Outline

Present state and future needs

Common approaches for doing something
different
Examples in fundamental research
Examples in technology development

:
Development & Innovation in
Geotechnical Research: A Few
Examples
Chu Jian
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

06 April 2010 at Hohai University

1

Present state and future need

Approaches

Soil mechanics has not fully developed into a

proper branch of science yet
There are new demands for new knowledge to
support
pp new development
p
and new challenges
g
R&D works are still carried out by adopting
traditional geotechnical engineering approaches
Need a multiple disciplinary approach for
innovation or development of new knowledge
New emphasis on sustainability development

Challenge established
Be critical you must have sound
fundamentals
Check
Ch k alternatives
lt
ti

Be innovative
Merge different technologies
Be open minded
3

Dense sand
Deviator stress

Strain softening

Loose sand

Volumetric strain

Same 3

Example 1: Challenge established

STRAIN SOFTENING

+ compression

Axial strain%

-Old concept
Drained
behaviour of
sand in triaxial
tests

-- dilation
5

Is there strain softening?

R = 1/3

Strain softening is referred to as a behaviour where

the shear resistance (or shear stress) reduces with
continuous development of plastic shear strains.
So we cannot use stress path tests to study strain
softening.
softening
Can we do strain path tests? How?
Can strain softening be observed in strain path
tests?

After Ch
Aft
Chu and
dL
Lo
(GTJ, 1993)

What it should be: There is no strain softening in

traixial CD tests even for dense sand.

Depending on the
strain path dv/d1,
dense sand can
behave like loose
sand.

Strain path tests

One way to do strain path test is to control the strain
incremental ratio, e.g., dv/d1
It also offers a way to model drainage conditions
other than drained or undrained

dv/ d1 = -0.67
on dense sand

> 0, Compression
= 0, Undrained
< 0, Dilation

10

Strain softening in strain path testing

0.6
1.0

0.68

0.7

Void Ratio, ec
0.8

0.9

1.0

Hardening Region

d / d1

0.5
0.0

dv/d1 = -0.11 for

dense sand

-0.4

-0.5

C1

C0
ecr = 0.884
dv/d1 = 0.0

C2

-1.0

Softening Region

pc' = 200 kPa

Strain Hardening
Strain Softening
Boundary
Critical Point

-1.5
15

200

400

pc' (kPa)

600

800

1000

0.5
0.0

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5

Hardening Region

1.0

Softening Region

Strain softening
is controlled by
strain path

d / d1

Strain
path dv/d1
testing

Medium Dense Sand

(ec = 0.68 0.71)

Strain Hardening
Strain Softening
Boundary

Softening softening
surface

12

I
Introduction

Example 2: Challenge established

EFFECT OF TOTAL STRESS

PATH ON UNDRAINED
BEHAVIOUR

Type

13

Axial stress, a

Lateral stress, r

dq/dp

Axial compression (AC)

da >0

dr = 0

Lateral extension (LE)

da = 0

dr < 0

-3/2

Axial extension (AE)

da < 0

dr = 0

90

Lateral compression (LC)

da = 0

dr > 0

-3/2

90

AE and LC Results on very loose

MT specimens

Bishop and Wesley (1976

15

Why? How to model?

Three possible reasons for the test results:
Wrong testing data
The effective stress principle may not be valid
There is no unique relationship between strain path
and
d ((effective)
ff ti ) stress
t
path,
th i.e.,
i
for
f a given
i
strain
t i path,
th
the resulting stress path can be different (although
the asymptotic behaviour is still path dependent).
If so, what are the factors causing the differences?
How to model it using a constitutive model?

Methods of calculation
Method 1:
Method 2:

Example 3: Be critical

where:

INCREASE IN UNDRAINED
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
DUE TO CONSOLIDATION
19

Two Sets of Failure Equations

20

Alternative method

For effective stress analysis:

f = c + (nf u) tan
F total
For
t t l stress
t
analysis:
l i

f = cu + nf tanu
c & , or cu (& u=0) are shear strength
parameters of soil and need to be determined by either
lab or in-situ tests

cu = (c/p)v

(cu/ v0 )OC = (cu/ v0 )NCOCRm

21

We can establish the above relationship based on the FVT

before consolidation.
22

Example

0
Initial
30 days
60 days
90 days

2
4
6
Elevation (m)

ue
uh + ue0

uo(z)

8
10
12
14

ue

ue

us(z)

16
18
20
-100 -50

50

100 150 200 250

Pore water pressure (kPa)

23

v = 75 kPa
cu = 75 x 0.22 = 16.5 kPa

24

Retaining wall for layered

soil

Example 4: Check alternatives

EARTH PRESSURE
CALCULATION
25

26

Earth pressure calculation

Using cu: Pa=279 kN/m
Use = 25o for clay
Ka = 0.4
D = Kav = 29 kPa
E = Kav = 42 kPa
uE = whw = 60 kPa

uE

Example 5: Be innovative

Using :
Pa = 329 kN/m
Pa can be even bigger!
or smaller
with drains!

BIOCEMENT & MICROBIAL

GEOTECHNOLOGY

27

Biocement

28

Microbial Geotechnology

Scanning Electron
Micrograph (SEM) to show
the mineralization of calcite
onto sandy grains.

Sand grain

is a new branch of Geotechnical Engineering

aiming to improve the mechanical properties
of soil so that it will be more suitable for
construction, environmental purposes, as
well as for ddisaster mitigation and coastal
management.

Slime bonding

Bonding of sand
grains by slime

Sand grain

Two Approaches

Applications

Bioclogging is the production of pore-filling

materials through microbial activity so that
the porosity and hydraulic conductivity of
soil can be reduced.
Biocementation is generation of particlebinding materials through microbial so that
the strength and stiffness of soil can be
increased.
Some methods exert combined effects of the
two approaches.

Advantages of biocement
It consumes much less energy and is more
environmentally friendly, as biocement made of
naturally occurring microorganisms and could be used
to replace energy intensive cement and other chemical
products;
The construction processes can be much simplified, as
the biocement can be used in either liquid or powder
form and the microorganisms can reproduce and
spread themselves in-situ without using intensive
mechanical mixing;
It is much more cost effective, as the biocement costs
much less to produce and the construction processes
is simpler.

Bioclogging:
To form curtains to reduce the mitigation of
pollutants in soils
To prevent piping of earth dams and dikes
g
reservoir leakage
g
To mitigate
Biocementation:
To control erosion
To reduce liquefaction potential
To enhance stability of slopes and dams
To increase bearing capacity of foundations

Biogrouts
The possible biogrouting methods include:
Ferrous/ferric- containing solution produced by
iron-reducing bacteria from iron ore
Exopolysaccharides
E
l
h id produced
d
db
by oligotrophic
li
hi
bacteria
Conventional biogrout containing calcium
chloride, urea, and urease-producing bacteria

33

Unconfined Compre
essive Strength (kPa)

Increase in strength of sand by

biocementation

Pictures of the samples

Sand columns treated by microbial polysaccharides (left)
and by ferrous salts produced by iron-reducing bacteria
from iron ore (right)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200

Wet Samples

Dry Samples

0
0

10

12

14

Mass CaCl2/Mass Sand (%)

using CaCO3 precipitation method

Application-1: Water pond in

desert

Hydraulic conductivity
(Fe(OH)2 precipitation method)

38

Application--2: Mitigation of
Application
liquefaction damages

S av . = 64 cm

The effect of partial saturation

5m

10m

TA-102

0m

7m
Improved by
vibroflotation method

Reclimed sand
Alluvial clay

-10m

Recent studies have shown that liquefaction

potential of sand can be largely reduced by
introducing a small portion of gas into the soil.
The presence of gas bubbles could reduce the
pore water pressure generated, and hence
improve the stability against liquefaction.
One of the most convenient way to introduce
gas bubbles in sand is to use micro-organisms.
Denitrification is one of the processes adopted
by He Jia.

Diluvial gravel
-20m

0m

50m

100m

39
-30m

Denitrification process

Use gas bubbles to

increase resistance
to liquefaction of
loose sand

Denitrifying bacteria are used to produce nitrogen gas

from nitrate. Denitrifying bacteria are heterotrophic
anaerobic microbes. The reaction equation is:
5 C 2H 5O H + 12 K N O 3 = 6 N

+ 10C O 2 + 9H 2O + 12K O H

Besides the chemicals mentioned above,

above some other
chemicals need to be add into the media for the growth
of the bacteria.
In both cultivation and sampling stage, anaerobic
condition should be ensured.
In both cultivation and sampling stage, one batch of
cultivation lasts two days.

No more
compaction?

42

Microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC)

Pigeon poo blamed for deadly Minnesota bridge collapse.
A bridge collapse in America, which killed 13 people, has been
blamed on a build of pigeons' poo. Experts say that the birds'
droppings deposited over the bridge's framework helped the
steel beams to rust faster through bacterial formation of
ammonium and its bacterial oxidation to nitric acid.
NH4+ + 2 O2 NO3- + 2H+ + H2O
Nitric acid

This could be a result of bacteria effect

43
Photo: Aaron Becker

Daily Mail , 08/27/2007

Reclamation in deeper water

Example 6: Be innovative

UNDERWATER CITY

45

46

Objectives
To develop a new space creation approach NEUSpace (NEw
Underwater Space) to make use of the sea space to construct
underwater infrastructure and at the same time use the top-side of
the infrastructures as reclaimed land.

Underwater City built using seawalls

A underwater city in Bulgaria. Diameter = 459 m and depth = 22 m

http://www.techeblog.com/index.php/tech-gadget/underwater-city)

Suction caisson method

Underwater hotels in Dubai

(http://weburbanist.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/underwater-hotel-3d-diagram.jpg

52

Construction

After Anderson 2005

53

54

Cost Estimation for Oil Storage

Method for
space creation
Construction
cost S$/ m3
storage space

Underwater structure

Cavern

$82 (by assuming the total cost is 2

$242
(actual cost
in Spore)

times of material cost)

$11 to $34 /m3 (after subtracting

the cost for reclamation the land on top

Reclaimed
Land for oil
tanks
$600 to $900
(actual cost in
HK)

Example 7: Merge different technologies

SOIL IMPROVEMENT
METHODS
56

Use of jet-grouting layer for

excavation in soft clay

NicollHighwayfailurein
Singapore

JMM application in deep

excavation

Reconstructionofthe
NicollHighwayStationin
Singapore(Osborneand
Ng08)

Jet mechanical mixing (JMM)

method

Itcombinesjetgroutingwithcementmixing
toforagroutslabatthebottomandcement
mixedpileontop(OsborneandNg08)

Hybrid or Bi-modulus method

Peat
CMC displacement aurger

CMC bottom

Stone columns top

TSM drilling tool

Thelowerpartofthecolumnisperformedbycontrolled
moduluscolumns(CMC)andtheupperpartbystonecolumns.

10

Can PVD be recycled?

Example 8: Be open minded

USE OF PLASTIC WASTE

61

62

Plastic + Soil Specimens

Unconfined compressive strength

Pros & Cons of using plastic waste

It is not cost effective to remove PVDs at the

moment
It is not cost-effective to use plastic waste as
a construction materials
However, the method offers a better solution
for fast repair of runways or roads.

65

66

11