FrancisGroup.ISBN9780415492713.

Externallinks
Bernoulliequationcalculator(http://www.fxsolver.com/solve/share/P
bQFI7GERDpBd0fNakKRzA==/)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle#Incompressible_flow_equation

WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoBernoulli's
principle.
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DenverUniversityBernoulli'sequationandpressuremeasurement
(http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/bernoul.htm)
MillersvilleUniversityApplicationsofEuler'sequation(http://www.millersville.edu/~jdooley/macro/macr
ohyp/eulerap/eulap.htm)
NASABeginner'sguidetoaerodynamics(http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K12/airplane/bga.html)
MisinterpretationsofBernoulli'sequationWeltnerandIngelmanSundberg(http://user.unifrankfurt.de/~w
eltner/Misinterpretations%20of%20Bernoullis%20Law%202011%20internet.pdf)
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