Transformer Vector groups

First symbol/symbols, capital letters: HV winding connection.

Second symbol/symbols, small letters: LV winding connection.
Third symbol, number: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number.
Winding connection designations
High Voltage Always capital letters
Delta - D
Star - Y
Interconnected star - Z
Neutral brought out - N
Low voltage Always small letters
Delta - d
Star - y
Interconnected star - z
Neutral brought out - n
for auto transformer - a
Phase displacement
Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise. (international adopted convention)
Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there are 12
hours on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360, each hour represents 30.
Thus 1 = 30, 2 = 60, 3 = 90, 6 = 180 and 12 = 0 or 360.
The minute hand is set on 12 o'clock and replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes
imaginary) of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.
Because rotation is anti-clockwise, 1 = 30 lagging (LV lags HV with 30)and 11 = 330
lagging or 30 leading (LV leads HV with 30)
To summarise:
Dd0
Delta connected HV winding, delta connected LV winding, no phase shift between HV and
LV.
Dyn11
Delta connected HV winding, star connected LV winding with neutral brought out, LV is
leading HV with 30
YNd5
Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, delta connected LV winding, LV lags
HV with 150
YNa0d11
Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, auto transformer with 0
displacement. LV winding delta conected leading HV by 30
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The phase-bushings on a three phase transformer are marked either ABC, UVW or 123
(HV-side capital, LV-side small letters)
Two winding, three phase transformers can be devided into four main categories (Clock
hour number and phase displacement of those most frequently encountered in practice
in brackets)
Group
Group
Group
Group

I - (0 o'clock, 0) - delta/delta, star/star

II - (6 o'clock, 180) - delta/delta, star/star
III - (1 o'clock, -30) - star/delta, delta/star
IV - (11 o'clock, +30) - star/delta, delta/star

(Minus indicates LV lagging HV, plus indicates LV leading HV)

Group I
Example: Dd0 (no phase displacement between HV and LV)
The conventional method is to connect the red phase on A/a, Yellow phase on B/b, and
the Blue phase on C/c. Other phase displacements are possible with unconventional
connections (for instance red on b, yellow on c and blue on a) By doing some
unconventional connections externally on one side of the trsf, an internal connected Dd0
transformer can be changed either to a Dd4(-120) or Dd8(+120) connection. The
same is true for internal connected Dd4 or Dd8 transformers.
Group II
Example: Dd6 (180 displacement between HV and LV)
By doing some unconventional connections externally on one side of the trsf, an internal
connected Dd6 transformer can be changed either to a Dd2(-60) or Dd10(+60)
connection.
Group III
Example: Dyn1 (-30 displacement between HV and LV)
By doing some unconventional connections externally on one side of the trsf, an internal
connected Dyn1 transformer can be changed either to a Dyn5(-150) or Dyn9(+90)
connection.
Group IV
Example: Dyn11 (+30 displacement between HV and LV)
By doing some unconventional connections externally on one side of the trsf, an internal
connected Dyn11 transformer can be changed either to a Dyn7(+150) or Dyn3(-90)
connection.
Additional Note
By doing some unconventional connections externally on both sides of the trsf, an
internal connected groupIII or groupIV transformer can be changed to any of these two
groups. Thus, an internal connected Dyn1 transformer can be changed to either a:
Dyn3, Dyn5, Dyn7, Dyn9 or Dyn11 transformer, by doing external changes on both sides
of the trsf. This is just true for star/delta or delta/star connections.
Changes for delta/delta or star/star transformers between groupI and groupII can just
be done internally.
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Vector Groups
Transformer nameplates carry a vector group reference such at Yy0, Yd1, Dyn11 etc. This relatively
simple nomenclature provides important information about the way in which three phase windings are
connected and any phase displacement that occurs.
Winding Connections
HV windings are designated: Y, D or Z (upper case)
LV windings are designated: y, d or z (lower case)
Where:
Y or y indicates a star connection
D or d indicates a delta connection
Z or z indicates a zigzag connection
N or n indicates that the neutral point is brought out
Phase Displacement
The digits ( 0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings using a
clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and set at 12
o'clock. It then follows that:
Digit 0 means that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor
Digit 1 that it lags by 30 degrees
Digit 11 that it leads by 30 degrees
etc
All references are taken from phase-to-neutral and assume a counter-clockwise phase rotation. The
neutral point may be real (as in a star connection) or imaginary (as in a delta connection)
When transformers are operated in parallel it is important that any phase shift is the same through
each. Paralleling typically occurs when transformers are located at one site and connected to a
common busbar (banked) or located at different sites with the secondary terminals connected via
distribution or transmission circuits consisting of cables and overhead lines
Basic Theory
An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked by a
magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way round the coils
are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg as below:

In phase

180deg displacement

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When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil voltages
can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in the case of a
star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or not.
Example - Dyn11
We now know that this transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected
secondary (y) with the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11).
Connections and vector diagrams are as follows::
HV

LV

Other Configurations
By connecting the ends of the windings in other ways a wide range of options becomes available as
set out below.
Phase shift (deg)

Connections

Yy0

Dd0

Dz0

30 lag

Yd1

Dy1

Yz1

60 lag

Dd2

Dz2

120 lag

Dd4

Dz4

150 lag

Yd5

Dy5

Yz5

180 lag

Yy6

Dd6

Dz6

150 lead

Yd7

Dy7

Yz7

120 lead

Dd8

Dz8

60 lead

Dd10

Dz10

30 lead

Yd11

Dy11

Yz11

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Percentage Impedance (Z%)

The impedance of a transformer is marked on most nameplates - but what is it and what does the Z
% figure mean?
Definition
The percentage impedance of a transformer is the volt drop on full load due to the winding resistance
and leakage reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage.
It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage required to circulate full-load current under
short circuit conditions
Measuring Impedance
The impedance is measured by means of a short circuit test. With one winding shorted, a voltage at
the rated frequency is applied to the other winding sufficient to circulate full load current - see below:

The percentage impedance can then be calculated as follows:

Z% = Impedance Voltage x 100
Rated Voltage
Changing the Impedance Value
The most economical arrangement of core and windings leads to a 'natural' value of impedance
determined by the leakage flux. The leakage flux is a function of winding ampere turns and the area
and length of the leakage flux path. These can be varied at the design stage by changing the volts
per turn and the geometric relationship of the windings.
The Effect of Higher and Lower Impedances
The impedance of a transformer has a major effect on system fault levels. It determines the
maximum value of current that will flow under fault conditions.
It is easy to calculate the maximum current that a transformer can deliver under symmetrical fault
conditions. By way of example, consider a 2 MVA transformer with an impedance of 5%. The
maximum fault level available on the secondary side is:
2 MVA x 100/5 = 40 MVA
and from this figure the equivalent primary and secondary fault currents can be calculated.
A transformer with a lower impedance will lead to a higher fault level (and vice versa)
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The figure calculated above is a maximum. In practice, the actual fault level will be reduced by the
source impedance, the impedance of cables and overhead lines between the transformer and the
fault, and the fault impedance itself.
As well as fault level considerations, the impedance value also:
determines the volt drop that occurs under load - known as 'regulation'
affects load sharing when two or more transformers operate in parallel
Sequence Impedance (Z1 Z2 Z0)
The calculation above deals with a balanced 3-phase fault. Non-symmetrical faults (phase-earth,
phase-phase etc) lead to more complex calculations requiring the application symmetrical component
theory. This in turn involves the use of positive, negative and zero sequence impedances (Z 1, Z2 and
Z0 respectively).
As with all passive plant, the positive and negative sequence impedances (Z 1 and Z2) of a transformer
are identical.
However, the zero sequence impedance is dependent upon the path available for the flow of zero
sequence current and the balancing ampere turns available within the transformer. Generally, zero
sequence current requires a delta winding, or a star connection with the star point earthed. Any
impedance in the connection between the star point and earth increases the overall zero sequence
impedance. This has the effect of reducing the zero sequence current and is a feature that is
frequently put to practical use in a distribution network to control the magnitude of current that will
flow under earth fault conditions.

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Differential Protection
Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on the primary side of a transformer
with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists (other than that due to the voltage ratio) it
is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the plant is automatically disconnected by
tripping the relevant circuit breakers. The principle of operation is made possible by virtue of the fact
that large transformers are very efficient and hence under normal operation power-in equals powerout. Differential protection detects faults on all of the plant and equipment within the protected zone,
including inter-turn short circuits.
Principle of Operation
The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price circulating
current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1and I2 are equal and opposite such that
the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance or 'spill'
current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Design Objectives
An ideal scheme is required to be:
Extremely stable under through fault conditions
Very fast to operate for an internal fault
Design Considerations
A number of factors have to be taken into account in designing a scheme to meet these objectives.
These include:
The matching of CT ratios
Current imbalance produced by tap changing
Dealing with zero sequence currents
Phase shift through the transformer
Magnetising inrush current
Each of these is considered further below.
The Matching of CT Ratios
The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current
transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that the
currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Any
imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application of biased relays (see
below) and/or the use of the interposing CTs (see below).

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Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing

A transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (OLTC) will by definition experience a change in
voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of primary to
secondary current and produces out-of-balance (or spill) current in the relay. As the transformer taps
further from the balance position, so the magnitude of the spill current increases. To make the
situation worse, as the load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases
yet again. And finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay.
However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable ie. it
must not operate. Biased relays provide the solution (see below).
Dealing with Zero Sequence Currents
Earth faults down stream of the transformer may give rise to zero sequence current, depending upon
winding connections and earthing arrangements. Since zero sequence current does not pass
through a transformer, it will be seen on one side only producing spill current and possible relay
operation for an out-of-zone fault. To prevent such occurrence, zero sequence current must be
eliminated from the differential scheme. This is achieved by using delta connections on the
secondary side of any CTs that are associated with main transformer windings connected in star.
Where CT secondaries are connected in star on one side of a transformer and delta on the other,
allowance must be made for the fact that the secondary currents outside the delta will only be 1/3 of
the star equivalent.
Phase Shift Through the Transformer
Having eliminated the problem of zero sequence currents (see above) through faults will still produce
positive and negative sequence currents that will be seen by the protection CTs. These currents may
experience a phase shift as they pass through the transformer depending upon the transformer vector
group. CT secondary connections must compensate to avoid imbalance and a possible maloperation.
Magnetising Inrush Current
When a transformer is first energised, magnetising inrush has the effect of producing a high
magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could
be interpreted as an internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection
operation. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic
restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current.
Other Issues
Biased Relays
The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating times even
when a transformer is fitted with an on-load tapchanger (see above). The effect of the bias is to
progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the magnitude of through
current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer.

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Interposing CTs
The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where there
would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing CTs are equipped
with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance required.
As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the main CT
and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power transformer
being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta
connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary.
Modern Relays
It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs by
enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to be
programed directly into the relay

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Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

DGA is one of the most valuable diagnostic tools available. It is a procedure used to assess the
condition of an oil-filled transformer from an analysis of the gases dissolved in the cooling/insulating
medium. It is a well established technique that is cost effective, providing essential information from a
relatively simple, non-destructive test based upon oil sampling. Whilst the analysis is normally done
in a laboratory, on-line devices are also available. The results reveal much about the health of the
plant including its present condition, any changes that are taking place, the degradation effects of
overload, ageing, the inception of minor faults and the most likely cause of major failures.
Oil sampling from transformers is equivalent to blood sampling from humans.
It should be noted that a severe fault may also produce free gases that collect in the Buchholz relay.
This closely associated topic is dealt with in Tutorial T5
Taking an Oil Sample
It is important that oil samples are taken carefully to avoid contamination or the loss of gas.
Techniques vary from the use of syringes to kits made up from bungs, tubes and sealed bottles.
Opening a drain valve, filling a bucket and pouring the contents into a jar will not produce meaningful
results.
In the Laboratory
In the laboratory the mixture of gases must be extracted from the oil, for example by the application of
a vacuum. The mixture is then passed through a chromatograph where the individual components
are separated, identified and quantified. The results are normally presented in tabular form with each
gas listed together with the quantity found in parts per million (ppm) by volume.
Interpreting the Results
Interpreting the results is a specialist science. With knowledge and experience the results of a DGA
test can be used to produce a detailed and accurate profile of an individual item of plant. This is
made possible by the fact that different conditions within a transformer give rise to different quantities
and types of gas. For example, acetylene is only produced by arcing.
The Gases Measured
The main gases that are measured and their sources are as follows:
From the oil
Hydrogen
Methane
Ethane
Ethylene
Acetylene
From the paper
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide

H2
CH4
C2H6
C2H4
C2H2
CO2
CO

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The Application of DGA

DGA can be used in a variety of ways such as:
On-line sampling for continuous monitoring - see Catalogue
One-off sampling with the results checked against statistical norms
Periodic sampling of a single item to establish trends
Selective sampling of large numbers with statistical predictions for the remainder
Mass sampling on a routine basis to collect detailed historical data
Fault analysis after a Buchholz alarm or trip
Responding to Abnormal Results
Abnormal results are likely to require follow-up action in the form of more frequent sampling and
closer monitoring. Internal conditions that produce gases include over-heating, partial discharges and
arcing. Where discharges or arcing are taking place techniques that enable insulation defects to be
located with accuracy have reached an advanced stage of development - see Catalogue (Field
Services)
Other Information Available from Oil Sampling
This tutorial deals briefly with the subject of DGA. However, transformer oil contains a great deal
more information than is available from an understanding of the gases dissolved in it. Other
parameters that need to be taken into account include moisture content, acidity, dielectric strength,
the presence of furans etc. These are all important but outside the scope of this tutorial

Page 11 of 15

Moisture
The life of a transformer is dependent upon three crucial parameters; temperature, oxygen and
moisture. This tutorial deals with moisture. Information about the detrimental effects of oxygen is
given elsewhere.
Most power transformers use paper and oil as the main form of insulation and during manufacture
stringent efforts are made to ensure that both are as dry as possible when new plant leaves the
factory. Once in service the moisture content begins to increase. Excessive moisture can put the life
of a transformer at risk. It is important to understand the source of this moisture, its effect and the
preventive measures that can be taken.
Source of Moisture
Once in service a transformer is subjected to the following sources of moisture:
external - from the atmosphere
internal - from manufacture
internal - from cellulose (paper) ageing
External moisture is repeatedly drawn into a free-breathing transformer as the working temperature
rises and falls with load.
Internal moisture is generated as cellulose insulation ages. The process by which this occurs is
extremely complex but can be summarised as follows. Cellulose consists of long chains of hydrocarbons. When these chains are broken the carbon and hydrogen combine with any oxygen present
to form carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water. The gases are dissolved in the oil - see Tutorial
T3 DGA. The water remains largely in the paper where its presence contributes to further ageing as
a vicious cycle is established.
Effect of Moisture
Moisture reduces the dielectric strength of paper and oil which in turn increases the risk of electrical
failure. It also reduces the mechanical strength of the paper.
Since hot oil is able to support more moisture than cold oil, percentage saturation is temperature
dependent. If hot oil is cooled the relative saturation will increase and an emulsion of water and oil
may form. Free water may also be produced which will have a serious effect on dielectric strength
and can lead to the formation of rust where it collects, typically in the bottom of main tanks and
conservators.
Furthermore, when wet paper gets very hot, for example during a period of sustained over-loading,
the possibility of bubble formation arises. When this occurs moisture in the paper is boiled off as
water vapour introducing a risk of partial discharge and electrical breakdown.

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Moisture Dynamics
Moisture in a transformer is very dynamic, moving with temperature between the paper and the oil.
By far the greatest quantity is contained in the paper which acts like a sponge. The ratio of water in
paper to oil is about 1000:1 (reducing to 500:1 if the oil is old). As the temperature rises moisture
moves relatively rapidly from the paper to the oil. As the temperature falls the moisture moves back
into the paper, but more slowly.
After a period of prolonged steady temperature, the water in the paper and oil reaches equilibrium. At
that point by measuring the moisture content of the oil it is possible to estimate the quantity of water
in the paper from standard look-up tables. In a large transformer we are talking about tonnes of
paper, thousands of litres of oil and hundreds of litres of water.
Asset Management
Dealing with the problem of moisture in a transformer is a very important part of effective asset
management. For example:
Always record the temperature when an oil sample is taken for moisture analysis.
Never change oil because it is wet. The new oil will very quickly degrade to the same condition as
the old as moisture leaves the paper to re-establish a condition of equilibrium.
Consider:
(a) Careful oil sampling and testing
(b) The use of on-line moisture sensors
(c) Silica gel breather design, application and maintenance
(d) On-line conditioning and monitoring systems
(e) Devices that continuously remove moisture from the air-space in the conservator
(f) Continuous on-line moisture removal systems connected into the oil system
(g) Specialist field drying services using heat and vacuum.

Page 13 of 15

Buchholz Relays
A Buchholz relay is a gas and oil operated device installed in the pipework between the top of the
transformer main tank and the conservator. A second relay is sometimes used for the tapchanger
selector chamber. The function of the relay is to detect an abnormal condition within the tank and
send an alarm or trip signal. Under normal conditions the relay is completely full of oil. Operation
occurs when floats are displaced by an accumulation of gas, or a flap is moved by a surge of oil.
Almost all large oil-filled transformers are equipped with a Buchholz relay, first developed by Max
Buchholz in 1921.
General Arrangement
Front View

Rear View (Cover Removed)

A - Gas Collection Chamber

B - Upper Float
C - Lower Float
D - Oil Surge Detector

Conditions Detected
A Buchholz relay will detect:
Gas produced within the transformer
An oil surge from the tank to the conservator
A complete loss of oil from the conservator (very low oil level)
Fault conditions within a transformer produce gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and a range
of hydrocarbons (Tutorial T3). A small fault produces a small volume of gas that is deliberately
trapped in the gas collection chamber (A) built into the relay. Typically, as the oil is displaced a float
(B) falls and a switch operates - normally to send an alarm. A large fault produces a large volume of
gas which drives a surge of oil towards the conservator. This surge moves a flap (D) in the relay to
operate a switch and send a trip signal. A severe reduction in the oil level will also result in a float
falling. Where two floats are available these are normally arranged in two stages, alarm (B) followed
by trip (C).

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Gas and Oil Flows

Buchholz relays are equipped with a number of gas and oil inputs and outputs, including test and
sampling facilities

Gas sampling - a graduated sight glass provides an indication of the volume of gas that has
accumulated, typically 100-400cm3. After an alarm or trip signal has been received this must be
collected and analysed before the transformer is returned to service. Gas collection can be done at
the relay, or at ground level if suitable arrangements exist. Clearly the latter is a safer and more
convenient option.
Functional Tests - a test petcock enables dry air to be admitted into the relay to check correct
operation. A trickle of air is equivalent to a gradual accumulation of gas. A blast simulates an oil
surge. These tests are sometimes referred to as 'blowing the Buchholz'. On completion it is
important that the relay is bled to remove the air that has been introduced.
Draining - a valve in the bottom of the relay enables an oil sample to be taken or the relay to be
drained. As with gas sampling, this facility can be brought down to ground level for enhanced
operator safety and convenience.
Accessories
A range of accessories and services are available to assist with the safe and correct operation of
Buchholz relays including:
Ground level oil and gas sampling kits
Gas sampling devices - automatic
Gas sampling devices - manual
On-site gas testers - simple air/fault gas analysis
On-site gas testers - complex fault gas composition
Relay test kits
Recalibration

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