Aplicaciones de La Ingenieria de Reservorios Luciane Cunha

PE503 - Applied Reservoir Engineering
Presented by :
Luciane Cunha
April 25 to 29, 2005
Universidad Nacional de Ingeniera - UNI
Outline
Introduction
Fundamental Data and Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering
Numerical Reservoir Simulation and Simulator Equations
Stages in a Reservoir Simulation Study
Well Testing and Analysis
Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods
Reservoir Management
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Gas/Oil Reservoir
GAS
OIL
WATER
WATER
Impermeable Layer
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Reservoir Image
The reservoir image (geological model) is the base

to all the reservoir engineering studies. This image
is defined with respect to shape, limits, internal
architecture (heterogeneities), fluid distribution and
volumes.
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Reservoir Image
Boundaries
Fault Patterns
Areal Extension
Physical
Properties
Gas
Structural
Dip
Fluid
Contacts
Oil
Water
Stratification
Aquifer Size
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Reservoir Image
SHAPES and VOLUMES
structural surfaces
isopachs
boundaries
ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN
correlations
sedimentar body shapes
facies variations
microscopic reservoir structure
FLUIDS
interfaces
composition
thermodynamical conditions
TECTONIC PATTERN
faults
fractured zones
micro-fractures
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Reservoir Engineering Objectives

Optimize the Economic Exploitation of
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
How much hydrocarbon exist?
How much can be recovered?
How fast it can be recovered?
Original hydrocarbon in place

Reserves (estimated from alternative recovery methods)
Production rate (initial, variations)
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Reservoir Simulation - Outline:
1. What is Reservoir Simulation?

2. Historical Developments
3. Different Reservoir Simulators
4. How the Simulators are Used
5. Modeling Concepts
6. Why Use Simulators
7. Options and Features of Modern Simulators
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1. What is Reservoir Simulation?

Reservoir Engineers use different means to study and analyze reservoir performance
and predict future production.
Reservoir performance is a function of its behavior with pressure and time.
Reservoir Simulation is a blend of:
engineering
physics
chemistry
mathematics
numerical analysis
computer programming, and engineering experience and practice.
Reservoir Simulation is a powerful technique for reservoir management and refers to
the construction and operation of a model whose (hopefully) approaches that of a
reservoir under actual reservoir condition.
It allows the engineer to predict reservoir performance provided it is used
correctly under different scenarios.
The kind of reservoir simulators that are used today on digital computers are not
the only tools an engineer has used to mimic the behavior of real reservoirs.
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Functional Model
Representative Model
- Input Exploitation
Scheme
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- Model -
- Output Production
Performance
Forecasting
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Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation

Type of Simulators:
-
Physical
Mathematical
a) Analytical
1) Well Testing Equations (Diffusivity Equation)
2) Decline Curves
3) Material Balance Equations
b) Numerical Simulators
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Analytical Models:
MBE
Tank Model
- Isotropic -> Kx = Ky = Kz
- Homogeneous Reservoir -> , Kro, Krw, Krg, So, Sw, Sg, Bo,
Bg,Rso,o, g are same throughout the tank
- Flow from A to B -> Darcys Law
MBE, which is based on tank model does not flow from one point in the
reservoir to another point.
MBE is a powerful tool for reservoir performance analysis, particularly
when there is negligible pressure difference (i.e. pressure gradient) in
the reservoir.
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Analytical Models:
Diffusivity Equation
c
k
1 p c p
r
=
r r r
k t
-> Hydraulic Diffusivity
Solution of diffusivity equation gives the pressure distribution in

the reservoir at different times.
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Physical Models:
- useful in visualizing the flow processes and develop mathematical models
for the flow.
problem: lack generality we need to modify the physical model for each
reservoir under study.
- very expensive to build and run.
Physical vs Numerical Models
Numerical models must describe what physically takes place in the
reservoir.
In cases where we cannot model the reservoir physically (physical law
equation accurately enough, then, we should not use numerical
methods, instead physical models should be used.)
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Numerical Simulators
Conceptually, a reservoir numerical simulator model is consisted of
a series of tanks, which are connected with one another.
Reservoir being water flooded
water
oil
Sw increases to the right with time

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Tank 1
Tank 2
Tank 3
Tank 4
Tank n
The tanks still obey physical laws (specially the conservation of mass);
What it is different from the tank model for MBE, is that now is possible to allow
for fluid to flow from one part of the reservoir (for example, Tank 1) to
another point (for example Tank 2).
There is pressure difference in each tank and consequently there is fluid flow.
Reservoir Simulators: computer programs that solve the equations
for heat and mass flow in porous media, subject
to appropriate initial and boundary conditions
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Mathematical Models
-Mathematically, a reservoir numerical model is consisted of equations
describing the physical laws, including conservation of mass and
momentum & energy, as well as laws governing the behavior (i.e. flow of
fluids in our case)
-A complete set of PDE and auxiliary conditions, which describe the flow
pressures in the reservoir.
-PDEs are derived from:
Conservation laws
Physical principles (Darcys Law)
-The number and type of equations to be solved depends on:

Geological characteristics of the reservoir (single or double porosity)
Characteristics of the oil, and
Oil recovery process to be modeled.
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Reservoir
System
PDE with
Auxiliary equations
Numerical
Scheme
Computer
Program
Application
Computer Model =
Reservoir Simulator
Mathematical Model
Solution of the mathematical system of equations requires knowledge of

reservoir properties (i.e., permeability, porosity), fluid PVT properties
and reservoir well geometry.
Reservoir description is seldom known with any degree of accuracy usually obtained from geological and geophysical data as well as well test
data and geostatistical description.
????????????????????????????
Uncertainty
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Mathematical Models contain three main sources of error:
inaccuracy of input data;
truncation error introduced when we approximate our original PDEs

using a Finite Difference or Finite Element Scheme;
Round off error of the machine on which we solve our equations.
Note:
The main advantage of a reservoir simulator is the ability to inexpensively
produce the reservoir and a variety of different operating conditions.
Thus the optimum strategy for producing the reservoir can be
determined without equipment investment and without actually
producing any oil.
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2. Historical Developments - Reservoir Simulators Timeline

Traditional Reservoir Engineering (1930 - )
Computations with slide rules and mechanical calculators;
Representation of reservoir by a single block;

1-D analytical solutions for linear two-phase flow and radial single-phase flow.
Early Reservoir Simulation (1955 1970)

Computations with digital computers;
Primarily developed and used in research labs;

Primary limitation was computer speed and storage;
Limited ability to handle large systems of nonlinear equations;
Poor reliability and lack of confidence in technology;
High cost of development and use.
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2. Historical Developments - Reservoir Simulators Timeline

Modern Reservoir Simulation (1970 - )
High level of confidence in technology;

Steady decrease in hardware cost;
Large number of blocks with local grid refinement and irregular shape;
Efficient methods for solving nonlinear equations;
Robust methods for solving large systems of linear equations;
Multicomponent fluid description and improvements in the handling of wells;
Improvements in the understanding of complicated processes;
Use of graphics and workstations and availability of supercomputers.
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3. Different Reservoir Models (Simulators)

-One-phase vs multi-phase simulators
multiphase can also be subdivided into black oil or compositional simulators. Using onephase or multi-phase depend on what flow process(es) taking place in reservoir being
studied.
-Geometry
1-D
well
1-D
Linear
Radial
3-D
-Mostly 3-D. Linear predominates in fractured reservoirs while radial predominates

near the wellbore. Hence, we can setup equations combining both linear and radial
geometry. No single flow model occurs in the reservoir. What occurs in the reservoir
is a combination of several geometrical simulator models
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4.1- Forecasting of reservoir performance
-Sensitivity studies for evaluating reservoir development options on elements of the
field (IOR process selection)

-Evaluation of field pilots and scale-up
-Full field studies for depletion planning at various stages of field development (number
and location of wells, injection/production rates, composition of producing fluids, etc.)
-Reservoir management
-Assessment of uncertainty in forecasting reservoir performance
4.2- Improving reservoir description through history matching

-Identification of major flow units and barriers
-Identification of near well rock properties
4.3- Analysis of experiments

-Relative permeability
-Minimum miscibility pressure

-Core displacement tests
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4.4- Understanding of flow mechanisms
-Unstable displacements
-Flow in heterogeneous media
-Block effective properties
-Matrix/fracture transfer
4.5- Development of simple models and correlations

-Coning
-Cyclic steam injection

-Steam displacement
-Inflow performance relationships (IPRs)
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5. Modeling Concepts
The basic steps required for a reservoir simulation study are:
Select one or
more images for simulation
Input to simulator
Select grid & average
data to get block
properties
Images of
Reservoir
Input
Data
Output
Analysis of
Results
History Matching
Data
In general, an engineer interested in doing a reservoir simulation study would follow the following
steps:
- Develop study objectives

- Develop or select an appropriate simulator
- Review, collect and estimate appropriate data
- Make preliminary runs to establish model parameters and limitations
- Match available history
- Predict performance under different operating scenarios
- Analyze results and prepare a report
- Plan additional work
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6. Why Use Simulators?
No other way to solve the problem

Cheaper or more reliable than other methods
Complement other more traditional techniques
Increase profitability through improved reservoir management
Assess economic and technical risks through sensitivity studies
Enhance credibility with third parties
Predict consequences of reservoir development and management decisions
Establish relative merits of alternative operating strategies
Resolve arbitration and utilization disputes
Monitor reservoir performance
Respond to safety, environmental and regulatory concerns
Improve communication among interested parties
Train engineers and operators
Choose the optimum IOR scheme for a given reservoir
Assess the impact on ultimate recovery of changing to a different IOR scheme
Establish data needs during various stages of field development
Assess the impact of assumptions on the analysis of well tests
Optimize well location and well completion
Assess possible advantages of horizontal wells over vertical wells
Troubleshooting
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7. Options and Features of Modern Reservoir Simulators

a)
Preprocessors
b) Postprocessors
c) Phase and component
d) Gridding options
e) Solution Techniques
f) Special features
g) Well control
h) Group control
i) Injection control
j) Sale gas production control
k) Cross flow between zones
l) Non-Darcy effects
m) Initialization
n) Aquifer models
o) Pseudofunctions
p) Control of simulator performance
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FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

General Concept:
- Normally used to mean a liquid (gas at a high pressure);
- Simplest case of simulation -> steady state = independent of time.
Units:
British and SI units
Example: Darcys Equation
SI Units
British Units
AkP
q=
L
AkP
q=
L
q(B / d)
q(m 3 / s)
A(m 2 )
P(Pa )
(Pa.s)
L(m)
k(m 2 )
Note:
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A(ft 2 )
P(psi)
(cp )
L(ft )
k(darcyx1.127)
Modified SI Units
q=
q(m 3 / s)
A(m 2 )
P(kPa )
(mPa.s) (or cp)
L(m)
k(m 2 / 10 6 )
1
psi ;
1m 2 = 1.1013darcy
7
viscosity; 1 m 3 / s = 543440 B / d
1kPa =
AkP
L
;
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Grids and Grid Numbering:

- Problem unknowns: pressures and fluid saturations at each block of a grid.
- We need to have a system for identifying each block:
Simplest system:
j=4
(1,4)
(2,4)
(3,4)
(4,4)
13
14
15
16
j=3
(1,3)
(2,3)
(3,3)
(4,3)
10
11
12
j=2
(1,2)
(2,2)
(3,2)
(4,2)
j=1
(1,1)
(2,1)
(3,1)
(4,1)
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
Natural Order
j
x
Each block is identified by two numbers, i and j, with i increasing in the normal x-direction and j
increasing in the y-direction.
Other Ordering Schemes:
12
10
12
10
11
10
11
12
11
D4
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D2
Cyclic
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For three-dimensional grid -> we need three numbers to identify a

z
given block.
y
j
i
Linear Flow Between Two Adjacent Blocks (i) and (i+1):
qi->i+1
Ai
ki
Pi
xi
ki+1
i+1
Pi+1
Ai+1
xi+1
Positive x-direction
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Consider, first, flow in the right-half of block i. Writing Darcys equation,
qii+1
k i A i p i p i +1 / 2
=
x i / 2
Consider now, flow in the left-hand of block i+1. Writing Darcys equation,
q i i + 1 =
k i +1 A i+1 p i +1 / 2 p i+1
x i + 1 / 2
The flow rate is the same in the two blocks. Eliminating p i +1 / 2 from both
equations above we can obtain the following equation:
qii+1 = Ti+1/ 2 (pi pi+1 )

where
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Ti+1/ 2 =
2Aiki Ai+1ki+1
1
Aiki xi+1 + Ai+1ki+1xi
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Note: For 2-D Flow the transmissibility will be Ti+1 / 2, j and a j subscript will be added
to all of the terms in the right side of the above equation.
Ti+1/ 2 , j =
2 A i, jk i, j A i+1, jk i+1, j
A i, jk i, j x i+1, j
1
+ A i+1, jk i+1, j x i, j
If flow from block (i,j) to (i,j+1), vertically above, we have:

(i,j+1)
(i-1,j)
(i,j)
(i+1,j)
qi,ji,j+1 = Ti,j+1/ 2 (pi,j pi,j+1 )
and
Ti, j+1/ 2 =
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2 A i, jk i, j A i, j+1k i, j+1
1
A i, jk i, j yi, j+1 + A i, j+1k i, j+1yi, j
(i,j-1)
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Flow Between Two Circular Blocks:
r4
r3
2
r2
r1
1 ri-1/2
rw
r1 is chosen arbitrarily;
ri = i1r1
where is calculated from the equation
ri+1/2
ri
re
rN+1 rN N1r1 ( 1)
=
re =
rN+1
ln
ln
rN
where N is the block number (N=4 in figure above)

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once the block centers are located, block boundary ri+1/2 can be calculated
ri+1/ 2 =
applying Darcys law
ri+1 ri
r
ln i+1
ri
ri1/ 2 =
and
qii+1 = Tri+1/ 2 (pi pi+1 )
Tri+1/ 2 =
ri ri1
r
ln i
ri1
2
r
r
1
1
ln i+1/ 2 +
ln i+1
k ihi
ri
k i+1hi+1 ri+1/ 2
For vertical transmissibility, Tz, in a two-dimensional system, where blocks such as those
shown below are stacked upon each other the vertical transmissibility for blocks (i,j) and
(i,j+1) is given by
ki,k+1
ri-1/2,k
i,k+1
zi,k+1
i,k
zi,k
ki,k
ri+1/2,k
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Tz i , j+1 / 2
2(ri2+1 / 2 ri21 / 2 )k i , jk i , j+1 1

=
k i , j z i , j+ 1 + k i , j+ 1 z i , j
Note: Having derived the transmissibilities for linear and circular systems, we can always
write the flow equation in the same form, without further regard for the system, so long
as the correct transmissibility expression is used.
Potential:
There are cases where it is more appropriate (and accurate) to consider
(potential) instead of P (pressure).
For example, if the blocks are situated at different heights, we should account for
the hydrostatic head.
This is accomplished through the use of potential differences.
By definition
= P - gD,
= potential;
P = pressure;
= fluid density;
g = gravitational acceleration
D = depth with respect to a reference level (below sea level)
q = Ti+1 / 2 ( i i+1 ) q = Ti+1 / 2 [(Pi gDi ) (Pi+1 gDi+1 )]

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FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS (cont.)

Basic Flow Equation for Incompressible Flow in One Dimension:
- Derive mass balance equation for an incompressible fluid;
- Derivation is general (other cases of flow; higher
dimensions).
Consider a block, i, and two adjacent blocks, i-1 and i+1.

Write a mass balance for block i, into which fluid is entering from
block i-1 at a rate and from which fluid is flowing into block i+1
at a rate .
Consider source/sink term.
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qi->i+1
qi-1->i
Ai-1
Ai
Ai+1
ki-1
ki
ki+1
i+1
Pi+1
i-1
Pi-1
Pi
xi-1
xi+1
xi
injection rate, q*i

qi-1 -> i
(i-1)
qi -> i+1
(i)
(i+1)
qi* (positive=injection/negative=production)
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For Block i the mass balance is:

Net throughput + Net change over time t = 0
Mass leaving - Mass entering + Mass at t+t Mass at t = 0
SC q ii+1 SC (q i1i + q i* ) + 0 0 = 0
where internal injection of the fluid
sc q ii+1 sc q i1i sc q i* = 0
sc =
density of the compressible fluid @ standard conditions
Lets write the expression above in terms of transmissibility, but

first lets write some definitions:
P = pressure Pa
= potential, Pa = P - gD
= density, kg/m3
g = 9.80665 m/s2
D = depth below a reference plane in m (positive downward)
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Utilizing the transmissibilities, and given that the potentials in the blocks
are i-1 , i , and i+1 , then the mass balance equation becomes:
Ti+1 / 2 ( i i+1 ) Ti1 / 2 ( i1 i ) qi* = 0
Multiplying by 1
Ti+1/ 2 (i+1 i ) Ti1/ 2 (i i1 ) + qi* = 0

which is the standard form of the incompressible fluid flow
equation
Note: this equation is valid for radial flow, provided the

transmissibility term is calculated accordingly. In cases where the
gravity contribution is small, P can be substituted for .
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Flow Equations Assuming No-Flow Boundaries:

Consider a reservoir represented by a system of five blocks. Each block
has a different value of k, A, x, D. It is given P1 and q*4.
q*1
q*4
(positive)
Injection point
D1
k1
A1
D2
k2
P1
T1/2= 0 x1 T3/2
A2
D3
k3
2
P2
x2
A3
D4
k4
3
P3
T5/2
x3
(negative)
Production point
A4
D5
k5
5
P4
T7/2
x4
A5
P5
T9/2
x5
T11/2
1. In reservoir simulation, usually we make the boundaries dont flow

boundaries.
How we can do that?
Making the transmissibility of the boundaries T1 / 2 and T11 / 2 = 0
2. Write the general equation for all blocks, putting i=1,2,,nx
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Block 1 (i=1):
T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) T1 / 2 (P1 P0 ) + q 1* = 0
No-flow boundary at i=1 then T1 / 2 = 0 and
T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) + q1* = 0
*
Block 2 (i=2): T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) + q 2 = 0
Since there is no production or injection in block 2
q 2* = 0
and
T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) = 0
*
Block 3 (i=3): T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) + q3 = 0
Since there is no production or injection in block 3
q 3* = 0 and
T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) = 0
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Block 4 (i=4):
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) + q *4 = 0
Given that there is production in block 4 we have to consider a negative sign

for q *4
and then
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) q *4 = 0
Block 5 (i=5):
T11 / 2 (P6 P5 ) T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) + q 5* = 0
No-flow boundary at i=5 then and since there is no production or injection

in block 5 q 5* = 0 and then
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) = 0
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There are 5 equations
T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) + q1* = 0
T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) T3 / 2 (P2 P1 ) = 0
T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) T5 / 2 (P3 P2 ) = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) T7 / 2 (P4 P3 ) q *4 = 0
T9 / 2 (P5 P4 ) = 0
There are 5 unknowns:
P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 , q 1*
Adding all the equations we have: q1* q *4 = 0 this is called Material Balance check
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Flow in Two-Dimensions
q*i,j (external injection)

(i,j+1)
q(i-1,i->i,j) q(i,j->i,j+1)
(i-1,j)
j
Mass Balance for Block (i,j) for time t
Remember the Notation:
(i,j)
q(i,i->i+1,j)
(i+1,j)
q(i,j-1->i,j)
(i,j-1)
q ii+1 = Ti+1 / 2 (Pi Pi+1 )
Leaving Entering + (Mass at t+t Mass at t) = 0
osc qi, ji, j+1 + osc qi, ji+1, j osc [qi, j1i, j + qi1, ji, j ] + osc q * i, j + M M = 0
where
M = xyh osc
obs: the corners dont enter in the equation, they are taken in account in a different way.
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Ti+1 / 2, j ( i, j i+1, j ) + Ti, j+1 / 2 ( i, j i, j+1 )
Ti1 / 2, j ( i1, j i, j ) Ti, j1 / 2 ( i, j1 i, j ) qi*, j = 0

Put x in the T notation when the flow is in x direction and y when the flow
is in y direction
Tx i+1 / 2 , j ( i, j i+1, j ) + Ty i, j+1 / 2 ( i, j i, j+1 )
Tx i1/ 2, j ( i1, j i, j ) Tyi, j1/ 2 ( i, j1 i, j ) qi*, j = 0

Changing the sign we get the standard form
Tx i+1 / 2, j ( i+1, j i, j ) Tx i1 / 2, j ( i, j i1, j ) +

Tyi, j + 1/ 2 (i, j+ 1 i, j ) Tyi, j 1/ 2 (i, j i, j 1) + qi*, j = 0
To solve a 2-D problem, write the above equation at all blocks i=1,2,,nx, solve for
Pi,j at blocks where it is unknown, and for at j=1,2,,ny blocks where pressure is
already specified.
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If all boundaries are closed, make transmissibilities at the boundaries zero.

y
Flow in Three-Dimensions
x
y
Tx and Ty (boundaries)=0
i,j,k+1
Tx i+1 / 2, j,k ( i+1, j,k i, j,k ) Tx i1 / 2 , j,k ( i, j,k i1, j,k ) +

Ty i, j+1/ 2,k ( i, j+1,k i, j,k ) Ty i, j1/ 2,k ( i, j,k i, j1,k ) +
i,j+1,k
i-1,j,k
i+1,j,k
i,j,k
i,j-1,k
Tz i, j,k +1/ 2 ( i, j,k +1 i, j,k ) Tz i, j,k 1/ 2 ( i, j,k i, j,k 1 ) + qi*, j,k = 0

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i,j,k-1
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Weinstein, Stone and Kwan Notation:

(Weinstein, H.G., Stone, H.L., and Kwan, T.V.: Simultaneous Solution of Multiphase
Reservoir Flow Equations, SPEJ (June 1970),99.)
Which are the advantages of this notation?
allows a more compact representation of the flow equations;

permits the implementation of various solution methods rather easily.
Generally,
For 1-D:
Ti+1/ 2 (i+1 i ) Ti1/ 2 (i i1) + qi* = 0

Dii1 + Eii + Fii+1 = qi
where,
qi = qi*
Di = Ti 1 / 2
Fi = Ti + 1 / 2
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Ei = (Di + Fi )
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For 2-D:
Tx i+1 / 2, j ( i+1, j i, j ) Tx i1 / 2, j ( i, j i1, j ) +

Tyi, j+1/ 2 (i, j+1 i, j ) Tyi, j1/ 2 (i, j i, j1) + qi*, j = 0
where,
Bi, j i, j 1 + Di, j i 1, j + Ei, j i, j + Fi, j i + 1, j + Hi, j i, j + 1 = qi, j

qi, j = qi*, j
Bi, j = Tyi, j1/ 2
Di, j = Txi 1/ 2, j
Hi, j = Tyi, j + 1 / 2
Fi, j = Txi + 1/ 2, j
Ei, j = (Bi, j + Di, j + Fi, j + Hi, j )
Remember,
Tx i+1/ 2 , j =
2 Ax i, jkx i, j Ax i+1, jkx i+1, j

Ax i, jkx i, j x i+1, j
1
+ Ax i+1, jkx i+1, j x i, j
Ax = cross-section area perpendicular to x-direction;

in x-direction.
kx = absolute permeability
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For 3-D:
Tx i+1 / 2 , j,k ( i+1, j,k i, j,k ) Tx i1 / 2 , j,k ( i, j,k i1, j,k ) +

Ty i, j+1/ 2 ,k ( i, j+1,k i, j,k ) Ty i, j1/ 2 ,k ( i, j,k i, j1,k ) +
Tz i, j,k +1/ 2 ( i, j,k +1 i, j,k ) Tz i, j,k 1/ 2 ( i, j,k i, j,k 1 ) + qi*, j,k = 0

Z i, j,k i, j,k 1 + Bi, j,k i, j1,k + Di, j,k i1, j,k + Ei, j,k i, j,k +
Fi, j,k i+1, j,k + Hi, j,k i, j+1,k + Si, j,k i, j,k +1 = qi, j,k
where,
qi, j,k = qi*, j,k
Zi, j,k = Tzi, j,k 1/ 2

Bi, j,k = Tyi, j 1/ 2,k
Di, j,k = Txi 1/ 2, j,k
Fi, j,k = Txi + 1/ 2, j,k

Hi, j,k = Tyi, j + 1/ 2,k
Si, j,k = Tzi, j,k + 1/ 2
Ei, j,k = (Zi, j,k + Bi, j,k + Di, j,k + Fi, j,k + Hi, j,k + Si, j,k )
Luciane Cunha
49
Solution of the Flow Equations: Direct and Iterative Methods:
E 2 2 + F2 3
= q2
(2a)
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4
= q3
(2b)
D4 3 + E4 4
= q4
(2c)
Eqs. (2a), (2b) and (2c) are 3 simultaneous eqs. and 3 unknowns, 2 , 3 , 4
solution to this system of equation can be obtained by,
. The
a) Direct Solution Methods (give exact solution)

Gaussian Elimination or Gauss-Jordan Method
most powerful method available;
slowest method;
requires a great deal of storage (memory).
Thomass Algorithm
variation of the Gauss-Jordan Method;
very accurate;
faster than the standard Gauss-Jordan Method;
matrix structure specific.
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50
b) Iterative Methods (start out with a guess of the answer, an successively improve the
guess to any desired precision)
PSOR (Point Successive Over-Relaxation) (general);

Gauss-Siedel;
ADIP (Alternating Direction Implicit Procedure) (2-D/3-D problems);
SIP (Strongly Implicit Procedure);
SOR (Line Successive Over-Relaxation).
Luciane Cunha
51
Direct Methods Thomass Tridiagonal Algorithm:

This method is a variation of Gaussian Elimination
Tailored to system of equations of the type:
E 2 2 + F2 3
= q2
(2a)
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4
= q3
(2b)
D4 3 + E4 4
= q4
(2c)
Note: Characteristics of these eqs. are:
each eq. contains 3 unknowns (first and last eqs. contain only 2
unknowns);
unknowns are ordered in such a way that for a given eq., 2 of the
unknowns occur in the previous eq. and 2 occur in the next eq.
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52
Tridiagonal Structure
= x
= x
x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
= x
= x
x x x = x
x x = x
requires minimum storage;
Thomass algorithm is designed to solve a system of eqs. having
tridiagonal structure (such eqs. arise from 1-D problems, and from
linearized (as in ADIP) multi-dimensional problems);
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53
In order to develop Thomass algorithm, we have to write eqs. (2a) to (2c)

in a somewhat more general form, where the number of equations is N and
i is any one of the equations:
b1x 1 + c 1x 2
a2 x1 + b2 x 2
a3x 2
+
+
c2x3
b3 x 3
= d1
= d2
= d3
+ c3x 4
a4x3 + b4x 4
...
a i x i1 + bi x i
c4x5
= d4
c i x i+1
di
...
a N1x N2
+ b N 1 x N 1
c N 1x N
= d N 1
a N x N 1
bN x N
dN
Note:
-The first equation does not have an a1;
-The last equation does not contain a cN.
-The subscripts on a, b, c in any equation are the same as the number
of the equation.
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54
The solution algorithm is as follows:

For i=1 calculate
w1 =
c1
b1
and
g1 =
d1
b1
For i=2,3;;N-1 calculate

wi =
ci
b i a i w i 1
For i=2,,N calculate

gi =
d i a i g i 1
b i a i w i 1
Then:
x N = gN
For i=N calculate

For i=N-1,,1 calculate
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x i = gi w i x i+1
55
Iterative Methods:
In the iterative methods, some initial solutions are assumed and then we
successively improve the solutions.
Iterative Methods Gauss-Seidel Iteration Method:
allow a solution of a system of equations through successive improvement of an

initial guess of all s (usually taken to be zero);
requires less storage (only of the nonzero quantities);
usually very rapid.
Luciane Cunha
56
For our Incompressible Flow Problem
E 2 2 + F2 3
= q2
(2a)
D 3 2 + E 3 3 + F3 4
= q3
(2b)
D4 3 + E4 4
= q4
(2c)
Solution Procedure:
The idea is to use each equation in order to improve the value of one of the s -> socalled diagonal element.
Eqs. 2a will be use to calculate improved values of 2
Eqs. 2b will be use to calculate improved values of 3
Eqs. 2c will be use to calculate improved values of 4
To better understand the solution procedure lets write the equations the following way:
new
= (q 2 F2 old
2
3 ) / E2
new
old
new
=
(
q
3
3
3
2
3
4 ) / E3
new
= (q 4 D 4 new
) / E4
4
3
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(3a)
(3b)
(3c)
57
Start with initial guesses

2= 3= 4=0
Use (3a) to calculate a

new value for 2
Use (3b) and 2new just calculated
to obtain a new value for 3
Use (3c) and 3new just calculated

to obtain a new value for 4
Perform a convergence test:

- determine
+1
max
= max i +1 i = max new

iold
i
i
- compare d
yes
+1
max with
end
tolerance
no
old
= new
( = +1 );
4
4
old
= new
;
3
3
old
= new
2
2
Luciane Cunha
58
Iterative Methods - PSOR (Pointwise Successive Over Relaxation):

-Important modification of the Gauss-Seidel Method;
-Is essentially the Gauss-Seidel method, with a modification introduced into
the calculated iterates in order to speed-up convergence;
-Tolerance requirement is achieved in fewer iterations than for Gauss-Seidel
Method -> this is accomplished by use of an iteration parameter wb
( 1 wb 2 )
Luciane Cunha
59
The general form for PSOR method is the following:
i +1 = (1 w b ) i + w b [(q i D i i+11 Fi i+1 ) / E i ]

where wb = weighting factor.
wb can be determined from the spectral radius,
wb =
1 wb 2 .
2
1+ 1 g
where g = spectral radius of the seidel matrix can be determined as:
g = lim
n
dmax
dmax
+1
Note:
if wb = 1 -> Gauss-Seidel
if wb 1 -> negative weight on the previous iterate and greater than one, on the new Gauss-Seidel
iterate.
Luciane Cunha
60
Solution Check:
It is necessary to check the validity of the solution obtained. Two different ways we can
use are:
Material Balance Check

Residuals
Material Balance Check:

widely used in reservoir simulation.
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61
Material balance check can be stated as follows:

MB = Net change of mass over a time interval / Net mass throughput = 1
In incompressible flow, there is no time involved and then
MB = Net mass throughput = sum of
Nx
MB =
i =1
*
i
qi* all terms = 0
=0
The sum must be close to zero, because what goes into the system (+) must come out
(-).
Poor MB -> answers are certainly doubtful
Good MB not necessarily guarantee the validity of the answer.
Residuals:
R i = Ti+1 / 2 ( i'+1 i' ) Ti1 / 2 ( i' i' +1 ) + qi*

Where
i' +1 , i' , i' 1
are the solutions
For a perfect solution, Ri=0.

Note: the calculation of residuals are the best test of the accuracy of the solution
obtained. However, their calculation is very time-consuming for real problems.
Luciane Cunha
62
FLOW OF SLIGTHLY COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

Compressibility:
density = =
1 dV
1 V
C =
=
V dP
V P T
m
V
C=
C=
d(m / ) d
m d dP
1 d
dP
ln
ln
ref
d
= CdP
ref
= cP P
ref
= c(P Pref )
= e c (P Pref )
ref
e c (P Pref ) 1 + c(P Pref )

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is isothermal
if c is small (10-6 to 10-7 kPa-1)
= ref (1 + c(P Pref ))

63
Note:
Gas compressibility = C =
1 1 dZ
P Z dP
Assumptions:
Mass is constant, but volume changes as a function of pressure.
density of slightly compressible fluids changes with pressure (i.e. it also changes with time)
= (P) or = (P, t )
Flow behavior of slightly compressible fluids will be time dependent. What this means
in practice is that the pressure distribution in the reservoir will change with times,
n
n+1
n+ 2
i.e. Pi , Pi , Pi , etc
Where n, n+1, n+2, etc denote different times.
t = time step (or time elapse between 2 states of the reservoir)
n = n*t
Pin (initial pressure)
Future (2 years from today)
n+1 = (n+1) *t
Today (n=0)
(365*2)
730 calculations
t = 1 day
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t = 1 day
(365*2)
730 calculations
t = 2 months
(12/2)*2
12 calculations
calculations
t = 1 year
2 calculations
calculations
64
Mass Balance for Block i Over Time t
i-1
q*
qi-1->i
Block i:
i+1
qi->i+1
Pore Volume = i A i x i = i Vi
Mass at t = i Vb i t
Mass at t+t = i Vb i t + t
t Pin pressure in block i

t + t Pin+1
Net throughput + Net change = 0
Net throughput = (Mass Leaving) (Mass Entering)

Net change = (Mass t+t) (Mass at t)
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65
Overall,
scqii+1t sc qi1i t sc qi* t + (i Vbi t + t i Vbi t ) = 0

where,
sc q ii+1t sc [q i1i + q i* ]t =
Flow Term (LHS)
i Vbi t + t i Vbi t = Accumulation Term (RHS)

sc Ti + 1 / 2 ( i + 1 i )t sc Ti 1 / 2 ( i i 1 )t + qi* sc t =
= i Vbi ( t + t t )
Pressure must have a time level on it
n -> time level
t Pin
t + t Pin+1
n+1
for = sc [1 + c(Pi Psc )]
Now
sc Ti + 1 / 2 ( i + 1 i )t sc Ti 1 / 2 ( i i 1 )t + qi* sc t =
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= i Vbi [ sc (1 + c(Pin + 1 Psc )) sc (1 + c(Pin Psc ))]

66
Ti+1 / 2 ( i+1 i ) Ti1 / 2 ( i i1 ) + qi* =
c i Vbi n+1
(Pi Pin )
t
Note: There are TWO time levels (n) and (n+1), for the RHS term, there are, yet,
no time levels specified for the potentials (or pressure) on LHS term.
Anything@ time level (n) is known
Anything@ time level (n+1) is unknown
Must specify a time level for LHS terms and have a time level on F, choice n or n+1
So:
n+1 or n
Ti+1 / 2 ( i?+1 i? ) Ti1 / 2 ( i? i?1 ) + qi* =
c i Vbi n+1
(Pi Pin )
t
1- Time Level n Explicit Scheme Method

Ti+1/ 2 (Pin+1 Pin ) Ti1/ 2 (Pin Pin1 ) =
c i Vbi n+1
*
(Pi Pin ) + Ti + 1 / 2 g(Di + 1 Di ) Ti 1 / 2 g(Di Di 1 ) qi
t
Ti + 1 / 2 (Pin+ 1 Pin ) Ti 1 / 2 (Pin Pin 1 ) =

where,
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ci Vbi n + 1
(Pi Pin ) + i
t
i = Ti + 1 / 2g(Di + 1 Di ) Ti 1 / 2 g(Di Di 1 ) qi*
67
Given initial conditions, i.e. Pressure at t=0 everywhere, i.e. at all i we want
pressures at the next time t = t (note that the time step does not to be constant)
So we have:
P1 =10
P2 =10
P3 =10
PN =10
Now we want to calculate P for the next time.
Calculate
for i = 1,2,3,,N
Write the above equation as:

i = 1,2,,n
t0 = 0
t1 = t1
t2 = t1 + t2
Pin+1 = Pin +
t
[ Ti+1 / 2 (Pin+1 Pin ) Ti1 / 2 (Pin Pin1 ) i ]
c i Vbi
Pin known
Pin+1
n=1
n=2
Calculation is very simple. However, the size of the time step t is usually restricted
(to be small) to ensure stability of the solution.
Luciane Cunha
68
Stability:
In some problems, the round off errors accumulated during the arithmetic operations to obtain
the solution grow with time, to the extent that their magnitudes become significant and
the solution becomes meaningless. In these cases, the system is said to be unstable.
On the other hand, there are systems when the round off errors accumulate but their
magnitudes are kept with in bounds. The solution is therefore ok and these systems are
said to be stable.
Conditionally Stable:
Solution will be stable if conditions are satisfied. For example, the time step sizes (t) is
set in such a way that the round off errors accumulation is kept under control.
t -> function of:
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how large the space is;

transmissibilities;
linear & non-linear terms.
69
Determination of Stable t:
There are many criteria to analyze stability solution. Between them we can list the most
commonly applied which are:
1. Karpluss Method -> does not include boundary conditions
2. Neumanns Method -> does not include boundary conditions
3. Matrix Method -> include boundary conditions
Karpluss
Given the equation

n
i+1
Ti+1 / 2 (P
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c i Vbi n+1
P ) Ti1 / 2 (P P ) + q =
(Pi Pin )
t
n
i
n
i
n
i 1
*
i
70
Express the equation in the following form
a(Pin++11 Pin ) + b(Pin 1 Pin ) + c(Pin+ 1 Pin ) = 0

where a, b and c are coefficients.
Note: the second pressure term in each of the groupings is
i at time level n. The first term can be anything.
Pi,n i.e. pressure in block
Then
- if a, b, c, are positive, the scheme is stable;
- if one or more are negative, then the equation might be conditionally stable if:
a + b + c + ... 0
Luciane Cunha
71
Considering our main flow equation
Ti+1 / 2 (Pin+1 Pin ) Ti1 / 2 (Pin Pin1 ) =
For stability,
Ti+1 / 2 + Ti1 / 2
for any i
c i Vbi
0
t
Ti+1 / 2 + Ti1 / 2
c i Vbi n+1
(Pi Pin )
t
c i Vbi
t
c i Vbi
Ti+1 / 2 + Ti1 / 2
Procedure: first calculate t for every i, choose min.
Luciane Cunha
72
2- Time Level n+1 Implicit Scheme Method
Ti+1/ 2 (Pin++11 Pin+1 ) Ti1/ 2 (Pin+1 Pin+11 ) =
c i Vbi n+1
(Pi Pin ) + i
t
Check Stability
Add Pin Pin in each parenthesis in the flow term. So,
Ti+1/ 2 (Pin++11 Pin ) Ti+1 / 2 (Pin+1 Pin )

Ti 1 / 2 (Pin+1 Pin ) + Ti1 / 2 (Pin+11 Pin )
For stability
Ti+1/ 2 Ti+1/ 2 Ti1/ 2 + Ti1/ 2

and then
c i Vbi
0
t
c i Vbi n+1
(Pi Pin ) = 0
t
c i Vbi
0
t
is true for all t -> this means the implicit method is unconditionally stable.
As a summary we can say that

an Explicit formulation is Conditionally stable and
an Implicit formulation is Unconditionally stable.
Luciane Cunha
73
FLOW OF SLIGTHLY COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS (cont.)
Material Balance Check
ci , j Vbi , j n+1
( Pi , j Pin, j )
Cumulative Mass Change i , j

t
MB =
=
=1
*
qi,j
Cumulative Input / Output
i,j
Luciane Cunha
74
MULTIPHASE FLOW
General Concepts:
Three Phases - Oil, Water and Gas
Gas -> (free gas, in solution in oil, in solution in water)
Oil -> dead oil, insoluble in water
Water -> insoluble in oil, ignore any water vapor in gas phase
Rock and Fluid Properties:

Rso, Rsw -> gas solubility or solution GOR in oil, water
Bo = oil formation volume factor
rm3/
Rs
m3
Bw = water formation volume factor

Bg = gas formation volume factor
Bo
o , w , g = viscosity of oil, aqueous and gas phase,

respectively
o
po
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pb
75
Bg
g
pg
Obs: Usually the PVT information is given to the reservoir simulators in a table
format. The simulators evaluate the PVT properties by means of linear interpolation.
Relative Permeability
k ro , k rw , k rg
Definition k r =
k effective
k absolute
Capillary Pressure
Pcow = Po Pw
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Pcgo = Pg Po
76
MULTIPHASE FLOW (Cont.)

Rock-Fluid Properties Determination:
Capillary Pressure
The capillary pressure is a function of:

type of fluids;
rock type;
relative quantity of fluids (saturation);
history of the saturation process (drainage or imbibition).
drainage curve
PCow (S w ) = p o p w
imbibition curve
(oil: non wetting; water: wetting)
PCog (S g ) = p g p o
Swc
(gas: non wetting; oil: wetting)

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Sw
wetting phase
entry pressure
1
critical saturation of
the non-wetting phase
residual saturation of
the non-wetting phase
77
Two phase system
Calculation of
drainage
drainage/imbibition
imbibition
Swc
Swr Soc
Sw
kf = phase f effective permeability = function of Sf

Standard procedure is to use relative permeabilities:
krf = kf / k and 0 < krf < 1
Three phase Systems:
water is the wetting phase
gas is the non wetting phase
oil is intermediary
In this respect we have that
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krw = f(Sw)
krg = f(Sg)
kro = f(Sw,Sg)
78
Since the experimental test to measure three-phase relative permeabilities is

extremely difficult to execute, usually the three-phase relative
permeabilities are generated from two-phase experiments (oil-water and
oil-gas).
1. Steady State Method
At steady state, output streams are identical to input. Calculate S o , S w , S g
by Material Balance
2. Unsteady State Method
Stones Model - Method I (1970):
Start with two-phase oil-water and oil-gas curves
For 3 phases flow
Stones Model - Method II
Azizs Model I and II
Luciane Cunha
79
MULTIPHASE FLOW (Cont.)

Derivation of the System of Equations for the Multiphase Flow Problem
Net throughput + Net change = 0
Mass leaving Mass entering + Mass at time t+t Mass at time t = 0
Oil
i VbiSno+i 1 i VbiSnoi
oscqoii + 1 oscqoi 1i + q t +
n
Bno+ 1
B
oi
i
*
oi
osc = 0
n
n+1
V
S
V
S
i bi oi
i bi oi
Toni+1/ 2 ( noi++11 noi+ 1 ) Toni1/ 2 ( noi+ 1 noi+11 ) + qo* i +
n
tBno + 1
tB
oi
i
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=0
80
Water
n
w i+1 / 2
Gas
n+1
w i+1
n+1
wi
)T
n
w i 1 / 2
n+1
wi
n+1
w i1
i VbiSnw+i 1 i Vbi Snwi

)+q +
tBnw+ 1
tBnwi
i
*
wi
=0
[ gsc q gii+1 + gsc R so q oii+1 + gsc R sw q wii+1

gsc qgi1i gscR soi qoi1i gscR sw i q wi1i + qg* i ]t
S ngi+1 S ngi R so ni+1S o ni+1 R so ni S o ni R sw ni+1S w ni+1 R sw ni S w ni
osc = 0
+ gsc i Vbi n+1 n +
n+1
n+1
n+1
n+1
Bg
B gi
B oi
B oi
B wi
B wi
Tgni+1/ 2 (ngi++11 ngi+1) Tgni1/ 2 (ngi+1 ngi+11 ) +

R soi+1 / 2 Toni+1 / 2 ( no+i+11 no+i 1 ) R nsoi1 / 2 ( no+i 1 no+i11 )
R swi+1/ 2 Twn i+1/ 2 ( nw+i+11 nw+i 1 ) R nswi1/ 2 ( nw+i 1 nw+i11 ) + qg* +

i
V
+ i bi
t
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Sngi+1 Sngi R so ni+1S o ni+1 R so ni S o ni R sw ni+1S w ni+1 R sw ni S w ni
=0
n +1
n +1
n +1
n+ 1
Bng+1 Bng
B oi
B oi
B wi
B wi
i
i
81
Note:
qg* total = qg* free + R soqo* + R sw q*w
General Problem Formulation

Equations: mass balances 3
Unknowns (at a producing well):
Saturation constraint
Capillary Pressures:
Po , Pw , Pg , S o , S w , S g , q o* , q *w , q g*
So + S w + Sg = 1
Pcow (S w ) = Po Pw
Pcgo (S g ) = Pg Po
Mobility Relationships:
*
qw =
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2rk rw kh w
wBw
r
r = rw
qg =
2rk rgkh g
gB g
q o*
k ro w B w
=
k rw o B o
q *w
qo =
r = rw
2rk ro kh o
oB o
r
r = rw
82
Solution Procedure:
IMPES (Implicit Pressure Explicit Saturation)

FULLY IMPLICIT
ADAPTIVE IMPLICIT
IMPES
1a. expand the accumulation terms of all three equations to extract the
saturations terms;
1b. multiply each equation by a suitable multiplier, in such a way that when
the equations are added, the saturations terms cancel;
1c. left with one equation in pressure only;
1d. solve for the grid;
1e. solve for using original mass balances.
Luciane Cunha
83
SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS

Introduction
Newtons Method - This is the standard approach for solving the fully implicit
finite difference equations for multiphase flow in reservoirs.
Consider first a simple nonlinear equation in one unknown:
f(x)=0
Expanding f(x) about x0 using Taylor series expansion, we have
df
f (x ) f (x 0 ) +
(x x 0 ) + K
dx
higher order terms = 0
x0
We can solve the above expression for x x x 0
df
k +1
k
f (x k +1 ) 0 = f (x k ) +
(x x ) + K
dx xk
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as x =
f (x 0 )
x x0
df
dx
x0
84
f(x)
f(x0)
f(x) = 0
x1
x0
f
f (x ) = 0 = f (x 0 ) +
x
f (x k +1 ) = 0 = f (x k ) +
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f
x
(x x 0 ) + K
x0
xk
( x k +1 x k ) + K
85
k +1
f (x k )
=
+ xk
f

x x k
Problem: If the initial guess is poor and the function is very curved, Newtons
method will diverge.
Taylor Series Expansion in Multiple Dimension
Consider a nonlinear function f(x), where x = { x 1 , x 2 ,K , x N }
and
f (x ) = 0
By Taylor Series Expansion, we have
f (x) = f (x ) +
0
i =1
f
x i
( x i x i0 ) + K
x i0
Note: for reservoir simulation problems, a good first guess ( x ) is usually

the values of the dependent variables at the old timestep.
Luciane Cunha
86
Black-Oil Model Fluid Flow Equations in Difference Form

The finite difference approximation for a standard black-oil model are:
Water:
(Tw p w )i (Tw w D)i + (Tw p w ) j (Tw w D) j + (Tw p w ) k (Tw w D) k =
Vijk
S
t w
t
Bw
+ q ww ijk
ijk
(1)
Oil:
( To p o ) i ( To o D) i + ( To p o ) j ( To o D) j + ( To p o ) k ( To o D) k =
S
t o
t
Bo
Vijk
+ q owijk
ijk
(2)
Gas:
(Tg p g ) i ( Tg g D) i + (To R go p o ) i (To R go o D) i + (Tg p g ) j (Tg g D) j +
( To R go p o ) j ( To R go o D) j + ( Tg p g ) k ( Tg g D) k + (To R go p o ) k ( To R go o D) k =
S g
S
t
+ R go o + (q ww ijk + R goijk q owijk )
B
(3)
t
B o
g
ijk
Vijk
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87
In the equations above we have

(Tp p p ) l = Tpl + 1 / 2 (p pl + 1 p pl ) Tp l1 / 2 (p pl p pl 1 )
where subscript l=i,j,k and p=o,g,w.
( Tp p D) l = Tpl + 1 / 2 pl + 1 / 2 (D l+1 D l ) Tp l1 / 2 pl 1 / 2 (D l D l1 )
where subscript l=i,j,k and p=o,g,w.
( To R go p o ) l = R gol + 1 / 2 Tol + 1 / 2 (p ol + 1 p ol ) R gol 1 / 2 To l1 / 2 (p ol p ol 1 )
where subscript l=i,j,k.

(To oR go D)l = ol +1 / 2 R gol + 1 / 2 Tol + 1 / 2 (D l + 1 D l ) oi 1 / 2 R gol 1 / 2 To l1 / 2 (D l D l 1 )
where subscript l=i,j,k.
Luciane Cunha
88
In the equations above we have

n+1
S
t o
Bo
S
S
= o o
ijk B o ijk B o ijk
S
t w
Bw
S
= w
ijk B w
n+1
S
w
ijk B w
ijk
n+1
S g
S g
S g
S
S
S
+ R go o
+ R go o
t
+ R go o =
B
B
B
B o
B o
B o
g
g
g
ijk
ijk
ijk
Tpi + 1 / 2 =
where
A i+1 / 2
x i +
k x k rp
B
p p
i+1 / 2
- Ai+1/2 is the cross sectional area normal to the x-direction

at block boundary i+1/2.
- xi+ is the distance between grid points i and i+1.
In a similar manner the expressions for T can be obtained in y and z

directions.
Luciane Cunha
89
Solution of Nonlinear Equations : Newton-Raphson Method

Any nonlinear system of equations may be solved by the application of
Newton-Raphson (NR) technique.
This technique is extensively used in reservoir simulation.
Reservoir simulation flow equations are of the form:
F( y) = 0,
where the objective is to find y (unknowns for all the blocks at a given
time-step) so that the above equation is satisfied.
This equation is a statement of the conservation of mass (and energy in
thermal models) and when it is exactly satisfied the mass is also exactly
conserved.
Luciane Cunha
90
The application of the NR method is done by the following iterative scheme:

( )
J y
( + 1)
where J is the Jacobian matrix, y

unknown over the iteration and
( )
= F
( + 1)
=y
( )
( + 1)
,
y
( )
is the change of the
is the residual at the end of the nth
iteration.
Elements of the Jacobian are obtained by differentiating, either
analytically or numerically, all elements of vector F
( )
(eqs. 1,2 and 3
above ) with respect to all the unknowns.

In reservoir simulation it is convenient to use a notation that associates
equations and unknowns to grid blocks.
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91
Let us consider the two dimensional grid shown in figure below.

There are two ways to identify a block:
-Through the i,j index (example: the central block in the grid system is block
3,2).
-Through the ordering index (example: the central block is placed in the eighth
position).
11
12
J=1
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13
14
10
i=1
15
92
The ordering index is used to order elements of F and y . For the ordering
shown, the structure of the matrix J will be shown below.
1
2
3
4
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15
XX
X
XX X
X
XX X
X
XX X
X
XX
X
6 X
X
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
X X
X
X XX
X
X XX
X
X XX
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Luciane Cunha
Note that:
The nonzero elements in a row i,j

indicated by X correspond to the
derivatives of the equation
corresponding to block i with respect
X
X X
X X X
X X X
X X
to the jth unknown in
For example, the elements of row 8

are:
F 3,2
y 3,1
F 3,2 F 3,2 F 3,2

y 2 ,2 y 3 ,2 y 4 ,2
K
93
F 3,2
y 3 ,3
Since more than one equation and unknown could be associated with each block, individual
elements are matrices or blocks. If we have three components flow then one possibility
is:
F i, j
Foi , j
= Fw i , j
F
gi , j
(4a)
y i, j
po
i, j
= S wi, j
S
g
i, j
(4b)
The derivative of the equation for block (i,j) with respect to the unknowns in block (l,m) is:
F i , j
y l,m
Foi , j
p o l ,m
Fw i , j
=
p
o l ,m
Fgi , j
p o l ,m
Foi , j
S w l , m
Fw i , j
S w l , m
Fgi , j
S w l , m
Foi , j
S gl ,m
Fw i , j
S gl ,m
Fgi , j
S gl ,m
(4c)
Note that the elements in a column contain derivatives with respect to the same variable while
elements in a row are derivatives of the same equation.
Luciane Cunha
94
Equations for Fluid Flow through Porous Media - Introduction

Darcys
Law
Equations
of State
Kr and Pc
relationships
Conservation
of Mass Law
Non-linear partial
differential equations that
describe the fluid flow
through porous media
Luciane Cunha
95
Eqs. For Multiphase Flow - Introduction

Model simultaneously the flow of two or three phases in the
reservoir (water, oil and gas)
Each phase can be compound of one or more component
A conservation of mass law is applied to each component to
be considered in the modeling
Darcy Law is modified to consider the effect of the presence
of one phase upon the flow velocity of the others
The variables are, beside pressure, the saturations
(volumetric fraction of each phase) and the compositions of
each phase
Luciane Cunha
96
Eqs. For Multiphase Flow Main Models

Black-Oil Model:
Three phases (water, oil and gas), three components
(water, oil and gas)
Oil component only flows as an oil phase, water
component only flows as an water phase and component
gas can flow as gas phase or dissolved in the oil phase
The gas quantity that is dissolved in the oil is a function
of the solubility ratio which is a function of the pressure
(determined experimentally)
Represents very well the behavior of majority of
reservoirs and, it is because this, the most used
Luciane Cunha
97
Eqs. For Multiphase Flow Main Models

Compositional Model:
Three phases (water, oil and gas), arbitrary number of
components (water + hydrocarbons)
Water component in general only flows as a water phase
and the hydrocarbons components may flow as a gas or oil
phase
The components distribution is done by means of a
flash procedure which is a function of the pressure and
compositions
Much more complex and computationally intensive
Luciane Cunha
98
Mathematical Model Discretization Concept
Simulation
Cell
Luciane Cunha
99

Functions of the Simulation Grid:
Description of the variation of properties in space;
Approximation in space of the differential equations:
P P
x x
Posting of results.
Luciane Cunha
100
Pressure
Pressure
Time
Time Steps
Pressure Variation
with time in the
reservoir
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Pressure Variation
with time in the
simulator
101
Mathematical Model Internal Grid Representation

Properties and Variables vs. Nodes and Connections
Properties
Centre of gravity
Pore volume
compressibility
Nodes
Connections
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transmissibilities
Variables
Fluid pressure
Fluid saturation
Fluid flow
102
Mathematical Model Solution of the Discretized Eqs.

The non-linear system is solve by the Newton method:
Iterative method: from an initial estimative successive
estimatives are obtained, hopefully, closer from the solution
The estimative are obtained by approximation of the
problem by a linear problem at each iteration
The linear system of equations must be solved at each
iteration
The convergence tend to be slower with the increase of the
time step, reduction of the grid size and increase of flow
velocities
Luciane Cunha
103
Some Comercial Reservoir Simulators Available

CMG:
IMEX (Black-Oil)
GEM (Compositional)
STARS (Thermal)
Eclipse (Black-Oil - Geoquest)
VIP (Black-Oil - Landmark)
Luciane Cunha
104
Input Data File

(Part of an Example)
Luciane Cunha
*********************************************************************
**
SECAO DE DESCRICAO DO RESERVATORIO
**
************************************************************************
*GRID *VARI 88 48 11
** 88 BLOCKS NA DIRECAO X
** 48 BLOCKS NA DIRECAO Y
** 11 LAYERS NA DIRECAO Y
*KDIR
*DOWN
*DI *CON 125.0
** DIMENSAO DOS BLOCOS NA DIRECAO I
*DJ *CON 125.0
** DIMENSAO D0S BLOCOS NA DIRECAO J
**
*BWI
1.04300
** FATOR VOLUME DE FORMACAO DA AGUA
*CW
55.00E-06
** COMPRESSIBILIDADE DA AGUA DE FOR
*CO
25.23E-05
** COMPRESSIBILIDADE DA OLEO ACIMA
*REFPW
190.0
** PRESSAO DE REFERENCIA DA COMPRES.
*VWI
0.42 **0.37
** VISCOSIDADE DA AGUA DE FORMACAO
*CVW
0.0
** DEPENDENCIA DA VISCOS. DA AGUA
*************************************************************************
**
TABELAS DE PERMEABILIDADES RELATIVAS
**
-----------------------------------*ROCKFLUID
**
*RPT **1
**
**SWC = 0.300000
**SORW = 0.200000
***********************************************************
*SWT
**
**
PERMEABILIDADE RELATIVA AGUA-OLEO
**
SW
KRW
KRO
PCOW
0.3000
0.0000
0.7000
0.00 ** 1.000
0.3500
0.0035
0.4686
0.00 **.675
0.4000 0.0100 0.2595 0.00 **.479
105
Evolution of the Number of Cells in Reservoir Flow Studies
Nmeroofdegridblocks
Clulas
Number
1,000,000
100,000
Watts [1997]
10,000
1,000
100
1960
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1970
1980
year
Ano
1990
2000
106
Well Management: Designing & Controlling

Production Parameters
Luciane Cunha
107
Overall Design of a Well-Management Routine

Task Performed by the Well-Management Routine
Simplest form: assigns user-specified well rates or pressures to individual
producing blocks in the simulator at specified times.
More sophisticated perform the following tasks:
1. Shut-in, work over, recomplete, or redrill wells according to user-specified criteria (such
as WOR and GOR limits and minimum allowable oil rates)
2. Calculate wellbore and flow lone hydraulics
3. Initiate artificial lift (gas lift or pumps)
4. Switch flowing wells between production systems having different backpressures
5. Optimize the level and distribution of well rates to match field production-facility cpacities
and the availability of gas for gas lift.
6. Alter any of the preceding to maintain targeted reservoir or field oil or gas rates
7. Control water or gas injection rates to maintain a specified average reservoir pressure.
8. Return produced water to specified locations in the reservoir.
9. Perform coning calculations.
10.Relate the producing GOR and WOR of a well to gridblock average saturations by means
of well pseudofunctions.
11.Allow manual override by the user.
12.Check well-management-routine data for completeness and consistency.
13.Translate literal well names into well-sequence numbers that the simulator can interpret.
Luciane Cunha
108
Overall Design of a Well-Management Routine

Production Constraints
Well Productivity (function of reservoir rock and fluid properties, fluid saturations
and type and effectiveness of well completions. It is affected by reservoir
permeability, fluid viscosity, oil bubble point pressure, relative permeability,
perforation quantity and quality, fraction of formation open to flow, well stimulation,
well drainage volume, and in gas wells, turbulent flow near the wellbore)
Wellbore Hydraulics (is influenced by BHP, wellhead pressure, measured and
vertical depth, GLR, WOR, tubing size and lift mechanism)
Surface System Hydraulics (is influenced by choke size, flowline size and
configuration, separator backpressure and the number of flowing phases)
Surface Facility Capacity
External production constraints
Luciane Cunha
Statutory Controls
Operating Guidelines
Wellbore Utility and Availability
Economic Production
Market Constraints
Disposition of Produced Gas
implest form: assigns user-specified well rates or pressures to individual producing
109
Logic Structure
Typical Decision Rules

1. Shut in wells at prescribed WOR and GOR limits
2. Convert wells to artificial lift as dictated by low wellhead pressures or low
flowing well rates that result from declining reservoir pressure and/or
increasing water production.
3. Implement response to statutory limits by compliance with production
penalties for high GORs, limits on lease gas production, lease, platform,
and field production allowable, and concession or production-sharing
contract rules.
4. Add new completions in response to WOR and GOR performance of wells
by implementing workovers and recompletions, or by drilling new wells.
5. Allocate production among wells and producing intervals for control of
coning and fluid-contact movement.
6. Control pressure by a) scheduling the injection/production ratio and the
timing of injection-capacity increments to maintain reservoir pressure for
optimal natural flow or gas lift efficiency, or maximum recovery efficiency
and b) keeping injection pressures below the reservoir fracture pressure.
Luciane Cunha
110
Logic Structure
Well and Facility Classification
Well Level Classification

Group or Reservoir-Level Classification
Hierarchy of Control
Luciane Cunha
111
Logic Sequence
History Mode
Prediction Mode
Setting Production and Injection Rates at Individual Wells,
Groups of Wells, and for the Reservoir
Workover Algorithm
Drilling Algorithm
Luciane Cunha
112
Individual Well Behavior

Individual Well Capacity is governed by the following factors:
Instantaneous well inflow performance relationship (IPR)

Completion details
Wellbore and surface system hydraulics
Well stimulation
Luciane Cunha
113
Individual Well Behavior

Well Inflow Rates and Pressures
Gridblock Effects
Multiple Wells in Grids
Allocation of Production Rates in Multiblock well Completions
Near-Wellbore Effects
Saturation Effects
Inflow Performance Relationships
Well Pseudofucntions
Coning Functions
Injection-Well Rates and Pressures
Well Outflow Performance
Water Injection
Gas Production and Injection
Gas/Liquid Production
Luciane Cunha
114
Operating Conditions
Reasons why rates or pressures were maintained or
changed with time.
Data Requirements
Luciane Cunha
115
Modeling Concepts
The basic steps required for a reservoir simulation study are:
Select one or
more images for simulation
Input to simulator
Select grid & average
data to get block
properties
Images of
Reservoir
Input
Data
Output
Analysis of
Results
History Matching
Data
Luciane Cunha
116
In general, an engineer interested in doing a reservoir simulation

study would follow the following steps:
-
Develop study objectives

Develop or select an appropriate simulator
Review, collect and estimate appropriate data
Make preliminary runs to establish model parameters and
limitations
Match available history
Predict performance under different operating scenarios
Analyze results and prepare a report
Plan additional work
Luciane Cunha
117
Pre-Processors
Software Available
Builder
GeoSim
Gocad
Gridstat
Irap RMS
Open-GL
ResMod (RC2)
Shapes
SimUp
Storm
....
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EarthVision
Geolink
Grid
GViz
Isatis
Petrel
ResScale
SigmaView
SolidGeo
Stratmodel
....
FloGrid
Geostat
Gridgenr
Heresim
Mapper
Property 3D
ResView
SimGrid
StatMod
SureGrid
...
118
Reservoir Simulation Study Steps
1. Facies, Petrophysics and Seismic Inversion;

2. Description of the Reservoir Geometry and
Geological Structure: Horizons and Faults;
3. Geostatistical Modeling for Reservoir
Properties (Facies, phi, k);
4. Construction of the Simulation Grid and
Reservoir Model
Luciane Cunha
119
Reservoir Simulation Study Steps

Field Development Project
Analytical Phase
Modeling Phase
History match Phase
Prediction Phase
Feasibility Study
Luciane Cunha
120
Complimentary Topics - Trends

Challenges in Reservoir Description
for Flow Simulation and Forecasting
What to describe?
Which is the adequate support for description?
How to describe property between wells?
How to incorporate dynamic data information?
How to deal with uncertainty?
Representation of Heterogeneity
3-D Grids
Up-Scaling
Geostatistics
Uncertainty Quantification and Risk Analysis
Luciane Cunha
121
Determination of Critical Heterogeneities

to Fluid Flow
Quantification of the Impact of Geological Heterogeneities
on Fluid Flow for Diverse Depositional Systems;
Orientation and Optimization of Reservoir Characterization
Efforts to Flow Simulation (Model-Centered Approach);
Identification of the More Adequate Techniques to
Incorporate the Effect of Heterogeneity into Flow Simulation
Models.
Luciane Cunha
122
Introduction - Two Remarking Trends:

In Reservoir Characterization:
Migration from 2D to 3D Methodologies
In Simulation:
Use of more Flexible Grids
Luciane Cunha
123
Grid Formats -Objectives

Adequate Strategies to the Especification of Volumetric
Grids in Integrated Studies
Strategies to the transference of information between
Characterization Grids and Simulation Grids
(Geometrical Approach x Topological Approach)
Better Representation of the Fault Geometry in
Reservoir Simulation Models
Development of Upscaling Techniques
Luciane Cunha
124
Base Map to Simulation Grid Examples [Hales, 96]
Luciane Cunha
125
Cartesian Grid Example [Hales, 96]
Luciane Cunha
126
Orthogonal Curvilinear Grid Example [Hales, 96]
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127
Corner Point Grid Example [Hales, 96]
Luciane Cunha
128
Voronoi or PEBI Grid Example [Hales, 96]
Luciane Cunha
129
Terminology in Grid Classification

Shape (Topology and Geometry) x Properties
Confusing Terminology
Example: Regular Irregular [Treinish, 92]
Grid Regularity
Any characteristic that allows a more compact
representation [Haber et al., 91]
Connectivity Relationships between Cells
Example: Strutuctured Grids x Voronoi
Luciane Cunha
130
3D
Grids
Non Structured
Luciane Cunha
(Standard)
Corner
Point
Grids
131
More Flexible
Structured
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Type 5
Type 6
Type 7
Others
More Regular
More Compact Representation
Classification for Practical Purposes
Specification Strategies of Volumetric

Grids in Integrated Studies
1. Independent Grids
for Characterization and Simulation
2. Overlapping Grids
for Characterization and Simulation
Luciane Cunha
132
Conclusions
Increasing use of Volumetric Grids for Reservoir
Representation
Actual Stage: Substitution of Grid Type 3 by Type 4
Grid Evolution brings new opportunities but also new
challenges for Modelling people
Grid Specification in Integrated Studies is a Critical
Task
Luciane Cunha
133
Upscaling
Luciane Cunha
134
Equivalent Homogeneous Medium
Luciane Cunha
135
Limitations of the
Upscaling Process
Fundamental Questions:
The Desire of Having the Same Results with Less Information!
Operational Questions:
Non Uniqueness with the Computation Methods.
Practical Questions:
One (or More than One) Pseudofunction per Gridblock.
Functional Questions:
The Fine Grid Results are not Reproduced...
Adequate Approach:
To Have in Mind the Approximate Character of the Solutions.
Luciane Cunha
136
Absolute Permeability:
Computation Methods
Simple Formulas:
Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Means
Power Law Average (w)
Combined Averages (Le Loch)
Single Phase Simulation:

Finite Difference
Finite Elements
Luciane Cunha
137
Power Law Average:
1 w 1/w
Kw =( k )
n
Particular Cases:
w = 1 : Arithmetic Mean
w --> 0 : Geometric Mean
w = -1 : Harmonic Mean
Luciane Cunha
138
Equivalent Relative Permeabilities Curves

(Kr Pseudo Functions)
Are Function of:
Spatial Distribution of Local Properties;

Viscous x Capillary x Gravitacional Forces;
Initial Conditions;
Relative Distance to the Injection Well;
Numerical Dispersion.
Equilibrium Methods
Dynamic Methods
Luciane Cunha
139
Geostatistical Simulation Methods

Comparison Between Available Methods
Development of Selection Criteria to
Identify the most Adequate Method for
Geostatistical Simulation
Incorporation of Seismic Data
Streamline Simulators
Luciane Cunha
140
Motivation
Conventional Simulators:
Complex Models: high computational cost
Limited grid dimension
Streamline Models:
Faster runs for a similar grid

Lower computational cost
More refined grids
Luciane Cunha
141
Applications
Luciane Cunha
Fast Analysis of Exploitation Alternatives

Ranking of geostatistical images
Upscaling
Uncertainty analysis
142
Available Techniques
Streamline Based Models
Characteristics:
Numerical calculation of the velocity field
Streamline generation
1-D Saturation solution at each streamline
Numerical dispersion and grid effect reduction
Luciane Cunha
143
Available Techniques (cont.)

Different Treatment to Pressure and Saturation
Characteristics:
Implicit solution for pressure a few times during the
simulation run
Explicity solution for saturation
More efficient and with the same numerical
dispersion level that the conventional simulators
Luciane Cunha
144
Streamline Based Flow Simulators

Commercials
FrontSim (TSC - Noruega)
StreamSim (Stanford)
RC2 (Datta-Gupta - UT)
Multiclient Projects
UTSTREAM (UT)
In-house Development
2-D, uncompressible, gravitational effects
Luciane Cunha
145
FRONTSIM - Characteristics
Luciane Cunha
3D, two-phase, compressible

Gravitational effects
Corner-point grid
Well or group pressure or rate control
Multiphase vertical flow table
Pre and Pos-processor
146
FrontSim Application Examples

Heterogeneous 3-D case with 25000 cells
Heterogeneous 3-D case with 225000 cells
Real Field A Example
Luciane Cunha
147
Conclusions
Use for qualitative evaluations of reservoir behavior;
Use for the ranking of geostatistical images;
Problems as a quatitative evaluation tool (history match).
Luciane Cunha
148
Background
Automatic History Matching Techniques
The proposed methodologies borrow heavily from
techniques of:
optimization;
reservoir simulation;
geological and geostatistical modeling.
Luciane Cunha
149
Motivation
Traditional trial and error approach:
Very frustrating and time consuming;
Modifications in the geological model are generally made
on arbitrary basis;
Static and dynamic data are not integrated;
Many attempts were made to automate the process, but
only recently some degree of success was achieved.
Luciane Cunha
150
Conditioning Methodology
Mathematical Model Construction;
Objective Function Definition;
Application of a Minimization Algorithm.
Luciane Cunha
151
Objective Function
Deviation between simulated and observed data:
est
Om
)= (
) = (dsim dobs ) CD1(dsim dobs )T
obs 2
di
obs 2
i
disim
Good smoothness properties;

No prior information taken into account;
No regularization, parameter identification problem
expected to be strongly ill-posed.
Luciane Cunha
152
Objective Function
Inclusion of a prior term:
est
Om
) = (m m ) ( m )
sim
obs
obs T
1 sim
(d d ) CD (d d )
est
prior
1 est
CM
m
prior T
Good smoothness properties;

Prior information included;
Quadratic nature of prior term expected to improve wellposedness of parameter identification problem.
Luciane Cunha
153
Objective Function
Bayesian interpretation:
Assuming:
parameters and observed data are gaussian variables;
CM is the covariance matrix for the prior model;
est are the standard deviations of measured data.
i
The a posteriori PDF for the parameters is given by
( (
= a exp O mest
))
Minimization of O mest gives the most probable model;

Ideally, one would like to sample .
Luciane Cunha
154
Minimization Algorithm
Two broad classes:
Gradient-based methods (steepest descent, CG, GaussNewton, Levenberg-Marquardt, etc)
fast convergence;
only find local minima;
require changes in simulator code to get derivatives in a
efficient way.
Non-gradient methods (simulated annealing, genetic

algorithms, etc)
low convergence;
able to find global minimum;
simulator can be treated as a black-box.
Luciane Cunha
155
Minimization Algorithm
Gauss-Newton:
Probably the most used method in applications;
Requires to solve a system of order equal to the number of
parameters per iteration;
Requires inversion of CM;
Most computer demanding step is the construction of
derivatives matrix.
Luciane Cunha
156
Calculation of Derivatives in
Reservoir Simulators
How to achieve it?
Perturbation of parameters is easy to implement
(simulator can be taken as a black box);
Analytic techniques can have a dramatic improvement
over perturbation, but require modifications in the
simulators code.
Luciane Cunha
157
Comments
Valuable methodology to reservoir heterogeneity

representation and uncertainty minimization;
Emerging technology.
Luciane Cunha
158
Value of Information Techniques for

Ranking of Appraisal Wells
Paper SPE 36631
Primary Variables Uncertainty Range
Phi (%)
So (%)
H (m)
6
3
VOIP (10 m )
Luciane Cunha
P90
27
72
17,5
341
P50
30
80
25
614
P10
33
88
30
883
160
Comments
The results of the process are mainly influenced
by the probabilities adopted.
This process does not define the appraisal
program; How many wells and which location?
Luciane Cunha
161
Virtual Reality Centres

- integration environment -
Luciane Cunha
162
Introduction
The first Virtual Reality Centre was
inaugurated 07/12/1994, in Berkshire,
England,
at
Silicon
Graphics
headquarters.
Luciane Cunha
163
Aplicability of VRCs
1. Manufacture, architecture, engeneering and civil
construction
2. Petroleum
3. Transportation
4. Universitities
5. Government
6. Services and entertainment
7. Telecomunications
Luciane Cunha
164
Immersion
Immersion
Styles of collaboration environments
Virtual Reality
Luciane Cunha
iCentre
Collaboration
Collaboration
165
Reservoir Model Characteristics
Luciane Cunha
Non structured grids

3D Models
Fault Representation
Seismic Information
Lateral K Variation
Geoestatistic
Well Test Information
Different Rock Regions
Absolute K Upscaling
Pseudo-Functions Calculation (Kr)
166
Simulation Grid Characteristics
Luciane Cunha
Standard Block Centered Grid

No Local Grid Refinement
2D Maps
Fault Representation
Seismic Information
Lateral K Variation
Well Test Information
Different Rock Regions
Non zero Pc
167
Luciane Cunha
168
Well Testing Objectives
Reservoir Evaluation to reach a decision how best to produce a given reservoir
Conductivity (kh product)

Initial reservoir pressure
Reservoir limits
Changes in average reservoir pressure

Monitoring the condition of the wells (workover and stimulation candidates)
Track fluid movements
Communication
Development of the production plan
Reservoir Management to monitor performance and well condition
Reservoir Description to aid in forecasting reservoir performance
In summary:
+++++++++++++++++++++++
change in a variable (pressure/rate) with time

most of the tests will measure change in pressure (p)
reservoir parameters (calculate) k, S, Cd, radius of investigation;

reservoir system description (qualitative).
To determine:
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169
Well Test Types
Drawdown or Flow Test

Measurement of BHP vs. time for at the constant flow rate
Measurement performed while the well is flowing
Test starts when the well is shut-in
Buildup
Well already flowing at the constant rate is shut-in and the BHP is
measured
No production
Injection or Injectivity Test
Similar to drawdown test except fluids are injected at a constant rate

rather than produced
Falloff
Similar to buildup test except that shut-in follows injection
Interference
Measurement of BHP vs. time at the observation well when a disturbance

is created at an active well
Drill Stem Test (DST)
Combinations of drawdown and build up done at time of drilling a well

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170
Ideal Reservoir Model

Assumptions:
radial flow of fluid to a well in a infinite cylindrical
reservoir
homogeneous isotropic (relatively isothermal) porous
medium of infinite extent
constant flowrate (q)
constant pressure at beginning of test pi
uniform thickness (h)
single phase fluid of small and constant compressibility
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171
Principles of Well Testing

Inverse problem
Conservation of mass (continuity equation)
Flow equation (Darcys law)
Equation of state
C t p
1
2p 1 p
=
+
2
r r 0.0002637 k t
r
for radial coordinates and slightly compressible fluid
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172
John Lee, Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series Vol. 1

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173
Assumptions used in derivation of diffusivity equation (liquids)
Porous medium of uniform thickness with homogenous, isotropic
properties
Rock and fluid properties independent of pressure
Small pressure gradients
Applicability of Darcys Law
Negligible gravity forces
Solution
Bounded Cylindrical Reservoir (Exact Solution)
Infinite Reservoir with Line Source Well (rw=0)
Pseudo-steady (Semi-steady) State Solution
Infinite Reservoir with Wellbore Storage
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174

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175
Exact Solution
Assumptions
Well produced at constant rate
Well of radius is centered in a cylindrical reservoir of radius
Uniform pressure before production begins
No flow across outer boundary
p wf
e nt D J 12 ( n reD )
qB 2t D
3
]
= p i 141.2
+ ln reD + 2 [ 2 2
2
kh reD 2
4
n =1 n [ J 1 ( n reD ) J 1 ( n )]
Where
reD =
re
rw
t D = 0.000264
kt
C t rw2
Where n are the roots of J 1 and Y1 (Bessel Functions)

J 1 ( nreD )Y1 ( n ) J 1 ( n )Y1 ( nreD ) = 0
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176
Infinite Cylindrical Reservoir

Assumptions
Well produces at constant rate
The well has zero radius (i.e. line source approximation)
Reservoir is at uniform pressure before production starts
Well drains infinite area (i.e. p p i as r-> )
qB 948Ct r 2
p = p i + 70.6
Ei
kh
kt
Where
Ei = exponential integral
e u
E i ( x) =
du
u
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177
How do we get values for Ei(-x)?
For 10 .9 x 0.02 : Use a table
For
(with less than 0.6% error)

Ei ( x ) ln( x )
= 1.781 Eulers constant
x < 0.02
E i ( x ) ln(1.781x )
For x>10.9 : E i ( x ) 0
When is it appropriate to use the Ei solution?
Ct rw2
3.79x10
k
Ct re2
< t < 948
For most well tests (in the region of interest) the logarithmic approximation is used
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178
Summary
Flow in the infinite acting flow period can be described by the line
source (Ei) solution.
qB
p = p i + 70.6
Ei ( 948
kh
Ct r 2
kt
for most times of interest we can use log approximation
qB
p = p i + 70.6
[ln(1.781
kh
948Ctr 2
kt
)]
Flow influenced by the wellbore (i.e. rw = 0 assumption not valid) or flow

influenced by boundaries/discontinuities cant be handled by equation.
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179
Wellbore Damage
In practice, most wells have a zone of reduced permeability near the
wellbore resulting from drilling and completions operations.
One way to represent this is to consider a zone of altered permeability
of ks having a radius rs directly around the wellbore.
This will cause an additional pressure drop across the zone pS as
compared to the same well with no damage.
Note:
pwf = pwf - pS (skin)

Skin damaged area rs<<small
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180
This additional pressure drop can be represented by the

steady state radial flow equation as:
p S = 141.2
qB rS
ln
k S h rw
qB rs
141.2
ln
kh rw
(Hawkins steady state Model)

rs
qB k
p S = 141.2
1 ln
kh k S
rw
p S = 141.2
qB
S
kh
where
k
r
S =
1 ln s
kS
rw
This is called the thin skin model as rs is considered to be

infinitesimally small.
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181
Wellbore Damage (Important Comments)

S > 0 indicates damage
For S > 0, ks < k
We know
k
rs
ln
1
k
r
S
w
>0
rs > rw , and thus ln s > 0

rw
The greater the contrast between ks and k, and/or the deeper into the
formation the damage extends, the larger the value of S. There is no
upper limit on the value of S.
k

1 > 0
kS
k
> 0 kS < k
kS
Some newly drilled wells will not flow at all before stimulation. For these
wells k S 0 , and S
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182
Positive Skin
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Damage
183
Skin can also be negative. This implies that the flow characteristics near
the wellbore are better than flow characteristics in the reservoir.
For s<0, k s > k
Negative skin indicates a stimulated well. The deeper the extent of
stimulation, the more negative skin becomes.
In practice the lower limit on skin is infinite. This usually represents a
well with deeply penetrating, highly conductive hydraulic fractures.
Not all stimulated wells have negative skin. If we take a well that has
S , and stimulate it, we may end up with a well of S = 2053, which
would be a success, if the well flows at economic rates.
If a well is neither stimulated nor damaged then k = ks and S = 0.
The equation for pressure drop for skin can only be used for the
damaged/stimulated zone, it should not be used to determine
pressures at radii such that rw < r < rs
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184
Negative Skin
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Improvement
185
Adding the expression for skin to the Ei solution gives

p i p wf
qB 948C t rw2
= 70.6
Ei
kt
kh
qB 948C t rw2
Ei
= 70.6
kh
kt
pi pwf
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+ p s
2 k 1 ln rs
k
r
s
w
qB 948Ctrw
= 70.6
[Ei
2S]
kh
kt
186
Using log approximation:

p i p wf
p i p wf
qB 1688C t rw2
[ln
= 70.6
kh
kt
qB 1688Ct rw
= 70.6
[ln
kh
kt
p i p wf
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k
rs
2
1 ln
ks
rw

2S]
qB 1 1688C t rw2
S]
= 141.2
[ ln
kh 2
kt
187
Skin Effect
Change in permeability caused by drilling/completion operations or
stimulation operations
Causes additional pressure drop (positive Value of S)
Hawkins steady-state model
rs
qB k
p S = 141.2
1 ln
kh k S
rw
Expressed as skin factor,S
k
r
1 ln s
S =
kS
rw
S varies from 10 up to + infinity
Effective wellbore radius
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reff = rw e
188
Pseudo-Steady State (PSS)

Assumes a finite cylindrical reservoir of radius re, with the
well in the center
This system, when the well is flowing, and pressure versus
time is measured, exhibits three distinct flow regimes.
a transition period
an infinite acting transient response, and
a pseudo-steady state flow period
[ The PSS flow period is characterized by the pressure change with time being
constant (dp/dt=C) at all points in the reservoir ]
PSS occurs at
Ct re2
t > 948
k
and cannot be analyzed using the line source solution.

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189
Consider the exact solution:

p wf
n2 t D 2
e
J 1 ( n reD )
qB 2t D
3
= p i 141.2
]
2 + ln reD + 2 [ 2 2
2
kh reD
4
n=1 n [J 1 ( n reD ) J 1 ( n )]
where
reD
re
=
rw
t D = 0.000264
kt
C t rw2
At large times, the exponential term and the Bessel

functions cancel each other and the term goes to zero.
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190
The PSS solution is then

p wf
qB 2t D
3
= p i 141.2
2 + ln reD
kh reD
4
or in dimensional variables,
p wf
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re
qB 0.000527kt
ln
= p i 141.2
+
r
kh C t re2
w
191
Solutions with Skin Effect

Skin effect causes additional pressure drop
Infinite acting reservoir:
Skin factor affects only if the pressure point is within the damaged
zone (normally the wellbore)
pwf
qB 948Ct rw2
qB 1688Ct rw2
= pi + 70.6
2S] = pi + 70.6
[Ei
[ln
2S]
kh
kt
kh
kt
Pseudo Steady State:

pwf
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re 3
qB 0.000527kt
+ ln + S
= pi 141.2
2
kh Ctre
rw 4
192
What if the reservoir is not cylindrical?

In 1971, Ramey and Cobb published a paper detailing a
general theory for a well in a closed drainage area
p D = 2t DA
1
A
1 2.2458
+ ln( 2 ) + ln
2 rw
2 C A
where CA is the shape factor (It is a geometric factor

characteristic of the system shape and well location)
and
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t DA
0.0002637kt
=
Ct A
pD =
kh
(p i p )
141.2qB
193

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194
PSS Equation Variations

Consider the PSS Equation
qB 0.000527kt
re 3
+ ln
p = pi 141.2
2
kh Ct re
r 4
by differentiating the above equation
0.0744qB
p
=
t
Ct re2h
and substituting liquid filled pore volume of the reservoir
Vp = re2h
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195
we have
p
0.234qB
=
t
Ct Vp
determining reservoir size from

the rate of pressure decline in the
wellbore in time
replacing pi with average pressure

the well from material balance
within the drainage volume of
V 5.615qB(t / 24) 0.0744qBt

pi p =
=
=
2
2
Ct V
Ct ( re h)
Ct hre
and then
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196
p=p+
0.0744qBt
Ct hre2
0.0744qBt
Ct hre2
qB re 3
141.2
ln
kh r 4
qB re 3
p = p 141.2
ln
kh r 4
considering Skin
qB re 3
p = p 141.2
ln + S
kh r 4
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197
Average pressure concept:
pwf
qB re 3
= p 141.2
ln + S
kh rw 4
Equations for generalized geometry:
pwf
qB 1 10.06A 3
= p 141.2
+ S
ln
2
kh 2 CArw 4
where:
A = drainage area
CA = shape factor (drainage area and well location dependent)
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198
Steady State (Constant Pressure, i.e. oil rate change)

When pressure at every point in the system does not vary
with time (dp/dt=0), flow is said to be steady state.
In reservoirs, SS flow can occur only when the reservoir is
completely charged by a strong aquifer, or when
production and injection are balanced.
In this case, Darcys law in radial form is represented by
kh(p e p w )
q=
B ln(re / rw )
1. a transition period
2. infinite acting
3. pseudo-steady state
Luciane Cunha
199
Dimensionless Variables
In pressure transient analysis it is convenient and customary
to present graphically or tabulated solutions to flow equations
in terms of dimensionless variables.
In this way it is possible to present compactly solutions for a
wide range of parameters: , , S, Cs and k and variables r, p
and t.
Dimensionless parameters and variables are not unique. I.e.
there is more than one choice for each.
Rather, these are defined not derived quantities.
The definitions are chosen such that we can characterize the
flow situation and its solutions.
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200
Standard Definitions:
kh
0.00708kh
(p i p )
(p i p ) =
pD =
141.2qB
qB
tD =
t DA
0.002637kt
r
rw
based on wb radius
C t rw2
rw2
0.002637kt
=
= tD
A
C t A
rD =
based on the drainage area
1 rD2
p D ( t D , rD ) = E i
2 4t D
tD
1
log approximation p D (t D , rD ) = [ln + 0.80907]
2 rD2
Luciane Cunha
201
Wellbore Storage Coefficient (CS)

Consider a shut in oil well in a reservoir of uniform unchanging pressure.
Reservoir pressure will support a column of liquid to some equilibrium
height in the wellbore.
If the valve at the surface is opened and flow is initiated, the first oil
produced will be that stored in the wellbore, and the initial flow rate from
the formation to the well will be zero.
With increasing flow time, at constant surface producing rate, the downhole
flow rate will approach the surface rate and the amount of liquid stored in
the wellbore will approach a constant value.
This phenomenon is called wellbore storage (also called after production
after flow, wellbore loading/unloading).
Wellbore storage has long been recognized as affecting short time transient
pressure behavior.
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202

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203
Wellbore Storage Coefficient

Wellbore storage coefficient (Cs) is the volume of fluid that
the wellbore will produce due to unit drop in pressure
General:
Vwb
, bbl / psi
Cs =
p
For falling liquid level:
25.65Awb
Cs =
, bbl / psi
For liquid expansion case:

Cs = CwbVwb, bbl/ psi
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204
Where
Vwb volume of the wellbore
Cwb compressibility of the wellbore fluid
Awb cross sectional area of the wellbore
- fluid density (liquid)
Dimensionless wellbore storage coefficient:
CsD =
0.894Cs
2
Cthrw
(Field units)
Ct = total compressibility of reservoir system

(Ct = Cf + CoSo + CwSw +Cg)
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205
*wellbore storage causes the sandface flowrate to change

more slowly than the surface flow rate
24Cs dp w
q sf = q +
B dt
dp D (t D , CsD )
q sf = q[1 CsD
]
dt D
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206
Wellbore Storage (Afterflow)
Early transient response is characteristic of the wellbore, not the reservoir
Variable production rate after the surface valve is opened

Initial production from expansion of fluid stored in the wellbore
Initial flow rate from sandface is zero
With increasing flow time sandface rate approaches surface production rate
Two common types of wellbore storage:

Changing liquid level
Fluid expansion
Distorts Cartesian and semi-log diagnostic plots
Unit-slope line is present on the log-log pD vs tD plot
Can cause conventional interpretation impossible (if flow time is short)
Type curves used for interpretation

Analytical solution to diffusivity equation with wellbore storage
For given tD and pD skin factor and CD can be estimated
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207
Superposition
We have considered reservoir/well systems with a single well producing at
a constant rate, starting at time t=0, in an infinite or finite reservoir.
To extend the theory to more general systems we use the PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION.
Superposition states that adding two or more solutions of a linear
differential equation results in a new solution to that differential
equation.
This new solution represents a solution of the original equation with
different boundary conditions.
For our purposes, we can state the principle of superposition as the total
pressure drop at any point in a reservoir is the sum of the pressure
drops at that point caused by flow in each of the wells in the reservoir.
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208
Example 1: Three wells in an infinite reservoir
Well A
rAC
rAB
Well B
Well C
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209
At well A:
p i p wf = (p i p ) due to well A + (p i p ) well B + (p i p )well C
p i p wf
2
948C t rwA
q A B
= 70.6
{E i
kh
kt
2S A }
2
2
q B B 948C t rAB
948
C
r
q
B
t AC
70.6 C
70.6
Ei
E
i
kh
kt
kt
kh
Note: infinite reservoir use Ei solution. In dimensionless form:

B
p A = 141.2
{ q i p D ( t D , rD ) + S A } .
kh
Equation above assumes homogeneous thickness of reservoir at all wells

(i.e. cannot use if thickness varies in a reservoir).
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210
Superposition
No flow
between
1 and 2
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211
Example 2: Pressure Behavior in Bounded Reservoirs

Consider a well a distance L from a single no-flow boundary.
Mathematically, this is identical to two wells at a distance of 2L apart,
flowing at the same rate q.
It can be shown, using potential theory, that a line equidistant between
the two wells is a no flow boundary (i.e. Dp=0)
The problem reduces to a simple two-well in an infinite reservoir
problem.
p i p wf
948C t rw2
qB
= 70.6
{E i
kh
kt
2S}
This technique is called the method of images and can be used to model
complex well/boundary situations.
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212
Superposition in space x Superposition in time

Superposition in time is used to model variable-rate producing wells.
Consider a reservoir that has the following production history:

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213
From well 1 producing at q1 starting at t = 0

q1B 1688Ct rw2
p1 = (p i p wf )1 = 70.6
{ln
kh
kt
2S}
From well 2 producing at q2-q1, starting at t = t1

(total elapsed time for well 2 is (t-t1))
(q 2 q 1 )B 1688 C t rw2
{ln
p 2 = (p i p wf ) 2 = 70.6
k (t t )
kh
1
2S }
From well 3 producing at q3-q2, starting at t > t2 (elapse

time = t - t2)
(q 3 q 2 )B 1688C t rw2
p 3 = (p i p wf ) 3 = 70.6
{ln
k (t t 2 )
kh
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2S }
214
p = (p i p wf ) = p1 + p 2 + p 3
B
p = (p i p wf ) = 70.6
kh
1688 C t rw2
(q i q i 1 ){ln
k (t t )
i 1
2S }
In dimensionless form
B
p = 141.2
kh
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(q
q i 1 )p D (t t i 1 ) D , rD ) +S}
215
Productivity Index (PI or J)

From before (PSS Equation)
pwf
J=
qB 1 10.06A 3
= p 141.2
+ S
ln
2
kh 2 CArw 4
q
p p wf
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0 .00708 kh
1 10 .06 A 3
+ S
B ln
2
2
C
r
A w 4
216
Radius of Investigation (or Radius of Drainage)

The radius of investigation defines a circular system with a PSS pressure
distribution from the well to the drainage radius.
Stated another way the radius of investigation is the distance a
significant pressure disturbance is propagated by production or
injection at a constant rate.
As time increases, more of the reservoir is influenced by the well and rinv
increases.
rinv
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kt
948
C
1/ 2
t in hours , r in feet
217
Note that rinv is not dependent on flow rate

but on time and flow properties
Radius of investigation has several uses in analysis and test
design. A qualitative use is to help explain the shape of a
BU (Buildup) or DD (Drawdown) curve. Rinv provides a
guide for well test design. If we want to know the
properties of the reservoir at least x feet from the well,
we dont have to guess at the length of time to run a test.
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218
Type Curve Analysis

Type Curves are commonly used to characterize damage and
stimulation of the tested well, and to determine formation
permeability
Most of these curves were generated by simulating constant rate
pressure drawdown tests. However, most can be applied to buildup
tests by using an equivalent time transformation.
The advantage of type curve analysis compared to conventional
analysis is that type curves may allow test interpretation even when
wellbore storage distorts most or all of the test data. They are also
useful for fractured well analysis.
Fundamentally a type curve is a pre-plotted family of pressuredrawdown curves.
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219
The most fundamental of type curves is a plot of

dimensionless pressure change PD vs. dimensionless time tD
Type curves are generated by obtaining solutions to flow equations (ex.
Diffusivity equation) with specific initial and boundary conditions.
Some solutions are generated analytically others are based on
numerical solutions.
The family of type curves of this type most often used were generated
analytically by Ramey and Agarwal. They are referred to as Rameys
curves or Agarwals curves or storage skin model. They have two
parameters in that distinguish the curves from one another: skin factor,
S, and wellbore storage CD. For an infinitely acting reservoir, the
specifications of CD and S uniquely determines the value of PD at a
given value of tD
(Note that rD does not enter the equation, as it is r/rw and as we are
measuring the pressure at the wellbore rD=1)
Luciane Cunha
220
Build-Up Test
Procedures:
Producing a well at the constant rate
Shutting the well in (mostly at the surface)
Record the pressure as a function of time
Application:
Estimation of reservoir permeability
Estimation of skin effect
Estimation of drainage-area pressure
Detection of reservoir heterogeneities and boundaries
Interpretation:
Horners Method
Matthews-Brons-Hazebroek (MBH)
Modified Muskat Method
Type Curves
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221
Ideal Build-Up Test

An ideal Build-Up test is a test in an infinite homogenous, isotropic
reservoir, containing slightly compressible, single phase fluid with
constant fluid properties. Any wellbore damage or stimulation is
considered to be concentrated in a skin of zero thickness at the
wellbore. At the instant of shut-in, flow into the wellbore ceases
totally.
Make the following assumptions:
1) The well is producing from an infinite acting reservoir (no boundary
effects are felt during the flow or subsequent shut-in period)
2) Formation and fluids have uniform properties so that the Ei function
may be used (and also the ln approximation)
3) The well is produced at a rate q for a time tp and is then shut-in for a
time t. Total time for the test is tp+ t.
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222

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223
Horners Method
Assumptions:
Well producing from infinite acting reservoir (both flow and
build-up period)
Formation and fluid properties are uniform
Horners pseudoproducing time approximation applicable
p ws
Where:
t p + t
qB
= pi 162.6
log(
)
t
kh
Semi-log plot straight line slope: m = -162.6 qB/kh

Horners time: (tp+t)/t
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224
This suggests that shut-in pressure pws, should plot as a

t p + t
)
straight line function of log(
t
p ws = p i + m log(
t p + t
t
) where
m = 162.6
qB
kh
In practice m is always considered to be a positive quantity.

Thus formation permeability k, can be determined from
slope m.
Conventional industry practice is to plot :
t p + t
on a semi-log plot with values of

t
decreasing from left to right.
p ws vs(
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t p + t
t
225
Slope m, is determined by subtracting the two

values of pws over one cycle.
In truth, it doesnt matter how you plot the data,
because we have agreed to use positive value of m.
If shut-in time t, is infinite, then tp + t t and ( tp +tt ) 1
t p + t
The intersection of the straight line with ( t ) = 1
gives p i
, the initial reservoir pressure t,
assuming an p * false pressure for finite reservoirs.
Luciane Cunha
226
Skin Factor
pwf
or
pws
DRAWDOWN
tp
At the instant of shut-in
BUILDUP
crw2
qB
p wf = p i + 70.6
{ln(1688
) 2S}
kh
kt p
crw2
p wf = p i + m{log(1688
) 0.869S}
ktp
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227
At shut-in time t
p ws = p i m log(
t p + t
t
Combining these two equations gives

t p + t
p ws p wf
1688crw2
Skin s = 1.151(
+ 1.151 log(
) + 1.151 log
)
t
m
kt
Conventional industry practice is to choose t=1hr, and the

corresponding shut-in pressure p ws = p wf to use in the skin equation
t will work).
(any t and corresponding p
With this simplification
p1hr p wf
k
s = 1.151{
log
+ 3.23}
2
m
1688crw
Luciane Cunha
228
Reservoir Limit Test

Test to estimate reservoir size and distance to boundaries
Single boundary near the wellbore causes buildup curve slope m
to double
p ws = p i 325.2
t p + t
qB
log(
)
t
kh
Distance (L) to the boundary can be estimated

L=
0.000148kt x
ct
Time required for the slope to double:
1.9E5ct L2
t x =
k
t is long for large L and low k, alternative approach may be used:

p
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ws
3792ct L2
qB
= 70.6
Ei
kh
kt
229
t p + t
qB
Compare to p ws = p i 162.6
log(
)
kh
t
qB
m
=
162
.
6
Define
kh
For a boundary,
slope = 2m
pws
1300psi/cycle
2m
650psi/cycle
m
(t+tp)/t
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tx
230
The distance to the no-flow boundary is given by
L=
0.000148k ( t x )
C t
(Grays Correlation)
For the case of multiple boundaries, each new encountered? Doubles the slope.
4m
pws
2m
m
(t+tp)/t
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231
Static Drainage Area Pressure

Average pressure in the drainage area of the well
MBH (Matthews-Brons-Hazebroek) (p* method)
Modified Muskat method
MBH
Estimation of static drainage area pressure
Obtained by computing build-up curves for wells in various
positions and areas of various shapes and comparing
extrapolated p* with static average pressure
Build-up curves were calculated using imaging techniques
and principle of superposition
Series of plots of kh(p * p ) / 70.6qB vs. 0.000264ktp / ct A
were prepared
Luciane Cunha
232
Matthews-Brons-Hazebroek Method (MBH Method)

Build-Up test analysis method for Pseudo-Steady State reservoirs
For tp >>t, (tp +t)= tp and log[(tp +t)/ t]=log tp -logt
p ws = cons + m log( t )
Calculations of permeability and skin factor are similar to Horners
method
Plot of pws vs. t is made on semi-log scale increasing from left to
right
Wellbore effect is estimated similarly to Horners method and can be
estimated with equation:
0.14S
t =
170,000Ce
kh /
End of semi-log straight line can be estimated from:

t =
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c t A
(t DA )est
0.000264k
233
This technique is much simpler (less calculation on the time

variable)
However:
MBH assumes that the well has reached PSS before shut-in
for buildup
PSS
r re
P
= cons tan t
t
False pressure p* may be estimated from MBH plot by using

p * = p 1hr + m log( t p + 1)
m = 162.6
p * = p 1hr + m log t p
qB
kh
Average reservoir pressure in the drainage area can be

calculated using MBH p* and Fig 6.6 in Earlougher book
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234

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235
Procedures:
Extrapolate MTR of Horners plot to to (tp +t)/ t =1 and read
extrapolated p*
Estimate the drainage area shape
Choose the proper curve for the shape of our area (MBH curve)
Estimate 0.000264ktp / ct A and find 2.303(p * p ) / m = p DMBH
Calculate p = p * mp DMBH
Advantages:
Does not need to have data beyond MTR
Applicable to a whole variety of shapes
Disadvantages:
Requires knowledge of drainage area shape and size
k , , , c t
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236
Modified Muskat Method

Limiting form of general solution to diffusivity equation
Depth of investigation reached reservoir boundaries
Build-up followed stabilized flow
p p ws
qB
kt
= 118.6
exp(0.00388
)
2
kh
ct re
For analysis of build-up tests this is approximated by

qB
kt
log(p p ws ) = log(118.6
) 0.00388
kh
ct re2
log( p ) = A + Bt
approximation valid if,

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250ct re2
750ct re2
t
k
k
237
p too high
Procedures:
log( p -p )
Assuming a value for p
p too low
correct p
Plot log( p p ws )
vs. t
When straight line results the correct value of p was found t
Too low p produces downward curvature / Too high p produces
upward curvature
Advantages (over p* method)
Requires no estimates of reservoir properties when it is used to
establish p (except to choose the correct portion of data analysis)
Yields satisfactory estimates of p for hydraulically fractured wells and
for wells with layers of different permeability communicating through
the wellbore
Disadvantages:
Does not work if the well is not centered in the drained area
250ct re2
750ct re2
Shut-in times of
are frequently impractically
t
k
k
long (especially for low k)
ws
Luciane Cunha
238
Drawdown Test
Used for:
New wells
Wells shut-in for long enough time to establish uniform pressure in the reservoir
Wells which have to maintain production (economic reasons, etc.)
Procedures:
Application:
Starting with uniform pressure in the reservoir

Producing a well at the constant rate
Rate and pressure are recorded as a function of time
Estimation of reservoir permeability

Estimation of skin effect
Estimation of drainage volume, initial oil in place
Detection of reservoir heterogeneities and boundaries
Interpretation:
Diagnostic plots
Type curves
Pressure derivative analysis
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239
Drawdown Test Analysis

Diagnostic plots:
Plotting pwf vs. logt
Estimate end of wellbore storage (log-log plot or type curve matching)
Estimate the beginning of late transient (with type curves or semil log
plot)
Estimate the slope m and calculate formation permeability, k
Calculate skin factor, s
Estimation of pore volume:
0.234qB
Vp =
p
C t wf
t
where:
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p wf
slope of straight line on Cartesian plot of pwf vs. t
240
Pore volume (pseudo-steady state):

p wf
qB 0.000527kt
re
3
+ ln[ ]
= p i 141.2
2
kh Ct re
rw
4
p wf
0.0744qB
=
t
C t re2
substitute
Vp = re2h
p wf
0.234qB
=
t
C t Vp
0.234qB
Vp =
p wf
)
Ct (
t
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only when the boundaries are reached
241
Drawdown Test
Idealized constant rate solution:
p wf
1688Ct rw2
qB
0.869S]
[log
= p i + 162.6
kh
kt
Skin effect:
k
p i p1hr
+ 3.23]
log
S = 1.151[
2
m
Ct rw
Permeability:
qB
k = 162.6
mh
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242
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243
Gas Well Testing

Diffusivity equation for liquids:
1 p 2 p C t p
+ 2 =
r r r
k t
Based on:
law of conservation of mass
flow law (Darcys law)
C( p p o )
equation of state: = o e
Diffusivity equation for gases:
1 (p) 2 (p) C t (p)

+
=
r r
k
t
r 2
Changes:
. equation of state:
M p
RT Z
. real gas pseudopressure:
(p ) = 2
pB
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p
dp
(p ) Z( p )
244

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245
For gases flowing in an infinite-acting reservoir, the solution is:

(field units)
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 50300
C ti = C gi S g + C w S w + C f C gi S g
(SI)
p sc T q g
Tsc kh
[1.151 log(
1688 i C ti rw2
kt
) (S + D q g )]
(gas compressibility term is dominant)
p sc T q g
125.3 i C ti rw2
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 3.733
[1.151 log(
) (S + D q g )]
Tsc kh
kt
The term D q reflects a non-Darcy pressure loss. It takes into account the
fact that at high velocities near the producing well (characteristics of
high gas production rates) Darcys Law does not predict correctly the
relationship between flow rate and pressure drop. The absolute value of
qg is used so that the term D qg is always positive, regardless of
production or injection.
g
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246
For pseudo steady state flow (ri > re) past boundary.
(field units)
(SI)
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 50300
(p wf ) = (p i ) + 3.733
p sc T q g
r
[ln( e ) 0.75 + S + D q g ]
Tsc kh
rw
p sc T q g
r
[ln( e ) 0.75 + S + D q g ]
Tsc kh
rw
For some (most) gases at pressures above 3000psi,

Wattenbarger and Ramey have shown that gas flow in an
infinite acting reservoir can be modeled accurately by
(field units)
p wf = pi + 162.6
qg Bgi i
(SI)
p wf = pi + 2.15
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kh
S + D qg
1688iCti
[log(
)(
)]
ktp
1.151
qg Bgi i
kh
S + D qg
11.64iCti
)(
)]
[log(
ktp
1.151
247
For many cases at pressures below 2000 psi flow in

an infinite acting reservoir can be modeled by:
(field units)
2
p wf = pi + 1637
qg Zi i T
kh
S + D qg
1688iCti
[log(
)(
)]
ktp
1.151
(SI)
2
p wf = pi + 1.508
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qg Zi i T
kh
S + D qg
11.64iCti
[log(
)(
)]
ktp
1.151
248
Buildup equations can be developed with the use of

superposition p>3000psi or 21000kPa
(field units)
p ws = p i 162.6
(SI)
p ws = p i 2.15
Skin
(field units)
S' = S + D q g = 1.151[
(SI)
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q g B gi i
kh
q g B gi i
kh
[log(
[log(
t p + t
t
t p + t
t
)]
)]
k
p1hr p wf
log(
) + 3.23]
m
i Cti rw2
S' = S + D q g = 1.151[
p1hr p wf
k
log(
) + 2.10]
2
m
i Ctirw
249
Buildup equations can be developed with the use of

superposition for p<2000psi or 14000kPa
(field units)
q g Zi i T
t p + t
2
2
p ws = p i 1637
(SI)
p ws 2 = p i 2 2.15
Skin
(field units)
(SI)
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kh
q g Z i i T
kh
[log(
[log(
t p + t
t
)]
)]
p wf
k
p
S' = S + D qg = 1.151[ 1hr
log(
) + 3.23]
2
m
iCtirw
2
p
p wf
S' = S + D q g = 1.151[ 1hr
m
log(
k
i C ti rw2
) + 2.10]
250

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251
Deliverability Tests
Deliverability tests have conventionally been called back pressure
tests because they make possible the prediction of well flow rates
against any particular pipeline back pressure. The purpose of these
tests is to provide the manner in which the flowrate will decline
with reservoir depletion.
The absolute open flow (AOF) potential of a well is defined as the rate at
which the well would produce against a zero sandface back
pressure. It cannot be measured directly, but may be obtained from
deliverability tests. It is often used by regulatory authorities as a
guide in settling maximum allowable producing rates.
Deliverability tests are historically conducted three different ways.
Flow- after flow test
Isochronal test
Modified isochronal test
All three are variations of the flow-after flow test.

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252
Flow-after flow test

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253
The well is flowed at a selected constant rate until the

pressure stabilizes. (i.e. pseudo steady-state is reached).
The stabilized pressure and rate are recorded. The rate is
then changed and the well is flowed until pressure
stabilizes again. The stabilized rate and pressure are
recorded. This process is repeated for a total of three or
four rates.
The collected data is analyzed by either of two methods an
empirical method (Canada) or the LIT (Linear-inertialturbulent) method.
Empirical Method AOF- log-log graph
C and n
Deliverability equation
LIT method linear inertial turbulent method

sometimes called theoretical method
Luciane Cunha
254
Simplified (Empirical) Analysis

The empirical method is based on the observations of Rawlins
and Schellhardt (1936). Their observation was that a plot of
2
p 2 (p p 2wf ) vs. qst
on log-log paper is approximately a straight line for most
wells in which pseudo-steady state is reached for each flow
rate in a flow-after flow test.
The equation for this straight line is
Where
q st = C(p R p 2wf ) n = C( p 2 ) n
qst =flow rate at standard conditions (m3/d)

p R = average reservoir pressure obtained by shut-in of the
well to complete stabilization (kPa)
p wf = flowing sandface pressure (kPa)
Luciane Cunha
255
C=coefficient which describes the position of the stabilized delivery line

n= an exponent which describes the inverse of the slope of the stabilized
deliverability line.
The value of n varies from 1.0 for laminar flow to 0.5 for turbulent flow
0.5<n<1, and is sometimes regarded as a measure of the turbulence of
flow (values of n -> 0.5 look for positive skin)
The straight line is extrapolated to pwf=atmospheric pressure to
determine the AOF value for the well.
The constants C and n are not constant at all but depend upon the
pressure dependent fluid properties ( , CS , Z ).
Accordingly, often this type of deliverability curve is used, periodic retesting of the well should occur to determine current values of C and n.
Luciane Cunha
256
LIT method Linear Inertial Turbulent

(Theoretical) method
Outside North America, there is a general use of a quadratic
form of the flow equation called the Forcheimer
equation or turbulent flow equation. It is actually the
laminar-inertial-turbulent (LIT) flow equation
2
p = p R p 2wf = aq st + bq st2
This equation is derived from our pressure squared flow
equation for stabilized flow (PSS or SS)
p 2wf
for
pi = pR
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p i2
and
q g i Zi T
kh
[ln(
re
) 0.75 + S + D q g ]
rw
q g = q st
257
p 2wf
= pr
q st pri Z pr T
kh
[ln(
re
) 0.75 + S' ]
rw
p R p 2wf = aq st + bq st2
where
re
i Zi T
a=
[ln( ) 0.75 + S' ]
kh
rw
i ZiT
b=
D
kh
The equation can be arranged to

2
pr
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p 2wf
= a + bq st
q st
258
2
pr
p 2wf
q st
A Cartesian plot of
vs. q st
line with slope b and intercept a.
is a straight
The constants a & b can be determined from the flow

test for at least two rates in which and the
corresponding value of p wf are measured.
= wf = a' q g + b' q g2
p = p p wf = a' ' q g + b' ' q g2

2
p = p p 2wf = aqg + bqg2

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pseudopressure
pressure
pressure squared
259
a = 1422
pi Z p T
kh
b = 1422
plot of
bq g2 vs
[ln(
re
) 0.75 + S' ]
rw
pi Z p TD
kh
qg on log-log paper should yield a straight line
p 2 / q vs. qg is plotted on the straight line

2
p p 2wf = aq g + bq g2 / q g
2
(p p 2wf ) / q g = a + bq g -> straight line plot y=ax+b
Luciane Cunha
260
Isochronal Tests
The objective of isochronal testing is to obtain data to establish a stabilized
deliverability curve for a gas well without flowing the well sufficiently long
to achieve stabilized conditions at each rate. This procedure was developed
for lower permeability reservoirs were it was impractical to achieve PSS at
each rate during the test.
An isochronal test is conducted by flowing a well at a fixed rate, then shutting
the well in until the pressure builds to an unchanging (or almost unchanging)
value .
The well is then flowed at a second rate for the same length of time, followed by
another shut-in period. This flow, shut-in sequence is continued usually 4-5
time. If at all possible, the final flow period should be long enough to reach
stabilized flow. If this is impossible or impractical, it is still possible to
predict the stabilized deliverability characteristics.
Analysis for the empirical method is carried out in a similar fashion to that of
the flow-after flow test. The data from the flowing period is plotted, and the
best fit line is found. A parallel line is drawn through the stabilized point. It
is this (second) line which is extrapolated to determine the AOF and the
values of c and n.
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261

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262
Procedures for isochronal tests using empirical

method (SSS achieved)
1. plot the best straight line through the points

2
(p p 2wf ) vs.q g obtained for a fixed value of time on
log-log
2. establish the slope 1/n
3. a line with slope of 1/n is then drawn through the
single stabilized point
4. establish
deliverability curve equation
2
q g = C(p p 2wf )n
or do graphically
Luciane Cunha
263
Procedures for isochronal test theoretical method

For SSS
2
p p 2wf = aq g + bq g2
where
a = 1422
pZpT
kh
r
[ln( e ) 0.75 + S' ]
rw
, ri > re
b = 1422
p Z p TD
kh
for infinite acting

2
p p 2wf = aqg + bq g2
ri < re
where b is the same as for SSS

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264
pZpT 1
1688kt
[ ln(
) + S]
a = 1422
2
kh
2
C rw
p
tp
Procedures:
1. for constant t determine b from the plot of
2
(p p 2wf ) / q g vs.q g
2. using the stabilized data point, determine a from

2
2
a = [(p p 2wf ) stab bq gstab
] / q gstab
3. stabilized deliverability curve will have the

following equation
2
and
p p 2wf = aq g + bq g2
2
AOF =
Luciane Cunha
a + a 2 + 4b(p 14.7 2 )
2b
265

Luciane Cunha
266
Isochronal tests analysis with no SSS achieved

Constant a have to be calculated if every term in equation
a = 1422
1.
2.
3.
4.
pZpT
kh
[ln(
re
) 0.75 + S' ]
rw
known s,k can be determined from one of the sections

of the isochronal tests
two tests (either drawdown or BU) have to be
analyzed for estimation of S
re have to be estimated from expected well spacing or
knowledge of reservoir geometry
constants a & b determined that way can be
substituted into a stabilized deliverability equation
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267

Luciane Cunha
268
Modified Isochronal Test

The objective of the modified isochronal test is to obtain the same
data as in an isochronal test, without using the sometimes lengthy
shut-in periods. (i.e. allowing the pressure to stabilize completely
before the next flow period is commercial)
The modified isochronal test has shut-in periods the same duration as
the flow periods. The final shut-in BHP(pws) before the beginning
of a new flow period is used as an approximation to in the test
analysis procedure.
Again, either the LIT or empirical method may be used.
Note: the modified isochronal procedure uses approximations.
Isochronal tests are modeled exactly by rigorous theory. Modified
isochronal tests are not. Despite this, however, modified
isochronal tests are excellent approximations to true isochronal
tests, and are widely used as they save time and money.
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269

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270

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271

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272
Modified Isochronal Test

Obtaining the same data as isochronal without lengthening shutin
periods
Shut-in periods are the same drawdown as flow periods
Final BHP after shut-in is used as approximation to p in the test
analysis procedure
Approximate results-> good accuracy will less time.
b=
The equation can be arranged to
p p 2wf
q st
A Cartesian plot of
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p p2wf
qst
i Zi T
D
kh
= a + bq st
vs. q st is a straight line.
273
Gas Deliverability Tests Design

General Considerations:
Time to stabilization
Sequence of flow rates
Constancy of flow rates
Design guidelines:
Luciane Cunha
Choice of the test

Choice of the equipment
Choice of flow rates
Duration of flow rates
274
Computer Aided Test Interpretation

Speeding-up traditional techniques
Handling problems to complex for hand calculations
Continuously varying rate
Multiple wells
Complex geometry
Estimation of reservoir properties from portions of data insufficient for
conventional interpretation
Capable of performing Non-linear regression (automatic type curve
matching)
Matching achieved by changing of the unknown reservoir properties

until the data fit as closely as possible (in the least square sense)
All data can be fitted simultaneously
Problems associated with interpreting separate portions of data
can be avoided
Goodness of the fit can be estimated
Pressure Derivative Analysis

Provides a simultaneous presentation of log(p) vs. log(t) and log[t(dp/dt)]
vs. log(t) on the single graph (see figure)
Unique curve match can be obtained
Luciane Cunha
276
Horizontal Well Testing

Horizontal wells differ from vertical wells in a number of ways
that are important to well test interpretation
Interval open for fluid entry is very long;
In many cases the producing length is not known,
production logging was run to measure the rate at
enters the hole at different locations;
unless
which fluid
Vertical permeability may play important role, since there is

likely to have considerable flow in vertical direction;
There are a number of different flow regimes during the
transient;
Depending on the value of reservoir parameters, one or more
of the flow regimes may be missing.
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277
Steps in Evaluating Horizontal Well-Test Data
Identify Flow Regimes

Apply the Proper Procedures
Evaluate Uniqueness and Sensitivity
Luciane Cunha
278
Horizontal Well Flow Regimes
Hemiradial
Early radial
Pseudoradial or Late radial

Linear or Early linear
Luciane Cunha
279
Identifying Flow Regimes in Horizontal Wells
Late linear
Wellbore
Storage
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280
Horizontal Wells Geometry Definitions

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281
Early radial
Horizontal Well Flow

Regimes (1)
Governing Equation:
p i p wf
k zk x t
162.6qB
3.227 + 0.868sd
=
log 10
2
k z k x L w
Ctrw
Interpretation:
162.6qB
k zk x =
merf L w
k zk x
1 hr
+ 3.23
log 10
sd = 1.151
2
Ctrw
merf
1800d 2zCt
End of early radial:
t Eerf =
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kz
t Eerf
125L2W Ct
=
ky
282
Hemiradial
Regimes (2)
Governing Equation:
p i p wf
k zk x t
325.2qB
3.227 + 0.868sd
=
log 10
2
k z k x L w
Ctrw
Interpretation:
p
k zk x
1 hr
+ 3.23
log 10
sd = 2.303
2
Ctrw
mhrf
325.2qB
k zk x =
mhrf L w
End of hemiradial flow:

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t Ehrf
1800D 2zCt
=
kz
t Ehrf
125L2w Ct
=
ky
283
Early linear flow

Regimes (3)
Governing Equation:
p i p wf
Interpretation:
8.128qB
kx =
melf L w h Ct
8.128qB
t
141.2qB
=
+
( sc + sd )
Lw
k x Ct L w k z k x
Lw k zk x
sd =
p t = 0 s c
141.2qB
h
kx
d z
sc = ln + 0.25 ln ln sin
1.838
h
kz
rw
End of early linear flow: t Eelf

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160L2w Ct
=
ky
284

Regimes (4)
Late-Pseudoradial flow
Lw
< 0.45
bH
Governing Equation:
p i p wf
141.2qB
kyt
162.6qB
2.303 +
( sc + sd )
=
log 10
2
k yk x h
Ct L w
Lw k zk x
Interpretation:
162.6qB
k yk x =
mprf h
ky
k z L w p1hr
+ 1.76 sc
sd = 1.151
log 10
2
k y h mprf
Ctrw
Time of occurrence:
t Sprf
1480L2w Ct
=
ky
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t Eprf =
2000Ct ( L w / 4 + d y ) 2
ky
t Eprf
1650Ct d x2
=
kx
285

Regimes (5)
Late linear flow
Governing Equation:
p i p wf =
8.128qB
t
141.2qB
b
( s p + sc + H sd )
+
bHh
k x Ct b H k z k x
Lw
Interpretation:
8.128qB
kx =
mllf b H h Ct
L
sd = w
bH
bH k zk x
p t = 0 s p sc
141.2qB
Time of occurrence:
t Sllf =
4800Ct ( L w / 4 + D y ) 2
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ky
t Sllf
1800Ct D 2z
=
kz
t Ellf
1650d x2 Ct
=
kx
286

Regimes (6)
Wellbore Storage
Governing Equation:
C = Vwbc wb
25.65A wb
C=
wb cos
qBt
C=
24 p
Time of occurrence:
t Ewbs =
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( 4000 + 240sd )C
k xk y Lw /
287
Summary of Analysis Procedures

Compute Kz, from early-radial or hemiradial flow regimes (need
knowledge of Kx permeability perpendicular to the wellbore);
Compute Ky from pseudoradial flow regime (need knowledge of Kx);
We can compute Kx if data from early-linear or late-linear flow
regimes is available;
To compute Kx from early-linear flow regime need to know the
EFFECTIVE completed wellbore length Lw; to compute Kx from
late-linear flow regime, need to know the reservoir length bH
We can compute Lw from early-linear flow regime if we know Kx
We can compute bH from late-linear flow regime if we know Kx
Luciane Cunha
288
Parameters Important to H.W. Pressure Response

Ratio of the vertical to horizontal permeability
(kV/kH)
Vertical permeability
Position of the well relative to the thickness of
the formation (zw/h)
Effective length of the well relative to the
formation height (Lw/h)
Drilling & Completion damage
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289
EOR & SIMULATION OF SPECIAL PROCESSES:
1. Basic Concepts
2. Buckley Leverett Theory
3. Overview of EOR Processes
4. Compositional Simulation
5. Miscible Displacement
6. Chemical and Polymer Flooding
7. Steam Simulation and Steamdrive
8. In-Situ Combustion
Luciane Cunha
290
Basic Concepts: IFT
When two or more immiscible fluids are put in one recipient, the denser ones will be at the lower part
existing an horizontal separation surface between the fluids. This does not occur in a porous media
with different capillars with different diameters, because the surface separation will not be sudden,
existing a transition zone due to capillary effects
This phenomena results from the molecular attraction inside the fluid. A molecule inside the liquid will
be in equilibrium since it is attracted equally in all the directions by the surrounding molecules. The
same is not true with a molecule at the surface, which will not be attracted equally since it is
surrounded by molecules of different types.
When the contact surface is between a liquid and a gas the phenomena and the properties that are
generated from this are called superficial and when between two liquids interfacials, non existing
however, a difference between both cases.
An isolated fluid drop presents a spherical surface due to the molecules trend to move to the center and
consequently to present a minimum surface. The surface behaves as an elastic membrane that offers
resistance to the separation of molecules.
The needed energy to form a certain surface is defined total free surface energy (E).
The surface energy per unit of surface is called unit free surface energy (Es).
The force that impede the surface rupture, per unit of length, is called the superficial or interstitial
tension (s).
The force that tends to pull a surface to the center is called capillary force (Fc) and this, divided by are
is called capillary pressure (Pc).
Luciane Cunha
291
Basic Concepts: IFT

Relationship between Superficial Tension and Unit Free Energy Surface
By definition,
d dF .da dF .db
dF dF
=
db
Es =
da
da.db
dF2
db
dF1
da.db
Es = = MT 2 erg / cm 2 = dyne / cm
dF1
da
Capillary Force
dF2
dFc
Relationship between Capillary Pressure and Superficial tension
da/2
d1
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d1
dF1
Capillary Pressure
292
Basic Concepts: IFT

pc =
Fc dFc
=
A dA
dFc = 2proj.dF1 + 2proj.dF2

dFc = 2dF1 sin d1 + 2dF2 sin d2
sin d1 =
MN da / 2
=
R1
R1
sin d2 =
da / 2
R2
dA = da.db
dFc =
Pc =
dF1 .da dF2 .db

+
R1
R2
dF1 1 dF2 1
.
+
.
db R 1 da R 2
Pc = (
Luciane Cunha
1
1
+
)
R1 R 2
Pc =
2
R
293
Basic Concepts: Wettability

The figure below presents an scheme with the equilibrium of forces in an
oil-water-solid interface.
Contact Angle (after Amyx et al.).

By definition, the contact angle t, is the angle (varying from 0 and 180o)
measured from the densest liquid.
When this contact angle is smaller than 90o we say that the densest fluid is
preferable wet to the solid and when it is higher than 90o we say that
the least dens liquid is preferable wet to the solid.
Luciane Cunha
294
Basic Concepts: Wettability

The adhesion tension is defined as the tension difference throughout the solid. Thus:
A = so sa = ao cos ao
cos ao =
so sa
ao
This tension is responsible for the rising and depression of fluids in capillars, i.e., determines by which
fluid the solid is preferably wet.
The wettability property and the adhesion tension varies according to the fluids and solids used,
Wettability (after Amyx et al.).

Luciane Cunha
295
Basic Concepts: Capillary Pressure

2ra = r 2h a
h=
2a a air cos a air

=
a
a
Pair Pa = Pc = a h =
a air cos a air

a
Capillary Rising (after Amyx et al.).
Luciane Cunha
296

h=
Pc =
oa cos oa
rg
2oa cos oa
r
Capillary Rising. System with two liquids (after Amyx et al.).
Luciane Cunha
297

Gas
Gas
Water
Oil
Most Common Reservoir Fluid

Distribution.
Most Common Reservoir Fluid Distribution.
Water
Oil
Reservoir Fluid Distribution in an Oil

Wet Reservoir.
Drainage
Imbibition
Drainage and Imbibition.

Luciane Cunha
298
Saturation
100%
Curve of the Gradient vs Elevation in the Capillaries with Uniform and Equal Diameters.
Luciane Cunha
299

A
B
Saturation
Curves of Elevation vs Saturation.
100%
Capillary Pressure
Drainage
Imbibition
0
Saturation
100%
Capillary Pressure Curve.

Luciane Cunha
300
CONVERSION FROM THE LAB DATA TO THE FIELD

The conversion of lab data to the field is needed because the fluids used in the experiments differ in terms of
physical properties from the reservoir fluids.
the relationship between the capillary pressure measured in the lab and the corresponding capillary pressure
in the reservoir will be given by
PcL L cos L
=
PcC
C cos C
since that the capilar radius is the same.

It is intuitive that the curvature radius is a function of the saturation. Since from the Plateau law the
capillary pressure is a curve of the superficial tension and from the curvature radius, we conclude that
the capillary pressure is a function of the saturation and from the superficial tension.
Thus:
PcC = Cf (SC )
PcL = Lf (SL )
For similar equal saturations in the lab and in the field:
PcC =
C
PcL
L
Thus we obtain another formula to transform the lab data into the field data. Even though the two
ways will generate slightly different results, both are used to the same final objective.
Luciane Cunha
301
Qo =
Qg =
K o Ap
oL
K g Ap
g L
K Ap
Qw = w
w L
Basic Concepts: Relative Permeabilities,
Kro(krnw)
Drainage
Imbibition
Krw(krw)
Sw(Sw)%
(After Amyx et al)
Luciane Cunha
302
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities,

Curve 1: Water Wet
Curve 2: Oil Wet
Effect of the Porous Media

Consolidation
1: Unconsolidated
Ko/K
Wettability
Kg/K
Sw(Sw)%
2: Consolidated
(After Amyx et al)
Saturation%
Luciane Cunha
303
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities,
1: krg parallel to the layers

2: krg perpendicular to the layers
3: kro parallel to the layers
Saturation Process
4: kro perpendicular to the layers
Anisotropy of the Porous Media
(After Amyx et al)
So(%)
Sw(Sw)%
Luciane Cunha
304
Basic Concepts: Relative Permeabilities,

k rg k g / K k g
=
=
k ro k o / K k o
(After Amyx et al)
Luciane Cunha
305
Basic Concepts: Mobility Ratio (M)

M=
displacing
M w o
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p =
displaced
kp
p
w k w o k rw o
=
x
=
x
=
o w k o w k ro
306
Basic Concepts: Sweep Efficiency (Eh)
Fraction of the total reservoir area that has been swept at a certain time
Eh=Swept Area/Total Area
Factors affecting Eh (Volume Injected, Mobility Ratios, Injection Pattern)
Determination of Eh
four-spot
seven-spot
five-spot
two-spot
Peripherical Pattern
Luciane Cunha
307
Irregular Pattern
Basic Concepts: Vertical Efficiency (Evv)

Fraction of the reservoir cross section
(parallel to the flow direction) that has
been invaded at a certain time.
Luciane Cunha
308
Basic Concepts: Displacement Efficiency (Ed)

It is the fraction of mobile oil that has been displaced from
the swept zone at a certain time
Mobile Oil = So Sor
Where, So (oil saturation at the beginning of injection) and
Sor (true residual oil saturation)
Ed =
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(So Sor ) Vps

(So Sor ) Vps
(So Sor )
Ed =
(So Sor )
309
Basic Concepts: Displacement Efficiency

Np is a function of Eh, Evv and Ed
To improve Eh and Evv consider mobility
(M=kw.o / w.ko) changes in kw, o or w)
To improve Ed, consider EOR methods to change
IFT
Luciane Cunha
310
Buckley Leverett Theory:
1-Sor
Oil
Injected Water
Swi
Connate Water
rw
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rBL
311
EOR Miscible Displacement

Atmospheric Conditions
(CO2)(gas)
Reservoir Conditions
(high pressure)
CO2 (liquid)
Mixture (liquid)
Oil (liquid)
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Oil (liquid)
312
EOR Miscible Displacement

Residual Oil
CO2
&
Oil
CO2
CO2 contacts residual oil, allowing oil to flow outside the smaller
pores.
Luciane Cunha
313
EOR Polymer Injection
Polymers are long and flexible molecules;

Increase the oil recovery by means of the increase of the horizantal and
vertical displacement efficiency of the injected fluid;
Relative complex process. Causes the injected fluid to reach a bigger
portion of the reservoir, therefore displacing more of the remaining oil;
Extremely expensive
the polymer bank is injected followed by
water injection, which pushes the polymer far away from the injection
wells and through the oil reservoir.
Luciane Cunha
314
EOR Steam Injection

Main chategories: soaks (or pulses) and continuous
injection;
Mainly in heavy oil deposits;
Viscosity reduction and increase of mobility with heat. Heat
also provides the pressure that pushes the oil to flow;
Aplications are usually restricted to oil deposits located at
relatively shallow depths (400 to 2000 ft) and thickness higher
than 20 ft for sandstones.
Luciane Cunha
315
EOR Steam Injection

Steam Soak Operation
Vapor cycle
Soak cycle
Production cycle
oil
vapor
heat
heat
oil
Heated zone
Vapor zone
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vapor
water
316
EOR Steam Injection

Continuous Steam Injection
Vapor generator
Injetor well
Producing well
Transition from
Vapor to water
vapor
Oil
bank
Luciane Cunha
317
EOR In-Situ Combustion

Reservoir with highly saturated oils, intermediate thickness
(5 to 50 ft), shallow (400 to 2000 ft depth) with oils with
intermediate API degree (10 a 35 oAPI);
Main categories: upstream and reverse;
Oil viscosity reduction of the oil that is not burned and
improvement of the mobility with addiction of heat, air
injection is useful to keep the pressure that pushes the oil to
flow.
Luciane Cunha
318

Injector well
air
oil
ignio
air
air
Burned
zone
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oil
Combustion
zone
319

oil
air
air
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Combustion
zone
ignition
320
Compositional Simulation
Reservoir containing light oils (gas condensates or volatile oils) vapor/liquid equlibrium
depends on composition as well as pressure.
In this case rigorous flash calculations must be made with equilibrium K values or an
equation of state (EOS) to determine hydrocarbon phase compositions. Viscosities
and densities can then be calculated from phase compositions.
In theory, compositional simulation is useful whenever compositional effects are
important.
In practice, accuracy problems arise in compositional modeling of miscible
displacement. Particularly when miscibility happens through multiple contact.
Luciane Cunha
321
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media

Fluid Properties
Beta Type Fluids (Black-Oil): the PVT behavior is represented by a simple form
through volume factors and gas-oil solubility relationship. In this case the global
hydrocarbon composition inside the reservoir remains constant during the entire
reservoir life.
Phases
Components
(in the reservoir)
(surface conditions)
Oil
Gas
Water
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Oil
Gas
Water
322
Compositional Equations for Numerical Simulation

Considerations:
- three phases (oil, gas and water);
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
- nc components ;
Fluid Properties
Beta Type
(Black-Oil):
the PVT behavior is represented
a simple
form through volume
and gas-oil
solubility
In this case the global hydrocarbon composition inside the reservoir remains constant during the entire reservoir life.
- Fluids
each
component
can bybe
present
in factors
each
one
orrelationship.
all phases.
Definitions:
a)Mass fraction of component i in gas phase (Cig)
C ig =
mass of component i
mass of gas phase
b)Mass fraction of component i in oil phase (Cio)
C io =
mass of component i
mass of oil phase
c)Mass fraction of component i in water phase (Ciw)

Ciw =
Luciane Cunha
mass of component i
mass of water phase
323
Rate of Mass of Component i IN :

In the oil phase =
A(C io o v o ) x
+
In the gas phase =
A(C ig g v g ) x
+
In the water phase =
A(C iw w v w ) x
Luciane Cunha
324

Rate of Mass of Component i OUT:
In the oil phase =
A (C io o v o ) x + x
+
In the gas phase =
A(C ig g v g ) x + x
+
In the water phase =
A(C iw w v w ) x + x
Luciane Cunha
325

*
If q o= injection/production rate of oil phase by unit of rock volume
And similarly,
q g*
q *w
, we have:
Mass injection/production rate of i in the elementary volume =
(Cio qo* + Cigqg* + Ciw q *w )Ax
Rate of mass accumulation of component i in the elementary volume =
Ax
Luciane Cunha
[ C io S o o + C ig S g g + C iw S w w )
t
326
Substituting all terms in the equation of mass conservation, re-arranging, and dividing by Ax
and taking the limit when
x 0
, we have:
(Cio o v ox + Cig g v gx + Ciw w v wx ) + Cio qo* + Cig qg* + Ciw q *w =

x
Luciane Cunha
(Cio Soo + CigSgg + Ciw S w w )

t
327
Considerations:
-three phases (oil, gas and water);
-nc components;
-each component can be present in each one or all phases.
Mass Conservation Law
Substituting Darcys Equation and rewriting the previous equation in terms of differential operators we have
(Cio o v ox + C ig g v gx + C iw w v wx ) + C io q o* + Cig q g* + C iw q *w =
x
=
[ (C io S o o + C ig S g g + C iw S w w )]
t
C kk (p o o D) C ig gkk rg (p g g D) C iw w kk rw (p w w D)
io o ro
+
+
+
o
g
w
+ Cio q o* + Cig q g* + Ciw q *w =
Luciane Cunha
[ (Cio S o o + Cig S g g + C iw S w w )]
t
I=1,2,,nc
328
for isothermal processes we have:
o = o (p o , C 1o , C 2o ,..., C nco )
g = g (p g , C 1g , C 2g ,..., C ncg )
w = w (p w , C 1w , C 2 w ,..., C ncw )
o = o (p o , C 1o , C 2o ,..., C nco )
g = g (p g , C 1g , C 2g ,..., C ncg )
w = w (p w , C 1w , C 2 w ,..., C ncw )
k ro = k ro (S g , S w )
k rg = k rg (S g )
k rw = k rw (S w )
Luciane Cunha
329
p o ,p g ,p w , S o , Sg , S w
Primary variables:
number of unknowns: 3nc + 6

Cio , Cig , Ciw (i = 1,2,..., nc)
So + Sg + S w = 1
Pcgo (S s ) = p g p o
Pcwo (S w ) = p o p w
nc
io
i =1
nc
Additional Equations
= 1,
ig
= 1,
iw
=1
i =1
nc
C
i =1
fig = fio
fig = fiw
Luciane Cunha
I=1,2,,nc (Phase Equilibrium Eq. /

f = fugacity in pressure units)
330
Special Data Requirements Compositional Simulation
The additional data required are:

Phase-equilibrium information
Phase densitities
Phase viscosities
Compositions of the reservoir hydrocarbons and of any injected hydrocarbons
Separator conditions
Information for the calibration of the EOS (Peng-Robinson & Soave-RedlichKwong) (for each component: critical pressure, temperature, specific volume,
molecular weight, acentric factor and for each pairs of components specify the
binary interaction coefficients. Phase densities are computed using the EOS.
Usually component lumping is applied (pseudo components)
Luciane Cunha
331
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
1. Reservoir Characterization
1a. Sedimentary Rocks

- Depth, layering, limits, thickness
- Lithology (, k, Cf and wettability)
- existence or not of aquifer and/or gas cap
1b. Reservoir Fluids
- water: salinity, viscosity, saturation
- hydrocarbons: composition (PVT), present phases, interaction with rock and water
2. Well Characterization
- perturbation of a situation in equilibrium (flow)

- small diameter (well spacing recovery x economical feasibility)
- production or injection
- type of completion
- workover, stimulation
- artificial lift method
3. Objectives
- Compute volumes in-place

- regulars updates of reserve values
- production optimization
- optimization of daily production
Luciane Cunha
332
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING (cont.)
4.
Attributions of a Reservoir Engineer
- centralization of information
- identification of production mechanisms
- prediction of reservoir behavior
- exploitation plan definition
- analysis of production history
5.
Main Difficulties
- sparse/bad data/information quality

- accuracy x possibility of reformulation
- maximum knowledge -> Abandonment
Luciane Cunha
333
volume
R (reserve)
P (production)
I
Phase
Data
Types
Delimitation
II
III
Properties
Comparative Volumetric
Data
Ta
time
Analysis of Performance
Production History
Data
(ELuciane
error
margin in the recovery estimative)
Cunha
334
Main Goals:
Estimative of Original Volumes
Primary and Secondary Performance Prediction
Estimative of Primary and Secondary Reserves
Steps:
Volumetric Method
Material Balance Method
Decline Curves Analysis
Prediction by means of Analytical Methods
Prediction by means of Numerical Methods
Luciane Cunha
335
RESERVOIR Management
The reservoir management process integrates the following steps:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
acquisition of data;
interpretation of each data type to obtain an interpretation model for the data;
integration of all available data interpretation models into a reservoir model;
calculation of the reservoir model behaviour with a reservoir simulator;
calibration of the reservoir simulator by history matching production data;
coupling the reservoir simulator with well and surface facility simulators; and
using the coupled simulators to calculate reserves and predict production for
various development scenarios.
required understanding of
(1) the fundamental concepts of reservoir characterization, reservoir modelling,
reservoir simulation, and field management;
(2) the links between the various types of data; and
(3) the processes for integrating and processing all available information.
Luciane Cunha
336
RESERVOIR Management
Reservoir management is the application of available technology and knowledge to a reservoir

system in order to control operations and maximize economic recovery within a given
management environment.
The most common objectives of reservoir management are:
to decrease risk
to increase oil and gas production
to increase oil and gas reserves
to maximize recovery
to minimize capital expenditures
to minimize operating costs
The understanding of reservoir management has improved greatly over the last few years and a
methodology is slowly emerging to facilitate its routine implementation. Reservoir
management used to be identified with production engineering, then became synonymous
with numerical reservoir simulation. It is now understood that it is an iterative process, which
numerical reservoir simulation and production engineering are only two components of.
Luciane Cunha
337
The Reservoir Management Process

Reservoir management is about
(1) making the best possible decisions that will enable a company to meet specific
objectives; and
(2) implementing these decisions. The ability to make the best possible reservoir
management decisions relies mainly on the ability to predict the consequences
of implementing these decisions. This in turn depends on the ability to model
the expected behaviours of the reservoir system. The complete process includes
four stages: Reservoir Characterisation, Reservoir Performance, Well
Performance and Field Development.
Luciane Cunha
338
Uncertainty and Probabilistic Methods

Which are the error bars in the orginal oil and gas in
place volumes, and aquifer also?
and on the recovery mechanisms?
which are the consequences of these uncertainties
on the long term oil, gas and water production
prediction?
Systemic x Occasional
Subjective x Objective
Luciane Cunha
339
Development of an Oil Field

Development Project
Analytical Phase
Modeling Phase
Prediction Phase (history matching)
Economical Analysis
Luciane Cunha
340
Main Phases in a Reservoir Engineering Study

RESERVOIR IMAGE
Exploration: core analysis, logs,
PVT, well tests
WELL CHARACTERISTICS
TESTS core analysis, logs
RECOVERY MECHANISMS
Fluids, Rocks, Flow Equations
RESERVOIR
PATTERN
ANALOGOUS
FIELDS
SIMULATION MODEL
(analysis of different cases)
PERFORMANCE
PREDICTION
EOR
CLCULOS
MANUAIS
ECONOMICAL
EVALUATION
DEVELOPMENT
Luciane Cunha
341

Aplicaciones de La Ingenieria de Reservorios Luciane Cunha

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Aplicaciones de La Ingenieria de Reservorios Luciane Cunha

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PE503 - Applied Reservoir Engineering

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The reservoir image (geological model) is the base

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Reservoir Engineering Objectives

Original hydrocarbon in place

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Reservoir Simulation - Outline:

1. What is Reservoir Simulation?

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1. What is Reservoir Simulation?

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Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation

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Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation

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Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation

Solution of diffusivity equation gives the pressure distribution in

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Numerical Reservoir Flow Simulation

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Reservoir being water flooded

Sw increases to the right with time

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-The number and type of equations to be solved depends on:

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Solution of the mathematical system of equations requires knowledge of

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Mathematical Models contain three main sources of error:

inaccuracy of input data;

truncation error introduced when we approximate our original PDEs

Round off error of the machine on which we solve our equations.

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2. Historical Developments - Reservoir Simulators Timeline

Representation of reservoir by a single block;

Early Reservoir Simulation (1955 1970)

Primarily developed and used in research labs;

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2. Historical Developments - Reservoir Simulators Timeline

High level of confidence in technology;

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3. Different Reservoir Models (Simulators)

-Mostly 3-D. Linear predominates in fractured reservoirs while radial predominates

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4. How the Simulators are Used

field (IOR process selection)

4.2- Improving reservoir description through history matching

4.3- Analysis of experiments

-Minimum miscibility pressure

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4. How the Simulators are Used

4.5- Development of simple models and correlations

-Cyclic steam injection

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- Develop study objectives

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6. Why Use Simulators?

No other way to solve the problem