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DRAFT CIRCULATION
NOTICE
Our Ref:
WRD 14/T-39
Date
31-01-2008
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE:
Kindly examine this draft and forward your views stating any difficulties which you are likely to
experience in your business or profession, if this is finally adopted as a national standard and
kindly provide your specific suggestions for revising the same in view of latest technology.
[ Bhavana Sharma ]
Asstt Director (WRD)
Note: Please inform your e-mail address for faster communication at the e-mail address above
FOREWORD
1. SCOPE
This standard covers guidelines for design of branching in Penstocks for Hydro Electric Projects. It covers
Types of Branching, Requirement for Design, Types of Reinforcements, Analysis of Wyes, Analytical
Design of Internal Sickle Plate Type Bifurcation and Design of Spherical Branch.
2. TERMINOGY: Definition for some of the key terms used in the Code are given
below for ready reference:
2.1
2.2
2.3
Branch Pipe
Main Pipe
Angle a
Angle b
Fig.1.
Branch Pipe
2.4
Equibranch: When branches have similar diameter, the branch is known as equibranch.
2.5
Tie Rod: A tie rod is the structural member placed inside the pipe for support, at the branching. The
same is illustrated in Fig. 2 below.
Section of main
pipe at branch
Tie Rod
Fig. 2 Tie Rod
2.6
Spherical Branch: It is a type to connect main pipe and branch pipes to a spherical shell through
reinforcing rings (see fig. 12).
2.7
Sickle Plate: It is a crescent shaped rib inside the branch pipe, to give strength at the joint. The
Sickle Plate, shaped as an internal horse-shoe girder, is also called splitter plate. It is provided at
the intersection of the two branches for resistance against the forces being developed there.
2.8
Reinforcement: It is the support provided to counter the unbalanced forces acting on unsupported
areas at the branching junction.
3. TYPES OF BRANCHING
3.1 Geometrically, there are several types of branching possible, such as bifurcation,
trifurcation etc. However, in practical applications, generally a bifurcation is
employed.
3.2 The Wye Branching is the one in which the main pipe diverges into two branch pipes.In the Wye
branching, the following categories are available:
a)
b)
c)
d)
3.3 In case of branching into 3 or more branches, the following types are available:
a) a type in which the main is pipe directly trifurcated
b) manifold type in which pipes are branched in the same direction in succession
from a straight main pipe, and
c) a type to combine bifurcation.
These are illustrated in the Fig.3.
3.4 Another type of branching used in Hydro Electric Projects is the Spherical branching in which the main
pipe is connected to the branch pipe through a spherical shell and having reinforcing rings. In India, so far
the application of Spherical branching has been rather restricted.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
In case of equibranch, the angle of branching should be kept symmetrical about the main pipe axis,
i.e., symmetry should be ensured in case of equibranch. In the context of Fig. 1, angle a and angle
b should normally be equal.
The head loss coefficient due to branching varies to a large extent due to the distribution ratio of
the flow. It has been observed that the head loss coefficient is minimal when the angle between the
equi-diverging branches is between 45 to 600, and it rises sharply with increase of angle beyond
this limit. Therefore, in the context of Fig.1, the sum of angle a and angle b should normally be
between 45 to 600.
Sharp changes in cross sectional area of a passage should be avoided as far as possible.
While deciding on the type of support for a branching, the fact that any hindrance to the flow leads
to significant increase in head loss, should be taken in to view.
Right angle branches and cylindrical outlets or inlets should be avoided where hydraulic efficiency
is important or cavitation cannot be allowed..
While selecting Tie Rod type of support at the branching, the fact that the head loss coefficient
increases largely due to presence of a tie rod, should also be considered. Tie Rod is an obstruction
to the flow in the penstock as shown in Fig.1A .
Similarly, the head loss coefficient largely increases due to presence of obstruction to the flow in
the penstock, caused by sickle in Sickle type branching.
The velocity of flow in the branches is to be selected so that the Reynolds Number (Re) is greater
than 104.
The use of conical connections with side-wall angles, F , equal to 6-8 degrees, reduces hydraulic
losses to about one third of those resulting from use of cylindrical connections. Therefore, in
practical applications, appropriate conical angles are generally implemented.
The ratio of sphere diameter to main pipe diameter should not be kept very high in order to limit
the head loss coefficient. When the flow distribution ratio of a branch pipe becomes high, i.e.,
when the % of flow in one branch is much higher than the other branch, the head loss increases
rapidly. However, from construction point of view, it is not desirable to employ a spherical branch
having too small a diameter compared with the main pipe. Therefore, the ratio of sphere diameter
to a pipe diameter of 1.3 to 1.6 should generally be used.
v2
H=a
where v0 is the mean velocity of flow in the main pipe, and a is the head loss
2g
0
coefficient. Values of a are influenced by the branch angle, change in the sectional area,
distribution ratio of the flow to each branch pipe, and the Reynolds Number. An
estimation of the head loss coefficient for different branch angles can be made from Fig.
4, while influence of Reynolds number of main pipe over the head loss coefficient, in
case of conical wye having equal distribution amongst the branches, is given at Fig. 5.
b) The head loss coefficient for conical wyes and manifolds, with various types of
transitions, and with/ without tie rods is given in Fig. 6, wherein Open branch refers to
branch where no gate is provided, while Closed branch refers to branching having gates
for regulating flow through the branch. An estimate of the head loss in spherical wye with
increasing diameter may be made from Fig.7.
4.1.5 Loss Coefficient for a Trifurcation
A trifurcation is illustrated in figure 12. The loss coefficient for a trifurcation can be
2
2
Q3
Q2
given as
Sin 2
Sin 3 Entry Loss Coefficients
Qm
Qm
where Qm is the Discharge through main pipe, Q2 and Q3 are the discharges through the branches, and 2
and 3 are the horizontal angle of take off (see Fig.8. below). However, the losses would be higher than that
calculated by the above formula, in case when one or more branches are closed.
Main Pipe, Qm
Angle
Angle
Branch Pipe, Q2
Branch Pipe, Q3
Fig.8
5 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
5.1 To compensate for the openings for the branching made in the normal circular section, some
reinforcement is required to be provided to take care of the unbalanced forces acting on unsupported
areas resulted by these junctions. These reinforcements can be either inside the pipes (internal) or
provided externally at the junction (external).
The placement of reinforcements in case of one plate, two plate and three plate reinforcements is
shown in the figure 9 below.
ONE PLATE
REINFORCEMENT
TWO PLATE
REINFORCEMENT
The exterior girder, also called as yoke, is of horseshoe shape which is welded to the periphery of the
junction of the pipes and finally welded to a tie rod or a ring girder provided at the beginning of the
bifurcation. The section of the girder may be T shaped attached to the penstock surface. Some
portion of the penstock steel liner also is assumed to act monolithically as a flange of the yoke girder
as in the case of stiffener rings (see Fig. 10).
accuracy as is possible for the penstock. Consequently, these allowable stresses are based on one half times
the minimum specified yield stress or one-fourth times the minimum specified tensile strength, whichever
is less.
6.5 Analysis of External Reinforcement
6.5.1 In case of simple curved reinforcing plate, it is assumed that the plate is acting as a plane ring and the
loads in both directions are uniformly distributed and the plate is circular.
6.5.2 When the external girders are used in combination with tie rods or ring girders, the analysis becomes
statically indeterminate. For analysis, the deflection of the girder at the junctions of the tie rods or ring
girder under the load in both directions are evolved and equated to the deflections of the tie rods or ring
girders.
6.5.3 The loads considered for external reinforcement are shown in the Fig.13. As seen
from the figure, the yoke is considered as an elliptical cantilevered beam. It is assumed to
be loaded by vertical forces varying linearly from zero at X=0 to P (r1 cos 1 + r2 cos 2) at
X=L and by the forces V1 and V2 due to tie rod at 0 and C and by the moment M (see
Fig. 15).
6.5.4 Analytical Design of External Reinforcement:
The method of stress analysis used for branch outlets and wyes is approximate. Simplifying assumptions
are made in the analysis that yield results of efficient accuracy for practical design purposes. The
reinforcement is proportioned to carry the entire unbalanced loads. The total load carried by the
reinforcement is equal to the product of the internal pressure and the unsupported area projected to the
plane of the fitting. A portion of the pipe shell is considered to be acting monolithically with the girders,
similar to the stiffener rings.
The external stiffener(s) (see fig. 9) are analyzed as a C-clamp with a portion of the pipe shell considered as
an equivalent flange. The width (W) of the equivalent flange may be obtained from the formula :
1.56
Rt
where a is the thickness of girder, R is the radius of the main pipe and t is the shell thickness. The
distribution of the design load in the case of one plate external reinforcement is shown in fig. 15 (b). The
increase in the bending stress, if the radius of curvature at the crotch is small, can be evaluated using a
correction factor in the bending formula for straight beams.
If the external girder is used in conjunction with the ring girder (see fig. 15(c)), the same is statically
indeterminate. To simplify analysis, the ring girders are assumed to be free at the common intersection
point, and loaded with the triangularly distributed design load and the unknown shear load concentrated at
the intersection point. The deflection of each girder is calculated with the direction of the unknown shear
force assumed. The deflection of all intersecting members are equated and the shear forces calculated, and
the direct and bending stresses at any point along the girders and ring may be determined. With the
elongation known, the stress in the tie rod can also be determined.
The sample computation sheet, with figure 13 as reference, illustrates the steps taken in the analysis of a
typical external reinforcement analytically. The same is placed at Annex 2.
6.5.5 The typical design of one plate and two plate external reinforcement using
Nomograph:
As an alternative to the complex calculations involved in analytical method, a simplified
graphical method has been devised, which has simplified the process of design of
external reinforcement to a great extent. The steps involved in use of Nomograph for
design of external reinforcement are illustrated below. While wye depth dw and base
depth db refer to two plate design, dw and db refer to one plate design:
Step 1. Lay a straight edge across the nomograph through the appropriate points on the
pipe diameter and internal pressure scales. Read off the depth of plate (d) from its scale.
This reading is the crotch depth (for understanding crotch, see fig.-1) for 1-inch thick
plate for a two plate 90 degree wye branch pipe.
Step 2a. Based on the deflection angle, use the N factor curve (Fig.17) to get the factors
that, when multiplied by the depth of the plate found in Step 1, will give the wye depth
dw and base depth db for the new wye branch.
Step 2b. If the wye branch has unequal diameter pipe, the larger diameter pipe will
have been used in steps 1 and 2a, and these results should be multiplied by the Q factors
found on the single plate stiffener curves (Fig.18) to give wye depth dw and base depth
t1
360
t
in which d1 is the existing depth of plate, t1 is the existing thickness of plate, d is new
depth of plate, t is the new thickness of plate selected, and is the deflection angle of the
wye branch.
d
d1
Step 4. To find the top depth, dt (for two plate design) or dt (for one plate design), use
Fig. 19. This dimension gives the top and bottom depths of plate at 90 deg from the
crotch depths (see figure 20).
Step 5. The interior curves follow the cut of the pipe, but the outside crotch radius in
both crotches should equal dt plus the radius of the pipe for two plate design, or, in the
single plate design, dt plus the radius of the smaller pipe. Tangents connected between
these curves complete the outer shape.
The important depths of the reinforcement plates, dw, db and dt (see Fig. 20) can be
found from the nomograph. If a curved exterior is desired, a radius equal to the inside
pipe radius plus dt can be used, both for the outside curve of the wye section and for the
side curve of the base section.
in steps of 2.5 0
x=r
sin
sin
y = r cos
, where r is given by r =
R1
1 tan Sin Cot
and y =
R1.Sin
Sin 1 tan Sin Cot
R1.Cos
1 tan Sin Cot
x /2 =
R1
Sin 1 tan Cot
/ 2 in value of x
7.5.2 The pipe walls transmit forces at the point of intersection from both sides on to the
strengthening collar which lies in the plane of intersection AB (see Figure 22-24). On
account of their symmetry the resultant of these forces must always fall in the plane of
the intersection. It is assumed that the wall of the pipe are so thin that they can be
considered as membranes and therefore possess no resistance against bending. Hence,
they inflict only tractive and shearing forces on the strengthening structure in the case of
internal pressure.
7.5.3 With an internal pressure p, the forces per unit length in a cylindrical membrane are:
in circumferential direction =
in axial direction
pr
cos
pr
2 cos
7.5.4 In an element of the line of intersection of length dl the following forces are
inflicted on the strengthening from one side:
(a)
pr
dz {which can be seen in Fig.24}
cos
R1Cos Cot d
1 Tan Sin Cot
dz
But since
pr
rd
2 cos
Tl =
pR12 d
T1
2Cos 1 Tan Sin Cot
7.5.5 The forces Pl and Tl acting from both sides on the elemental length dl can be resolved into vertical
and horizontal components in the plane of strengthening collar. The resolution of forces is shown in
Fig.23. The forces in vertical direction are given by
pR12 sin 1
]d
K 2 cos
1 tan
]d
cot
y
R1cot
1 sin
1 tan
1)
cot
gives the forces:
dV
0
dH
For the resultant of all forces which act in the elliptical arc EF (see Fig. 21) on the strengthening
collar is finally obtained as below:
R=
V2
tan
tan
x
y
V
H
7.5.7 As seen from the geometry of the triangle RVH in figure 21, when the branches are cylindrical (i.e.,
R1 = R2),
and hence the resultant R will be perpendicular to the line OF (see Fig. 21). In the case
of Conical branches,
and therefore R has components giving rise to a normal stress fn and shear
stress qt on the plane passing through O.
The principal stresses, to be kept within permissible limits, are
ft =
1
2
fn
and fn =
1
2
fn
4 qt
1
fn
2
4 qt
1
fn
2
To determine the position of the resultant R, moments of the forces with respect to O are calculated as
below:
x.dV
and MH =
y.dH
The integration of V, H, Mv and MH are done numerically using Simpsons Rule or other such numerical
techniques.
Total Moment = Mv + MH
The distance of the resultant from O is given by l =
/ 2, l
For
/2 =
M
.
R
M /2
R /2
B
2
ax - l / 2
but ax =
x /2
R1
Sin (1 tan Cot )
However for practical consideration, since additional width is required to be provided to project outside the
intersection, the actual width is enhanced by a factor Ax where Ax ranges from 30 to 50mm.
7.5.9 Width of the plate at any other section is then calculated in proportion to the value of R , i.e., b = B
R
R /2
The thickness of sickle is such that the principal stresses are within acceptable limits. Theoretical estimate
of the sickle thickness S may be taken as
S=
2tR / 2
pR1B 3
7.6 A procedure for design of internal sickle plate using analytical method given above, is enclosed at
Annex 1 in a tabular form.
8.1 When a model consisting of a sphere and a cylinder having cave cover as Fig. 25 is considered :
s HC
pr
2
where p is the internal pressure and r is the radius of the connecting main branch.
s HS =
pa
cos
2
pr
, where a is the radius of the sphere and angle is the angle from vertical to
2
the point where the cylindrical main branch meets the sphere.
Thus, the horizontal direction force is kept balanced with sHC = sHS
8.2
On the other hand, a reinforcing ring is attached so as to resist the vertical component s v of a
spheres membrane tensile force as illustrated in Fig.26. The tensile force T1 generated in a reinforcing ring
by the internal pressure acting on the reinforcing rings breadth b is T1 = prb, where b is the width of the
reinforcing ring . The tensile force T2
spheres membrane tensile force is T2
ring, and
1
pro a cos , where r0 is the radius of the C.G of the reinforcing
2
8.3 Supposing only the membrane tensile force acting on a sphere, i.e. a sphere under membrane stress
condition, the cross sectional area S of reinforcing ring is :
S=
T2
r0
where
r0 :
r0
r0
r0
V = pb +
p
2
=p(b+
a cos
a
cos
2
r2
V
S
a 2 sin 2
ES
p b
a
cos
2
The displacement dS, of a sphere in radial direction at connecting point with reinforcing
ring is :
pa 2
1
2 Eh
sin
dr = dS is to be essential in order that a sphere is under the membrane stress condition, which gives
a
cos
2
h sin
The spheres plate thickness h is, saying the spheres membrane tensile stress s so
h=
pa
2 so
s po
with no
pr
2 po
If thickness of cylinder t is to be determined so that the radial displacement dc of cylinder may be equal
to the radial displacement dr of a reinforcing ring, it is not required to consider the effect of a cylinder of
a reinforcing ring and the sphere, and the sphere can be kept under a membrane stress.
pr 2
1
Et '
1
pa 2
1
2 EL
sin
r
2.43 h
a
t'
'
2 r t'
1.3
8.5 Practically, it is seldom to satisfy the above equations in computation of S, t and h, and so it is
necessary to calculate a bending moment and a shearing force at each point by a statically indeterminate
calculation method etc., to attempt a strict solution.
8.6 When considering an actual use of steel penstocks, concave covers do not exist, and thus the axial
forces HS and HC in Fig.25 do not act. As a practical solution in this case, there is a concept to
solve a structure model shown in Fig.27 with an assumption that a pipe is embedded in concrete and
the pipes axial displacement is restrained and fixed at a certain distance point from a reinforcing
ring. Internal pressures acting on the branch are explained above, but it is also necessary to examine
the external pressure.
9.0
The Wye piece, designed based on the above mentioned criterion is an indeterminate
structure. It is necessary that stress concentration occurring at the various intersection
points are ascertained and suitable strengthening measures carried out, if found
necessary. For this either physical model studies / photo elastic studies or mathematical
modeling deploying methods as Finite Element etc. with appropriate boundary and
loading conditions, are deployed.
ANNEX -1
PRACTICAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF INTERNAL SICKLE PLATE
Data to be provided :
R1 Radius of the main pipe
F - angle of cone
half angle of intersection
t thickness of sickle plate (assumed to be checked through stresses)
Table 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 x
Alpha
Alpha
r=
x=
y=
tan
(deg)
(Radia
R1
r cos
y
sin
r
ns)
1 tan Sin Cot
Radians
sin
7
t1=
tan
sin
8
1
tan
tan
y
R1 cot
Degree
Radians
Radial
Dist.
=
(x2+y2)1/2
0
2.5
5.0
..
..
90
1
Alpha (deg)
0
Table 2
OUTER & INNER PROFILE OF THE SICKEL PLATE
2
3
4
5
6
7
xo
yo
x
y
xi
yi
= x + h Sin
= y + h Cos
= x b Sin
= y - b Cos
(b to be determined
subsequently)
2.5
5.0
..
..
90
Table 3
CALCULATIONS OF VERTICAL FORCE
ALPHA
= X
dV/dX
2 cot sin cos
[
3
K cos
dV
avg dV
K
=
sin 1
K
cos
1+tan
=[ dV/dX (R1) ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]
= 0.5(dV
prev.
+dV
current
sin cot
= S avg dV
0
2.5
5.0
..
90
ALPHA
dH/dX
Table 4
CALCULATIONS OF HORIZONTAL FORCE
dH
avg dH
Resultant
= X
R=
2 cot
cos
K
sin
cos 1 cos(
cos
V2
1)
2
=[ dH/dX (R1) ] x
subequent
current
[2(a
a
)]
cos
=
prev.
current
0.5(dH +dH
)
= S avg dH
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90
Table 5
CALCULATION OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL MOMENT
2
3
4
1
ALPHA
= X
dM V /dX
2 cot
[
K
sin
4
cos
dMV
avg dMV
=[ dMv /dX ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]
= 0.5(dMv
5
MV
sin 1Sin
cos sin
cos sin
prev.
+dMv
current
= S avg dMv
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90
6
dM H /dX
3
2 Sin Cos
[
K
cot
cos
10
M=Mh+mV
dMH
avg dMH
=[ dMH /dX ] x
susequent
current
[2(a
a
)]
= 0.5(dMH
9
MH
T)
cos
11
Resultant =
pR/36
12
Resultant Moment =
(R1)3 pM/36
prev.
+dMH
TABLE 6
= S avg dMH
13
14
M/R
b
B*(Resultant)
1000*(Resultant
at alpha 90)
Col.12 x 1000
Col.11
current
2
Gamma
-1
Tan (V/H)
3
Theta
4
Theta - Gamma
5
Normal Stress
6
Shear Stress
From Table 1
Col.3-Col2
0
2.5
5.0
7.5
..
90
7
Fn
(Col. 5)*100000/
(thickness in cm * b from
table 5 * 1000)
8
Qt
(Col. 6)*100000/ (thickness
in cm * b from table 5 *
1000)
9
Pt
10
Fc
2
ANNEX 2
SAMPLE COMPUTATION SHEET FOR ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF EXTERNAL
REINFORCEMENT (SEE FIG. 13 AND FIG. 13-a)
NOTATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
AR
AU
E
IR
IU
IUC
MU
IUC
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
R
R1
R2
R3
T
Y
b1
b2
c
c
e
e'
ki, ko
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
mc
p
q
x
a
dc
FORMULAE:
A. Calculation of Y
1. Deflection dc of U beam at point C
a. Moments and Vertical Shear (for a and L see Fig. 13) :
MUC = Yx
MUC =
MUC =
for x from C to K
for x from K to M
2
1
pR1 ( x a ) Cos
3L
2
pR1 ( x a
L)Cos
3
Yx
for x from M to N
Yx
mc = x
T = -Y
2
1
pR1 ( x a ) Cos
L
T = pR1 LCos
Y
T=
For x from C to N
M UC mc s
EI UC
b. Deflection dc =
MUC
3
S
4
MUC x S
5
IUC
Edc = S
1285
.
RT
pR
d
AR
21
q
pbRR22
IR
YR2
IR
6
Col.4/ Col.5
1
x
2
MU
3
c
4
c
10
5
k1
11
12
Combined stress
Inside
Outside
Bending Stress
M U ck1
I
u
M U c' ko
I
u
T sin
A
U
C
E
F
-0.07074pbR22 0.3183YR2
-0.065pbR22 + 0.0353YR2
+0.6959pbR22 + 0.1817YR2
Point
Direct Stress
IR
Bending Stress
Si = M R e
So = M R e '
IR
IR
+
+
Inside
C
E
1
0.1768 pbR
AR
S1 =
1
0.5 pbR 0.54Y
AR
0.354Y
r=
b1 Log e
ki =
R4
R3
h1 I u
AeR3 c
t1 Log e
; ko =
R5
R4
h2 I u
AeR5 c '
Case II ( See Fig. 13-a(b)-considering tie rod, inner circular ring and external girder))
A= b1t + t1h + b2t2; h1 = r-R3 ; h2 = R6 r
Combined Stress
Outside
S1
S1 =
6
IU
r=
b1 Log e
ki =
R4
R3
h1 I u
AeR3 c
t1 Log e
; ko =
R7
R4
b2 Log e
R6
R7
h2 I u
AeR5 c '
c =
a2
b2
a
; Rmax =
a2
b
b2
Rmin =
;
a
R3 =
r1r2
ab