CIVL4036 Highway Engineering

Sultan Qaboos University

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
CIVL4036 Highway Engineering
Handout 1: The Basics

HISTORY
What is a road? In its most general sense, a road is an open, generally public way for the
passage of vehicles, people, and animals. The earliest human road builders predate
recorded history by thousands of years. Some of the oldest roads still in existence were
built by the Roman empire. At its height, the Roman road network consisted of over
100,000 km (62,000 miles) of roads. By law, all of the public was entitled to use Roman
roads, but the maintenance of the roadway was the responsibility of the inhabitants of the
district through which the road ran.
Originally, roads were just small tracks connecting different villages. They were hard,
dry and dusty when it is not raining but quickly turn into ditches when it rains. By time,
people started protecting the surface of the natural ground by resilient, naturally
occurring materials such as stones. Such a surface became known as a pavement. In
general, the term pavement is applied to any surface intended for traffic and where the
native soil has been protected from the harmful effects of that traffic by using strong,
well-engineered materials. The purpose of this protection is to enable traffic to move
more easily and therefore more cheaply or quickly along the road

(http://marylandnationalroad.org)

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Importance of Roads
For stronger, active economy it is vital that people, goods, and materials move efficiently.
This movement has always been there since the beginning of mankind but with the
increase in population and the great industrial revolution throughout the world, the
demand for sophisticated transport systems has increased significantly. Roads provide a
key element of the infrastructure whose function is to promote economic activities and
improve the standard of living of the population.
So, what is Highway Engineering?
Highway engineering is the process of design and construction of efficient and safe roads.
It became prominent in the 20th century and has its roots in the discipline of civil
engineering. Highway engineering is concerned with the best use of resources to ensure
that a suitable network of roads is provided to satisfy the needs of economically
sophisticated societies. The highway engineer is therefore concerned with the provision
of a safe, stable and durable surface over which traffic can move.
Highway pavement
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of processed materials above the
natural soil (sub-grade), whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads
to the sub-grade. Typically, a pavement should meet several requirements such as:

Structurally strong with sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to
a safe value on the sub-grade soil,

Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,

Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,

Have adequate drainage. Road material and geometric design can affect quick
and efficient drainage thus eliminating moisture problems such as mud and water
ponds.

Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,

Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

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Pavements can be generally classified into three broad categories:

Flexible pavements. These are asphalt pavements (sometimes called

bituminous pavements), which are made of several layers. These types of
pavements are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure is able to
bend to accommodate traffic loads.

Rigid pavements. These are Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavements,

which may or may not have underlying layers above the existing ground.
Since PCC has a high modulus of elasticity, rigid pavements cannot bend to
accommodate traffic loads.

Composite pavements. These are combination HMA and PCC pavements.

Occasionally, they are initially constructed as composite pavements, but more
frequently they are the result of pavement rehabilitation (e.g., HMA overlay of
PCC pavement).

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Flexible Pavement

Rigid Pavement

Composite Pavement

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The Mechanism of Carrying the Applied Loads

The most important function of the pavement is to withstand the load applied from a
vehicle such as a truck, without deforming excessively. The layered structure of the
pavement is meant for ensuring that the load is spread out below the tire, such that the
resultant stress at the bottom layer of the pavement (called the subgrade) is low enough
not to cause damage. The figure below illustrates this concept.

Load-carrying mechanism-Flexible Pavements

Load-carrying mechanism-Rigid Pavements

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The way the load is carried is different in both flexible and rigid pavements. Flexible
pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain transfer
through the points of contact in the granular structure (aggregates) (see figure below).

Load transfer in granular structure

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic,
flexible pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement
uses the concept of layered system. In rigid pavement, there is no allowance for small
deformation at the surface. Flexible pavements however, are capable of retaining their
structural integrity even when small vertical movements take place at the surface.
Flexible pavements are the dominant type. The most common type of flexible pavement
surfacing is hot mix asphalt (HMA). Hot mix asphalt is known by many names such as
asphalt concrete (AC), asphalt, blacktop or bitumen.
HMA Pavements
Fundamentally, HMA pavements are a conglomeration of aggregate and asphalt. These
materials, their associated properties, and their interactions determine the properties of
the resultant HMA pavement. Thus, a good understanding of these materials, how they
are characterized and how they perform is fundamental to understanding HMA
pavement.

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Pavement layers
Generally, several layers are present in an asphalt pavement. From the bottom, the layers
are: subgrade (the existing soil), subbase and/or base layers, and the surface layer
-

The lower layer is called the subgrade (the soil itself). Normally the upper
6 to 8 in (150 to 200 mm) of the subgrade is scarified and blended to
provide a uniform material before it is compacted to maximum density

The next layer is the subbase, which usually consists of aggregates with
specified quality and gradation. The subbase material has better
engineering properties than the subgrade material. It is designed to:
1. Provide a working platform on which roadbase maybe built.
2. Regulate the surface on which the road is to be formed
3. Insulate the subgrade against the action of adverse weather

The next upper layer is the base layer and is often made of high quality
crushed aggregates that are either unstabilized or stabilized with a
cementing material. This layer makes the major contribution to the
strength of the pavement. It is designed to:
1. Distribute loads applied to the surface so that excessive stresses are
not transmitted through the subbase layer to the subgrade.
2. Provide a sufficiently stable base to support the surfacing

The top layer of a flexible pavement is generally referred to as the wearing

surface. It is usually made of asphalt mixtures. It is the first stressabsorbing layer. It also protects the base layer from the wheel abrasion and
water proof the entire pavement structure. It also provides a skid-resistant
surface

Highway Drainage
Excess moisture in pavement layers, when combined with heavy traffic and moisturesusceptible materials, can reduce service life. Moisture in the subgrade and pavement
structure can come from many different sources (next figure). Water may seep upward
from a high groundwater table, or it may flow laterally from the pavement edges and
shoulder ditches. However, the most significant source of excess water in pavements is
typically infiltration through the surface. Joints, cracks, shoulder edges, and various other
defects in the surface provide easy access paths for water.

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Sources of Moisture in a Pavement Structure

A major objective in pavement design is to prevent the base, subbase, subgrade, and other
susceptible paving materials from becoming saturated or even exposed to constant high
moisture levels. How?
-

Prevent moisture from entering the pavement system. Techniques for preventing
moisture from entering the pavement include:
- providing adequate cross slopes and longitudinal slopes for rapid surface
water runoff
- Sealing all cracks, joints, and other discontinuities to minimize surface
water infiltration
Use materials and design features that are insensitive to the effects of moisture.
- Materials that are relatively insensitive to moisture effects include
granular materials with few fines, cement stabilized bases, and asphalt
stabilized base materials.
- Design features for flexible pavements include full width paving to
eliminate longitudinal joints, and use of a subbase to reduce erosion and
promote drainage:
Quickly remove moisture that enters the pavement system. A variety of different
drainage features are available for removing excess moisture.
- Features such as underdrains and ditches are designed to permanently
lower the water table under the pavement
- Other features, such as permeable bases and edge drains, are designed to
remove surface infiltration water.

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Pavement Design and Construction- The Big Picture
- Generally the layers in the pavement improve in quality as one goes up from the bottom
to the surface layer. As discussed earlier, the bottom layers in general are made of
unbound materials (soil and aggregates).
- The bottom layers (subgrade, subbase and base) are constructed as per the structural
design of the pavement following the appropriate specifications.
- The surface layer is the most expensive and stiff/durable layer in the entire pavement
structure. This layer is mostly made of naturally occurring materials such as asphalt
binder (naturally occurring or a by-product of the petroleum distillation) and aggregates
(obtained from rock quarries or riverbeds). These materials are combined and used in
different proportions to produce the final material that is used in the pavement (asphalt
mixtures). The mixing must be conducted in the correct proportions to ensure adequate
quality of the mixture.
- It is important to find out whether the resultant mix has adequate strength and stiffness
through testing. Such testing is generally conducted in the laboratory during the mix
design process. If the response to this testing do not meet our expectations, the mix
needs to be redesigned and/or the materials need to be reselected. These expectations
are specifications that have been developed on the basis of experience and research.
Examples of such specifications are: the Oman standard specifications for roads and
bridges construction, AASHTO, and ASTM. The testing itself is also conducted
according to specific standards.
- In most cases pavement engineers are restricted to using locally available materials,
with or without some modifications, because of the economic and practical reasons.
With these available materials it is important to determine what thickness of each layer,
and hence the entire pavement, is required to carry the loads under different
environmental conditions without any problem. This step is known as the structural
design of pavements. It makes sure that the pavement structure as a whole can
withstand traffic for its design life.
- Once the pavement materials and structure are designed, it must be constructed
properly. To ensure this, the material must be laid down and compacted in the proper
way so that it has the desirable qualities, such as density and/or stiffness.
- Quality control must be carried out during construction to ensure strict adherence to
specifications and hence uniformly good quality over the entire project duration.

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Design Factors
When designing HMA pavements (both mix design and structural design), there are three
fundamental external design parameters to consider:
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The characteristics of the subgrade upon which the pavement is placed,

The applied loads, and
The environment.

First, the subgrade upon which the pavement is placed will have a large impact on
structural design. Subgrade stiffness and drainage characteristics help determine
pavement layer thickness, the number of layers, load restrictions and any possible
improvements to subgrade stiffness and drainage itself.
Second, the expected traffic loading is a primary design input (both in mix design and
structural design). Traffic loads are used to determine HMA composition and layer type
and thickness, which ultimately affect design life and failure.
Third, the environment has a large impact on pavement material performance.
Environmental factors such as temperature, moisture and ice formation can affect
pavement durability and structural support, and ultimately design life and failure.
Pavement failure
In any engineering design problem, it is essential to understand how the structure would
fail so that the design process can prevent this from happening. For most engineering
structures, failure is reasonably well defined and appropriate factor of safety are needed
to prevent that failure. Pavements do not fail suddenly but gradually deteriorates to a
terminal level which may be defined as failure
In general, there are two types of failure:
-

Functional: This is related to the failure of the surface of the pavement in

the form of loss of surface texture, loss of surface regularity, or loss of
impermeability. This type of failure reduces the riding quality and the
comfort level expected by the driver. Remedial measures will consist of
repairs to or replacement of the surface course layer. Such failure can be
prevented or greatly delayed by careful choice of surfacing materials and
proper mixture design.

Structural: This type of failure affects the ability of the pavement to

function as a structural element and thus reduces its load carrying
capacity. Three modes of failure are associated with this type:
1. Permanent Deformation
2. Fatigue Cracking
3. Thermal Cracking

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Permanent Deformation (Rutting)

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Wheel load

HMA surface
Base
Subbase
Soil

Fatigue Cracking

Thermal Cracking

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Ideal Pavement

Typical Pavement

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Standards
Standards are documents provided by expert and recognized organizations, which
provide guidelines of specific activities (such as material selection and testing) to ensure
consistency, quality, and safety. Standards are developed on the basis of research and
experience through agreement of groups of experts. Standards used for highways and
pavements are those developed by specific organizations such as:
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American Society for Testing and Materials ; ASTM

American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials;
AASHTO
Asphalt Institute; AI
British Standard Institution, BS.
Ministry of Transport and Communications in Oman

Each standard is an accumulation of years of experience. Use of appropriate standards

ensures uniformity and consistency, reliability, and safety. It also ensures compatibility
between different products and the better communication of material characteristics
between different authorities.
For highway pavements, standards are used in selecting materials such as aggregates and
asphalts, conducting tests, and interpreting results in mix design and structural design of
pavements
In a standard, every test process is described in detail, with mention of other relevant
standards, steps, and method of reporting results.
A typical standard on a laboratory test consists of several items. The following is a list of
the items in a typical ASTM test standard:
1. Scope: this part states the objective of the test method
2. Referenced documents: relevant other AASHTO and ASTM standards are mentioned
in this section
3. Terminology: This part defines the different terms used in this standard
4. Summary of the test method: provides brief description of the main activities in the
specific experiment
5. Significance and use: in this section, the practical applications of the results of this test
are indicated
6. Apparatus: all of the required apparatus are listed and described briefly in this part
7. Sampling: the procedure of sampling is described

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8. Test Specimen: preparation of sample is described here. Required sample size is
indicated
9. Procedure: this section describes the test procedure along with the required warnings
and cautions
10. Calculations: the equations and expressions for calculating the results are presented in
this section
11. Report: the type of measurements that need to be reported
12. Precision and bias: this section gives guidelines on the repeatability and
reproducibility of the data from a particular test
13. Keywords: the index keywords are listed in this part