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recognition, responsibility, and advancement. The key factor that differentiates TwoFactor Theory is the idea of expectation.
According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse
relationship. This is to say that intrinsic motivators tend to inspire motivation when
they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they
are absent. This is because of expectation. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary,
benefits) are expected and so will not increase motivation when they are in place,
but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g.,
challenging work), on the other hand, can be a source of additional motivation.
If management wants to increase employees' job satisfaction, they should be
concerned with the nature of the work itselfthe opportunities it presents
employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving selfrealization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction,
then it must focus on the job environmentpolicies, procedures, supervision, and
working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must
pay attention to both sets of job factors.
In 1968 Herzberg stated that his two-factor theory study had already been
replicated 16 times in a wide variety of populations including some in Communist
countries, and corroborated with studies using different procedures that agreed with
his original findings regarding intrinsic employee motivation making it one of the
most widely replicated studies on job attitudes.
One such replication was done by George H. Hines and published in December 1973
in the Journal of Applied Psychology. Hines tested Herzberg's two-factor motivation
theory in New Zealand, using ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction
obtained from 218 middle managers and 196 salaried employees. Contrary to
dichotomous motivator-hygiene predictions, supervision and interpersonal
relationships were ranked highly by those with high job satisfaction, and there was
strong agreement between satisfied managers and salaried employees in the
relative importance of job factors. Findings are interpreted in terms of social and
employment conditions in New Zealand
religious realm, but not exclusively found there. Charisma knows no formal and
regulated appointment or dismissal, no career, advancement, or salary, no
supervisory or appeals body, no local or purely technical jurisdiction, and no
permanent institutions in the manner of bureaucratic agencies. Furthermore,
charisma is a highly individual quality. Robert Tucker adds that in Webers usage,
the possessor of charismatic authority, who may be a religious, political, military,
or other kind of leader, is in essence a saviorleader or one perceived as such
(1977). Tucker explains that a leader who comes forward in a distressful situation
and presents himself or herself in a convincing way to the sufferers as one who can
lead them out of their distress by virtue of special personal characteristics or
formula for salvation may arouse their intense loyalty and enthusiastic willingness
to take the path the leader is pointing out. Furthermore, charismatic leadership
carries potential hazards as well as benefits depending on the time, place, and
what means and ends are involved. This is because for Weber, the charismatic
leader goes against tradition, generates new things, and changes points of
reference or frameworks, but can also be subversive, irrational, and unstable. In
addition, there is a focus on the present moment. Charismatic leadership therefore
carries within itself its own demise for it cannot last forever. There are eventually
problems with the routinization and succession of charisma. In order to understand
charismatic leadership more fully beyond what has been presented so far,
particularly with regard to its appeal and limitations, the next section delves more
deeply into the psychological, social, and arismatic leadership. relational dimensions
of charismatic leadership
On the other hand, Transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own
self-interests for the good of the organization and are capable of having a profound
and extraordinary effect on their followers. They pay attention to the concerns and
needs of individual followers, promote intelligence, provide vision and a sense of
mission, communicate high expectations, and can change followers awareness of
issues by helping them to look at older issues in new ways. They are also able to
excite, arouse, and encourage followers to put extra effort into achieving group
goals .They encourage their followers to be more innovative and creative.
According to Bass (1990), transformational leadership is characterized by several
patterns of behavior. First, transformational leadership employs the charisma of
leaders in order to gain the respect and trust of stakeholders and to instill pride in
the latter. In addition, charisma underlines the provision of a common vision and
sense of mission necessary for the transformation. The second characteristic is
inspiration through which leaders employ symbols to redirect followers efforts; they
express in a simplistic manner the fundamental purpose of the transformation
process, and clearly communicate the accompanying higher expectations. The third
characteristic is intellectual stimulation. Leaders intellectually stimulate employees
by emphasizing rationality and creativity in problem-solving situations. Finally,
thus clearly accentuates the meaningfulness of the consequences of each action for
the organization and its stakeholders (Grant, 2010). In so doing, the
transformational leader encourages others to adopt the transformation process as
their-own and thus allows for the attainment of the targeted transformation. To put
it sharply, the success of the transformational leaders is defined by their ability to
offer others something that goes beyond self-interest: they provide other with an
inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity (Geib and Swenson, 2013).
Some people argue that charisma is a part of transformational leadership, while
others believe charisma by itself is too broad and insufficient to account for the
transformational process. Some may believe charismatic leaders may want
followers to adopt the charismatic world view and go no further while the
transformational leader will attempt to implant the ability to question established
views and those established by the leader. Though researchers believe
transformational leadership is broader than charismatic leadership, tests indicate
that leaders who score higher in transformational leadership are also likely to score
high in charisma. So, in practice transformational and charismatic leadership are
more or less equal.
Charismatic and transformational leaders are from all walks of life. In addition to
business, this leadership style can be found in religious institutions and political and
social movements.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a charismatic leader who used powerful oratory, an
engaging personality, and unwavering commitment to positive change in the lives
of millions of people.
Born in 1929, Dr. King followed in the footsteps of his father as a Baptist minister.
He started his civil rights career as the leader of the bus boycott the night that Rosa
Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama. Dr. Kings powerful speeches and
belief in peaceful protest put energy into the civil rights movement. In January 1957,
he and several others founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In
1960, Dr. King gained national notoriety for his arrest at a lunch counter sit-in,
which came to the attention of presidential candidate John F. Kennedy. He was soon
released and went on to have even greater influence in the fight for civil rights.
Martin Luther King, Jr.s speeches ignited smaller movements for equal rights
through the American South and beyond. Dr. King is best known for the August 28,
1963, march on Washington that drew more than 200,000 people. At that march, he
delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech. The following year, the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 was passed
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in 1911. He gained fame as an actor after signing a
seven-year movie contract with Warner Brothers in 1937. During World War ll, he
made training films for the military. Although he served as president of the Screen
Actors Guild, a labor union, Reagans political views shifted from liberal to
conservative in the 1950s.
He began giving motivational talks to businesses and moved to the national stage in
1964, when he gave a well-received televised speech for Barry Goldwater. He ran
for president beginning in 1968 and won in 1980. President Reagan was able to
articulate his political vision in ways that appealed to his followers. Along with Teddy
Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy, Reagan is recognized as one of the most charismatic
American presidents of the 20th century.
strength. The results from this study suggest that, although ILTs differ depending on
the individual, this variation may be systematic and, at times, predictable.