Flow Measurements

Obstruction Flow Meters

Pitot/Pitot-Static Tubes
Turbine, Paddlewheel, Vortex,
Ultrasonic, and Magnetic Flow Meters
Mass Flow Meters
Hot-wire/Hot-film
LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometer)
PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry)
Flow Visualization

Obstruction Meters
Orifice Meters
Inexpensive
Easy to install
Large pressure losses

Venturi Meters
High accuracy
Expensive to construct
Good pressure recovery

Flow Nozzles
Difficult to install properly
High Accuracy
Good Pressure recovery

Governing Equations
Conservation of Mass
(Incompressible Flow)
(VA)1 = (VA)2
Equation of Motion
(Assuming no friction)
P 2 P1 V V
=
+ g ( z 2 z1 )

2
2
2

2
1

Principle of Operation-Bernoulli Eqn.

2( P P )

Cd A2
1
2

Q=

1 ( A2 A1 )2

where
A1 = pipe/inlet flow area
A 2 = orifice/constriction flow area
P1 and P2 = Pressure at A1and A 2 , respectively.
C d = Coefficient of Discharge = f(Reynolds Number)

Coefficient of Discharge Values

Orifice Flow Meters
Cd0.62

Nozzle Flow Meters

Cd0.96

Venturi Flow Meters

Cd0.98

Laminar Flow Meter

Correlating pressure drop in laminar flow conditions to
flow rate
Incompressible Newtonian Fluid (friction velocity gradient)
Steady Flow Conditions
Fully Developed, Laminar Flow (Re<2000)
L (required)=0.05Red d

Low pressure drop across these devices

Honeycomb or
capillary tube
bundles

Governing Equations
P d 4
Q=
128 L
where

Qactual

Q = flow rate, m /s
d = hydraulic diamete, m
P = pressure drop, Pa
= viscosity, Pa s
L = pipe length, m
3

cal .
= Qcalibrated
act .

**Correction needed for

use with different gasses
or at a different
temperature.

Pitot-Static Tubes

Principle of Operation
Assumes:

Bernoulli Equation
P+

V 2
2

+ gz = cons tan t

Steady flow
Incompressible flow
Frictionless flow
Flow along streamline

Apply Bernoulli equations at any two points on a streamline.

Meaning we will assume no change in elevation.
Stagnation Velocity is zero.

V=

2( Pstagnation P)

fluid

2 gh( manometer fluid )

fluid

Other examples of Pitot-Static Tubes

Pitot-Static Applications

Rotameter / Variable Area Meter

Force balance
Drag Force
Gravity
Buoyancy
(usually negligible)

Calibrated for a
specific fluid
**Correction need for different fluids.

m use = m cal

use
cal

Principle of Operation
Fdrag + Fbuoyancy = W float (Force Balance)

Fdrag = C D

V A frontal
2

Fdrag + fluidV float g = floatV float g

Turbine Flow Meters

Cost=$1500
Accuracy=0.5%

Commonly used in pipe flows (liquids or gases).

Rotational speed of turbine is proportional to velocity.

Paddlewheel Flow Sensors

Vortex Meters

Magnetic Flowmeter

Coriolis Mass Flow Meter

Why Coriolis flow meters?

Highly Accurate (0.1% to 0.5%Reading)

Reliable
Minimal pressure drop
Easy to use
Flexible
Mass flow rate, volume density, viscosity,
temperature
Measure liquids, gases, slurries.

Coriolis Effect
Tube Vibration:
Process fluid entering the
sensor causes the tubes to
oscillate up and down and
with a twist.

Sensor Operation
Magnet and coil assemblies,
called pick-offs, are mounted on
the flow tubes. Wire coils are
mounted on the side legs of one
flow tube, and magnets are
mounted on the side legs of the
opposing flow tube.
Each coil moves through the
uniform magnetic field of the
adjacent magnet. The voltage
generated from each pickoff coil
creates a sine wave. Because the
magnets are mounted on one
tube, and the coils on the
opposing tube, the sine waves
generated represent the motion
of one tube relative to the other.

No flow condition
Both pickoffs - the one on the
inlet side and the one on the
outlet side - generate sine
wave current continuously
when the tubes are
oscillating. When there is no
flow, the sine waves are in
phase.
During no flow condition
there is no Coriolis effect.
Sine waves are in phase with
each other.

Flow ConditionCoriolis Effect

When fluid is moving through the
sensor's tubes, Coriolis forces are
induced. These forces cause the flow
tubes to twist in opposition to each other.
When the tube is moving upward during
half of its vibration cycle, the fluid flowing
into the sensor resists moving upward, by
pushing down on the tube.
Having the tube's upward momentum as
it travels around the bend, the fluid
flowing out of the sensor resists having its
vertical motion decreased by pushing up
on the tube. This causes the tube to twist.
Higher the flow, the greater the twist.

Hot Wire or Hot Film Anemometer

Normally used to measure velocities in flows
where a pitot tube is inadequate.
Turbulent or rapidly
varyingSensor
flows
dimensions:
Current I
length ~1 mm
diameter ~5 micrometer

Wire supports
(St.St. needles)

Velocity U
Sensor (thin wire)

Thermal Anemometers
In addition to velocity, the following can be
measured: temperature, density, concentration in
binary gas mixtures, wall shear stress, vorticity,
pressure, heat flux, etc. Sensors can also be used
to detect boundary layer transition and flow
separation.

Principles of operation
Consider a thin wire mounted to supports and exposed to a
velocity U.
When a current is passed through wire, heat is generated
(I2Rw). In equilibrium, this must be balanced by heat loss
(primarily convective) to the surroundings.

I R = hA(Twire T fluid )
2

If velocity changes,
convective heat transfer
coefficient will change,
wire temperature will
change and eventually
reach a new equilibrium.

Rwire = Rwire(Twire)

Modes of anemometer operation

Constant Current (CCA)

-Rarely used.
Constant Temperature (CTA)
-Used almost exclusively in modern equipment

Constant Current Anemometer

A CCA (Constant Current Anemometer) circuit is an electronic
circuit designed to supply a constant current flow to the
sensor. The current level is usually quite low, so that the
sensor does not become heated. However, as the
temperature of the fluid surrounding the sensor changes, the
sensor temperature also changes. This causes the sensor
resistance to change a well. Together, with the constant
current through the sensor, the voltage across the sensor will
vary in proportion to the sensor resistance (temperature).

Constant current anemometer CCA

Principle:
Current through
sensor is kept
constant

Advantages:
- High frequency
response

Disadvantages:
- Difficult to use
- Output decreases with velocity
- Risk of probe burnout

Typically used in low-turbulence flows.

Constant Temperature Anemometer

A CTA (Constant Temperature Anemometer) circuit is an
electronic circuit designed to keep the resistance in the
probe sensor constant. The resistance level is chosen to be
higher than the sensor resistance at ambient conditions,
and so the temperature of the sensor will be higher than
ambient. By maintaining a constant (higher) resistance in
the sensor, the circuit also maintains the sensor at a
constant (and higher) temperature.

Constant Temperature Anemometer CTA I

Principle:
Sensor resistance
is kept constant by
servo amplifier

Advantages:
- Easy to use
- High frequency
response
- Low noise
- Accepted standard

Disadvantages:
- More complex circuit

Heat Transfer to Fluid and Surroundings

Heat transferred to surroundings

H
Convection

( convection to fluid
= +conduction to supports
+ radiation to surroundings)

Qc = Nu A (Tw -Ta)
Nu = h d/kf = f (Re, Pr, M, Gr, ),
Re = U/

Conduction

f(Tw , lw , kw, Tsupports)

Radiation

f(Tw4 - Tf4)

Simplified static analysis

Assumptions
Radiation losses small, or essentially the same between use and
calibration.
Conduction to wire supports small
Twire uniform over length of sensor
Velocity impinges normally on wire, and is uniform over its entire
length, and also small compared to sonic speed.
Fluid temperature and density constant. If not compensations
must be made.
Measurements near sonic speed require special considerations.

Simplified static analysis II

Static heat transfer: heat transfer increases with Reynolds Number

W =H
h
A
d
kf
Nu

I2Rw = hA(Tw -Ta)

I2Rw = Nuk f /d A (Tw -Ta)

= film coefficient of heat transfer

= heat transfer area
= wire diameter
= heat conductivity of fluid
= dimensionless heat transfer coefficient

Forced convection regime, i.e. Re >Gr 1/3 (0.02 in air) and Re<140

Nu = A 1 + B 1 Ren = A 2+ B 2 Un
I2Rw 2 = E2 = (Tw -Ta)(A + B Un )

n=1/2
Kings law

The voltage drop is used as a measure of velocity.

Plot of I2 versus U1/2 should be linear

Example of Plots and Coefficients

Velocity sensitivity (Kings law coeff. A = 1.51, B = 0.811, n = 0.43)

2,4

E volts

2,2

1,8
1,6
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

U m /s

Output voltage as function of velocity

40

Probe types I
Miniature Wire Probes
Platinum-plated tungsten,
5 m diameter, 1.2 mm length

Gold-Plated Probes
3 mm total wire length,
1.25 mm active sensor
copper ends, gold-plated
Advantages:
- accurately defined sensing length
-reduced heat dissipation by the prongs
- more uniform temperature distribution
along wire
- less probe interference to the flow field

Probe types II
For optimal frequency response, the probe should have as small a
thermal inertia as possible.

Important considerations:
Wire length should be as short as possible (spatial resolution;
want probe length << eddy size)
Aspect ratio (l/d) should be high (to minimize effects of end losses)
Wire should resist oxidation until high temperatures (want to
operate wire at high T to get good sensitivity, high signal to noise
ratio)
Temperature coefficient of resistance should be high (for high
sensitivity, signal to noise ratio and frequency response)
Wires of less than 5 m diameter cannot be drawn with reliable
diameters

Probe types III

Film Probes
Thin metal film (nickel) deposited on quartz
body. Thin quartz layer protects metal film
against corrosion, wear, physical damage,
electrical action

Fiber-Film Probes
Hybrid - film deposited on a thin
wire-like quartz rod (fiber) split fiber-film
probes.

Probe types IV
X-probes for 2D flows
2 sensors perpendicular to each other.
Measures within 45o.

Split-fiber probes for 2D flows

2 film sensors opposite each other on a
quartz cylinder. Measures within 90o.

Tri-axial probes for 3D flows

3 sensors in an orthogonal system.
Measures within 70o cone.

Hints to select the right probe

Use wire probes whenever possible
relatively inexpensive
better frequency response
can be repaired

Use film probes for rough environments

more rugged
worse frequency response
cannot be repaired
electrically insulated
protected against mechanical and
chemical action

Laser Doppler Anemometry

Introduction to principles and applications

Characteristics of LDA

Invented by Yeh and Cummins in 1964

Velocity measurements in Fluid Dynamics (gas, liquid)
Up to 3 velocity components
Non-intrusive measurements (optical technique)
Absolute measurement technique (no calibration
required)
Very high accuracy
Very high spatial resolution due to small measurement
volume
Tracer particles are required
Cost is $50,000 to $100,000

Applications of LDA

Laminar and turbulent flows

Investigations on aerodynamics
Supersonic flows (to Mach 8)
Boundary layer flows
Turbines, automotive etc.
Liquid flows
Surface velocity and vibration measurement
Hot environments (Flames, Plasma etc.)
Highly corrosive environments
Velocity of particles

Flow with particles (seed particles)

Signal
Processor

d (known)

t (measured)

Detector

Time

Bragg
Cell

Laser

measuring volume
backscattered light

LDA - Fringe Model

Focused Laser beams intersect and form the measurement
volume.
Interference in the plane of intersection (see overhead)
Pattern of bright and dark stripes/planes. Fringe spacing, s,
depends on intersection angle and wavelength=> fringe
spacing is known.

s=

2 sin( / 2)

= wavelength of laser
= angle between beams

LDA - Optical Principle

Incident beams

Incident beams

If fringe distance, s, is
known, then the particle will
cross U/s fringes per
second. The particle will
generate a signal of
frequency, f =U/s.

Direction of motion

When a particle passes through the intersection volume (interference

fringes) formed by the two coherent laser beams, the scattered light
received by a detector has components from both beams.
The components interfere on the surface of the detector.
Due to changes in the difference between the optical path lengths of the two
components this interference produces pulsating light intensity as the
particle moves through the measurement volume.

Signal Characteristics

Frequency of Doppler signal is proportional to velocity.

Beams are stronger in the center (hence the shape).
Sources of noise in the LDA signal:

Photodetection shot noise.

Secondary electronic noise, thermal noise from preamplifier circuit
Higher order laser modes (optical noise).
Light scattered from outside the measurement volume, dirt, scratched windows,
ambient light, multiple particles, etc.
Unwanted reflections (windows, lenses, mirrors, etc).

Goal: Select laser power, seeding, optical parameters, etc. to maximize the SNR.

Measurement of water flow inside a pump model

Photo courtesy of Grundfos A/S, DK

Measurement of flow field around a 1:5 scale

car model in a wind tunnel

Photo courtesy of Mercedes-Benz, Germany

Measurement of air flow field

around a ship model in a wind
tunnel

Photo courtesy of University of Bristol, UK

Measurement of flow in a valve

model

Photo courtesy of Westschsische Hochschule Zwickau, Germany

Particle Image Velocimetry

Systems (PIV)
PIV systems measure velocity by determining particle
displacement over time using a double-pulsed laser
method.
A laser light sheet iluminates a plane in the flow, and the
positions of the particles are recorded using a digital or
film cameral. A fraction of a second later, another laser
pulse illuminates the same plane, creating a second
particle image.
The two particle images are analyzed using computational
tools and algorithms. Yielding flow properties such as
mean velocity, vorticity, strain rate, and turbulence level.

PIV-Particle Image Velocimetry

Fundamentals of stereoscopic PIV

systems
Two cameras view this plane at different angles and capture
particle displacement images that also contain the influence of the
third velocity component. Innovative data reduction techniques
provide the true particle displacements and on-line display of the
3-D velocity vector field.
Displacement
seen from left

True
displacement

Displacement
seen from right

Focal plane =
Centre of
light sheet

45

Left
camera

45

Right
camera

True 3D displacement (X,Y,Z) is estimated from a pair of 2D displacements (x,y) as seen from left and right camera respectively

Overlapping fields of view

3D evaluation is
possible only within the
area covered by both
cameras.
Due to perspective
distortion each camera
covers a trapezoidal
region of the light
sheet.

Left camera's
field of view

Right camera's
field of view
0.10

0.05
Overlap area
0.0

-0.05

-0.10

Careful alignment is
required to maximize
the overlap area.

-0.15

-0.20

Interrogation grid is
chosen to match the
spatial resolution.

-0.20

-0.10

0.00

0.10

0.20

Stereo recording geometry

Focusing an off-axis
camera requires tilting
of the CCD-chip
(Scheimpflug
condition)

Object plane
(Lightsheet
plane)

Object
coordinates
(X,Y,Z)

3D evaluation requires
a numerical model,
describing how objects
in space are mapped
onto the CCD-chip of Left image
coordinates
each camera

Right image
coordinates
(x,y)

(x,y)

Parameters for the

numerical model are
determined through
camera calibration

Lens plane
left & right
Image plane
left & right

Left / Right 2D vector maps

Left & Right camera
images are recorded
simultaneously.
Conventional PIV
processing produce
2D vector maps
representing the flow
field as seen from
left & right.
The vector maps are
re-sampled in points
corresponding to the
interrogation grid.
Combining left / right
results, 3D velocities
are estimated.

3D reconstruction
Overlap area with
interrogation grid
Resulting 3D vector map

Left 2D vector map

Right 2D vector map

Recipe for a 3D-PIV experiment

Record calibration images in the desired measuring position

(Target and traverse defines the co-ordinate system!)

Align the lightsheet with the calibration target

Record calibration images using both cameras
Record simultaneous 2D-PIV vector maps using both cameras
Calibration images and vector maps is read into FlowManager
Perform camera calibration based on the calibration images
Calculate 3D vectors based on the two 2D PIV vector maps and the
camera calibration

Dantec 3D-PIV system

components

Seeding
PIV-Laser
(Double-cavity Nd:Yag)

Light guiding arm &

Lightsheet optics

2 cameras on stereo mounts

FlowMap PIV-processor with

two camera input
Calibration target on a traverse
FlowManager PIV software
FlowManager 3D-PIV option

Flow Visualization
Qualitative means to see what the flow
field looks like.
Provide information on where to locate
invasive flow sensors.
Direction Indicators
Wind Vanes
Threads attached to
thin rods
Threads attached to
surfaces

Particle Tracers
Smoke (gas flows)
Oil, incense
Dust particles
Bubbles-in water
Liquid dyes-milk is good