Curso Marnha Americana

Chapter 1
Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

Topics
1.0.0
Basic Metal Types
2.0.0
Basic Metal Identification
To hear audio, click on the box.
Overview
In the Seabees, the Steelworker (SW) rating is recognized as the resident expert on the
use of metal. SWs lay airfields, erect towers, assemble pontoon causeways, reinforce
concrete, and erect buildings. They also use their expertise to fabricate all types of
metal objects, repair metal items, and resurface worn machinery parts.
Steelworkers need to know the two basic types of metal and be able to provide initial
identification. While they primarily work with the ferrous metals of iron and steel, they
also need to be able to identify and become familiar with the nonferrous metals coming
into more use each day.
In the civilian arena, the term Steelworker generally refers to those who make iron and
steel in the many steel plants, while the term Ironworker refers to those in the
construction industry who fabricate and build with iron and steel.
This chapter will present an introductory explanation of the basic types of metal and
provide initial instruction on using simple tests to establish their identity. For a more indepth presentation about the properties and uses of metal, refer to Steelworker
Advanced.
Objectives
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Identify the basic metal types.
2. Describe identification procedures associated with basic metals.
Prerequisites
None
This course map shows all of the chapters in Steelworker Basic. The suggested training
order begins at the bottom and proceeds up. Skill levels increase as you advance on
the course map.
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Introduction to Reinforcing Steel

Introduction to Structural Steel
Pre-Engineered Structures:
Buildings, K-Spans, Towers and Antennas
Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
Layout and Fabrication of Sheet-Metal and Fiberglass Duct
Welding Quality Control
R
K
Flux Core Arc Welding-FCAW
Gas-Metal Arc Welding-GMAW
Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding-GTAW

Shielded Metal Arc Welding-SMAW
B
A
Plasma Arc Cutting Operations
Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, Wearfacing
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
Introduction to Welding
Basic Heat Treatment
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Features of this Manual

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1.0.0 BASIC METAL TYPES

Metals can initially be divided into two general classifications, and Steelworkers work
with both: ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of iron (atomic symbol Fe) and iron alloys.
Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily of some element or elements other
than iron, although nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain a small amount of
iron as an alloying element or as an impurity.
1.1.0 Ferrous Metals

Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and iron-base alloys, with small percentages of
carbon (steel, for example), and/or other elements added to achieve desirable
properties. Wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels, and tool steels are just a
few examples. Ferrous metals are typically magnetic.
1.1.1 Iron
Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically
extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey,
bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig
iron, which is one of the main raw materials used to make steel. Ninety-eight percent of
the mined iron ore is used to make steel.
Iron is produced by converting iron ore to pig iron using a blast furnace. Pig iron is the
intermediate product of smelting iron ore with coke, usually with limestone as a flux. Pig
iron has very high carbon content, typically 3.54.5%, which makes it very brittle and
not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.
From pig iron, many other types of iron and steel are produced by the addition or
deletion of carbon and alloys. The following briefly presents different types of iron and
steel made from iron. Steelworker Advanced will present additional information about
their properties.
Pig Iron comparatively weak and brittle with limited use. Approximately ninety
percent is used to produce steel, although cast-iron pipe and some fittings and
valves are manufactured from pig iron.
Wrought Iron made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during manufacture,
it is almost pure iron. Wrought iron usage diminished with the increasing
availability of mild steel in the late 19th century. Some items traditionally produced
from wrought iron included rivets, nails, chains, railway couplings, water and
steam pipes, nuts, bolts, handrails, and ornamental ironworks. Many products
still described as wrought iron, such as guardrails and gates, are made of mild
steel.
Cast Iron any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. It tends to be
brittle, except for malleable cast irons. Cast irons have a wide range of
applications, including pipes, machine and automotive industry parts such as
cylinder heads, cylinder blocks, and gearbox cases. A malleable cast iron is
produced through a prolonged annealing process.
Ingot Iron a commercially pure iron (99.85% iron). It is easily formed, with
properties practically the same as the lowest carbon steel. In iron, the carbon
content is considered an impurity; in steel, the carbon content is considered an
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alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is for galvanized and enameled
sheet.
1.1.2 Steel
Of all the different metals and materials that Steelworkers use, steel and steel alloys are
by far the most used and therefore the most important to study.
The development of the economical Bessemer process for manufacturing steel
revolutionized the American iron industry. Figure 1-1 shows the container vessel used
for the process.
With economical steel came skyscrapers, stronger and longer bridges, and railroad
tracks that did not collapse.
Steel is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing the amount of carbon and other
impurities and adding specific and controlled amounts of alloying elements during the
molten stage to produce the desired composition.
Figure 1-1 Example of a Bessemer Converter.

The composition of a particular steel is determined by its application and the
specifications developed by the following:
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
Carbon steel is a term applied to a broad range of steel that falls between the
commercially pure ingot iron and the cast irons. This range of carbon steel may be
classified into four groups:
Low-Carbon Steel tough and ductile, easily machined, formed, and welded, but
does not respond to any form of heat-treating except case hardening.
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Medium-Carbon Steel strong and hard but cannot be welded or worked as

easily as the low-carbon steels. They are used for crane hooks, axels, shafts,
setscrews and so on.
High-Carbon Steel responds well to heat treatment and can be welded with
special electrodes, but the process must include preheating and stress-relieving
procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas.
Very High-Carbon Steel similar to high-carbon, it responds well to heat

treatment and can be welded with special electrodes, but the process must
include preheating and stress-relieving procedures to prevent cracks in the weld
areas. Both steels are used for dies, cutting tools, mill tools, railroad car wheels,
chisels, knives, and so on.
High-strength steels are covered by American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) specifications.
Low-Alloy, High-Strength, Tempered Structural Steel special low carbon steel

that contains specific, small amounts of alloying elements. Structural members
made from these high-strength steels may have smaller cross-sectional areas
than common structural steels and still have equal or greater strength. This type
of steel is much tougher than low-carbon steels, so the shearing machines must
have twice the capacity required for low-carbon steels.
Stainless steels are classified by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and
classified into two general series:
Stainless Steel 200-300 series known as Austenitic [aw-stuh-nit-ik]. This type

of steel is very tough and ductile in the as-welded condition; therefore, it is ideal
for welding and requires no annealing under normal atmospheric conditions. The
most widely used are the normally nonmagnetic chromium nickel steels.
Stainless Steel 400 series further subdivided according to their crystalline

structure into two general groups:
o Ferritic [fer-rit-ik]. Chromium non-hardenable by heat treatment and
normally used in the annealed or soft condition, they are magnetic and
frequently used for decorative trim and equipment subjected to high
pressures and temperatures.
o Martensitic [mahr-tn-zit-ik] Chromium readily hardened by heat
treatment, they are magnetic and used where high strength, corrosion
resistance, and ductility are required.
Alloy steels derive their properties primarily from the presence of some alloying
element other than carbon, but alloy steels always contain traces of other elements as
well. One or more of these elements may be added to the steel during the
manufacturing process to produce the desired characteristics.
Alloy steels may be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates, and bars for use in
the as-rolled condition, and these steels can obtain better physical properties than are
possible with hot-rolled carbon steels.
These alloys are used in structures where the strength of material is especially
important, for example in bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer blades,
and crane booms. The following list describes some of the common alloy steels:
Nickel Steels used in the manufacture of aircraft parts such as propellers and
airframe support members.
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Chromium Steels used for the races and balls in antifriction bearings; highly
resistant to corrosion and to scale.
Chrome Vanadium Steel used for crankshafts, gears, axles, and other items
that require high strength; also used in the manufacture of high-quality hand
tools such as wrenches and sockets.
Tungsten Steel expensive to produce, its use is largely restricted to the

manufacture of drills, lathe tools, milling cutters, and similar cutting tools.
Molybdenum used in place of tungsten to make the cheaper grades of highspeed steel and in carbon molybdenum high-pressure tubing.
Manganese Steels use depends upon the properties desired:

o Small amounts produce strong, free-machining steels.
o Larger amounts produce a somewhat brittle steel.
o Still larger amounts produce a steel that is tough and very resistant to
wear after proper heat treatment.
1.2.0 Nonferrous Metals

Nonferrous metals contain either no iron or only insignificant amounts used as an alloy,
and are nonmagnetic. The following list will introduce you to some of the common
nonferrous metals that SWs may encounter and/or work with. Additional information
about their properties and usage is available in Steelworker Advanced.
Copper one of the most popular commercial metals; used with many alloys;
frequently used to give a protective coating to sheets and rods and to make ball
floats, containers, and soldering coppers.
True Brass an alloy of copper and zinc, sometimes with additional alloys for
specific properties; sheets and strips are available in several grades.
Bronze a combination of 84% copper and 16% tin, and the best metal
available before steel-making techniques were developed; the name bronze is
currently applied to any copper-based alloy that looks like bronze.
Copper-Nickel Alloys nickel adds resistance to wear and corrosion; some

alloys used for saltwater piping systems; other sheet forms used to construct
small storage tanks and hot-water reservoirs.
Lead a heavy metal, but soft and malleable; surface is grayish in color, but
after scratching or scraping it, the actual color of the metal appears white.
CAUTION
When working with lead, take proper precautions!
Lead dust, fumes, or vapors are highly poisonous!
Zinc used on iron or steel in the form of a protective coating called

galvanizing.
Tin used as an important alloy adding resistance to corrosion.
Aluminum easy to work with; good appearance; light in weight; needs alloys
added to increase strength.
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Duralumin one of the first strong structural aluminum alloys; now classified in
the metal working industries as 2017-T; T indicates heat-treated.
Alclad a protective covering of a thin sheet of pure aluminum rolled onto the
surface of an aluminum alloy during manufacture.
Monel an alloy in which nickel is the major element; harder and stronger than
either nickel or copper; acceptable substitute for steel in systems where
corrosion resistance is the primary concern
K-Monel developed for greater strength and hardness than Monel;

comparable to heat-treated steel; used for instrument parts that must resist
corrosion.
Inconel provides good resistance to corrosion and retains its strength at highoperating temperatures; often used in the exhaust systems of aircraft engines.
2.0.0 BASIC METAL IDENTIFICATION

When you are selecting a metal to use in fabrication, to perform a mechanical repair, or
even to determine if the metal is weldable, you must be able to identify its basic type.
A number of field identification methods can be used to identify a piece of metal. Some
common methods are surface appearance, spark test, chip test, magnet test, and
occasionally a hardness test.
2.1.0 Surface Appearance

Sometimes you can identify a metal simply by its surface appearance. Table 1-1
indicates the surface colors of some of the more common metals.
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Table 1-1 Surface Appearance of Some Common Metals

Metal
Color
Unfinished, unbroken
surface
Color and Structure

Freshly filed surface
Newly fractured surface
Aluminum
Light gray
White
White: finely crystalline
Brass and Bronze
Reddish-yellow, yellowgreen, or brown
Reddish-yellow to
yellowish-white
Red to yellow
Copper
Reddish-brown to green
Bright copper color
Bright red
Iron, Cast-gray
Dull gray
Light silvery gray
Dark gray: crystalline
Iron, Cast-white
Dull gray
Silvery white
Silvery white: crystalline
Iron, Malleable
Dull gray
Light silvery gray
Dark gray: finely crystalline
Iron, Wrought
Light gray
Light silvery gray
Bright gray
Lead
White to gray
White
Light gray: crystalline
Monel metals
Dark gray
Light gray
Light gray
Nickel
Dark gray
Bright silvery white
Off-white
Steel, Cast and

Steel, Low-carbon
Dark gray
Bright silvery gray
Bright gray
Steel, High-carbon
Dark gray
Bright silvery gray
Light gray
Steel, Stainless
Dark gray
Bright silvery gray
Medium gray
As you can see by studying the table, a metals surface appearance can help you
identify it, and if you are unsure, you can obtain further information by studying a fresh
filing or a fresh fracture. If a surface examination does not provide you with enough
information for a positive identification, it should give you enough information to place
the metal into a class.
In addition to the color of the metal, distinctive marks left from manufacturing also help
in determining the identity of the metal.
Cast iron and malleable iron usually show evidence of the sand mold.
Low-carbon steel often shows forging marks.
High-carbon steel shows either forging or rolling marks.
Inspecting the surface texture by feel may also provide another clue to its identity.
Stainless steel, in the unfinished state, is slightly rough.
Wrought iron, copper, brass, bronze, nickel, and Monel are smooth.
Lead is smooth but has a velvety appearance.
When visual clues from surface appearance, filings, fractures, manufacturing marks, or
textural clues from the feel of the surfaces do not give enough information to allow
positive identification, other tests become necessary.
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Some are complicated and require equipment Seabees do not usually have. However,
the following are a few additional simple tests, which are reliable when done by a skilled
person: spark test, chip test, magnetic tests, hardness test.
2.2.0 Spark Test

You perform the spark test by holding a sample of the unidentified material against an
abrasive wheel and visually inspecting the spark stream. This test is fast, economical,
convenient, easily accomplished, and requires no special equipment.
As you become a more experienced Steelworker, you will be able to identify the sample
metals with considerable accuracy. You can use this test to identify scrap-salvaged
metal, which is particularly important when you are selecting material for cast iron or
cast steel heat treatment.
When you hold a piece of iron or steel (ferrous metals) in contact with a high-speed
abrasive wheel, small particles of the metal are torn loose so rapidly that they become
red-hot. These small particles of metal fly away from the wheel, and glow as they follow
a trajectory path called the carrier line, which is easily followed with the eye, especially
when observed against a dark background.
The sparks (or lack of sparks) given off can help you identify the metal. Features you
should look for include:
length of the spark stream
form of the sparks
color(s) of the sparks
Refer to Figure 1-2 through Figure 1-8 for illustrations of the various terms used in
referring to the basic spark forms produced during spark testing.
Figure 1-2 Example

of spark testing termSTREAM.
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Figure 1-3
Example of spark
testing termSHAFT.
Figure 1-4
Example of
spark testing
term-FORK.
1-10
Figure 1-5
Example of spark
testing termSPRIGS.
Figure 1-6
Example of spark
testing termDASHES.
Figure 1-7
Example of spark
testing termAPPENDAGES.
Figure 1-8
Example of spark
testing term-BUD
BREAK ARROW.
Steels that have the same carbon content but include different alloying elements are
difficult to identify; the alloys have an effect on the carrier lines, the bursts themselves,
or the forms of the characteristic bursts in the spark picture.
The alloying element may slow or accelerate the carbon spark, or make the carrier line
lighter or darker in color. For example:
Molybdenum appears as a detached, orange-colored spearhead on the end of

the carrier line.
Nickel appears to suppress the effect of the carbon burst; however, you can
identify the nickel spark by tiny blocks of brilliant white light.
Silicon suppresses the carbon burst even more than nickel; the carrier line
usually ends abruptly in a white flash of light.
You can perform spark testing with either a portable or a stationary grinder, but in either
case, the outer rim speed of the wheel should be not less than 4,500 feet per minute
with a clean, very hard, rather coarse abrasive wheel. Each point is necessary to
produce a true spark
When you conduct a spark test, hold the metal on the abrasive wheel in a position that
will allow the carrier line to cross your line of vision. By trial and error, you will soon find
what pressure you need in order to get a stream of the proper length without reducing
the speed of the grinder. In addition to reducing the grinders speed, excessive pressure
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against the wheel can increase the temperature of the spark stream, which in turn
increases the temperature of the burst and gives the appearance of a higher carbon
content than actually is present.
Use the following technique when making the test:
Watch a point about one third of the distance from the tail end of the spark
stream.
Watch only those sparks that

cross your line of vision and try to
form a mental image of the
individual spark.
Fix this spark image in your mind

and then examine the whole
spark picture.
An abrasive wheel on a grinder traveling

at high speed requires respect, and you
need to review some of the safety
precautions associated with this tool
(Figure 1-9).
Never use a cracked or out of

balance wheel.
o Vibration can cause the
Figure 1-9 Example of a grinders
wheel to shatter, and when
OSHA-designated safety points.
an abrasive wheel
shatters, it can be disastrous for personnel standing in line with the wheel.
Always check the wheel for secure mounting and cracks before using.
When you install a new wheel on a grinder, be sure it is the correct size and
designated RPM.
o
As you increase a wheels radius, the peripheral speed at the rim

increases even though the rpms remain the same. Thus, if you use an
oversized wheel, there is a distinct danger the peripheral speed can
become so great that the consequent centrifugal force can cause the
wheel to fly apart. Guards are placed on grinders as protection in case a
wheel should shatter, but they cannot provide total protection.
Never use a grinder when the guards have been removed.

o
When you turn the grinder on, stand to one side; this places you out of
line with the wheels centrifugal force in case the wheel should burst.
Never overload a grinder or put sideways pressure against the wheel unless it is
expressly built to withstand such use.
Always wear appropriate safety goggles or a face shield while using the grinder.
Ensure the work rest is adjusted to the minimum clearance for the wheel, and
move the work across the entire face of the wheel.
o
This helps eliminate grooving and minimizes the need for wheel dressing,
thus prolonging the life of the wheel.
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Keep your fingers clear of the abrasive surface, and do not allow rags or clothing
to become entangled in the wheel.
Do not wear gloves while using an abrasive wheel.
Never hold metal with tongs while grinding.
Never grind nonferrous metals on a wheel intended for ferrous metals.

o
Misuse can clog the pores of the abrasive material with metal buildup,
which in turn can cause the wheel to become unbalanced and fly apart.
Grinding wheels require

frequent reconditioning.
Dressing is the term you use to
describe the cleaning of the
working face of an abrasive
wheel.
Proper dressing breaks away
dull abrasive grains, smoothes
the surface, and removes
grooves.
The wheel dresser shown in
Figure 1-10 is used for dressing
grinding wheels on bench and
pedestal grinders.
Figure 1-10 Typical wheel dresser.

Refer now to Figure 1-11 through Figure 1-16 for examples of spark testing results for
specific identified material.
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Low-carbon steel
Spark stream is white.
Spark stream is about 70 inches

long.
Volume is moderately large.
A few sparklers may occur at any

place and are forked.
Figure 1-11 Example of low-carbon

and cast steel spark stream.
High-carbon steel
Spark stream is white.

long.
Volume is larger than low-carbon

steel.
Sparklers are small and repeating.
Figure 1-12 Example of high-carbon

spark stream.
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Gray cast iron
Spark stream near the wheel is red.
Spark stream in the outer portion is

straw colored.

long.
Volume is rather small.
Sparklers are small and repeating.
Figure 1-13 Example of gray cast

iron spark stream.
Monel and Nickel
Spark stream is orange.
Spark stream forms short wavy

streaks.
Volume is small.
There are no sparklers.
Because of their similar spark pictures,

you must use some other method to
distinguish monel from nickel.
Figure 1-14 Example of monel and

nickel spark streams.
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Stainless steel
Spark stream next to the wheel is

straw colored.
Spark stream at the end is white.

long.
Volume is moderate with few

sparklers.
Sparklers are forked.
Figure 1-15 Example of stainless

steel spark stream.
Wrought iron
Spark stream next to the wheel is

straw colored.
Spark stream at the end is brighter

red.

long.
Volume is large with few sparklers.
Sparklers are forked near the end of

the stream.
Figure 1-16 Example of wrought iron

spark stream.
One way to become proficient in identifying ferrous metals by spark testing is to practice
by testing yourself in the blind. Gather an assortment of known metals for testing. Make
individual samples so similar that size and shape will not reveal their identities. Number
each sample and prepare a master list of correct names with corresponding numbers.
Then, without looking at the number on the sample, spark test it and call out its name to
someone assigned to check your identification against the names and numbers on the
list. Repeating this self-testing practice will give you some of the experience you need to
become proficient in identifying individual samples.
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2.3.0 Chip Test

Another simple field test you can use to identify an unknown piece of metal is the chip
test. You perform the chip test by removing a small amount of material from the test
piece with a sharp, cold chisel. The material you remove can vary from small, broken
fragments to a continuous strip. The chip may have smooth, sharp edges, may be
coarse-grained or fine-grained, or may have saw-like edges.
The size of the chip is important in identifying the metal, as well as the ease with which
you can accomplish the chipping. Refer to Table 1-2 for information to help you identify
various metals by the chip test.
Table 1-2 Metal Identification by Chip Test
Metal
Chip Characteristics
Aluminum and
Aluminum Alloys
Smooth with saw tooth edges. A chip can be cut as a continuous strip.
Brass and Bronze
Smooth with saw tooth edges. These metals are easily cut, but chips are more
brittle than chips of copper. Continuous strip is not easily cut.
Copper
Smooth with saw tooth edges where cut. Metal is easily cut as a continuous strip.
Iron, Cast-white
Small brittle fragments. Chipped surfaces are not smooth.
Iron, Cast-gray
About 1/8 inch in length. Metal is not easily chipped; therefore, chips break off and
prevent smooth cut.
Iron, Malleable
Vary from 1/4 to 3/8 inch in length (larger than chips from cast iron). Metal is tough
and hard to chip.
Iron, Wrought
Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be made as a
continuous strip.
Lead
Any shape may be obtained because the metal is so soft that it can be cut with a
knife.
Monel
Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.
Nickel
Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.
Steel, Cast and

Steel, Low-carbon
Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be taken off as a
continuous strip.
Steel, High-carbon
Show a fine-grain structure. Edges of chips are lighter in color than chips of lowcarbon steel. Metal is hard, but can be chipped in a continuous strip.
2.4.0 Magnetic Test

A magnet test is another method you can use to aid in a metals general identification.
Remember: ferrous metals are iron-based alloys and normally magnetic; nonferrous
metals are nonmagnetic. This test is not 100 percent accurate because some stainless
steels are nonmagnetic, but it can aid in the first differentiation of most metals. When
dealing with stainless steel, there is no substitute for experience.
2.5.0 Hardness Test

Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. One simple way
to check for hardness in a piece of metal is to file a small portion of it. If it is soft enough
to be machined with regular tooling, the file will cut it. If it is too hard to machine, the file
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will not cut it. This method will indicate whether the material being tested is softer or
harder than the file, but it will not tell exactly how soft or hard it is.
The file can also be used to determine the harder of two pieces of metal; the file will cut
the softer metal faster and easier. The file method should be used only in situations
when the exact hardness is not required. This test has the added advantage of needing
very little in the way of time, equipment, and experience.
Because there are several methods of measuring exact hardness, the hardness of a
material is always specified in terms of the particular test used to measure this property.
Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are some of the methods of testing.
Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most frequently used, and requires a Rockwell
hardness testing machine. The basic principle used in the Rockwell test is that a hard
material can penetrate a softer one, and the amount of penetration is measured and
compared to a scale.
For ferrous metals, usually harder than nonferrous metals, a diamond tip is used for
depth penetration measurement and the hardness is indicated by a Rockwell C
number. On nonferrous metals, which are softer, a metal ball is used for surface
indentation measurement and the hardness is indicated by a Rockwell B number.
Consider lead and steel for an idea of the property of hardness. Lead can be scratched
with a pointed wooden stick, but steel cannot because it is harder than lead.
You can get a more complete explanation of the various methods used to determine the
hardness of a material from commercial books or books located in your base library.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to the basics of the different types of metals and the
simple field and shop methods you can use to identify them. From here, you can begin
to build on your experiences to become a seasoned Steelworker considered a resident
expert on metals. Steelworker Advanced will provide additional, in-depth information
about metal properties in their varied compositions and alloys, along with a discussion
of additional uses.
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Review Questions (Select the Correct Response)

1.
What term is used to describe the equivalent of the Steelworker rating in civilian
construction?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
A material must be primarily composed of _____ to be considered a ferrous

metal.
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
Ingot
Cast
Pig
Wrought
What characteristic of pig iron limits its use?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
magnetic
nonmagnetic
copper colored
alloy-free
Which type of iron is one of the main raw materials used to make steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
steel
iron
nickel
copper
Ferrous metals are typically _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Steel erector
Iron placer
Steel fabricator
Ironworker
It is comparatively weak and brittle.

It is difficult to remelt.
It cannot be combined with other metals.
It is used exclusively for manufacturing cast-iron pipe.
What material do Steelworkers use the most?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Steel
Cast iron
Copper
Wrought iron
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7.
Cast iron is any iron containing greater than _____ alloy.

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What process is used to produce malleability in cast iron?

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.

What stainless steel is normally nonmagnetic?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.

What groups specifications cover stainless steels?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
High carbon
Medium carbon
Mild carbon
Low carbon
What groups specifications cover high-strength steels?

A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Remelting
Annealing
Plating
Alloying
What group of steel is best suited for the manufacture of crane hooks and axles?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
.5%
1%
1.5%
2%
Martensitic-chromium of the 300 series

Austenitic chromium-nickel of the 300 series
Ferritic-austenite of the 400 series
Ferritic-chromium of the 400 series
What common alloy steel is used to make high-quality hand tools?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Nickel steel
Chromium steel
Chrome Vanadium steel
Tungsten steel
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1-20
14.
Which of the following metals is nonferrous?

A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What combination of elements in proper proportion make bronze?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Evidence of a sand mold

Forging marks
Rolling marks
All of the above
When applying the spark test to a metal, you notice the spark stream has white
shafts and forks only. What does this condition indicate about the metal under
test?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
The metal has been heat-treated.

The alloying elements have been tempered.
The major alloying element has been tested.
The metal has been covered with a tungsten-rolled cover.
What manufacturing marks can you look for when a metals color does not
provide positive identification?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Copper-Zinc
Copper-Lead
Copper-Aluminum
Copper-Tin
What action does the letter T signify when used in conjunction with a numbering
system that classifies different aluminum alloys?
A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Cast iron
Carbon steel
Aluminum
Pig iron
It is a high-carbon steel.
It is a low-carbon steel.
It is a nickel alloy.
It is a molybdenum alloy.
What metal produces a spark stream about 25 inches long with small and
repeating sparklers of small volume that are initially red in color?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Nickel
Stainless steel
Grey cast iron
Monel metal
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1-21
20.
Which of the following metals produces the shortest length spark stream?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
You perform the chip test by removing a small amount of material from the test
piece with a _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
High-carbon steel
Low-carbon steel
White cast iron
Nickel
sharp, cold chisel

drill press with inch bit
hack saw
cut-off saw
(True or False) You can depend on a magnetic test for 100% accuracy to
determine a ferrous metal.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1-22
Trade Terms Introduced in this Chapter

Annealing
Subjecting (glass or metal) to a process of heating and

slow cooling in order to toughen and reduce brittleness.
Austenitic
Consisting mainly of austenite, which is a nonmagnetic

solid solution of ferric carbide, or carbon in iron used in
making corrosion-resistant steel.
Bessemer process
Named for Sir Henry Bessemer, an industrial process

for the manufacture of steel from molten pig iron. The
principle involved is that of oxidation of the impurities in
the iron by the oxygen of air that is blown through the
molten iron; the heat of oxidation raises the temperature
of the mass and keeps it molten during operation.
Ferritic
Consisting of the pure iron constituent of ferrous metals,

as distinguished from the iron carbides.
Ferrous
An adjective used to indicate the presence of iron. The

word is derived from the Latin word ferrum ("iron").
Ferrous metals include steel and pig iron (with a carbon
content of a few percent) and alloys of iron with other
metals (such as stainless steel).
Ingot
A material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape

suitable for further processing. Ingots require a second
procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting
or milling to produce a useful final product.
Malleable
Capable of great deformation without breaking, when

subject to compressive stress.
Martensitic
Consisting of a solid solution of iron and up to one

percent of carbon, the chief constituent of hardened
carbon tool steels.
Nonferrous
The term used to indicate metals other than iron and

alloys that do not contain an appreciable amount of iron.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Additional Resources and References

This chapter is intended to present thorough resources for task training. The following
reference works are suggested for further study. This is optional material for continued
education rather than for task training.
Althouse, Andrew D., Carl H. Turnquist, and William A. Bowditch, Modern Welding,
Goodheart-Wilcox Co. Inc., 1970.
Giachino and Weeks, Welding Skills, American Technical Publishers Inc., 1985.
Welding Theory and Application, TM 9-237, Department of the Army Technical Manual,
Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington D.C., 1976.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
1-25
Chapter 2
Topics
1.0.0
Heat Treatment Theory
2.0.0
Stages of Heat Treatment
3.0.0
Recognizing Heat Colors for Steel
4.0.0
Types of Heat Treatment
5.0.0
Quenching Media
Overview
Welding, cutting, or even grinding on metal produces heat, which it turn has an effect on
the structure of the metal. As a Steelworker, you need to understand the effect that heat
treatment has on metals so you can attain the desired properties for a particular metal.
You also need to know what methods can be used to restore a metal to its original
condition.
Heat treatment is the process of heating (but never allowing the metal to reach the
molten state) and cooling a metal in a series of specific operations which changes or
restores its mechanical properties.
Heat treatment makes a metal more useful by making it stronger and more resistant to
impact, or alternatively, making it more malleable and ductile.
However, no heat-treating procedure can produce all of these characteristics in one
operation; some properties are improved at the expense of others. For example,
hardening a metal may make it brittle, or annealing it may make it too soft.
Objectives
1. Describe the heat treatment theory.
2. Identify the stages of heat treatment.
3. Recognize heating colors associated with steel.
4. Describe the different types of heat treatment.
5. Describe the different types of quenching media.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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question again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-3
1.0.0 HEAT TREATMENT THEORY

All heat-treating processes are similar because they all involve the heating and cooling
of metals. However, there are differences in the methods used, such as the heating
temperatures, cooling rates, and quenching media necessary to achieve the desired
properties.
The heat treatment of ferrous metals (metals with iron) usually consists of annealing,
normalizing, hardening, and/or tempering.
Most nonferrous metals can be annealed, but never tempered, normalized, or case
hardened.
To successfully heat treat a metal, you need to have the proper equipment with close
control over all factors relevant to the heating and cooling. For example, the furnace
must be the proper size and type with the temperatures controlled and kept within the
prescribed limits for each operation, and you must have the appropriate quenching
media to cool the metal at the correct rate.
The furnace atmosphere itself affects the condition of the metal being heat treated. This
atmosphere consists of the gases in the furnaces heating chamber that circulate and
surround the metal being heated.
In an electric furnace, the atmosphere is either air or a controlled mixture of gases.
In a fuel-fired furnace, the atmosphere is a mixture of gases and air. Air combines with
gases released by the fuels combustion resulting in various proportions of carbon
monoxide ( CO ), carbon dioxide ( CO2 ), hydrogen ( H ), nitrogen ( N ), oxygen ( O ), water
vapor ( H 2O ), and other various hydrocarbons ( Cn H 2 n ). When you vary the proportions
of air and fuel in a fuel-fired furnace, you can provide three distinct atmospheres:
oxidizing, reducing, and neutral.
2.0.0 STAGES of HEAT TREATMENT

You accomplish heat treatment in three major stages:
Stage l Heat the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature.
Stage 2 Soak (hold) the metal at a given temperature for a given time.
Stage 3 Cool the metal to room temperature.
2.1.0 Heating Stage

In the heating stage, the primary objective is to heat uniformly, and you attain and
maintain uniform temperatures by slow heating. If you heat unevenly, one section can
expand faster than another, resulting in a distorted or cracked part.
The appropriate heating rate will depend on several factors.
The metals heat conductivity. A metal with a high-heat conductivity heats at a

faster rate than one with a low conductivity.
The metals condition. The heating rate for hardened (stressed) tools and parts
should be slower than the heating rate for unstressed or untreated metals.
A metal parts size and cross section. To prevent warping or cracking, you need
to heat large cross-sectioned parts slowly to allow the interior temperature to
remain close to the surface temperature. Parts with uneven cross sections will
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-4
naturally tend to heat unevenly, but they are less apt to crack or excessively warp
when you keep the heating rate slow.
2.2.0 Soaking Stage

In the soaking stage, the objective is to hold the metal to the proper temperature until
the desired internal structural changes take place. Soaking period is the term you use
for the time the metal is held at the proper temperature. The chemical analysis of the
metal and the mass of the part will determine the appropriate soaking period. (Note: For
steel parts with uneven cross sections, the largest section determines the soaking
period.)
Except for the rare variance, you should not bring the temperature of a metal directly
from room temperature to soaking temperature in one operation. Instead, heat the metal
slowly to a temperature just below the point at which the internal change occurs and
hold it at that temperature until you have equalized the heat throughout. Following this
process (called preheating), quickly heat the metal to its final required temperature.
When a part has an intricate design, you may have to preheat it to more than one
temperature stage to prevent cracking and excessive warping. For example, assume an
intricate part needs to be heated to 1500F for hardening.
You may need to heat this part slowly to a 600F stage and soak it at this temperature
for a defined period, then heat it slowly and soak it at a 1200F stage, and then heat it
quickly to the hardening temperature of 1500F.
NOTE
Nonferrous metals seldom require preheating; in fact, preheating can cause an increase
in their grain size.
2.3.0 Cooling Stage

In the cooling stage, the objective is self-explanatory, but there are different processes
to return a metal to room temperature, depending on the type of metal.
To cool the metal and attain the desired properties, you may need to place it in direct
contact with a cooling medium (a gas, liquid, solid, or a combination), and any cooling
rate will depend on the metal itself and the chosen medium. Therefore, the choice of a
cooling medium has an important influence on the properties desired.
Cooling metal rapidly in air, oil, water, brine, or some other medium is called
quenching.
Quenching is usually associated with hardening since most metals that are hardened
are cooled rapidly during the process. However, neither quenching nor rapid cooling
always results in increased hardness. For example, a water quench is usually used to
anneal copper, and some other metals are cooled at a relatively slow rate for hardening,
such as air-hardened steels.
Some metals crack or warp during quenching, while others suffer no ill effects; so the
quenching medium must fit the metal. Use brine or water for metals that require a rapid
cooling rate; use oil mixtures for metals that need a slower cooling rate. Generally, you
should water-harden carbon steels, oil-harden alloy steels, and quench nonferrous
metals in water.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-5
3.0.0 RECOGNIZING HEAT COLORS for STEEL

Red-hot is a term you are probably familiar with as it applies to steel, but steel actually
takes on several colors and shades from the time it turns a dull red until it reaches a
white heat. Figure 2-1 shows these approximate colors and their corresponding
temperatures.
Figure 2-1 Example of approximate heat colors for steel.

Steel is heated through various temperatures during hardening, normalizing, or
annealing, and each temperature produces a color change; so by observing these
changes, you should be able to approximate the temperature of the steel.
As an example, assume you must quench-harden a steel part at 1500F. You should
heat the part slowly and evenly while watching it closely for any change in color. Once
the steel begins to redden, carefully note each change in shades of red as you continue
to apply heat. When the steel is bright red, or approximately 1500F, quench the part.
Your judgment, ability to distinguish shades of red, and the accuracy with which you
identify each color with its corresponding temperature can determine the success of
your heat-treating operation. If you are one of the 58 percent of males, or less than 1
percent of females who are color blind in some way or another, your inability to
distinguish colors will be problematic.
Refer again to Figure 2-1 and you will see that you need to observe the colors closely.
To accurately judge a steels temperature, you must be able to tell the difference
between faint red and blood red, dark cherry and medium cherry, or cherry red and
bright red.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-6
Sometimes in various lightings and work environments, this is a difficult task, and to add
to the difficulty, your conception of medium cherry may differ from anothers conception.
For an actual heat-treating operation, use a printed chart showing the authentic colors
of steel at various temperatures. Do not rely on the colors displayed on the monitor you
are currently viewing, or on printed versions of this course; there are too many variables
in monitors and printers to be able to rely on them for accuracy.
4.0.0 TYPES of HEAT TREATMENT

There are four basic types of heat treatment in use today: annealing, normalizing,
hardening, and tempering.
The following sections describe the techniques used in each process and show how
they relate to Steelworkers.
4.1.0 Annealing
The objective of annealing is the opposite of hardening. You anneal metals to relieve
internal stresses, soften them, make them more ductile, and refine their grain structures.
The process includes all three stages of heat treatment already covered (heat the metal
to a specific temperature, hold it at a temperature for a set length of time, cool it to room
temperature), but the cooling method will depend on the metal and the properties
desired.
You may need to furnace-cool some metals or bury others in ashes, lime, or other
insulating materials to achieve the appropriate characteristics.
Under certain job conditions, or without proper preheating, welding can produce areas
of molten metal adjacent to other areas at room temperature. Given specific conditions,
welding can actually weaken a metal, for as a weld cools, internal stresses occur along
with hard spots and brittleness.
Annealing is just one method for correcting these problems and relieving the stresses.
4.1.1 Ferrous Metal
To anneal ferrous metals and produce the maximum softness(ductility) in steel, you
slowly heat the metal to its proper temperature, soak it, and then let it cool very slowly
by burying the hot part in an insulating material, or by shutting off the furnace and
allowing the furnace and the part to cool slowly together.
Soaking periods depend on both the type and the mass of the metal involved. Table 2-1
provides approximate soaking periods for annealing steel of various thicknesses.
Extremely low-carbon steels require the highest annealing temperature, but as steels
carbon content increases, its annealing temperatures decrease.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-7
Table 2-1 Approximate Soaking Periods for Hardening,

Annealing, and Normalizing Steel
Thickness of
metal in inches
Time of heating to
required temperature in
hours
Soaking time in
hours
Up to 1
1 to 2
2 to 3
3 to 4
4 to 5
5 to 8
4.1.2 Nonferrous Metal

Annealing nonferrous metals may or may not follow the same process as ferrous
metals. For example, copper becomes hard and brittle when mechanically worked, but it
can be made soft again by annealing at a temperature between 700F and 900F.
However, copper may be cooled rapidly (normally associated with hardening) or slowly
since the cooling rate has no effect on the heat treatment.
One drawback experienced in annealing copper is the phenomenon called hot
shortness. Copper loses its tensile strength at about 900F and if not properly
supported, it could fracture.
Aluminum also has the characteristic of hot shortness, and reacts similarly to copper
when heat treating. With the large number of aluminum alloys in use, you must provide
special care while heat treating aluminum to produce the best properties for each alloy.
4.2.0 Normalizing
The intent of normalizing is to remove internal stresses that may have been induced by
heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or machining. Uncontrolled stress leads
to metal failure; therefore, you should normalize steel before hardening it to ensure
maximum results.
Normalizing applies to ferrous metals only, and it differs from annealing; the metal is
heated to a higher temperature, but then it is removed from the furnace for air cooling.
Low-carbon steels do not usually require normalizing, but if they are normalized, no
harmful effects result.
Castings are usually annealed rather than normalized; however, some castings require
the normalizing heat treatment.
Refer again to Table 2-1 and note the approximate soaking periods for normalizing
steel, which varies with the thickness.
Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high
strength and ductility, much tougher than in any other structural condition. Metal parts
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-8
that will be subjected to impact and those requiring maximum toughness with resistance
to external stress are usually normalized.
In normalizing, since the metal is air cooled, the mass of a metal has a significant
influence on the cooling rate and hence on the resulting pieces hardness. With
normalizing, thin pieces cool faster in the air and are harder than thick ones, whereas
with annealing and its associated furnace cooling, the hardness of the thin and thick
pieces is about the same.
4.3.0 Hardening
The purpose of hardening is not only to harden steel as the name implies, but also to
increase its strength. However, there is a trade off; while a hardening heat treatment
does increase the hardness and strength of the steel, it also makes it less ductile, and
brittleness increases as hardness increases. To remove some of the brittleness, you
should temper the steel after hardening.
Many nonferrous metals can also be hardened and their strength increased by
controlled heating and rapid cooling, but for nonferrous metals, the same process is
called heat treatment rather than hardening.
For most steels, hardening consists of employing the typical first two stages of heat
treatment (slowly heat to temperature and soak to time and temperature), but the third
stage is dissimilar. With hardening, you rapidly cool the metal by plunging it into oil,
water, or brine. (Note: Most steels require rapid cooling [quenching] for hardening, but a
few can be air cooled with the same results.)
Refer again briefly to Table 2-1, and note that the soaking periods for annealing,
normalizing and hardening are all the same. The real difference in each heat treatment
process occurs in stage three.
The cooling rate required to produce hardness decreases when alloys are added to
steel; this is advantageous since a slower cooling rate also lessens the danger of
cracking and warping.
The follow provides hardening characteristics for a few irons and low-carbon steel.
Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon steels very little hardening
properties; difficult to harden by heat treatment
Cast iron limited capabilities for hardening

o Cooled rapidly, it forms white iron; hard and brittle
o Cooled slowly, it forms gray iron; soft but brittle under impact
Plain carbon steel maximum hardness depends almost entirely on carbon

content
o Hardening ability increases as carbon content increases to a maximum of
0.80 % carbon
o Increased carbon content beyond 0.80 % increases wear resistance but not
hardness
o Increased wear resistance is due to the formation of hard cementite
Adding an alloy to steel to increase its hardness also increases the carbons
effectiveness to harden and strengthen. Consequently, the carbon content required to
produce maximum hardness is lower in alloyed steels than it is for plain carbon steels
with the result that alloy steels are usually superior to carbon steels.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-9
When you harden carbon steel, you must cool the steel to below 1000F in less than
one second. When you add alloys to steel and increase the carbons effectiveness, you
also increase the time limit (more than one second to drop below 1000F). Therefore,
you can use a slower quenching medium to produce the desired hardness.
You usually quench carbon steels in brine or water, and alloy steels in oil.
Quenching steel produces extremely high internal stresses. To relieve them, you can
temper the steel just before it becomes cold by removing the part from the quenching
bath at a temperature of about 200F and allowing it to air cool. The temperature range
from 200F down to room temperature is called the cracking range, and you do not
want the steel to pass through it in the quenching medium. Further information on
tempering follows in another section.
The following presents different commercially used methods of hardening. In the
Seabees, a rapid surface hardening compound called SURFACE-HARDENING (CASE)
COMPOUND, NSN: 9GD 6850-00-139-5936 (10 lb. can) is used, and you can order it
through the Navy supply system. More information and three alternative procedures on
the use of Case are available in the Welding Materials Handbook, P-433.
4.3.1 Case Hardening
The object of case hardening is to produce a hard, wear-resistant surface (case) over a
strong, tough core. In case hardening, the surface of the metal is chemically changed by
the introduction of a high carbide or nitride content, but the core remains chemically
unaffected. When the metal is heat treated, the high-carbon surface responds to
hardening and the core toughens.
Case hardening applies only to ferrous metals. It is ideal for parts that must have a
wear-resistant surface yet be internally tough enough to withstand heavy loading. Lowcarbon and low-alloy series steels are best suited for case hardening. When highcarbon steels are case hardened, the hardness penetrates beyond the surface resulting
in brittleness.
There are three principal processes for case hardening: carburizing, cyaniding, and
nitriding.
4.3.1.1 Carburizing
Carburizing a case hardening process by which carbon is added to the surface of
low-carbon steel.
When the carburized steel is heat treated, the case becomes hardened and the core
remains soft and tough--in other words, it has a high-carbon surface and a low-carbon
interior.
There are two methods for carburizing steel:
Heat the steel in a furnace containing a carbon monoxide atmosphere.
Place the steel in a container packed with charcoal (or some other carbon-rich
material) and heat in a furnace.
The parts can be left in the container and furnace to cool, or they can be removed and
air-cooled. In either case, the parts become annealed during the slow cooling. The
depth of the carbon penetration depends on the length of the soaking period during heat
treatment. Modern methods dictate that carburizing is almost exclusively done by gas
atmospheres.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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4.3.1.2 Cyaniding
Cyaniding a case hardening process by which preheated steel is dipped into a
heated cyanide bath and allowed to soak.
The part is then removed, quenched, and rinsed to remove any residual cyanide.
This process is fast and efficient. It produces a thin, hard shell, harder than the shell
produced by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes vice several hours.
The major drawback is the use of cyanide; cyanide salts are a deadly poison.
4.3.1.3 Nitriding
Nitriding a case hardening process by which individual parts have been heat treated
and tempered before being heated in a furnace that has an ammonia gas atmosphere.
This case hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the hardening
processes, and it differs from the other methods in that no quenching is required so
there is no worry about warping or other types of distortion.
The nitriding process is used to case harden items such as gears, cylinder sleeves,
camshafts, and other engine parts that need to be wear-resistant and operate in highheat areas.
4.3.2 Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is another process available for hardening the surface of metal parts.
In flame hardening, you use an oxyacetylene flame to heat a thin layer of the surface to
its critical temperature and then immediately quench it with a water spray. In this case,
the cold base metal assists in the quenching since it is not preheated.
Similar to case hardening, this process produces a thin, hardened surface while the
internal parts retain their original properties.
The process can be manual or mechanical, but in either case, you must maintain a
close watch since an oxyacetylene flame can heat the metal rapidly and temperatures in
this method are usually determined visually.
Flame hardening may also be done with automatic equipment.
Whenever possible, automatic equipment

is desirable for more uniform results.
Most automatic machines have variable
travel speeds to adapt to parts of various
sizes and shapes, and the size and shape
of the torch will also depend on the part.
(Figure 2-2)
Figure 2-2 Typical flame hardening.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-11
A typical flame hardening torch

consists of a mixing head,
straight extension tube, 90degree extension head,
adjustable yoke, and a watercooled tip.
Tips are available for hardening
flats, rounds, gears, cams,
cylinders, and other regular or
irregular shapes. Practically any
shape or size flame-hardening
tip is offered. (Figure 2-3)
Figure 2-3 Typical progressive hardening torch

tip.
For hardening localized areas,
you can flame harden with a
standard hand-held welding
torch and the torch flame
adjusted to neutral for normal
heating. (Figure 2-4)
In corners and grooves,
however, you should use a
slightly oxidizing flame to keep
the torch from sputtering, and
exercise particular care against
overheating.
If dark streaks appear on the
metal surface, this is a sign you
are overheating, and you need
to increase the distance
between flame and metal.
Figure 2-4 Example of carburizing, neutral, and
oxidizing flames.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-12
Typically, for the best flame-hardening heating results, you should hold the torch with
the tip of the inner cone about an eighth of an inch from the surface and direct the flame
at right angles to the metal. Occasionally, you may need to change the angle for better
results, but you will rarely use a deviation of more than 30. The speed of torch travel
will depend on the type of metal, the mass, the shape of the part, and the depth of
hardness desired.
If you have options in selecting the core material for the part to be flame hardened,
select the steel according to the properties desired. When surface hardness is the
primary factor, select carbon steel; when the physical properties of the core are also
factors, select alloy steel.
For good results in flame hardening, plain carbon steels should contain more than
0.35% carbon, and 0.40% to 0.70% is the effective carbon range for water quenching. A
carbon content greater than 0.70% is likely to induce surface cracks unless the heating
and quenching rate are carefully controlled.
A section that has a flame-hardened surface is equal to a section that was hardened by
furnace heating and quenching for the following reasons:
The decrease in hardness between the case and the core is gradual.
The core is not affected by flame hardening so there is little danger of spalling or
flaking while the part is in use.
Thus, properly done, flame hardening can produce a hard case that is highly resistant to
wear, and a core that retains its original properties.
There are five general methods for flame hardening: stationary, circular band
progressive, straight-line progressive, spiral band progressive, and circular band
spinning.
Stationary Method Torch and metal part are both held stationary.
Circular Band Progressive Method Object is rotated in front of a stationary

torch at a surface speed of from 3 to 12 inches per minute.
o Use this method for hardening outside surfaces of round sections.
o Heating and quenching are done progressively as the part rotates.
o Hardened band encircles part on one completed rotation.
o Width of hardened band depends upon the width of the torch tip.
o To harden the full length of a long section, torch is moved and process
repeated until the part is completely hardened.
o Each torch pass should overlap the previous one.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-13
Straight-Line Progressive Method

Torch travels along the surface,
treating a strip that is about the
same width as the torch tip. (Figure
2-5)
o Move the torch and repeat the
process to harden a wider area.
Figure 2-5 Example of progressive

hardening.
Spiral Band Progressive Method Cylindrical part is mounted between lathe

centers; a torch with an adjustable holder is mounted on the lathe carriage.
o Torch moves parallel to the surface of the part as the part rotates.
o Travel is synchronized with the parts rotary motion to produce a continuous
band of hardness.
o Heating and quenching occur at the same time.
o Number of torches required depends on the diameter of the part; seldom
more than two.
Circular Band Spinning Method Part is mounted between lathe centers and
turned at a high rate of speed past a stationary torch.
o This method provides the best results for hardening cylindrical parts of small
or medium diameters.
o Enough torches are placed side by side to heat the entire part.
o Part can be quenched by water flowing from the torch tips or in a separate
operation. (Figure 2-6)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-14
Figure 2-6 Example of flame hardening with the circular band spinning method.
When heating and quenching are performed as separate operations, the heating tips
may be water cooled internally, but no water sprays simultaneously onto the surface of
the part.
When you are flame hardening, follow the same safety precautions that apply to
welding:
Guard against holding the flame too close to the surface and overheating the
metal.
When you are judging the temperature of the metal by color, remember the flame
makes the metal appear colder than it actually is.
4.4.0 Tempering
After hardening by either case or flame, steel is often harder than needed and too brittle
for most practical uses, containing severe internal stresses that were set during the
rapid cooling of the process. Following hardening, you need to temper the steel to
relieve the internal stresses and reduce brittleness.
Tempering consists of:
Heating the steel to a specific temperature (below its hardening temperature)
Holding it at that temperature for the required length of time
Cooling it, usually in still air.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-15
If this sounds familiar, you are correct; it is the same three-stage process as in heat
treatment. The difference is in the temperatures used for tempering, which will affect the
resultant strength, hardness, and ductility.
You temper a steel part to reduce the brittleness caused by hardening, and develop
specific physical properties; it always follows, never precedes hardening. Tempering
reduces brittleness, but it also softens the steel, which you cannot avoid. However, the
amount of hardness lost is controllable and dependent on the temperature you subject
the steel to during the tempering process. That is true of all steels except high-speed
steel; tempering increases the hardness of high-speed steel.
The annealing, normalizing, and hardening processes all include steps at temperatures
above the metals upper critical point. Tempering is always conducted at temperatures
below the metals low-critical point.
When you reheat hardened steel, you begin tempering it at 212F, and continue as the
temperature increases toward the low-critical point. You can predetermine the resulting
hardness and strength if you preselect the finite tempering temperature. For planning
your tempering time, the minimum should be one hour, or if the part is more than one
inch thick, increase the time by one additional hour for each additional inch of thickness.
With most steels, the rate of cooling from the tempering temperature has no effect on
the steel. After a steel part is removed from the tempering furnace, it is usually cooled in
still air, just like in the normalizing process.
However, there are a few anomalies; a few types of steel must be quenched from the
tempering temperature to prevent brittleness. Known as blue brittle steels, they can
become brittle if heated in certain temperature ranges and cooled slowly. Some nickel
chromium steels are subject to this temper brittleness.
Providing there is any hardness to temper, you can temper steel that has been
normalized, but you cannot temper annealed steel. What would be the purpose? If you
will remember, the purpose of both normalizing (air cooled), and annealing (controlled
cooling environment) was to relieve stress, the same as tempering.
Tempering relieves internal stresses from quenching, reduces hardness and brittleness,
and may actually increase the tensile strength of hardened steel as it is tempered up to
a temperature of about 450F; above 450F, tensile strength starts to decrease.
Typically, tempering increases softness, ductility, malleability, and impact resistance,
but again, high-speed steel is an exception to the rule. High-speed steel increases in
hardness on tempering, provided you temper it at a high temperature (about 1150F).
Remember, to temper a part properly, you need to remove it from the quenching bath
before it is completely cold and proceed with the tempering process. Failure to temper
correctly can result in a quick failure of the hardened part.
Permanent steel magnets are made of hardened and tempered special alloys whose
most important properties are stability and hardness. They are tempered at the
minimum tempering temperature (212F) by placing them in boiling water for 2 to 4
hours, and because of this low-tempering temperature, are very hard.
Do not temper case-hardened parts at too high a temperature or they will lose some of
their hardness. A temperature range of 212F 400F is high enough to relieve
quenching stresses for case-hardened parts. The design of the part can help determine
the appropriate tempering temperature, and some metals do not require tempering at
all.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-16
Tempering by color range is similar in concept to heat treating by color range, but one of
the first things you will notice is the extreme differences in temperature gradations.
Instead of the large 750 2350 range with color changes in 100 150 (+ )
segments for heat treating, the entire range for tempering by color is only about 170
with color changes in 10 20 (+ ) segments. (Figure 2-7)
In addition, instead of being based on the fundamental metal itself and its alloys as in
heat treating, tempering by color is based on surface oxides that change colors as you
heat the steel. As you slowly heat a piece of polished hardened steel, you will see the
surface turn various colors as the surface temperature changes; this indicates you are
making structural changes within the metal.
Once the preplanned color appears, rapidly quench the part to prevent further structural
change. The part may be heated by torch, furnace, hot plate, or radiation, but in all
circumstances, it must be smooth and free of oil for true indication of color.
Figure 2-7 Example of oxide colors for tempering steel.

Cold chisels and similar tools must have hard cutting edges with softer bodies and
heads. The heads must be tough but not brittle to prevent shattering when struck, the
cutting edge must be twice as hard (or more) as the head, and the zone separating the
two must blend the two extremes without a line of demarcation that would encourage
breakage.
One method frequently used for tempering chisels and similar tools is one in which the
cutting end is heated and tempered by the residual heat of the opposite end of the same
tool.
To simultaneously harden and temper a cold chisel by this method:
Heat the tool to the proper hardening temperature.
Quench the cutting end only.
Bob the chisel up and down in the bath, always keeping the cutting edge below
the surface.
o This method air cools the head (normalizing) while rapidly quenching the
cutting edge (hardening).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-17
The result is a tough head, a fully hardened cutting edge, and a properly blended
structure.
Figure 2-8 Typical cold chisel tempering areas.

When the cutting end has cooled:
Remove the chisel from the bath.
Quickly polish the cutting end with a buff stick (emery).
Watch the polished surface for heat from the opposite end feeding back into the
quenched end.
o Oxide colors will appear on the hardened end as the temperature increases,
progressing from pale yellow, to a straw color, and finally to blue colors.
As soon as the correct shade of blue appears:
Quench the entire chisel to prevent further softening of the cutting edge.
o Temper the hardened end as soon as the proper oxide color appears;
quenching merely prevents further tempering by halting the process.
o This final quench has no effect on the body and the head of the chisel. Their
temperatures will have dropped below the critical point by the time the proper
oxide color appears on the cutting edge.
By completing this described process, you will have hardened and tempered the chisel,
and it only needs grinding.
The oxide color at which you quench the steel during tempering will vary with the
properties you want to attain in the part. Refer again to Figure 2-7. To see the colors
clearly, turn the part from side to side under good lighting conditions. While hand
tempering can produce the same result as furnace tempering, there is a greater
possibility for error, so the slower you perform the operations the more accurate your
results will be.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-18
Test your Knowledge (Select the Correct Response)
(True or False) To make a metal more useful, heat treating can make it stronger,
more resistant to impact, malleable, and ductile with one process.
1.
A.
B.
True
False
5.0.0 QUENCHING MEDIA

The rate at which you can cool an object will depend on several factors:
Size of the part

o The mass of the part will affect quenching; the greater the mass, the greater
the time required for complete cooling.
Configuration of the part

o Parts may be of the same size, but those containing holes or recesses cool
more rapidly than solid objects.
Composition of the part

o The composition of a metal will determine the maximum cooling rate possible
without the danger of cracking or warping.
Initial temperature of the part

o Different steels and steel alloys require a wide range of temperatures for heat
treatment.
Final properties desired

o The medium must cool the metal at the rate you need (rapidly or slowly) to
produce the results you want.
Each is a factor in deciding which quenching medium you should use.

The value of any quenching mediums cooling rate upon a quenched part will vary with
the mediums temperature; therefore, to get uniform results, you must keep the
mediums temperature within prescribed limits.
The quenching mediums absorption of heat will also depend on the circulation of the
medium or the movement of the part; agitating the liquid or the part breaks up gas that
forms an insulating blanket between the part and the liquid, hence increasing the time
element to cool to a given temperature.
Normally, when you quench a metal, hardening occurs and the metals composition will
determine the type of quench to use to achieve the desired hardness.
For example, shallow-hardened, low-alloy, and carbon steels require more severe
quenching than deep-hardened alloy steels with large quantities of nickel, manganese,
or other elements. Therefore, the shallow-hardening steels are usually quenched in
water or brine while the deep-hardening steels are usually quenched in oil.
Sometimes it is necessary to use a combination quench (starting with brine or water and
finishing with oil), for in addition to producing the desired hardness, the quench must
minimize cracking, warping, and soft spots.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-19
The quenching liquids volume

needs to be large enough to
absorb all the heat during a
normal quenching operation.
As you quench more metals,
the mediums temperature will
rise as the liquid absorbs the
heat.
This temperature rise will cause
a decrease in the cooling rate,
which in turn will negatively
affect your efforts to harden the
metal.
Some tanks use mechanical
means to keep temperatures at
prescribed levels during
continuous operations, such as
the heat exchanger shown in
Figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9 Example of a controlled temperature
quench tank.
5.1.0 Liquid Quenching

There are two methods for liquid quenching:
Still-bath
o Metal is cooled in a tank of liquid; only movement of the liquid is caused by
movement of the hot metal.
Flush quenching
o Liquid is sprayed onto the surface and into every cavity at the same time to
ensure uniform cooling; used for parts with recesses or cavities not
quenchable by ordinary methods; assures a thorough and uniform quench;
reduces the possibilities of distortion.
As already mentioned, for satisfactory heat treating results, quenching liquids must be
maintained at uniform temperatures; this is particularly true for oil. Many commercial
operations that use oil-quenching tanks maintain the oil bath at their proper temperature
by circulating the oil medium through coils that themselves are water cooled. Selfcontained coolers are an integral part of large quench tanks.
Quenching tanks have a wide range of capabilities, from the large commercial polymerquenching tank shown in Figure 2-10 View A, to the small portable water- and oil-quenching
tank that may be available to the Seabees, shown in Figure 2-10 View B.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-20
Figure 2-10 Examples of the wide range of quenching tanks.

The typical portable quenching tank shown in Figure 2-10 View B can be moved to various
parts of the Steelworker shop for heat treating as needed. These portable tanks may
have just one compartment, but typically, they have compartments for containing water
in one segment and oil in another, with a liquid-tight partition to prevent mixing.
Each compartment has a drain plug, a screen in the bottom to catch scale and other
foreign matter, and a mesh basket to hold the parts. In addition, shops can attach a
portable electric pump or a mechanical agitation mixer to the rim of the tank for liquid
circulation to aid in uniform cooling.
5.1.1 Water
You can use water to quench some forms of steel, but water is not recommended for
tool steel or other alloy steels. Water absorbs large quantities of atmospheric gases,
which have a tendency to form bubbles on the metals surface when you quench a hot
piece. The bubbles tend to collect in holes or recesses causing soft spots that can lead
to cracking or warping.
For any given part to be treated, the quench tank must meet the following criteria:
Large enough to hold the part being treated
Adequate circulation and temperature control
Water temperature not exceeding 65F
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-21
Water volume large enough to prevent a temperature rise of more than 20F
during a single operation
o Temperature rise may exceed 20F for heavy-sectioned parts but should be
kept as low as possible,
o For wrought products, temperature should be about 65F and never exceed
100F before the piece enters the liquid,
Water changed daily; more often if required
When you quench aluminum alloys and other nonferrous metals, always quench them
in clean water.
5.1.2 Brine
You prepare brine by dissolving common rock salt in water. The brine solution should
contain from 7% to 10% salt by weight or three-fourths pound of salt for each gallon of
water. Brine reduces the waters absorption of atmospheric gases, thus reducing the
amount of bubbles and allowing greater surface contact to cool the part more rapidly
than water. The correct temperature range for a brine solution is 65F to 100F.
You can quench low-alloy and carbon steels in brine solutions, but brine is not
recommended for high-carbon or low-alloy steels with uneven cross sections; the rapid
cooling rate of brine can cause cracking or stress in the latter.
In addition to rapid and uniform cooling, a brine medium removes a large percentage of
any scale that may be present, but do not quench nonferrous metals in brine due to the
corrosive action brine has on these metals.
5.1.3 Oil
Use oil to quench high-speed and oil-hardened steels and preferably all other steels if
you can obtain the required hardness. Practically any type of obtainable oil is
acceptable as quenching oil, including the various animal oils, fish oils, vegetable oils,
and mineral oils.
Oil is classed as an intermediate quench; its cooling rate is slower than brine or water
but faster than air. Keep the quenching oils temperature within a range of 80F to
150F.
In small amounts, the water that usually collects in the bottom of a quenching oil tank is
not harmful, but in large quantity it can interfere with the quenching operations. For
example, if the end of a long piece extends through the oil into the water at the bottom
of the tank, the more rapid cooling action of the water can cause the piece to crack.
Nonferrous metals are not routinely oil quenched unless called for in the specifications.
Table 2-2 provides the properties and average cooling rates of various quenching oils
relative to water.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-22
Table 2-2 Properties and Average Cooling Abilities of Quenching Media

Quenching Media
Cooling Rate
Compared to
Water
Flash
Point
(F)
Fire
Point
(F)
Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide) (10%)
2.06
Brine (10%) at 65
1.96
Water at 65
1.00
Prepared Oil
0.44
365
405
Fuel Oil
0.36
205
219
Cottonseed Oil
0.36
610
680
Neatsfoot Oil
0.33
500
621
Sperm Oil
0.33
500
581
Fish Oil
0.31
401
446
Castor Oil
0.29
565
640
Machine Oil
0.22
405
464
Lard Oil
0.19
565
685
Circulated Air
0.032
Still Air
0.0152
5.1.4 Caustic Soda

Only use caustic soda for specific types of steel that require extremely rapid cooling.
Refer to Table 2-2. Like brine, a solution of water and caustic soda (10% caustic soda
by weight) has a higher cooling rate than water. However, caustic soda (note the name
caustic) requires special attention.
CAUTION
Never quench nonferrous metals in caustic soda
Caustic Soda requires special handling because of its harmful effects on skin and
clothing
5.2.0 Dry Quenching

As the term implies, when you dry quench, you are using materials other than liquids
and in most cases only to slow the cooling rate to prevent warping or cracking.
5.2.1 Air
You use air quenching for cooling some highly alloyed steels. If you use still air, place
each tool or part on a suitable rack so air can reach all sections of the piece.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-23
If you use circulated air, place them in the same manner in a suitable rack, but ensure
that the circulated air from the source reaches the parts equally for uniform cooling.
You can use compressed air to concentrate cooling on specific areas of a part, but to
prevent cracking the metal you must first ensure that the air lines are dry and free of the
moisture that typically builds in compression tanks and lines.
To quench nonferrous metals, you should use water, but when necessary, you can use
forced-air drafts to cool pieces too large to fit into the quench tank. However, you should
only use an air quench for nonferrous metal when the part will not be subjected to
severe corrosion conditions, and the required strength and other physical properties can
be developed by a mild air quench.
5.2.2 Solids
The solids you can use for cooling steel parts include cast iron chips, lime, sand, and
ashes. Generally, you would use them to slow the rate of cooling; for example, you
might place a cast iron part in a lime box after welding to prevent cracking and warping.
Regardless of which solid you select, it must be free of moisture to prevent uneven
cooling.
Summary
This chapter has covered just a few elements of the heat treating theory and explained
how you can change the properties of a metal. The heat treatment you apply as a
Steelworker can, if done properly, extend the service life of appropriate TOA parts and
equipment. Conversely, if done improperly, you could shorten the service life.
To recognize the appropriate treatment for achieving the desired properties for a
selected metal is your challenge. However, you should now be able to recognize a
reference chart for color temperature, and be able to select a suitable general method of
heat treatment with the correct quenching medium to achieve the targeted properties.
You may not achieve the ultimate properties on the first try, but repeated practice and
experimentation will improve your ability in this set of skills.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-24

1.
What process consists of tempering, normalizing, hardening, and annealing?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
(True or False) Most nonferrous metals can be normalized and case hardened
but not annealed.
A.
B.
3.
Oil-fired only
Both gas-fired and electric
Both oil-fired and gas-fired
Both oil-fired and electric
Which of these gas mixtures are constituents of a fuel-fired furnace atmosphere?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Proper size of furnace

Proper furnace atmosphere
Suitable quenching medium
All of the above
What type of furnace produces an atmosphere consisting of a gas/air combustion

product?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
True
False
Which of the following conditions is required for the successful heat treatment of
metals?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Cold forming of metals

Heat treatment of nonferrous metals
Heat treatment of ferrous metal
Quenching of austenitic materials
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen, argon, and radon
Hydrogen, bromine, oxygen, and chlorine
Hydrogen, oxygen, argon, and radon
What allows you to provide an oxidizing, reducing, or neutral atmosphere in a

fuel fired furnace?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Varying the type of fuel

Construction of the furnace
Varying the proportion of air to fuel
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-25
7.
What type of furnace(s) allows the atmosphere to consist of air only?

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What is the primary cause of distortion and cracking of the heat-treated part?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Maximum softness
Maximum hardness
Maximum ductility
Minimum ductility
Copper becomes hard and brittle when mechanically worked, but it can be made
soft again by annealing. Within what temperature range must you heat it to
anneal it?
A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Oil
Brine
Air
Water
What effect is produced when steel is cooled very slowly in a medium that does
NOT conduct heat easily?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
By the total weight

By the largest section
By the lightest section
By the number of parts
What type of medium is normally used to quench nonferrous metals?

A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Heating the part too slowly

Increasing the soaking temperature too slowly
Uneven expansion due to carbon deposits in the part
Heating one section of the part more rapidly than other parts
How do you determine the soaking period when parts are uneven in cross
section?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Oil-fired
Electric
Both oil-fired and gas-fired
Both oil-fired and electric
500F to 600F
600F to 700F
700F to 900F
900F to 1100F
(True or False) Normalizing is a form of heat treatment applicable to nonferrous

metals only.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-26
14.
Which of these metals are difficult to harden by heat treatment?

A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What factor almost completely determines the maximum obtainable hardness in

plain carbon steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Cementation
Pack hardening
Carburizing
Atmospheric cementation
On what areas of a part being flame hardened should a slightly oxidizing flame
be used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
Nitriding
Cyaniding
Carburizing
Halogenizing
If the steel parts are placed in a container packed with charcoal and heated in a
furnace, what case-hardening process is being used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
The carbon content of the steel

The thickness of the steel
The heating time
The temperature to which it was heated
What case-hardening method produces the hardest surface of any of the

hardening processes?
A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Wrought irons
Pure irons
Extremely low-carbon steels
All of the above
Flat surfaces
Corners and grooves
Rounded surfaces
Edges and elongated sections
Which of these factors determines the rate at which you move the welding torch
when flame hardening a steel part?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Mass of the part

Shape of the part
Depth of the hardness desired
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-27
20.
(True or False) Flame hardening can produce a hard case that resists wear
while the core retains the metals original properties.
A.
B.
21.
What term is used to describe the process of heating steel to a specific

temperature (below its hardening temperature), holding this temperature for a
certain length of time, and then cooling the steel in still air to room temperature?
A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
Aluminum
High-speed steel
Low-carbon steel
Already hardened steel
What are the most important properties to be obtained in tempering permanent

steel magnets?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
True
False
In which of the following metals are the softness, ductility, and resistance to
impact NOT increased?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Annealing
Hardening
Tempering
Case hardening
(True or False) Steel can be tempered provided some hardness remains after it
has been normalized.
A.
B.
23.
True
False
Stability and malleability

Softness and malleability
Hardness and stability
Ductility and resistance to wear
Why should you agitate the part or the quenching medium when cooling a part?
A.
B.
C.
D.
To break up gases that form

To induce oxidation
To reduce the cooling rate
To raise the temperature of the liquid
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-28
26.
For which of the following reasons is the flush method of quenching better than
other quenching methods for parts having cavities or recesses?
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
What temperature should water not exceed when used as a quenching medium?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
3.8% salt for every 3 gallons of water at 65F

3/4 pound of salt per gallon of water at 65F to 100F
20% salt solution for the entire mix
3/4 pound of salt per 100 gallons of water
(True or False) Caustic soda requires special handling because of its harmful
effects on skin and clothing.
A.
B.
31.
Fuel oil
Prepared oil
Brine, 10% solution at 65F
Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), 10% solution
What is the correct solution for a brine quench medium?

A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
65F
75F
85F
95F
Which of these quenching media has the highest cooling rate compared to
water?
A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
It enables formation of gases that enhance the hardening process.

It introduces oxygen into the process to increase the temperature.
It ensures a thorough uniform quench as liquid is sprayed all over the
parts.
It facilitates the formation of gases that help reduce the temperature.
True
False
(True or False) Air quenching should only be used for nonferrous metals
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-29

Case hardened
Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of

hardening the surface of a metal, often a low-carbon
steel, by infusing elements into the material's surface,
forming a thin layer of a harder alloy. Case hardening is
usually done after the part in question has been formed
into its final shape.
Caustic Soda
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye and

caustic soda, is a caustic metallic base. It is used in
many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in
the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking
water, soaps and detergents, and as a drain cleaner.
Cementite
Hard, brittle iron carbide (Fe3C) in steel, cast iron, and

iron-carbon alloys.
Cooling medium
Any gas, liquid, solid, or combination used specifically to

cool a metal to room temperature during a heat-treating
process.
High-speed steel
High-speed steel is a general name for high alloy steels

that retain their hardness at very high temperatures and
are used for metal-cutting tools. All high-speed steels
are based on either tungsten or molybdenum (or both)
as the primary heat-resisting alloying element. These
steels require a special heat so that their unique
properties can be fully realized. The manufacturing
process consists of heating the steel to a temperature of
2,150F to 2,400F (1,175C to 1,315C) to obtain
solution of a substantial percentage of the alloy
carbides, quenching to room temperature, tempering at
1,000F to 1,150F (535C to 620C), and again cooling
to room temperature.
Brittleness in metals during high temperature
deformation.
Hot-shortness
Quenching
Quench hardening is a mechanical process in which

steel and cast iron alloys are strengthened and
hardened. This is done by heating the material to a
certain temperature, differing upon material, and then
rapidly cooling the material. This produces a harder
material by either surface hardening or throughhardening, varying according to the rate at which the
material is cooled. The material is then often tempered
to reduce the brittleness that may increase from the
quench- hardening process.
Spalling
To break up into chips or fragments; to chip or crumble.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-30
Tool steel
NAVEDTRA 14250A
A variety of carbon and alloy steels particularly well

suited for making into tools. Their suitability comes from
their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, ability
to hold a cutting edge, and/or resistance to deformation
at elevated temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is
generally used in a heat-treated state. With a carbon
content between 0.7% and 1.4%, tool steels are
manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to
produce the required quality and are made to a number
of grades for different applications.
2-31

Althouse, Andrew D., Carl H. Turnquist, and William A. Bowditch, Modern Welding, 10th
Edition, Goodheart-Wilcox Co. Inc., 2004.
Fundamentals of Machine Tools, Training Circular Number 9-524 (TC 9-524),
Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington D.C., 1976
Giachino and Weeks, Welding Skills, 5th Edition, American Technical Publishers Inc.,
Chicago, IL., 1985.
Naval Construction Force Welding Materials Handbook, P-433, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, Department of the Navy, Washington D. C., 1991.
Operator's Manual for Welding Theory and Application, Training Manual 9-237 (TM 9237), Department of the Army Technical Manual, Headquarters, Department of the
Army, Washington D.C., 1976.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-32

assistance.
Write:
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3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
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Description
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
2-33
Chapter 3
Topics
1.0.0
Welding Processes
2.0.0
Welding Terminology
3.0.0
Welded Joint Design
4.0.0
Welding Positions
5.0.0
Expansion and Contraction
6.0.0
Welding Procedures
7.0.0
Drawings
8.0.0
Safety
Overview
Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials (usually metals or
thermoplastics) by causing coalescence, often by melting the work-pieces and adding a
filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a
strong joint.
Welding is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-meltingpoint material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting
the workpieces.
Of the many methods for joining metals, welding is one of the most convenient and
rapid, as well as one of the most permanent. Welding has been used since ancient
times through the process of forge welding where two pieces were heated to near
melting temperature and hammered together. The roots of modern welding began in the
late 19th century and progressed rapidly through two World Wars.
Todays welding techniques and processes continue to develop to fit various needs,
from simple steel brackets to nuclear reactors. For the Navy, commercial enterprises,
governmental agencies, and many other institutions around the world, welding is a
widely accepted technique for the fabrication, maintenance, and repair of parts and
structures.
As with all the Seabee rating skills, you cannot become a proficient welder by reading a
book, you need practice to build experience. However, you can gain a great deal of
knowledge through study. For instance, by learning the correct equipment setting, set
up method, or procedure from a book, you may eliminate many mistakes that otherwise
would occur through trial and error.
This chapter will provide a background of basic information applicable to welding in
general. Later chapters will provide more detailed information on various welding
methods.
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Objectives
1. Describe the welding processes.
2. Define welding terminology.
3. Describe the different types of welded joint designs.
4. Describe the different welding positions.
5. Describe procedures associated with expansion and contraction.
6. Describe procedures associated with the welding process.
7. Interpret the different types of diagrams associated with welding.
8. State the safety precautions associated with welding.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
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question again.
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1.0.0 WELDING PROCESSES
Forge welding, the earliest known form of

welding, dates back to 2000 B.C.
A primitive process, forge welding joins
metals by heating and hammering until the
metals are fused together (Figure 3-1).
Forge welding still exists, but it is mainly
limited to the blacksmith trade and to the
artisans recreating replicas of historical
metal implements and weapons.
Figure 3-1 Example of forge welding

process.
Today, there are multitudes of welding processes available. This course will cover only
a few, but they are the most common of the welding applications.
Figure 3-2 provides a list of processes used in modern metal fabrication and repair.
Published by the American Welding Society (AWS), this list shows the official
abbreviations for each process; for example, RSW stands for resistance spot welding
and SMAW stands for shielded metal arc welding. The primary differences between the
various welding processes are the methods by which heat is generated to melt the
metal.
Arc welding is a process that fuses metal by heating it to a melting temperature with an
electric arc created between an electrode and the metals being joined. The carbon arc
welding (CAW) process is the oldest of all the arc-welding processes and is considered
the beginning of arc welding. The Welding Society defines carbon arc welding as "an
arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
between a carbon electrode and the work-piece. No shielding is used. Pressure and
filler metal may or may not be used." It has limited applications today, but a variation
called twin carbon arc welding is more popular, while yet another variation uses
compressed air for cutting.
Carbon arc welding has developed into the currently popular shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) process defined as "an arc welding process which produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an arc between a covered metal electrode and the workpiece. Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode covering. Pressure is
not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode."
The most common types of welding are resistance welding (RW), oxyfuel gas welding
(OFW), and arc welding (AW). Of the welding processes listed in Figure 3-2, shielded
metal arc welding, also called stick welding, is the most common welding process. Your
primary concern as a Steelworker will be gas and arc welding, the difference being in
the method you use to generate the heat. Once you understand the theory of welding,
you can apply it to most welding processes.
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Figure 3-2 Example of the multitude of welding processes.

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1.1.0 Gas Welding

The oxyfuel gas welding process (OFW), shown in Figure 3-3, is one of the most
popular welding methods. Heat is produced by mixing and burning oxygen with a
combustible gas such as acetylene or MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene).
Gas welding is widely used for maintenance and repair work because of the ease in
transporting oxygen and fuel cylinders. Once you learn the basics and begin to practice
OFW, you will find the process is adaptable to brazing, cutting, and heat treating.
Figure 3-3 Example of oxyfuel gas welding (OFW).

1.1.1 OXYFUEL GAS Welding (OFW) ACETYLENE
Acetylene is a flammable fuel gas composed of carbon and hydrogen having the
chemical formula C2H2. When burned with oxygen, acetylene produces a hot flame with
a temperature between 5700F and 6300F. Acetylene is a colorless gas, but has a
disagreeable odor that is readily detected even when the gas is highly diluted with air.
Acetylene can be safely compressed up to 275 psi when dissolved in acetone and
stored in specially designed cylinders filled with porous material such as balsa wood,
charcoal, finely shredded asbestos, corn pith, Portland cement, or infusorial earth.
These porous filler materials aid in the prevention of high-pressure gas pockets forming
in the cylinder. Acetone is a liquid chemical that dissolves large portions of acetylene
under pressure without changing the nature of the gas. Being a liquid, acetone can be
drawn from an acetylene cylinder when it is not upright.
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WARNING
You should not store acetylene cylinders on their side, but if they are, you must
let the cylinder stand upright for a minimum of 2 h ours before using. This allows
the acetone t o se ttle to t he bottom o f t he cylinder. A cetone c ontaminates t he
hoses, regulators, and torch, and disrupts the flame.
Acetylene is measured in cubic feet. The most common cylinder sizes are 130-, 290-,
and 330-cubic-foot capacity. A common standard size cylinder holds 225 cubic feet of
acetylene.
1.1.2 OXYFUEL GAS Welding (OFW) MAPPGAS
MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene) is an all-purpose industrial fuel having the highflame temperature of acetylene but the handling characteristics of propane. MAPP is a
liquid sold by the pound rather than by the cubic foot, as with acetylene. One cylinder
containing 70 pounds of MAPP gas can accomplish the work of more than six and onehalf 225-cubic-foot acetylene cylinders; therefore, 70 pounds of MAPP gas is equal to
1,500 cubic feet of acetylene.
The total weight for a MAPP cylinder, which has the same physical size as a 225-cubicfoot acetylene cylinder, is 120 pounds (70 pounds of which is MAPP gas). MAPP
cylinders contain only liquid fuel, with no cylinder packing or acetone to impair fuel
withdrawal; therefore, the entire contents of a MAPP cylinder can be used. For heavyuse situations, a MAPP cylinder delivers more than twice as much gas as an acetylene
cylinder for the same period.
MAPP produces a flame temperature of 5300F when burned with oxygen, is not
sensitive to shock, and is nonflammable in the absence of oxygen. There is no chance
of an explosion if a cylinder is bumped, jarred, or dropped. You can store or transport
the cylinders in any position with no danger of forming an explosive gas pocket.
MAPP gas is not restricted to a maximum working pressure of 15 psig, as is acetylene.
In jobs requiring higher pressures and gas flows, MAPP can be used safely at the fullcylinder pressure of 95 psig at 70F. This characteristic allows MAPP to be excellent for
underwater work.
1.2.0 Arc Welding

The arc welding process uses an electric arc to join the metals being welded. This
allows concentrated heat on the work material, a distinct advantage of arc welding over
gas welding.
In gas welding the flame spreads over a large area, sometimes causing heat distortion.
Concentrated heat, characteristic of arc welding, is an advantage because less heat
spreads to the rest of the work material. While buckling and warping can still be a
problem with both processes if unattended, they are less so with arc welding.
Heat concentration also increases the depth of penetration and speeds up the welding
operation; therefore, you will find that arc welding is often more practical and
economical than gas welding, particularly as the work material depth increases.
1.2.1 Common Arc Welding Processes
All arc-welding processes have three things in common: a heat source, filler metal, and
shielding. In arc welding, you produce heat by arcing an electrical current between two
contacts. The power source for the electrical currents arc is a welding machine, or more
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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commonly called a welder. This is also the same term for the person performing the
operation, so do not confuse the two when communicating: When a welder is welding,
he or she is using the welder. The welder (welding machine) can be either plug-in
electric or motor-powered to produce the electricity. As a member of the Naval
Construction Force (NCF), you need to become familiar with the two main types of arcwelding processes: shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and gas shielded arc welding (a
generic term that covers a number of specific processes).
1.2.1.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
You perform shielded metal arc welding (Figure 3-4) with an arc between a coated
metal electrode and the base metal. Once you establish the arc (called striking the arc),
the molten metal from the tip of the electrode flows together with the molten metal from
the base metal to form a sound joint. This process is known as fusion.
The coating from the electrode melts and forms a covering over the weld deposit,
shielding it from contamination; hence, the name shielded metal arc welding. SMAWs
advantages are: 1) high-quality welds 2) made rapidly 3) at low cost. Additional
information about shielded metal arc welding will be presented later in this course.
Figure 3-4 Example of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

1.2.1.2 Gas Shielded Arc Welding
The primary difference between shielded metal arc welding and gas shielded arc
welding is the type of shielding used. In gas-shielded arc welding, both the arc and the
molten puddle are covered by a shield of inert gas. The shield of inert gas prevents
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atmospheric contamination, thereby producing a better weld. Gas shielded arc welding
is extremely useful because it can be used to weld all types of ferrous and nonferrous
metals of all thicknesses.
1.2.1.2.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
GTAW or TIG (Figure 3-5) is one gas shielded arc welding process. Features of TIG
include:
Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode during the welding process
Uses a number of shielding gases including helium (He) and argon (Ar)
Is easily applied to thin materials
Produces very high-quality, superior welds
Allows welds to be made with or without filler metal
Provides precise control of welding variables (i.e., heat)
Yields low distortion welding
Leaves no slag or splatter
Figure 3-5 Example of tungsten metal arc welding (GTAW) (TIG).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1.2.1.2.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

GMAW or MIG (Figure 3-6) is a second gas shielded arc welding process. Features of
MIG include:
Uses a consumable wire electrode during the welding process that is fed from a
spool
Provides a uniform weld bead
Produces a slag-free weld bead
Uses a shielding gas, usually argon, argon with 1 to 5% oxygen, argon with 3 to
25% CO2, or a combination argon/helium gas
Is considered a semi-automatic welding process
Allows welding in all positions
Requires less operator skill than TIG welding
Allows long welds to be made without starts or stops
Needs little cleanup
Figure 3-6 Example of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) (MIG).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1.2.1.2.3 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)

FCAW (Figure 3-7) is a third gas shielded arc welding process. Features of FCAW
include:
Can be a semi-automatic or automatic process
Uses a continuously fed consumable tubular electrode containing a flux
Is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability
Figure 3-7 Example of flux core arc welding (FCAW).
One type of FCAW requires no shielding gas

o The flux core in the tubular consumable electrode core contains more than
just flux; it also contains various ingredients that when exposed to the high
temperatures of welding generate a shielding gas for protecting the arc.
o This type of FCAW is attractive because it is portable and generally has good
penetration into the base metal. In addition, windy conditions are not as much
of a factor as much for the process requiring shielding gas.
o There are some disadvantages. This process can produce excessive, noxious
smoke (making it difficult to see the weld pool); under some conditions, it can
produce welds with inferior mechanical properties; the slag is often difficult
and time-consuming to remove, and operator skill can be a major factor.
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3-12
Another type of FCAW uses a shielding gas that must be supplied by an external
supply.
o This is known informally as "dual shield" welding. This type of FCAW was
developed primarily for welding structural steels. In fact, since it uses both a
flux-cored electrode and an external shielding gas, one might say that it is a
combination of gas metal (GMAW) and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). This
particular style of FCAW is preferable for welding thicker and out-of-position
metals. The slag created by the flux is also easy to remove.
o The main advantages of this process is that in a closed shop environment, it
generally produces welds of better and more consistent mechanical
properties, with fewer weld defects, than either the SMAW or GMAW
processes. In practice, it also allows a higher production rate, since the
operator does not need to stop periodically to apply a new electrode, as is the
case in SMAW.
o Some disadvantages: like GMAW, it cannot be used in a windy environment,
as the loss of the shielding gas from air flow will produce visible porosity
(small craters) on the surface of the weld.
1.2.1.3 Resistance Spot Welding

Spot welding (Figure 3-8) is a process in which contacting metal surfaces are joined by
heat resistance to electric current flow. Work-pieces are held together under pressure
by two shaped copper alloy electrodes. They simultaneously clamp and concentrate a
welding current into a small "spot." Forcing a large current through the spot melts the
metal (typically 0.5-3.0 mm thickness range) to form the weld without a filler metal.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 3-8 Example of resistance spot welding (RSW) equipment.

Which one is the right one for your project? There are no fixed rules. In general, the
controlling factors are these:
Types of metal you are joining
Nature of the products you are fabricating
Techniques you use to fabricate them
Cost involved
Oxyfuel Gas welding (OFW) is widely used for maintenance and repair work in the field
because of its flexibility and mobility. On the other hand, if you are tasked with repairing
a critical piece of equipment made from aluminum or stainless steel, you should
probably choose one of the gas shielded metal arc welding processes.
No matter which process you use, there is some basic information you need to know
since it applies to all the processes. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to this
type of information. Study this information carefully; knowing it will allow you to follow
welding instructions, read welding symbols, and weld various types of joints using the
proper welding techniques.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1.
(True or False) Welding is similar to soldering and brazing, in that you form a
bond between materials by melting the workpieces.
A.
B.
True
False
2.0.0 WELDING TERMINOLOGY

To become a skilled welder, the first thing you need to learn is the technical vocabulary
of welding. The next sections will present some of the basic welding terms. Once you
understand the language of welding, you will be prepared to interpret and communicate
welding information accurately.
2.1.0 Filler Metals

When you weld two pieces of metal together, often you have to leave a space between
the joint. The material you add to fill this space is known as the filler metal or filler
material. There are two commonly used types of filler metals in welding: welding rods
and welding electrodes.
Figure 3-9 Typical use of welding rod (filler rod).

Welding rod (Figure 3-9), refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric
current during the welding process. The only purpose of a welding rod is to supply filler
metal to the joint. This type of filler metal is often used for gas welding.
Electrode refers to the component in electric arc welding that conducts the current from
the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into two
groups: consumable and non-consumable.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Consumable electrodes not only provide a

path for the current, they also supply the
filler metal to the joint.
The electrode used in shielded metal arc
welding is an example (Figure 3-10).
Figure 3-10 Example of consumable

electrode.
Non-consumable electrodes are used only

as a conductor for the electrical current.
The electrode in gas tungsten arc welding
is an example (Figure 3-11).
The filler metal for gas tungsten arc
welding is a hand-fed consumable welding
rod.
Figure 3-11 Example of nonconsumable electrode.

You will find additional information about filler rods and electrodes in other chapters of
this course, which cover specific welding processes.
2.2.0 Fluxes
Flux is a chemical cleaning agent that facilitates soldering, brazing, and welding by
removing oxidation from the surface of metals to be joined. In high-temperature metal
joining processes, the primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and
filler materials.
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Before performing any of the welding processes, you must ensure the base metal is
clean. No matter how much the base metal is physically cleaned, it is not chemically
clean; it still contains impurities called oxides, the result of oxygen combining with the
metal and other contaminants within the base metal. Unless you remove these oxides
with a proper flux, your weld may be faulty.
Flux is the material used to dissolve oxides and release trapped gases and impurities
from the base metal. Thus, the reason flux is thought of as a cleaning agent is that it
allows the filler metal and the base metal to be fused.
Different types of metals require different types of fluxes; therefore, you need to select a
flux formulated for a specific base metal. Beyond that, you need to select a flux based
on the expected temperature if you are soldering, brazing, or welding.
When you are brazing, for example, you should select a flux that becomes liquid at the
correct brazing temperature, so when it melts, you know it is time to add the filler metal.
The ideal flux has the right fluidity at the welding temperature and thus blankets the
molten metal from oxidation.
Table 3-1 Typical Flux Selection Chart (Example)
Flux
Name
Base Metal
Recommended
Filler Metal
Form
Applications /
Description
ActiveTemp
Specification
Flux17
Stainless Steels, High

Chrome Alloy And
Carbides
Nickel Silver, Brass

And Bronze, Low
Silver Alloys
Powder
Carbide Tools,
Restaurant
Appliance Mining
Tools
1400-2200 F
AWS Type 3D
Flux11
Cast And Malleable

Iron
Low Fuming Bronze
Paste
Maintenance,
Marine Engines
1500-2000 F
Mil-F-16136B
Flux800
Cast Iron
Cast Iron
Powder
All Cast To Cast Iron

Joining
950-1300 F
N/A
Fluxes are available in many different forms. Fluxes for oxyfuel gas applications, such
as brazing and soldering, can be a paste, liquid, or powder. Paste and liquid fluxes can
be applied to the filler rod and to the base metal with a brush. Powders can be sprinkled
on the base metal, or the filler rod can be heated and dipped into the powder.
For shielded metal arc welding, the flux is a coating on the exterior of the electrode. In
this case, as the electrode applies the filler metal, the flux combines with impurities in
the base metal, floating them away in the form of a heavy slag, which shields the weld
from the atmosphere.
Because of the wide variety of metal properties and different melting temperatures, no
single flux is satisfactory for universal use; however, there are many good generalpurpose fluxes for use with common metals. In general, a good flux has the following
characteristics:
It is fluid and active at the melting point of the filler metal.
It remains stable and does not change to a vapor rapidly within the temperature
range of the welding procedure.
It dissolves all oxides and removes them from the joint surfaces.
It adheres to the metal surfaces while they are being heated and does not ball up
or blow away.
It does not cause a glare that makes it difficult to see the progress of welding or
brazing.
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It is easy to remove after the joint is welded.
It is available in an easily applied form.

CAUTION
Nearly all fluxes give off fumes that may be toxic. Use ONLY in well-ventilated
spaces, and remember: ALL welding operations require adequate ventilation
whether a flux is used or not.
2.3.0 Weld Joints

The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic
types of weld joints are butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge.
A butt joint is used to join two members

aligned in the same plane (Figure 3-12).
This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet
metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type
may be either square or grooved. Some of
the variations of this joint are presented
later in this chapter.
Figure 3-12 Example of a butt joint.
Corner joints (Figure 3-13 View A) and
tee joints (Figure 3-13 View B) are used
to join two members located at right
angles.
In cross section, the corner joint forms an
L-shape, and the tee joint has the shape
of the letter T. Various joint designs of
both types have uses in many types of
metal structures.
Figure 3-13 Examples of a corner joint
and a tee joint.
Commonly used with torch brazing and
spot welding applications, a lap joint, as
the name implies, is made by lapping one
piece of metal over another (Figure 3-14).
Figure 3-14 Example of a lap joint.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
This is one of the strongest types of joints;

however, for maximum joint efficiency, you
should overlap the metals a minimum of
three times the thickness of the thinnest
member you are joining.
3-18
An edge joint is used to join the edges of

two or more members lying in the same
plane. In most cases, one of the members
is flanged, as shown in Figure 3-15.
This type has some applications in plate
work, but is more useful in sheet metal
work. An edge joint should only be used
for joining metals 1/4 inch thick or less
that are not subjected to heavy loads.
Figure 3-15 Example of an edge joint.
While there are five basic types of joints, there are many possible variations and
combinations of the five, some of which will be presented later in this chapter.
2.4.0 Parts of Joints

There are many joint variations, but the parts of a joint are described by standard terms.
Figure 3-16 Examples of the root of a joint.

The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where the metals are closest to each other.
As shown in Figure 3-16, the root may be a point, a line, or an area when viewed in
cross section.
The groove of a joint is an opening or space provided between the edges of the metal
parts to be welded. The groove face is that surface of a metal part included in the
groove; see Figure 3-17 View A.
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Figure 3-17 Examples of groove face, root face, and root edge of joints.
A given joint may have a root face or a root edge.
The root face (refer again to Figure 3-17 View A), is that portion of the prepared edge of
a part to be joined by a groove weld that has not been grooved; the root face has
relatively small dimensions.
Essentially, a root edge is a root face of zero width; see Figure 3-17 View B.
Now look at Figures 3-17 Views C and D. In some joints, the groove face and the root
face are the same metal surfaces.
The specified requirements for a particular joint are expressed in such terms as bevel
angle, groove angle, groove radius, and root opening.
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The bevel angle is the angle formed

between the prepared edge of a member
and a plane perpendicular to the surface of
the member (Figure 3-18).
The groove angle is the total angle of the
groove between the parts to be joined.
For example, if the edge of each of two
plates were beveled to an angle of 30
degrees, the groove angle would be 60
degrees. This is often referred to as the
included angle between the parts to be
joined by a groove weld.
Figure 3-18 Examples of bevel angle
and groove angle.
The groove radius is the radius used to

form the shape of a J- or U-groove weld
joint. It is used only for special groove joint
designs (Figure 3-19).
The root opening refers to the separation
between the parts to be joined at the root
of the joint, sometimes called the root gap.
Figure 3-19 Examples of groove

radius and root opening.
To determine the bevel angle, groove angle, and root opening for a joint, you must
consider these factors:
Thickness of the weld material
Type of joint to be made
Welding process to be used
As a rule, gas welding requires a larger groove angle than manual metal-arc welding.
The root opening is usually governed by the diameter of the filler material. This, in turn,
depends on the thickness of the base metal and the welding position. Having an
adequate root opening is essential for root penetration.
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Figure 3-20 illustrates the terms root penetration and joint penetration of welds.
Figure 3-20 Examples of root penetration and joint penetration of welds.

Root penetration refers to the depth that a weld extends into the root of the joint. Root
penetration is measured on the centerline of the root cross section.
Joint penetration refers to the minimum depth that a groove (or a flange) weld extends
from its face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement.
Observe Views A, C, and E. Often, the terms root penetration and joint penetration both
refer to the same dimension. Notice View B, however; it shows the difference between
root penetration and joint penetration. View D shows joint penetration only.
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Weld reinforcement is a term used to

describe weld metal in excess of the metal
necessary to fill a joint (Figure 3-21).
Figure 3-21 Example of face

reinforcement and root reinforcement.
2.5.0 Types of Welds

There are many types of welds. Some of the common types you will work with are:
bead, groove, fillet, surfacing, tack, plug, slot, and resistance.
The first type of weld you will learn to

produce is called a weld bead, also
referred to simply as a bead (Figure 3-22).
A weld bead is merely a weld deposit
produced by a single pass with one of the
welding processes.
It may be narrow or wide, depending on
the amount of transverse oscillation (sideto-side movement) you use.
If you use a great deal of oscillation, the
bead is wide; if you use little or no
oscillation, the bead is narrow.
Figure 3-22 Example of weld bead.
A narrow weld bead made without much weaving motion is often referred to as a
stringer bead; a weld bead made with side-to-side oscillation is called a weave bead.
Groove welds (Figure 3-23) are made in the groove between two members of a workpiece and are adaptable to a variety of butt joints of varying thicknesses.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 3-23 Examples of standard groove welds on varying thicknesses.
If two or more beads are deposited in the

groove, the weld is made with multiplepass layers, as shown in Figure 3-24.
As a rule, a multiple-pass layer is made
with stringer beads (narrow) in manual
operations.
As a Steelworker, if you are assigned
welding tasks, you will frequently use
groove welds in both single and multiple
passes.
Figure 3-24 Example of multiple pass

layers.
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3-24
Buildup sequence is another term you

need to be familiar with when making a
multiple-pass weld.
Buildup sequence refers to the order in
which you deposit the beads in the joint of
a multiple-pass weld (Figure 3-25).
Interpass temperature is another term you
need to know. Often, welding instructions
will specify an interpass temperature.
This term refers to the temperature you
must allow the previous pass to lower to
before applying the next pass.
Figure 3-25 Example of weld layer
sequence.
When the effect of heat on metal is addressed later in this chapter, you will be able to
appreciate the significance of buildup sequence and the importance of controlling the
interpass temperature.
A fillet weld is used to join two surfaces at approximately right angles to each other in a
lap, tee, or corner joint. The shape of a fillet welds cross-sectional view is triangular
(Figure 3-26).
Figure 3-26 Examples of fillet welds.
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Surfacing is a welding process used to

apply a hard, wear-resistant layer of metal
to surfaces or edges of parts as either a
preventative to wear, or a remedy for
already worn parts (Figure 3-27).
It is one of the most economical methods
of conserving and extending the life of
machines, tools, and construction
equipment.
Sometimes known as hardfacing or
wearfacing, a surfacing weld is composed
of one or more stringer or weaves beads.
Figure 3-27 Example of surfacing

(hardfacing/wearfacing) welds.
A tack weld is a temporary weld made to

hold parts of an assembly in proper
alignment until the final welds are made
(Figure 3-28).
Although the sizes of tack welds are not
specified, they are normally between 1/2 to
3/4 inch in length, but never more than 1
inch in length.
In determining the size and number of tack
welds you need for a specific project, you
need to consider the thicknesses of the
metals being joined and the complexity of
the object being assembled.
Figure 3-28 Example of tack welds.
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Plug welds and slot welds are

welds made through holes or
slots in one member of a lap
joint (Figure 3-29).
These welds are used to join
the member with holes to the
surface of another member
exposed through the hole.
The hole may or may not be
completely filled with weld
metal.
These types of welds are often
used to:
join face-hardened plates
from the backer soft side
install liner metals inside
tanks
fill up holes in a plate
Figure 3-29 Examples of plug welds and slot
welds.
Resistance welding is a metal

fabricating process in which the
fusing temperature is generated
at the joint by the resistance to
the flow of an electrical current
(Figure 3-30).
This is accomplished by
clamping two or more sheets of
metal between copper
electrodes and then passing an
electrical current through them.
When the metals are heated to
a melting temperature, forging
pressure is applied either
manually or automatically to
weld the pieces together.
Figure 3-30 Example of the resistance weld

process.
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Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) and Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) are two of the
most common types of resistance welding processes (Figure 3-31).
Resistance spot welding is probably the most common. The material to be joined is
placed between two electrodes and pressure is applied, with a charge of electricity sent
from one electrode through the material to the other electrode.
Spot welding is applicable to light gauge material; it is especially useful in fabricating
sheet metal parts.
Figure 3-31 Examples of resistance spot welds and seam welds.

Resistance seam welding is similar to spot
welding except the spot welds overlap to
make a continuous weld seam (Figure 331).
Seabees do not normally use seam
welding. This type of welding is most often
used in the commercial area of industrial
manufacturing.
In this process, the metal pieces pass
between two roller-style electrodes (Figure
3-32).
As the electrodes (usually a copper alloy
wheel) revolve, the current is automatically
turned on and off at the speed the parts
are set to move.
Figure 3-32 Example of the
commercial resistance seam welding
(RSEW) process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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2.6.0 Parts of Welds

For you to produce welds that meet the job requirements, you need to be familiar with
the terms used to describe a weld. Some terms may apply to multiple joint assemblies;
some will be unique. Refer to both Figure 3-33 and Figure 3-34 for the weld terms.
Figure 3-33 Terminology of a groove weld.

Face the exposed surface of a weld on the side from which the weld was made.
Toe the junction between the face of the weld and the base metal.
Root the points at which the back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
Leg the portion of the weld from the toe to the root when looking at a triangular cross
section of a fillet weld.
Throat the distance from the root to a point on the face of the weld along a line
perpendicular to the face of the weld. Theoretically, the face forms a straight line
between the toes.
NOTE
The terms leg and throat apply only to fillet welds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 3-34 Terminology of a fillet weld.

In determining the size of a groove weld (Figure 3-33), you must consider such factors
as the depth of the groove, root opening, and groove angle.
The size of a fillet weld (Figure 3-34) refers to the length of the legs of the weld. Unless
specified otherwise, assume the legs are equal in size.
There are multiple styles and types of welding gauges available to measure and
prepare material for welding, as well as gauges to check the parts of the completed
weld as described in welding terminology. Figure 3-35 shows a few.
Figure 3-35 Examples of various welding gauges.
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A welding micrometer is a
gauge used for determining the
size of a weld.
Figure 3-36 shows how the
welding micrometer is used to
determine the various
dimensions of a weld.
Figure 3-36 Examples of using a welding

micrometer.
You need to be familiar with still
more terms that are used to
describe areas or zones of
welds. As previously covered,
fusion is the melting together of
base and/or filler metal. Refer to
Figure 3-37.
The fusion zone is the region of
the base metal that is actually
melted.
The depth of fusion is the
distance that fusion extends into
the base metal or previous
welding pass.
The heat-affected zone is
another zone of interest to the
welder.
This zone is that portion of the
base metal that has not been
melted, but where the structural
or mechanical properties of the
metal have been altered by the
welding heat.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 3-37 Examples of zone

terminology in a weld.
3-31
Welding heat affects the mechanical properties of the base metal; therefore, it is very
important for you to learn techniques to control this heat. For example, the intermittent
weld is one technique often used to minimize heat input.
This technique and others will be presented as you progress through this chapter.
However, first consider some of the factors that affect the welded joint design.

2.
To become a skilled welder, the first thing you need to learn is _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
which size of welding rod to use

how to set up a cutting rig
which gas to use with TIG or MIG welding
the technical vocabulary of welding
3.0.0 WELDED JOINT DESIGN

The welded joint design is the term that includes all of the details of a joint, including the
geometry and the required dimensions. The type of joint design best suited for a
particular job will depend on many factors.
Welded joints are designed primarily to meet strength and safety requirements, but you
must also consider such questions as the following.
Will the load be in tension or compression?
Will bending, fatigue, or impact stresses be applied?
How will a load be applied--steady, sudden, variable?
From what direction will the load be applied relative to the weld joint?
What is the cost of preparing the joint?
Another factor you must consider is joint efficiency; in welding, this is the ratio of the
strength of a joint to the strength of the base metal expressed in percent. An efficient
joint is one that is just as strong as the base metal, or 100 percent.
Normally, a designer or engineer determines the joint design and includes it in the
project plans and specifications. Your understanding of how to interpret the joint design
information is what will enable you to produce proper welds.
Earlier, this chapter presented the five basic types of welded jointsbutt, corner, tee,
lap, and edge, and stated that every joint you weld would be some variation of them.
Now consider some of the variations of these welded joint designs and note the
characteristics, efficiencies, and basis for a particular design.
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3.1.0 Butt Joints

Square butt joint Figure 3-38
Used primarily for metals 3/16 inch

or less in thickness.
Reasonably strong, but not

recommended when metals are
subject to fatigue or impact loads.
Preparation is simple, requiring only

matching the edges of the plates
together.
Must be fitted together correctly for

the entire length of the joint.
Must allow enough root opening for

the joint.
Figure 3-38 Example of a square butt

joint.
When you weld metals thicker than 3/16 inch, often it is necessary to use a grooved butt
joint. The purpose of grooving is to give the joint the required strength. When you use a
grooved joint, the groove angle must be adequate to allow the electrode into the joint;
otherwise, the weld will lack penetration and may crack.
On the other hand, you also need to avoid excess beveling, as this wastes both weld
filler metal and time. Depending on the thickness of the base metal, the joint design will
call for either a single-groove (grooved on one side only) or double-groove (grooved on
both sides) weld.
As a welder, you primarily use the single-V and double-V grooved joints.
Single-V butt joint Figure 3-39
For use on plates to inch in

thickness.
Each member beveled so included

angle is approximately 60 degrees
for plate and 75 degrees for pipe.
Preparation requires a special

beveling machine (or cutting torch).
Requires more filler material than

square joint but is stronger.
Not recommended when subjected

to bending at the root of the weld.
Figure 3-39 Example of a single-V
butt joint.
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Double-V butt joint Figure 3-40
Excellent joint for all load

conditions.
Primary use is for metals thicker

than 3/4 inch but usable on thinner
plate where strength is critical.
Preparation time is greater than for

single-V joint but less filler metal is
used because of narrower included
angle.
Weld deposit sides must be

alternated to reduce heat and
minimize warpage.
Figure 3-40 Example of a double-V

butt joint.
To produce good quality welds using the groove joint you must:
Ensure the fit-up is consistent for the entire length of the joint.
Use the correct groove angle.
Use the correct root opening.
Use the correct root face for the joint.
When you follow these principles, you will produce better welds every time.
Other standard but less often used grooved butt joint designs include the bevel groove,
J-groove, and U-groove, as shown in Figure 3-41.
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Figure 3-41 Examples of additional grooved butt joint designs.
3.2.0 Corner Joints
Figure 3-42 Examples of corner joints.

The flush corner joint (Figure 3-42 View A) is designed primarily for welding 12-gauge or
thinner sheet metal. It is restricted to lighter materials, because deep penetration is
sometimes difficult and the design can support only moderate loads.
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3-35
The half-open corner joint (Figure 3-42 View B) is used for welding materials heavier
than 12-gauge. Penetration is better than in the flush corner joint, but its use is
recommended only for moderate loads.
The full-open corner joint (Figure 3-42 View C) produces a strong joint, especially when
welded on both sides. It is useful for welding plates of all thicknesses.
3.3.0 Tee Joints
Figure 3-43 Examples of tee joints.

The square tee joint (Figure 3-43 View A) requires a fillet weld that can be made on one
or both sides. It can be used for light or marginally thick materials. For maximum
strength, place considerable weld metal on each side of the vertical plate.
The single-bevel tee joint (Figure 3-43 View B) can withstand more severe loadings
than the square tee joint because of better stress distribution. It is generally used on
plates inch thick or less, and where welding can be done from only one side.
The double-bevel tee joint (Figure 3-43 View C) is for use where heavy loads are
applied and the welding can be done on both sides of the vertical plate.
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3.4.0 Lap Joints

The single-fillet lap joint (Figure
3-44 View A) is easy to weld
and the filler metal is simply
deposited along the seam, but
the strength of the weld
depends on the size of the fillet.
It can be used for metal up to
inch thick that will not be subject
to heavy loads
The double-fillet lap joint (Figure
3-44 View B) should be used
when the joint will be subjected
to heavy loads.
When welded properly, the
strength of this joint is very
close to the strength of the base
metal.
Figure 3-44 Examples of lap joints.
3.5.0 Edge Joints
The flanged edge joint (Figure 3-45 View

A) is suitable for plate inch thick or less
and can sustain only light loads.
Depending on the thickness of the workpieces, you can prepare for this joint as
shown in either Figure 3-45 View B or C.
Figure 3-45 Examples of edge joints.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-37

3.
Welded joints are designed primarily to meet _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
the cost of preparing the joint

tension or compression requirements
strength and safety requirements
bending, fatigue, or impact stresses
4.0.0 WELDING POSITIONS

You will do all your welding in one of four positions: (1) flat, (2) horizontal, (3) vertical, or
(4) overhead. A fully qualified welder can make either fillet or groove welds in all of
these positions. Figure 3-46 shows the various American Welding Society (AWS)
positions used in plate welding.
Figure 3-46 American Welding Societys welding positions for plate.

The AWS uses a number/letter designation to identify the positions. For instance, the
number designation indicates the position, or axis, of the weld, while the letter F
indicates a fillet weld and the letter G indicates a groove weld. Thus, the 1G position
refers to a groove weld in the flat position.
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3-38
These number/letter designations refer to test positions, the positions a welder

demonstrates a proficiency in to become certified during a welding qualification test.
As a Steelworker, whether for your own professional development or for a project you
are assigned to, there is a good possibility you will need to certify or perform a welding
qualification test. Therefore, it is important that you have a good understanding and can
apply the techniques for welding in each of the test positions.
It is important to note, however, that you do not have to qualify in all the positions
initially. Qualifying in the various positions with different welding processes is a matter of
steps. Figure 3-47 shows an example of a certification and a guide to its interpretation.
Figure 3-47 AWS guide for interpreting certified welder card abbreviations.
Gravity will affect the flow of molten filler metal in any of the positions, so use the flat
position, if possible.
In the flat position, gravity will draw the molten metal downward into the joint,
making the welding faster and easier.
Horizontal welding is a little more difficult; the molten metal will tend to sag or
flow downhill onto the lower plate.
Vertical welding is done in a vertical line, usually from bottom to top; however, on
thin material, downhill or downhand welding may be easier.
The overhead position is the most difficult position; the weld metal flows
downward. This position requires considerable practice to produce good quality
welds.
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3-39
Although the terms flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead sufficiently describe the
positions for plate welding, they do not adequately describe pipe welding positions.
Figure 3-48 shows the four basic test positions used in pipe welding. Notice that the
position refers to the position of the pipe, not the position of welding.
Figure 3-48 American Welding Societys welding positions for pipe.

Test position 1G the pipe is in the horizontal position. In this position, the pipe is
rolled so that the welding is actually done in the flat position with the pipe rotating under
the arc. This position is the most advantageous of all the pipe welding positions.
Test position 2G the pipe is in the vertical position. The welding is then done in the
fixed horizontal position.
Test position 5G the pipe is in the horizontal position. However, unlike position 1G, in
the 5G position, the pipe is not turned or rolled during the welding operation; thus the
welding is more difficult.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Test position 6G the pipe is

at a 45-degree angle with the
horizontal and the pipe is not
rolled (Figure 3-49).
Since the pipe is not rolled,
welding has to be done in all the
positions flat, vertical,
horizontal, and overhead.
If you can weld pipe in this
position, you can handle all the
other welding positions.
Figure 3-49 Typical 6G certification test with

GTAW (TIG).
NOTE
There is no 3G or 4G test position in pipe welding, and since most pipe welds are
groove welds, they are identified by the letter G.

4.
(True or False) A fully qualified welder can make fillet or groove welds in four
different positions.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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5.0.0 EXPANSION and CONTRACTION

One of the physical properties of a metal is
its characteristic expansion when heated,
and its contraction back to room
temperature size when allowed to cool.
While some metals expand more readily
than others, typically upon cooling, a metal
contracts and tries to resume its original
shape.
Figure 3-50 shows a bar that is not
restricted in any way. When the bar is
heated, it is free to expand in all directions.
If the bar is allowed to cool without
restraint, it contracts to its original
dimensions.
Figure 3-50 Example of unrestrained
expansion/contraction with
heating/cooling.
Figure 3-51 shows the results of heating

and cooling metal under restraint.
When the bar is clamped in a vise and
heated, expansion is limited to the
unrestricted sides of the bar, in this
instance vertically.
As the bar begins to cool, it still contracts
uniformly in all directions.
As a result, the bar is now deformed; it has
become narrower and thicker.
Figure 3-51 Example of restrained

expansion/contraction with
heating/cooling.
Expansion and contraction forces act on the weld metal and base metal of a welded
joint in the same way, although metal thicknesses will either exaggerate or diminish the
effect.
However, when two pieces of metal are welded together, expansion and contraction are
unlikely to be uniform throughout due to the difference in temperature from the actual
weld joint out to the edges of the joint.
This difference in temperature leads to internal stresses, distortion, and warpage.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-42
Figure 3-52 shows some of the most common difficulties you are likely to encounter if
no controls are put in place during the weld preparation.
Figure 3-52 Examples of distortion caused by welding.

Refer to Figure 3-52 View A. When you weld a single-V butt joint, the highest
temperature is at the surface of the molten puddle; this is where expansion and
contraction are greatest. The temperature decreases as you move toward the root of
the weld and travel away from the weld. Since the surface of the weld joint was the
highest temperature, it contracts the most when the weld begins to cool, thus causing
warpage or distortion.
Refer to Figure 3-52 View B. For a tee joint, the same principle applies with similar
results but in a different axis orientation.
Refer to Figure 3-52 View C. Welding a bead on one side of a plate can warp it into a
curve.
Refer to Figure 3-52 View D. Welding two plates together without proper tack welds can
result in closed spacing and a loss of overall dimension.
When you expose a work-piece to heat buildup during welding, it will expand in the
direction of least resistance. Conversely, when it cools, it will contract by the same
amount. Therefore, if you want to prevent or reduce the distortion of the weldment, you
have to use some method to overcome the effects of heating and cooling.
5.1.0 Controlling Distortion

You can control the metals tendency to distort by expansion and contraction during
welding by following some simple procedures.
5.1.1 Preparation and Fit-up
To make good quality welds, proper edge preparation and fit-up are essential.
Make certain the edges are properly beveled and spacing is adequate.
Use tack welds, especially on long joint.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-43
o Space at least 12 inches apart.

o Run approximately twice as long as the thickness of the weld.
5.1.2 Heat Input
The faster a weld is made, the less heat is absorbed by the base metal. As you gain
welding experience, it will become easier for you to minimize the heat by simply
speeding up the welding process.
Often, regardless of your experience, you will need to use a welding technique designed
to control heat input. An intermittent weld (sometimes called a skip weld) is one such
technique you can use in lieu of one continuous weld.
To make an intermittent weld:
Make a short weld at the beginning of the joint.
Skip to the center and weld a few inches.
Weld at the other end of the joint.
Return to the end of the first weld and repeat the cycle until the weld is finished.
Figure 3-53 shows examples of intermittent weld techniques.
Figure 3-53 Examples of intermittent weld techniques.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-44
Another technique to control the heat input

is the back-step method (Figure 3-54).
When you use this technique, deposit
short weld beads from right to left along
the seam.
Then move ahead and finish where you
left off on the previous strip.
Figure 3-54 Example of back-step

welding techniques.
5.1.3 Preheat
As previously covered, expansion and contraction rates are not uniform in a structure
during welding because of the differences in temperature throughout the metal.
To control the differences in temperature, and thus the forces of expansion and
contraction, you can preheat the entire structure before welding, and then following the
welding, postheat to allow the structure to cool evenly and slowly. More about
preheating and postheating will be presented later.
5.1.4 Number of Weld Passes
Keep distortion to a minimum by using as

few weld passes as possible.
Limit the number of weld passes to the
number necessary to meet the
requirements of the job (Figure 3-55).
Figure 3-55 Example of limiting the

number of weld passes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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5.1.5 Jigs and Fixtures

Holding the metal in a fixed position will
prevent excessive movement from its
tendency to expand and contract, so using
jigs and fixtures can help prevent
distortion.
A jig or fixture is simply a device used to
hold the metal rigidly in position during the
welding operation (Figure 3-56).
Jigs can be temporarily developed for a
unique part, or they can be an adjustable
worktable that allows for various
preparation positions.
Figure 3-56 Example of a welding jig.
5.1.6 Allow for Distortion

Another alternative to adjust for
distortion caused by expansion
and contraction requires a
certain level of experience and
practice, but may be the
simplest; just allow for it during
fit-up.
To reduce distortion, angle the
parts to be welded slightly in the
opposite direction in which the
contraction will take place.
When the metal cools,
contraction forces pull the
pieces back into position.
Figure 3-57 shows how
distortion can be overcome in
both the butt and tee joints.
Figure 3-57 Examples of allowing for distortion
for a butt and tee joint.
To be a good welder, you have to know more than how to do preparation, and be able
to do more than lay a good bead. Many other factors must be considered, proper
procedures being one of them. Later, additional techniques will be presented that you
can apply to specific welding situations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-46

5.
Typically, upon cooling, a metal tries to _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
maintain its heated shape

resume its original shape
deform from gravity
compress smaller than it original shape
6.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURES

Many factors are involved in the preparation of any welded joint. A welding procedure
addresses those factors by providing the detailed methods and practices to prepare and
perform a particular weldment. It identifies all the welding variables pertinent to a
particular job or project.
Generally, these variables include:
Welding process
Welding position
Postheating
Type of base metal
Type of shielding
Welding machine setting
Joint design
Preheating
Testing requirements
6.1.0 American Welding Society

Welding procedures are used to produce welds that will meet the requirements of
commonly used codes. The American Welding Society (AWS) produces the Structural
Welding Code that is used for the design and construction of steel structures. It also
publishes a number of other books specific to welding techniques for other metals.
As published, the AWSs mission statement is: The mission of the American Welding
Society is to advance the science, technology and application of welding and allied
joining and cutting processes, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying.
6.2.0 American Society of Mechanical Engineers

Another code that is used for the construction of steam boilers and pressure vessels is
published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). These codes also
provide a standardized guide of proven welding practices and procedures.
As published, the ASMEs mission statement is: To serve our diverse global
communities by advancing, disseminating and applying engineering knowledge for
improving the quality of life; and communicating the excitement of engineering.
While you are not directly responsible for developing welding procedures, you could be
assigned to a welding job that requires you to follow them.
For example, a Naval Construction Force unit is assigned to a project with the usual
accompanying set of drawings and specifications, and welding is required. Those
specifications will normally require the welding to be accomplished according to a
specific code requirement, commonly one of AWSs codes.
If your unit is tasked to fabricate a welded steel structure, for instance, the specifications
may require that all welding be accomplished according to AWS D1.1 (Structural
Welding Code). The unit is then responsible for ensuring that the welders assigned to
the job are qualified to produce the welds according to this welding procedure
specification.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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For an NMCB, the certified welding inspector at the local Naval Construction Training
Center normally prepares the welding procedure specification. Using the Structural
Welding Code and the project drawings and specifications, the welding inspector
develops a welding procedure specification that meets the requirements of the job. This
document assures that each of the variables can be repeated by qualified welders.
Once a welding procedure specification has been developed and qualified, the projects
welders are required to perform a Welding Performance Qualification test to meet the
procedures. The weld specimens are then tested according to the requirements of the
Welding Procedure Specification using either destructive or nondestructive tests. One
destructive test is the guided-bend test; a nondestructive test would be an X-ray test.
NOTE
When you are assigned to do a welding job, make a thorough examination of the
drawings and specifications. Look carefully at the notes on the drawings and Section 5
(metals) of the specifications. If specific codes are cited, inform the project supervisor so
you can receive the training needed to perform the required welds.
As shown in Figures 3-58 and 3-59, a welding procedure specification is simply a
document that provides details of the required variables for a specific welding
application. ASME provides a suggested format with form QW-482.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 3-58 Example of welding procedure specification (QW-482 Front).

NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-49
Figure 3-59 Example of welding procedure specification (QW-482 Back).

NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-50
Test Your Knowledge (Select the Correct Response)

6.
What organization produces the Structural Welding Code that is used for the
design and construction of steel structures?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Welding Society (AWS)
7.0.0 DRAWINGS
An engineer uses drawings or sketches to convey ideas to the skilled craftsman working
in the shop. As a welder, you must be able to work from a drawing in order to fabricate
metal parts exactly as the engineer designs them.
7.1.0 Reading Drawings

To read the drawings or sketches, you must know how engineers use lines, dimensions,
notes, and views to communicate their ideas. This section will briefly cover each of
these drawing elements. For more in depth information, refer to publications such as
Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1 or to Engineering Aid Basic.
7.1.1 Lines
Refer to Figure 3-60, which shows many of the different types of lines used in
engineering drawings; each line has a specific meaning you must understand to
interpret a drawing correctly.
Visible line (object line) used to show the edges of objects visible to the viewer.
Look at one of the walls of the room you are in; you can see the outline of the
walls, doors, and windows. These visible outlines or edges would be shown
using visible lines drawn as described in Figure 3-60.
Hidden line used to show the edges of objects concealed from the viewer.
Look at the wall again. Assuming the wall is wood frame, you know there are
studs or framing members inside the wall that you cannot see. These invisible
outlines or edges would be shown using hidden lines drawn as described in
Figure 3-60.
The wall may also contain other items you cannot see, such as water pipes and
electrical conduit, so as you can imagine, the more hidden lines there are, the more
difficult it becomes to decipher what the hidden lines mean. However, there is another
way these studs and other items can be seen.
Cutting or Viewing plane used to reveal the edges of objects concealed from the
viewer after an imaginary removal of layers causing the concealment.
Imagine you cut away the wallboard covering and replace it with a sheet of
clear plastic through which the previously concealed studs, piping, and conduit
are now visible. Now those items can be drawn using visible lines, rather than
hidden lines.
Sectional view the view as seen at the cutting plane.

Section drawing used to reveal an object or view at the point of the cutting plane.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-51
Section drawings are commonly used to show the internal components of a

complicated object.
Section lines used to show different types of materials.
These are drawn on the visible surfaces of a section drawing. Some types of
section lines you are likely to encounter as a welder will indicate a metal type.
Figure 3-60 Example of engineering drawings line characters and uses.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-52
7.1.2 Dimensions
Engineers use lines to describe the shape (form) of an object and use dimensions to
provide a complete size description. Two types of dimensions are used on drawings:
size and location; their purposes are self-explanatory. Refer to Figure 6-61 for
examples.
Figure 3-61 Examples of using location dimension and size dimension in an

orthographic drawing.
For obvious reasons, large objects are not drawn to their true size. Instead, the
engineer or draftsman reduces the size of the object to scale. For example, when
drawing a 40-foot tower, the drawing may be prepared using a scale of 1/2"= 1'-0". In
this case, the height of the tower, on paper, is 20 inches.
The scale used to prepare working drawings is always noted on the drawing. It may be
a fractional scale, such as the 1/2"= 1'-0" noted here, or a graphic scale, such as the
one shown in Figure 3-61. In the Navy, both numerical and graphic scales are usually
shown on construction drawings.
Never measure the dimension of an object directly from the drawing. These
measurements are frequently inaccurate; a change in atmospheric conditions causes
drawing paper to shrink or expand, and copying processes may render them inaccurate
as well. To ensure accuracy, always use the size and location dimensions shown on the
drawing. If a needed dimension is not shown on the drawing, check the graphic scale
for accuracy, since it will always shrink or expand at the same rate as the drawing
paper.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-53
7.1.3 Notes
Drawing notes are used for different purposes and are either specific or general in
nature.
Refer again to Figure 3-61 for an example of how specific notes are used. Two notes
give the inside diameters of the holes, and they are used for size dimensioning. They
are specific in that, by using a leader line, each note is referred to a specific hole or set
of holes.
A general note provides additional information that does not apply to any one particular
part or feature of the drawing. For example, the Figure 3-61 drawing could contain a
general note saying: All holes shall be reamed using a tolerance of 1/64 inch.
General notes often appear in the corners of drawings, so always remain alert for them.
7.1.4 Views
Look at the drawing shown in Figure 3-62. This type of drawing is called a pictorial
drawing. These drawings are frequently used to show, in a three-dimensional view, how
an object should appear after it is manufactured.
Pictorial drawings are used as
working drawings for a simple
item, such as a metal washer,
but for complex objects, such as
shown in Figure 3-62, it
becomes too difficult to provide
a complete description in a
pictorial drawing.
Common practice for complex
objects is to prepare
orthographic drawings to
describe the object fully.
Assume you are holding the
object shown in Figure 3-62 so
you are looking directly down at
the top face of the object. The
view you see is the top view; a
drawing of that view is called an
orthographic drawing.
Figure 3-62 Example of a pictorial drawing of a
steel part.
Obviously, an orthographic drawing of only the top view of the object is insufficient to
describe the entire object; therefore, additional orthographic drawings of one or more of
the other faces of the object are necessary.
The number of orthographic views needed to describe an object fully depends upon the
complexity of the object. For example, a simple metal washer can be fully described
using only one orthographic view, but an extremely complex object may require as
many as six views (top, front, left side, right side, back, and bottom).
Typically though, most objects, such as the steel part shown in Figure 3-62, can be
sufficiently described using three views: top, front, and right side.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-54
Figure 3-63 is a typical

orthographic drawing of the
object in Figure 3-62 showing
top, front, and right-side views.
Notice the placement of the
views; this is a standard
practice you should be aware of
when reading orthographic
drawings.
By this standard practice, the
top view is always placed above
the front view and the right-side
view is placed to the right of the
front view.
When additional views are
needed, the left side is always
drawn to the left of the front
view and the bottom is drawn
below the front view.
Figure 3-63 Example of orthographic views of
pictorial viewed steel part.
Placement of the back view is somewhat flexible, but it is usually drawn to the left of the
left-side view.
When reading and understanding the different orthographic views, sometimes you will
find it helpful to prepare your own pictorial sketch. You can find information on sketching
in Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1.
Drawings are a form of communication that saves many words of explanation. Done
properly, they help you understand all the necessary information you need to fabricate
and assemble an object regardless of the complexity. It is important that you, as a
Steelworker, learn to read drawings and become accustomed to their meanings.
7.1.5 Handling and Care
Exercise special care when handling drawings. When they are in use, keep them on a
rack or in another assigned storage place. Drawings are valuable, and they may be
difficult or impossible to replace if lost or damaged.
7.2.0 Welding Symbol

Drawings contain special symbols to specify the weld location, type of joint, and size
and amount of weld metal to be deposited in the joint. The American Welding Society
(AWS) has standardized them. You will see them whenever you do a welding job from a
set of prints, so you need to be familiar with all the elements of a standard welding
symbol, and the location and meaning of the basic weld symbols.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-55
A standard welding symbol is: reference

line + arrow + tail (Figure 3-64).
The reference line is the foundation. Weld
symbols, dimensions, and other data are
applied to it.
The arrow connects the reference line to
the joint or area to be welded.
The direction of the arrow has no bearing
on the significance of the reference line.
The tail of the welding symbol is used
only when necessary to include a
process, specification, or other reference
information
Figure 3-64 Standard welding symbol.
7.2.1 Type of Weld (Weld Symbols)
Weld symbols refer to the

symbols for a specific type of
weld, such as fillet, groove, butt,
surfacing, plug, or slot.
The weld symbol is only part of
the information required in the
welding symbol.
When used to disseminate
information, the term welding
symbol refers to the total
symbol, which includes all the
weld symbols needed to specify
the weld(s) required
Figure 3-65 Standard weld symbols.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-56
Figure 3-66 shows how a weld symbol is

applied to the reference line.
Notice that the vertical leg of the weld
symbol is shown drawn to the left of the
slanted or curved leg of the symbol.
Regardless of whether the symbol is for a
fillet, bevel, J-groove, or flare-bevel weld,
the vertical leg is always drawn to the left.
Figure 3-66 Example of weld

symbols applied to a reference line.
Figure 3-67 shows the significance of the weld symbols position on the reference line.
View A fillet weld symbol
on lower side of reference
line (termed the arrow side)
Weld on arrow side.
View B fillet weld symbol

on upper side of reference
line (termed the other side)
Weld on other side.
View C fillet weld

symbols on both sides of
reference line
Weld on both sides.
Figure 3-67 Example of specifying weld location.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-57
When only one edge of a joint is to be

beveled, it is necessary to show which
member is to be beveled (Figure 3-68).
When such a joint is specified, the arrow of
the welding symbol points with a definite
break toward the member to be beveled.
Other weld symbols may be added to a
welding symbol as necessary to
communicate all the information needed
for the weld.
However, regardless of the direction of the
arrow, all information applied to the
reference line on a welding symbol is read
from left to right. (See Figure 3-69.)
Figure 3-68 Example of arrowhead
indicating bevel plate.
7.2.2 Dimensioning
Notice in Figure 3-69 that some specified information has designated locations.
Figure 3-69 Example of locations for specific elements of a welding symbol.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-58
The size, length, pitch (center-to-center

spacing), groove angle, and root opening
of a weld all have designated locations.
These locations are determined by the
side of the reference line on which the
weld symbol is placed.
Figure 3-70 shows how dimensions are
applied to weld symbols.
Figure 3-70 Example of dimensions

applied to weld symbols.
Figure 3-71 shows the meaning of various welding dimension symbols.
Figure 3-71 Example of dimensioning welds and their meanings.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-59
Refer to Figure 3-71 View A.
The left side specifies a tee joint with the size of the weld on a fillet weld symbol.
The right side shows the length and pitch of the indicated fillet weld. (Note that
both legs are equal unless specified otherwise.)
Refer to Figure 3-71 View B.
The left side specifies a tee joint with 2-inch intermittent fillet welds that are 5
inches apart, on center.
The right side shows a pictorial view of the meaning of the welding symbol
Refer to Figure 3-71 View C.
The left side specifies a butt weld with a -inch, V groove weld on both sides but
of different angles, a 60 and a 45.
The right side shows the results, but note that the 60-degree groove is on the
other side of the joint and the 45-degree groove is on the arrow side. This is
consistent with the standard locations of weld symbols, but can be confusing to
the beginning welder.
7.2.3 Supplementary
Besides the basic weld symbols, the welding symbol may include supplementary
symbols. Figure 3-72 shows some of the most common. Contour symbols show how the
face is to be formed; finish symbols indicate the method to use to form the contour.
Figure 3-72 Supplementary symbols.
Figure 3-73 Finish symbol.
A finish symbol (when used) shows the method of finish, C represents chipping, M
means machining, and G indicates grinding, not the degree of finish.
Figure 3-73 shows how contour and finish symbols are applied to a welding symbol.
This symbol indicates the weld is to be ground flush. Also, notice that the symbols are
placed on the same side of the reference line as the weld symbol.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-60
Refer again to Figure 3-72. Another supplementary symbol shown is the weld-all-around
symbol. When this symbol is placed on a welding symbol, welds are to continue all
around the joint.
Yet another symbol on Figure 3-72 is the field weld symbol, a black flag that points
toward the tail of the welding symbol. For welds that cannot be made in the shop, for
size, transportation, constructability, or other reasons, this symbol directs the welder to
make the weld in the field, which could be in situ or on site.
7.2.4 Additional Information
If additional information is unnecessary,

the welding symbol will not have a tail.
However, when additional information is
needed to specify a certain welding
process, a type of electrode, or some other
type of reference necessary to direct the
weld process, the tail is added and the
information is placed there (Figure 3-74).
Figure 3-74 Examples of a welding

symbol tail with additional information.
7.2.5 Multiple-Weld
When you are fabricating a metal part,
there are times when more than one type
of weld is needed on the same joint; for
example, a joint may require both a bevel
groove weld and a fillet weld.
Figure 3-75 shows two methods of
illustrating these weld symbols, either on
the same reference line or on multiple
reference lines.
Note that in both welding symbol examples
of the same information, the bevel groove
weld (closest to the arrowhead) is to be
completed first, followed by the fillet weld.
Figure 3-75 Examples of symbols
indicating multiple welds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-61
7.2.6 Application of Symbol

Figure 3-76 is an example of how a welding symbol may appear on a drawing. How
would you interpret it?
This figure shows a steel pipe
column to be welded to a
baseplate.
The pipe is to be beveled
at a 30-degree angle
followed by a bevel
groove weld all around.
A 1/2-inch fillet weld
follows, also welded all
around.
The fillet weld is to be
finished by grinding
flush.
Both welds are to be
done in the field.
How did you do?
Figure 3-76 Example of a typical welding
symbol in use on a project.
For additional information about welding symbols, refer to Symbols for Welding and
Nondestructive Testing, ANSI/AWS A2.4-86.

7.
(True or False) As a welder, your only obligation is to know how to read weld
symbols and you need not concern yourself with drawings.
A.
B.
True
False
8.0.0 SAFETY
Mishaps of varying degrees of severity can occur in welding operations, in part because
of the nature of the work with metal, heat, confined vision, and construction in general.
In some instances, they result in serious injury to the welder or other personnel working
in the immediate area. In most cases, mishaps occur because of carelessness, lack of
knowledge, and/or the misuse of available equipment.
Precautions applying to specific equipment are pointed out in the chapter covering that
equipment. This section will cover topics such as protective clothing, eye protection
devices, and practices applicable to the personal safety of the operator and personnel
working nearby.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-62
8.1.0 Eye Protection

Proper eye protection is of the utmost importance! This strong statement applies to the
welding operator, helpers, chippers, inspectors, or any other personnel who are in the
proximity of the welding and cutting operations. Eye protection is necessary because of
the hazards posed by stray flashes, reflected glare, flying sparks, and globules of
molten metal.
Devices used for eye protection include goggles and helmets.
NOTE
In addition to providing eye protection, helmets also provide a shield for the entire face
and neck against sparks, flying metal and ultraviolet rays.
Flash goggles (Figure 3-77) are worn

under the welders helmet and by persons
working around the area where welding
operations are taking place.
This spectacle type of goggles has side
shields and may have either an adjustable
or nonadjustable nose bridge.
Figure 3-77 Example of flash goggles

with side shields.
Eyecup or cover type of goggles (Figure 378) is for use in fuel-gas welding or cutting
operations.
They are contoured to fit the configuration
of the face.
These goggles must be fitted with a shade
of filter lens that is suitable for the type of
work being done.
Figure 3-78 Example of eyecup

goggles for fuel-gas operations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-63
NOTE
DO NOT substitute eyecup or cover type of goggles for an arc-welding helmet.
8.2.0 Welding Helmet

For electric arc-welding and arc-cutting operations, you must use a helmet with a
suitable filter lens (Figure 3-79). This helmet serves three functions: 1) as eye
protection, and as protection from 2) ultraviolet rays and 3) flying metal.
One helmet has an opening, called a window, for a flip-up filter lens 2 by 4 1/4 inches in
size. When flipped up, another clear or light shaded lens provides additional eye
protection from chipping or grinding operations.
Another helmet has a 4 1/2- by 5 1/4-inch window. The larger window affords a wider
view and is especially useful when you are working in a confined place where head and
body movement is restricted.
Figure 3-79 Examples of welding helmets.

When welding in locations where other welders are working, you should wear flash
goggles beneath your helmet to provide protection from the flashes caused by the other
welders arcs. In addition, if you are not using the flip-up style of helmet, the flash
goggles will serve as eye protection when chipping the slag from a previous weld
deposit.
Welding goggles and helmets are made from nonflammable insulating material, with an
exchangeable shaded filter lens and a protective clear cover lens.
NOTE
The purpose of the clear cover lens is to protect the filter lens against pitting caused by
sparks and hot metal spatter. The clear lens must be placed on the outside of the filter
lens. You should replace the clear lens when it impairs vision.
Filter lenses are available in a variety of shades designated by number; the lower the
number, the lighter the shade; the higher the number, the darker the shade.
The filter lens shade number selected depends on the type of work and somewhat on
the preference of the user. Remember, a filter lens serves two purposes.
1 To diminish the intensity of the visible light to a point where there is no glare and
the welding area can be clearly seen.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-64
2 To eliminate the harmful infrared and ultraviolet radiations coming from the arc or
flame; consequently, the filter lens shade number you select must not vary more
than two shades from the numbers recommended in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2 Recommended Filter Lenses for Various Welding Operations
Shade No.
Up to 4
Operation
Light electric spot welding or for protection from stray light from nearby welding.
Light gas cutting and welding.
6-7
Gas cutting, medium gas welding, and arc welding up to 30 amperes.
8-9
Heavy gas welding, and arc welding and cutting, 30-75 amperes.
10-11
Arc welding and cutting, 76-200 amperes.
12
Arc welding and cutting, 201-400 amperes.
13-14
Arc welding and cutting exceeding 400 amperes.
Rule of thumb: when selecting the proper shade of filter lens for an electric arc welding
helmet, place the lens in the helmet, look through it at an exposed bare light bulb, and
see if you can distinguish its outline. If you can, use the next darker shade lens and
repeat the test. When you no longer see the outline of the bulb, the lens is of the proper
shade.
Remember, you should perform this rule of thumb test in the same lighting conditions as
the welding operation will be performed. Welding in a shop may require a shade lighter
lens than if you are going to do the same in bright daylight, perhaps on the work site.
When testing for the proper lens shade to work in field operations, look at a bright
reflective object.
WARNING
Never look at the welding arc without proper eye protection. Looking at the arc
with the naked eye could lead to permanent eye damage. If you receive flash
burns, they should be treated by medical personnel.
8.3.0 Protective Clothing

A variety of special welders clothing is available to protect parts of the body.
Figure 3-80 Examples of welding gloves and mitts.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-65
The clothing selected varies with the size, location, and nature of the work you need to
perform. During any welding or cutting operation, you should always wear flameproof
gauntlets, that is, five-finger gloves for gas welding and cutting, or two-finger gloves (or
mitts) for electric arc welding. Both types of gloves protect your hands from heat and
metal spatter (Figure 3-80).
The two-finger gloves have an advantage over the five-finger gloves: they reduce the
danger of weld spatter and sparks lodging between the fingers. They also reduce finger
chafing from the inside seams, which sometimes occurs when five-finger gloves are
worn for electric arc welding.
Many light-gas welding and brazing jobs require no special protective clothing other
than gloves and goggles. Nevertheless, even in these taskings, it is essential you wear
your work clothes properly. Sparks seem to have an affinity for and are very likely to
lodge in pockets, rolled-up sleeves, and cuffs of trousers or overalls.
You should leave your sleeves rolled down and buttoned, as well as your shirt collar. Do
not cuff your trousers on the outside, and eliminate any pockets from the front of
overalls and aprons that do not have button-down flaps. Be sure all your clothing is free
of oil and grease. Wear high-top safety shoes; low-cut shoes are a hazard. Sparks and
molten metal can lodge in them, especially when you are sitting down.
Figure 3-81 Examples of welders protective clothing.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-66
Medium- and heavy-gas welding, all-electric welding, and welding in the vertical or
overhead welding position require special flameproof clothing made of leather or other
suitable material (Figure 3-81).
This clothing is designed to protect you against radiated heat, splashes of hot metal, or
sparks. They afford a choice of protection depending upon the specific nature of the
particular welding or cutting job
This clothing consists of aprons, sleeves, combination sleeves and bib, jackets, and
overalls.
Aprons and overalls provide protection to the legs and are suited for welding
operations on the floor.
Sleeves provide satisfactory protection for welding operations at floor or bench
level.
The cape and sleeves are particularly suited for overhead welding; they protect
the back of the neck, top of the shoulders, and the upper part of the back and
chest.
The bib, in combination with the cape and sleeves, gives added protection to the
chest and abdomen.
Wear the jacket when there is a need for complete all-around protection to the
upper part of the body. This is especially true when several welders are working
in close proximity to one another.
During overhead welding operations, and again especially when several welders
are working in close proximity, you should wear leather or flameproof caps under
your helmet to prevent head burns.
Wear earplugs to keep sparks or splatter from entering and burning the ears.
If you will be exposed to falling or sharp objects, wear the combination welding
helmet/hard hats.
For very heavy work, wear fire-resistant leggings or high boots; do not wear
shoes or boots with exposed nail heads or rivets.
Never wear any oilskins or plastic clothing for any welding operation.
NOTE
If leather protective clothing is not available, wear woolen clothing instead of cotton.
Woolen clothing is not as flammable and helps protect you from the changes in
temperature caused by welding. If cotton clothing is unavoidable, it should be
chemically treated to reduce its flammability.
8.4.0 Area Awareness

Area awareness can also be termed situational awareness. It really is a matter of
staying attentive and cognizant of your surroundings. That includes remaining alert to
those working around you whether you are in the shop or in the field.
Welding by its very nature is a narrowly focused task, and when the welding helmet is
down you have no peripheral vision. Before you drop the hood, know what is going on in
the immediate area and always have an alternate position to which you can move. If the
tasking does not allow this, a welders helper can assist with an overall view of any
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-67
changing conditions around you until the confined tasking is completed. Know your
surrounding at all times.
Summary
Modern welding is just over 100 years old. The continuing changes in equipment and
technologies have advanced from the beginnings of carbon arc to the multiple
processes available today. As a Steelworker, you are, or will be, the resident expert on
metals regardless of which billet assignment or tour you are in. Learning to weld,
practicing, and becoming proficient at it will serve you well in both your Naval service
and in the civilian community when you eventually transition. Certified welders are
always in demand on multitudes of projects. The key word is certified; that means 1) in
the positions 2) with the equipment 3) with plate and pipe. Practicing for proficiency and
applying your ability as often as possible will improve your skills and opportunities.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-68

1.
(True or False) The source of heat for the forge welding process is a flow of
electricity between two contacts.
A.
B.
2.
In welding terms, RSW means _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
To provide a more even flow to the weld.

To increase the overall temperature of the weld.
To prevent atmospheric contamination.
To minimize the amount of rod needed.
When welding two pieces of metal together, you will often need to leave a space
to be filled in. What material is added during the welding phase?
A.
B.
C.
D.
7.
True
False
What is the primary purpose of the gas in gas shielded arc welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
a flow of electricity between two contacts

the resistance of a metal to the flow of an electric current
the bombardment of a metal with electrons
a furnace
(True or False) The primary advantage of using shielded metal-arc welding is

that it produces high-quality welds rapidly at a low cost.
A.
B.
5.
round sheet welding

resident shop welds
resistance spot welding
resistant spot welds
The source of heat for electric arc welding is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
True
False
Filler metal
Electrodes
Flux
Fusion gas
(True or False) The two types of filler metals commonly used in welding are
welding rods and welding electrodes.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-69
8.
(True or False) A common property of a welding rod and a welding electrode is

that both are used to conduct electricity.
A.
B.
9.
Into what categories are electrodes classified when they are divided into groups?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
D.
Paste
Powder
Liquid
All of the above
What are the five fundamental types of joints?

A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
remove oxides from joint surfaces

be active at the melting point of the filler metal
mix well with the base metal alloys in order to lower the base metal
melting temperature
be easily removed after the joint is welded
In which of the following forms are fluxes produced?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Alloys
Peroxides
Fluxes
Distillates
A good flux does NOT have to _____.

A.
B.
C.
12.
Consumable or nonconsumable
Conductive or nonconductive
Electric-arc or gas
Metallic or nonmetallic
What term refers to materials that are used to dissolve or facilitate the removal of
oxides and other undesirable substances formed during welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
True
False
Fillet, groove, bead, stringer, and tack

Lap, corner, tee, butt, and edge
Lap, flanged, tee, butt, and bead
Lap, flanged, tee, butt, and stringer
What type(s) of welded joint should you use when two members are at right
angles to each other?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Lap only
Edge only
Tee or corner
Butt or edge
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-70
Refer to the figure below for questions 15-17.
15.
What location(s) indicate(s) a corner joint?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
What location(s) indicate(s) a tee joint?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
B
A and C
E
D and F
What type of joint is E?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
B only
A and C only
A, B, and C only
A, B, C, and E
Butt
Lap
Edge
Tee
How large, in degrees, is the groove angle when the edges of each of two joints
that are to be joined are beveled to an angle of 45 degrees?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30
45
60
90
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-71
19.
Which factors must you consider to determine the bevel angle, groove angle, and
root opening for a weld joint?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
What term refers to the depth that a groove weld extends into the root of a joint?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
Surface
Plug
Root
Fillet
What type of weld has a circular cross section made by applying filler metal
through a prepunched or precut hole?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Frequency of oscillation required to fill in a groove

Order in which the beads of a multipass weld are deposited
Number of filler layers required
Thickness of the metal that is to be welded
What type of weld has a triangular cross section?

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Stringer
Filler
Weave
Buildup
What factor in the welding process does the term buildup sequence refer to?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Reinforcement factor
Joint penetration
Root opening
Root penetration
What type of weld bead is made by using a side-to-side oscillation?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
Type of weld joint and electrode composition

Kind of joint, welding process, and thickness of the base metal or material
to be welded
Amount of weld joint penetrator required to produce a sound weld
Thickness of the base metal and diameter of the electrode to be used
Surface
Plug
Spot
Fillet
What type of weld is used to apply a hard wear-resistant layer of metal to

surfaces or edges of worn-out parts?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Surface
Plug
Spot
Fillet
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-72
26.
What type of weld should you use temporarily to hold two parts in proper
alignment for the final weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
The junction between the face of the weld and the base is known as the _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
face
root
toe
leg
Why is the term heat-affected zone important to a welder?

A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
face
root
toe
leg
The portion of the weld from the toe to the root is known as the _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
face
root
toe
leg
The exposed surface on the side from which the weld is made is known as the
_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
Fillet
Tack
Plug
Slot
It is the zone only where melting (fusion) occurs.

It is the zone that includes a portion of the base metal that has not been
melted but where the structural and mechanical properties have been
altered by weld heat.
It is the amount of heat applied after weld completion to return it to its
original condition.
It is the type of heating gases produced during welding.
What term is used to describe the details of a joint that includes both geometry
and required dimensions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Joint efficiency
Joint design
Joint shape
Joint description
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-73
32.
What butt joint is NOT recommended when metals are subject to fatigue or
impact loads?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
Which of these butt joints is recommended as an excellent joint for all load
conditions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
Depth of weld penetration

Strength of the base metals
Size of the fillet
Filler metal
(True or False) All welding is done in one or more of four positions.

A.
B.
38.
Single bevel
Double bevel
Square
Full open
What factor determines the strength of a single-fillet lap joint?

A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
Full open
Flush
Half open
Double fillet lap
What tee joint is used in locations where heavy loads are applied?
A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
Single V
Double V
Square
Single bevel
What corner joint is used primarily for welding 12-gauge or lighter sheet metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
Single-V butt joint

Double-V butt joint
Square butt joint
Single-bevel butt joint
True
False
The American Welding Society (AWS) number/letter designation 1F indicates a

_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
vertical weave bead

horizontal stringer bead
fillet weld in the overhead position
fillet weld in a flat position
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-74
39.
What welding position should a welder use anytime conditions allow, due to the
effects of gravity on welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
(True or False) In pipe welding there are four basic test positions that refer to the
position of the pipe and not to the position of the welding.
A.
B.
41.
B.
C.
D.
True
False
You should space tack welds at least 12 inches apart and _____ to aid in
controlling distortion.
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
The difference in temperature from the actual joint of the weld out to the
edges of the joint
The structural weakness of the metal
An incorrect flame adjustment
A high concentration of heat in one area
(True or False) When exposed to the heat buildup of welding, all metals expand
in the path of least resistance.
A.
B.
44.
Horizontal only
Vertical only
Overhead and vertical
All positions
What factor causes internal stresses, distortion, and warpage when two pieces of
metal are welded together?
A.
43.
True
False
What welding position(s) do you use for pipe welding when welding in the 6G
position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
Flat
Vertical
Horizontal
Overhead
the thickness of the metal

twice the thickness of the metal
the thickness of the weld
twice the thickness of the weld
Why is an intermittent weld (often referred to as a skip weld) used?

A.
B.
C.
D.
To control heat input

To ensure spacing between the metals being welded
To allow you to check weld penetration
To satisfy the job requirement
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-75
46.
(True or False) To control the forces of expansion and contraction during

welding operations, you can heat the entire structure before welding.
A.
B.
47.
What devices should you use to prevent excessive movement of metal parts
during a welding operation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
48.
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
What type of line is used to show the edges of an object that are visible to a
viewer?
A.
B.
C.
D.
51.
Type of base metal

Testing requirement
Joint design
All of the above
When assigned a welding job, you should make a thorough examination of the
drawings and specifications. In what section of the specifications should you look
for welding codes?
A.
B.
C.
D.
50.
Clamps and tape

Tape and glue
Fixtures and springs
Welding clamps and jigs
Which of these variables must be considered when identifying the correct

welding procedure?
A.
B.
C.
D.
49.
True
False
Hidden
Visible
Viewing plane
Section lines
What type of line is used on a drawing to show the edges of concealed studs,
pipes, and electrical conduit?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Hidden
Visible
Viewing plane
Section drawing
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-76
52.
What type of line is used on a drawing to show different types of materials?

A.
B.
C.
D.
53.
Which of these drawings is used to show internal components?

A.
B.
C.
D.
54.
Orthographic
Pictorial
Sectional
Dimensional
What type of drawing is used to show a complex object completely?

A.
B.
C.
D.
58.
True
False
What do you call a drawing that shows how an object will appear after being
manufactured?
A.
B.
C.
D.
57.
True
False
(True or False) The dimensions of an object should be measured (scaled)

directly from the drawing.
A.
B.
56.
Cutting plane
Hidden
Section
Internal
(True or False) A general note is used to provide additional information that

applies to one particular part or feature of a drawing.
A.
B.
55.
Hidden
Visible
Viewing plane
Section lines
Orthographic
Pictorial
Sectional
Dimensional
Which of these features make(s) up the standard welding symbols of the

American Welding Society (AWS)?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A reference line
An arrow
A tail
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-77
59.
(True or False) The term welding symbol refers to the total symbol, which
includes all the information needed to specify the weld(s) required.
A.
B.
60.
What type of symbols is used with weld symbols to show how the face of the
weld is to be formed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
61.
To provide eye protection

To shield against flying metal
To protect against ultraviolet rays
All of the above
When you are welding with a current of 300 amperes, what lens filter is best for
eye protection?
A.
B.
C.
D.
65.
Eyecup or cover goggles

Flash goggles with side shields
Dark lens plastic full-face shield
Commercial sunglasses
For which of the following reasons is a welding helmet worn?

A.
B.
C.
D.
64.
Finish
Contour
Completion
Detail
What eye protection device is designed for wear under the welders helmet?
A.
B.
C.
D.
63.
Finish
Contour
Completion
Detail
What type of symbol is used to indicate the method to use for forming the contour
of the weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
62.
True
False
No. 06
No. 08
No. 10
No. 12
Which of these indications can determine whether the lens is the proper shade
when using a light bulb to test a filter lens?
A.
B.
C.
D.
You can see a distinct outline of the bulb.

The light from the bulb becomes a sharp point of light.
You can no longer see the outline of the bulb.
The light becomes blue and scattered.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-78
66.
What type of leather gauntlets is recommended for arc welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
67.
What items of safety gear are best suited for overhead welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
68.
Two finger
Three finger
Four finger
Five finger
Cape and sleeves

Apron and overalls
Jacket and leggings
Bib and leggings
Which of the following clothing materials is least likely to catch fire from welding
sparks?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Oilskin
Wool
Plastic
Cotton
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-79

Fuse
To become liquid under the action of heat; melt, to

become united or blended.
Slag
The vitreous mass left as a residue by the smelting of

metallic ore.
Weldment
A unit composed of an assemblage of pieces welded

together.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-80

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, http://www.asme.org/
American Welding Society, http://www.aws.org/w/a/
Bennet, A. E., and Louis J. Sky, Blueprint Reading for Welders, 3d ed., Delmar
Publishers Inc., 1983.
Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 10077-F1, Naval Education and Training
Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Fla., 1988.
The Oxy-Acetylene Handbook, 2d ed., Linde Company, Union Carbide Corporation, 270
Park Avenue, New York, 1960.
Smith, David, Welding Skills and Technology, Gregg Division, McGraw-Hill, 1984.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-81

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3-82
Chapter 4
Gas Cutting
Topics
1.0.0
OXYGAS Cutting Equipment
2.0.0
OXYGAS Cutting Operations
3.0.0
Judging Cutting Quality
4.0.0
Safety Precautions
Overview
As a Steelworker, the methods you might use in cutting metal are oxygas flame, air
carbon-arc, and plasma-arc. The method you will actually make use will depend on the
type of metal to be cut and the local availability of equipment.
Either oxygas flame or air carbon-arc equipment will be the most common type of
equipment available, and the former is probably the method you will use most often.
This chapter will cover oxygas equipment; plasma-arc and carbon-arc cutting will be
presented in later chapters.
The oxygas cutting torch has many uses in steelwork. It is the most readily available
equipment at naval activities, it is accessible from outside resources in most locations,
and it is portable enough to be taken to the work site. You will find it an excellent tool for
cutting ferrous metals.
This versatile tool is used for a variety of operations such as cutting reinforcing iron,
beveling plate, cutting and beveling pipe, piercing holes in steel plate, cutting wire rope,
and, when properly adjusted, preheating metal prior to welding.
Once you are familiar with the equipment and procedures, you should be able to make
a quality cut with oxygas equipment in a safe and professional tradesman-like manner.
Objectives
1. Describe the purpose and components of the OXYGAS cutting equipment.
2. Describe the procedures utilized in OXYGAS cutting operations.
3. Identify the methods of judging cutting quality.
4. State the safety precautions associated with gas cutting.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-1
the course map.

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-2

Knowledge banner at the end of the section. Select the answer you choose. If the
answer is correct, you will be taken to the next section heading. If the answer is
incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the chapter where the information is for
review. When you have completed your review, select anywhere in that area to
return to the review question. Try to answer the question again.
anywhere in that area to return to the review question. Try to answer the question
again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-3
1.0.0 OXYGAS CUTTING EQUIPMENT

For a typical oxygas cutting outfit, also referred to as a cutting rig (Figure 4-1), you
need:
a cylinder of acetylene or MAPP gas
a cylinder of oxygen
two regulators
two lengths of hose (usually joined) with fittings
a cutting torch with tips
Figure 4-1 Typical oxygas cutting outfit (cutting rig).

Numerous types of additional auxiliary equipment are available to improve the overall
cutting operation; two of the most important are the spark igniter (commonly called a
striker) and an apparatus wrench (commonly called a gang wrench) that fits all the
connections on the cutting rig. The gang wrench has a raised opening in the handle that
serves as an acetylene tank key (Figure 4-2).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-4
Figure 4-2 Typical apparatus wrench (gang wrench) and spark igniter (striker).
Some other common accessories include tip cleaner, tip drill set, hose connectors, extra
striker and refill flints, extra cutting tip, hose repair kit, and a cylinder truck (Figure 4-3).
Figure 4-3 Typical oxygas accessories for cutting rig.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-5
Personal safety apparel, such

as goggles, hand shields,
gloves, leather aprons, sleeves,
and leggings, is essential and
should be worn as required for
the job at hand (Figure 4-4).
You can find additional
information about safety apparel
in the Introduction to Welding
chapter.
Figure 4-4 Typical personal safety apparel for

oxygas cutting operations.
Oxygas cutting equipment can

be stationary or portable.
A portable oxygas outfit, such
as the one shown in Figure 4-5,
is particularly advantageous
when you need to move the
equipment from one shop
cutting project to another.
When working on a project field
site, though, a cart with a larger
set of wheels has a distinct
advantage in moving over rough
terrain, as in foundation work.
In fact, building a cart with
spoked metal wheels can be a
shop-welding project with
excellent field application later.
Figure 4-5 Typical portable cutting rig.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-6
Proficient cutting, like proficient welding, cannot be learned from reading text; it takes
hands-on practice to be an accomplished Steelworker or Ironworker (civilian term) who
can cut a smooth-edged bevel on a pipe to prepare it for welding. However, what text
can give you is the foundation of how to set up the equipment and how it functions to
best advantage.
You must be able to set up the cutting equipment and make the necessary adjustments
to be able to perform your cutting tasks. Therefore, you need to know and understand
the purpose and function of the basic equipment making up the cutting rig.
However, before learning about the equipment, you must be familiar with the gases
most often used to fuel the cutting equipment: acetylene, MAPP gas, oxygen.
1.1.0 Acetylene
Acetylene (C2H2) is a fuel gas made up of carbon and hydrogen. It is manufactured by
the chemical reaction between calcium carbide, a gray stone-like substance, and water
in a generating unit. Acetylene is colorless, but it has a distinctive odor (strong garlic)
that can be easily detected. Mixtures of acetylene and air that contain from 2 to 80
percent of acetylene by volume will explode when ignited.
However, with suitable equipment and proper precautions, acetylene can be safely
burned with oxygen for welding and cutting purposes. When burned with oxygen,
acetylene produces a very hot flame that has a temperature between 5,700F and
6,300F. Acetylene is obtained directly from the cylinder when a portable cutting outfit is
used, as shown in Figure 4-5.
However, for stationary equipment and larger operations as might be found in large
shops, acetylene can be piped to a number of individual cutting stations from a manifold
configuration similar to the acetylene cylinder bank shown in Figure 4-6.
A Line valve
D Header pipe
H Cylinder connector pipe
B Release valve
E Regulator
J Check valve and drain plug
C Filler plug
F Flash arrestor chamber
K Acetylene cylinders
G Escape pipe
Figure 4-6 Example of a stationary acetylene cylinder bank.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-7
1.1.1 Hazards
Acetylene stored in a free state under pressure greater than 15 psi can be made to
break down by heat or shock and possibly explode. Under pressure of 29.4 psi,
acetylene becomes self-explosive, and a slight shock will cause it to explode
spontaneously. However, when dissolved in acetone, it can be compressed into
cylinders at higher pressures.
WARNING
Acetylene becomes extremely dangerous if used above 15 pounds pressure.
1.1.2 Cylinder Design
Acetylene can be safely compressed up to 275 psi when dissolved in acetone and
stored in specially designed cylinders filled with porous material such as balsa wood,
charcoal, finely shredded asbestos, corn pith, Portland cement, or infusorial (in-fyoosawr-ee-uh l), earth. These porous filler materials help prevent high-pressure gas
pockets from forming in the cylinder.
Acetone [OC(CH3)2] is a liquid chemical that dissolves large portions of acetylene under
pressure without changing the nature of the gas. Since it is a liquid, acetone can be
drawn from an acetylene cylinder when it is not upright.
Do not store acetylene cylinders on their sides. However, if they have been, you must
let the cylinder stand upright for a minimum of 2 hours before using to allow the acetone
to settle to the bottom of the cylinder.
WARNING
Acetone contaminates the hoses, regulators, and torch, and disrupts the flame.
Acetylene is measured in cubic feet. Of the wide variety available, the Navy typically
uses the standard size 225 cubic feet cylinders (Figure 4-7).
Figure 4-7 Example of the variety of acetylene cylinder sizes available.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-8
However, just because a cylinder has a 225-cubic-foot capacity does not necessarily
mean it has 225 cubic feet of acetylene in it. Because the acetylene is dissolved in
acetone, you cannot judge how much acetylene is left in a cylinder by gauge pressure.
The pressure of the acetylene cylinder will remain comparatively constant until most of
the gas is consumed.
Figure 4-8 is an example of an acetylene
cylinder. These cylinders are equipped
with fusible plugs that relieve excess
pressure if the cylinder is exposed to
undue heat.
The standard Navy acetylene cylinder of
225 cubic feet weighs about 250 pounds.
Compressed-gas cylinders are colorcoded for identification, but the color
identifications are not standardized among
all commercial-owned sources.
Navy-owned acetylene cylinders are
designated yellow, but typical commercialowned acetylene cylinder colors may be
black or red, unless you use a European
outsourcing supply system while deployed;
then maroon is the standardize EEU color.
Figure 4-8 Cut detail of an acetylene
cylinder.
To quote from MIL-STD-101B, 3 DECEMBER 1970 5.2.5.1 Commercial-owned
cylinders are those not owned by or procured for the U.S. Government. Commercialowned cylinders are contractor-owned or supplier-owned cylinders in which compressed
gas is supplied to the Government. When Department of Defense activities procure
compressed gases in commercial-owned cylinders, it is not mandatory that the cylinders
be color coded in accordance with this standard.
1.2.0 MAPP Gas

As presented in the Introduction to Welding Chapter, MAPP (C3H4 methylacetylenepropadiene) is an all-purpose industrial fuel with the high-flame temperature of
acetylene and the handling characteristics of propane. MAPP is sold by the pound as a
liquid instead of by the cubic foot, as with acetylene. One 70-pound MAPP cylinder can
accomplish the work of more than six and one-half 225-cubic-foot acetylene cylinders,
making it equal to 1,500 cubic feet of acetylene.
1.2.1 Cylinder Design
A full MAPP cylinder (about the same physical size as a 225-cubic-foot acetylene
cylinder) is 120 pounds (70 pounds is MAPP gas). MAPP cylinders contain only the
liquid fuel with no packing or acetone to impair fuel withdrawal, so the entire contents of
a MAPP cylinder is usable. For heavy-use situations, a MAPP cylinder delivers more
than twice as much gas as an equivalent acetylene cylinder for the same time period. A
typical MAPP cylinder is canary yellow and, as is common to propane-type gas
cylinders, it has a protective collar around the valve.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-9
1.2.2 MAPP Characteristics

The BTU value of MAPP gas makes it an excellent fuel gas for preheating and stress
relieving metals. MAPP produces a flame temperature of 5300F when burned with
oxygen and equals or exceeds the performance of acetylene for cutting, heating, and
brazing. However, like all of the liquefied petroleum gases, MAPP is not appropriate for
welding steel due to the high concentration of hydrogen in the flame. The hydrogen
infuses into the molten steel and renders the welds brittle.
MAPP is nonflammable in the absence of oxygen and not sensitive to shock, so if a
cylinder is bumped, jarred, or dropped, there is no chance of an explosion. You can
store or transport MAPP cylinders in any position with no danger of forming an
explosive gas pocket. It has a harmless but characteristic odor to give warning of fuel
leaks in the equipment long before a dangerous condition can occur.
MAPP gas is not restricted to a maximum working pressure of 15 psig, as is acetylene;
it can be used safely at the full-cylinder pressure of 95 psig at 70F on jobs requiring
higher pressures and gas flows. Hence, MAPP is an excellent gas for underwater work.
1.2.3 Bulk MAPP Gas
Bulk MAPP gas facilities, similar to liquid oxygen stations, are installed at some
activities where large supplies of the gas are used. In bulk installations, MAPP gas is
delivered through a piping system directly to the user points. Maximum pressure is
controlled centrally for efficiency and economy. Cylinder-filling facilities are also
available from bulk installations that allow users to fill their cylinders on site. Filling a 70pound MAPP cylinder takes one person about 1 minute and is essentially like pumping
water from a large tank to a smaller one.
1.2.4 MAPP Gas Safety
MAPP gas vapor is stable up to

600F and 1,100 psig when
exposed to an 825F probe.
The explosive limits of MAPP
gas are 3.4 percent to 10.8
percent in air, whereas
acetylenes explosive limits are
2.5 percent to 80 percent.
As Figure 4-9 shows, MAPPs
limits are narrow compared to
those of acetylene.
Figure 4-9 Example of explosive limits of

MAPP and acetylene in air.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-10
MAPPs garlicky odor is detectable at 100 ppm, or at a concentration of 1/340th of its

lower explosive limit. Small fuel-gas systems may leak 1 or 1 pounds of fuel or more
in an 8-hour shift, bulk systems even more. Often, fuel-gas leaks are difficult to find and
go unnoticed; however, a MAPP gas leak is easily detectable and repairable before
becoming dangerous.
MAPP toxicity is rated very slight, but high concentrations (5,000 ppm) may have an
anesthetic effect.
MAPP gas vapor causes no adverse effects in local contact with eyes or skin, but the
liquid fuel can cause dangerous frostlike burns due to the liquids rapid evaporation.
The Navy-owned MAPP cylinders are identified by a yellow body with an orange band
B and yellow cap/top.
1.3.0 Oxygen
Oxygen (O) is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas slightly heavier than air. It is
nonflammable in its pure state, but vigorously supports combustion with other elements.
In its free state, oxygen is the third most common element, with the atmosphere made
up of about 21 parts of oxygen and 78 parts of nitrogen, the remainder being rare
gases.
Working with metals, Steelworkers soon become very familiar with atmospheric oxygen
in the form of oxidation, the results of which include rusting ferrous metals, discolored
copper, and aluminum corrosion, to name a few.
The commercial processes for extracting oxygen are liquid-air and electrolytic.
Liquid-air process
o Air is compressed and cooled to a point where gases become liquid
(approximately 375F).
o Temperature is raised to above 321F where nitrogen becomes gas again
and is removed.
o Temperature of remaining liquid is raised to 297F where oxygen forms gas
again and is drawn off.
o Oxygen is further purified and compressed into cylinders for use.
Electrolytic process
o An electrical current is run through water to which an acid or an alkali has
been added.
o Oxygen collects at a positive terminal and is drawn off through pipes to a
container.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-11
Figure 4-10 shows the components of a

typical oxygen cylinder.
Oxygen is supplied for oxyacetylene
welding in seamless steel cylinders.
The Navy-owned oxygen cylinders for
industrial use are designated as solid
green with a green cap/top.
Figure 4-10 Example of a typical

oxygen cylinder.
Oxygen cylinders are available in several sizes (Figure 4-11). The size the Navy uses
most often for welding and cutting is the 244-cubic-foot capacity cylinder. This cylinder
is 9 inches in diameter and 51 inches high, weighs about 145 pounds, and is charged to
a pressure of 2,200 psi at 70F.
Figure 4-11 Example of the variety of oxygen cylinder sizes available.

To determine the amount of oxygen remaining in a compressed-gas cylinder, you read
the volume scale on the non-adjustable high-pressure gauge attached to the regulator.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-12
1.4.0 Regulators
Regulators reduce the high-pressure gas in a cylinder to a working pressure you can
safely use. That is their one basic job, but in addition, they control the flow (volume of
gas per hour).
Regulators come in all sizes and types for use with a wide variety of gases, some for
high-pressure oxygen cylinders (2,200 psig), others for low-pressure gases such as
natural gas (5 psig). Some gases freeze when their pressure is reduced (nitrous oxide
or carbon dioxide), so they require electrically heated regulators.
Most regulators have two
gauges: one indicates the
cylinder pressure when the
valve is open, and the other
indicates the pressure of the
gas coming out of the regulator.
The regulator must be open to
get a reading on the second
gauge, but before opening the
cylinder valve, be sure to lower
the regulator setting (back-off
counter clockwise) to avoid
damage from a sudden rush of
pressure from the high pressure
cylinder.
The reading on the regulator
setting is the delivery pressure
of the gas, and you set the
pressure for your particular job.
Figure 4-12 Example of the variety of
regulators for different gases.
The pressures you read on regulator gauges are called gauge pressures. If you are
using pounds per square inch (psi), it should be written as psig (pounds per square inch
gauge). A zero reading gauge does not mean the cylinder is empty. To the contrary, the
cylinder is still full of gas but the cylinder pressure is equal to the surrounding
atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is 14.7 psi.
CAUTION
No gas cylinder is empty unless it has been pumped out by a vacuum pump.
Two types of regulators are used to control the flow of gas from a cylinder: single-stage
regulators and double-stage regulators.
1.4.1 Single-Stage Regulators
Single-stage regulators are used on both high- and low-pressure systems. Figure 4-13
shows two single-stage regulators: one for acetylene and one for oxygen, along with a
diagram of their interior functioning.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-13
The regulator mechanism

consists of:
a nozzle through which

the gases pass
a valve seat to close off

the nozzle
a diaphragm
balancing springs
These mechanisms are all

enclosed in a suitable housing.
Fuel-gas regulators and oxygen
regulators are the same basic
design.
The difference is in the
pressures (high/low) for which
they were designed.
Figure 4-13 Example of single-stage regulator
functioning.
In the oxygen regulator, the oxygen enters through the high-pressure inlet connection
and passes through a glass wool filter that removes dust and dirt. Turning the adjusting
screw IN (clockwise) allows the oxygen to pass from the high-pressure chamber to the
low-pressure chamber of the regulator, through the regulator outlet, and through the
hose to the torch. Turning the adjusting screw further clockwise increases the working
pressure; turning it counterclockwise decreases the working pressure.
The high-pressure gauge on an oxygen regulator is graduated from 0 to 4,000 psig.
Gauges are calibrated to read correctly at 70F. The working pressure gauge may be
graduated in psig from 0 to 150, 0 to 200, or 0 to 400, depending upon the type of
regulator used. For example, on regulators designed for heavy cutting, the working
pressure gauge is graduated from 0 to 400.
The single-stage regulators major disadvantage is that you must constantly monitor and
reset the regulator if you require a fixed pressure and flow rate. With a single-stage
regulator, the pressure you set will decrease as the cylinder pressure decreases.
Keeping the gas pressure and flow rate constant is too much to expect from a regulator
that has to reduce the pressure of a full cylinder from 2,200 psig down to cutting
pressures or all the way down to 5 psig for welding. Double-stage regulators solve this
problem.
1.4.2 Double-Stage Regulators
The double-stage regulator is similar in principle to the one-stage regulator. The main
difference is that the total pressure drop takes place in two stages instead of one.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-14
Figure 4-14 shows two doublestage regulators: one for

acetylene and one for oxygen,
along with a diagram of their
interior functioning.
In the high-pressure stage, the
cylinder pressure is reduced to
an intermediate pressure that
was predetermined by the
manufacturer.
In the low-pressure stage, the
pressure is again reduced from
the intermediate pressure to the
working pressure you select.
Figure 4-14 Example of double-stage regulator

functioning.
1.4.3 Problems and Safety
The interior workings of regulators are precise pieces of equipment; carelessness
usually does more to damage a regulator than any other gas-using equipment. You can
damage a regulator by simply forgetting to clean wherever there will be gas flow: the
cylinder connection, the regulator inlet, the hose connection threads.
When you open a high-pressure cylinder, the gas can rush into the regulator at the
speed of sound. Any dirt particles present in the connections will be blasted into the
precision-fitted valve seats, causing them to leak and resulting in a condition known as
creep. When you shut the regulator off but not the cylinder, and gas pressure is still
being delivered to the low-pressure side because of dirt in a valve--that is creep.
Manufacturers build regulators with a minimum of two relief devices, which are designed
to protect you and the equipment in case of a regulator creep or a high-pressure rush of
gas into the regulator. All regulator gauges have blowout backs to release the pressure
from the back of the gauge before the gauge face (usually made of plastic) explodes.
The body of the regulator is also protected by safety devices. Blowout disks or springloaded relief valves are the two most common types of devices used. When they
function for safety, the blowout disk sounds like a cannon, and the spring-loaded relief
valves make howling or shrieking noises.
In either case, after you recover from your initial surprise, your first action is to close the
cylinder valve, followed by removing the regulator and tagging it for repair or disposal.
Before connecting a regulator, you should always crack and close the valve a little.
This helps protect the regulator by blowing out any dirt or other foreign material that
might be in the cylinder nozzle. Then, back-off the regulator a little, connect the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-15
regulator to the cylinder, slowly crack open the cylinder valve, adjust the regulator to the
desired setting, and go to work.
WARNING
Never use oil or other petroleum products around oxygen regulators. These products
will cause either a regulator explosion or fire.
1.5.0 Hoses
The connection between the torch and the regulators is made with hoses that must be
strong, nonporous, light, and flexible enough to make torch movements easy yet able to
withstand internal pressures as high as 100 psig. The rubber used is specially treated to
remove sulfur that could cause spontaneous combustion. Welding hose is available in
single- and double-hose design. The proper size to use will depend on the type of work
for which it is intended.
Hose intended for light work has a 3/16-in. or 1/4-in. inside

diameter and one or two plies of fabric (Figure 4-15).
For heavy-duty welding and cutting operations, use a hose
with an inside diameter of 5/16-in. or 3/8-in. and three to
five plies of fabric. Single hose is available in the standard
sizes as well as in 1/2-, 3/4-, and 1-in. sizes for heavy-duty
heating and use on large cutting machines.
Figure 4-15 Example
of hose diameters.
The most common type of cutting and
welding hose is the double hose with the
fuel hose and the oxygen hose joined side
by side by a slight melding together of the
hoses in the manufacturing process
(Figure 4-16).
This can be augmented by clamps,
particularly at the split when separated to
connect to the regulators.
Because they are joined together, the
hoses are less likely to become tangled
and are easier to move.
Figure 4-16 Example of hose design.

The length of hose for a particular task is also important. Delivery pressure at the torch
will vary with the length of the hose. A 3/16-inch hose that is adequate for one job at a
20-foot length may not be appropriate for another if it is extended to 50 feet; the
pressure drop would result in insufficient gas flow to the torch. Longer hoses require
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-16
larger inside diameters to ensure the correct flow of gas to the torch. If you are having
volume flow problems when welding or cutting, this is one area to check
The fuel gas and oxygen hoses are identical in construction but differ in color; oxygen is
green and fuel-gas is red to help prevent mishaps that could lead to dangerous
accidents.
The Compressed Gas Association (CGA) has standardized connections for welding and
cutting hose fittings. Connections on the regulators must correspond to identifying letter
grades A, B, C, D, and E, plus the type of gas.
A, B, and C are the most common size connections: A- for low-flow rates; B- for
medium-flow rates; and C- for heavy-flow rates. D and E sizes are for large cutting and
heating torches.
When ordering connections, you must specify the type of gas the hose will carry
because connections are threaded differently for different types of gases. The
threadings for fuel gases and oxygen fittings are not compatible (fuel uses left-hand
threads, oxygen uses right-hand threads) to prevent the accidental hookup of a fuel gas
to a life-support oxygen system or vice versa.
Figure 4-17 Examples of nut and gland (A) and check valves (B).
The basic hose connection consists of a nut and gland (Figure 4-17 View A). The nut
has threads on the inside that match up with the male inlet and outlet on the torch and
regulator. The left-hand threaded nuts have a distinguishing mark on the exterior as
well. The gland slides inside the hose and is held in place by a ferrule that is crimped
over the hose. The nut remains loose so it can be turned by hand and gently tightened
with a wrench.
Two often overlooked but important items are the check valves (Figure 4-17 View B).
These inexpensive valves prevent personal injuries and save valuable equipment from
flashbacks. The check valves should be installed between the torch connection and the
hose.
When ordering, you must specify the type of gas, connection size, and thread design.
1.6.0 Cutting Torches

The basic equipment and accessories for oxygas cutting are the same you would use
for oxygas welding. The singular difference is you use a cutting torch, or cutting
attachment, instead of a welding torch. The most characteristic difference between the
cutting torch and the welding torch is the additional oxygen tube the cutting torch has for
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-17
high-pressure cutting. You control the high-pressure oxygen flow with a levered valve
on the handle of the cutting torch. In the standard cutting torch, the valve may be in the
form of a trigger assembly like one of those shown in Figure 4-18.
Figure 4-18 Examples of cutting torches with different trigger locations.

On most torches, the cutting oxygen mechanism is designed so you can turn on the
cutting oxygen gradually. This is particularly helpful in close operations, such as hole
piercing and rivet cutting.
1.6.1 Torch Body
While cutting torches are designed for singular purpose, most welding torches are
designed so the body can accept a welding tip, heating tip (rosebud), or cutting
attachment. This type of torch is called a combination torch. The advantage of this type
of torch is the ease in changing from one mode to another (Figure 4-19).
Figure 4-19 Example of a combination torch.

With a combination torch, you do not need to disconnect the hoses; you just unscrew
the welding tip and screw on the heating tip or cutting attachment, which has the highpressure oxygen-cutting lever on the now-attached torch handle.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-18
1.6.2 Cutting Torch Tips

To do quality work and produce a clean cut, in cutting, as in welding, you must use the
proper size tip for the appropriate fuel gas. The preheat flames must furnish the right
amount of heat, and the oxygen jet orifice must deliver the correct amount of oxygen at
the right pressure and velocity.
To add to this, you must also operate with a minimum consumption of oxygen and fuel
gas. Inattentive workers or workers unfamiliar with correct procedures can waste both
oxygen and fuel gas. This may not seem important in homeport working in a shop, but
on deployment with long supply lead times, it can become critical to a project.
Manufacturers make many different types of cutting tips to serve multiple purposes and
service the use of different gases. While orifice arrangements are relatively common
based on the best configuration for a particular gas, and tip material is much the same
among the manufacturers, the part of the tip that fits into the torch head often differs in
design.
Although some tip designs may appear similar to others, there are two distinct areas to
watch for if a manufactures name is not apparent. Be sure the tip fits snugly into the
torch head nut. The tip should fit smoothly into the nut without any undue movement.
Secondly, be sure the tip seats correctly into the bevels of the torch head, again
without any undue movement. Do not try to insert the tip and tighten the nut to see it will
seat; this will damage the torch head beyond repair.
Because of the way the Navy supply system purchases cutting and welding equipment,
there is a distinct possibility you may have two or three different manufacturers brands
of cutting torches in your kits. Make sure that the cutting tips match the cutting
attachment and the cutting attachment matches the torch body. Again, this is
particularly critical in deployment scenarios. See Figure 4-20 for an example of different
manufacturers cutting tips.
The tips and seats are designed to produce an even flow of gas and keep themselves
as cool as possible. The seats must seal tightly to develop leak-proof joints. If the joints
leak, the preheat gases could mix with the cutting oxygen or escape to the atmosphere,
resulting in poor quality cuts or the possibility of flashbacks.
To make clean and economical cuts, you must keep the tip orifices and passages clean
and free of burrs and slag. If tips become dirty or misshapen, put them aside for
restoration. Since it is extremely important that the sealing surfaces be kept clean and
free of scratches or burrs, store the tips in a container that cannot scratch the seats.
Aluminum racks, plastic racks, or wooden racks and boxes make ideal storage
containers.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 4-20 Example of manufacturers differing cutting torch seating designs.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-20
1.6.2.1 Acetylene Tip Maintenance

When you are cutting, sometimes the stream of cutting oxygen blows slag and molten
metal into the tip orifices instead of away from the workpiece. When this happens, it can
clog one or more of the tip orifices and you need to clean it before you use the tip again.
A small amount of slag or metal in an orifice will seriously interfere with the cutting
operation. Figure 4-21 shows four tips: one is repairable, two need replacing, and one is
in good condition.
Figure 4-21 Examples of repairable and non-repairable acetylene tips.

Follow the torch manufacturers recommendations for the size of the tip drill or tip
cleaner to use for cleaning the orifices. If you do not have a tip drill or cleaner, you may
use a piece of soft copper wire. Do not use twist drills, nails, or welding rods for
cleaning tips; these are likely to enlarge and distort the orifices.
Figure 4-22 shows a typical set of tip cleaners.
Clean the orifices of the cutting torch tip in the
same manner as the single orifice of the welding
torch tip; push the cleaner straight in and out of
the orifice.
Be careful not to turn or twist the cleaning wire.
Figure 4-22 Typical tip cleaner.
Occasionally, even when you use the proper tip cleaners, the orifices become enlarged
and/or distorted. When this happens, you will get shorter and thicker preheating flames
and the jet of cutting oxygen can spread, instead of leaving the torch in a long, thin
stream.
If the orifices become slightly belled, sometimes you can correct this by rubbing the tip
back and forth against emery cloth placed on a flat surface. This action wears down the
end of the tip where the orifices have been belled, thus bringing the orifices back to their
original size.
The action serves the same purpose as the file provided with some tip cleaning tools,
but if you use this file, exercise caution: the file is typically a much harder metal than the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-21
tip. These procedures, of course, will not work if the damage is great or if the belling is
extensive.
After reconditioning a tip, test it by lighting the torch and observing the preheating
flames. If the flames are too short, the orifices are still partially blocked. If the flames
snap out when you close the valves, the orifices are still distorted.
If the tip seat is dirty or scaled and does not properly fit into the torch head, heat the tip
to a dull red and quench it in water. This will loosen the scale and dirt enough so you
can rub it off with a soft cloth.
1.6.2.2 MAPP Tip Maintenance
MAPP gas cutting tips are available in four basic types: two for use with standard
pressures and normal cutting speeds; two for use with high pressures and high cutting
speeds.
Only standard pressure tips, types SP and FS, will be presented, as they are the ones
that Steelworkers are likely use. SP stands for standard pressure and FS stands for fine
standard.
The SP tip (Figure 4-23 View A)
is a one-piece standard
pressure tip used for cutting by
hand, especially by welders who
are accustomed to one-piece
tips.
SP tips are more likely to be
used in situations where MAPP
gas is replacing acetylene as
the fuel gas. Notice the MAPP
tip has 8 fuel orifices versus
acetylenes typical 4 or 6.
The FS tip (Figure 4-23 View B)
is a two-piece, splined, standard
pressure tip used for cutting by
hand as well as by machine.
Welders accustomed to twopiece cutting tips will use them
in hand cutting, especially when
MAPP gas is replacing natural
gas or propane as the fuel gas.
Figure 4-23 Examples of MAPP cutting tips.
FS two-piece tips produce heavier preheating flames and faster starts than the SP tips,
but they will not take as much thermal or physical abuse as SP one-piece tips.
However, in the hands of skilled Steelworkers and in a shop atmosphere where
cleaning slag from the splines is more available, they can last as long as one-piece tips.
Table 4-1 provides recommended tip sizes and gas pressures when using MAPP to cut
different steel thicknesses.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-22
Table 4-1 Recommended MAPP Tip Sizes and

Oxyfuel Pressures
Material
Thickness
inches
(millimeters)
Cutting Tip
Number
1/8 (3)
75
3/16 (4.8)
72
1/4 (6.4)
68
1/2 (12.7)
61
3/4 (19)
1 (25.4)
1 1/4 (31.8)
1 1/2 (38)
2 (50.8)
2 1/2 (63.5)
3 (76)
4 (101)
Oxygen
Cutting
Pressure
(psig)
MAPP Gas
Pressure
(psig)
40-50
2-10
56
54
52
50-60
48
46
6-10
60-70

1.
As a Steelworker, what method are you most likely to use for cutting metal plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Oxygas flame
Air carbon-arc
Plasma-arc
Oxygen lance
2.0.0 OXYGAS CUTTING OPERATIONS

CAUTION
Before you begin any cutting operation, make a thorough inspection of the area for any
combustible materials that could be ignited by sparks or slag. If you are burning into a
wall, inspect the opposite side and post a fire watch as required.
When you use the oxygas cutting process, proceed as follows:
Heat a spot on the metal to kindling or ignition temperature (1400F to 1600F for
steels).
o The term for this oxygas flame is the preheating flame.
Press the lever on the cutting torch to direct a jet of pure oxygen at the heated
metal.
o The oxygen causes a rapid chemical reaction known as oxidation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-23
This rapid oxidation is called combustion or burning. Slow oxidation is known as rusting.
When you use an oxygas torch to cut metal, the oxidation of the metal is extremely
rapid and part of the metal actually burns. Heat, liberated by the burning of the iron or
steel, melts the iron oxide formed by the chemical reaction and accelerates the
preheating of the object. The molten material runs off as slag, exposing more iron or
steel to the oxygen jet.
In oxygas cutting, only the metal in the direct path of the oxygen jet is oxidized, and the
narrow slit formed as the cutting progresses is called the kerf. Most of the material
removed from the kerf is in the form of oxides (products of the oxidation reaction); the
remainder is molten metal blown out of the kerf by the force of the oxygen jet.
A quality cut leaves the kerf walls fairly
smooth and parallel with no excess of slag
(Figure 4-24). When you develop your
torch handling skills, you should be able to
keep the cut within close tolerances; guide
the cut along straight, curved, or irregular
lines, and cut bevels or other shapes that
require holding the torch at an angle.
Partial oxidation is a vital part of the
oxygas cutting process. Hence, metals
that do not oxidize readily are not suitable
for oxygas cutting.
Carbon steels are easily cut by the oxygas
process, but special techniques are
required for cutting many other metals.
Figure 4-24 Example of a quality
oxygas cut.
2.1.0 Equipment Setup

To avoid costly mistakes and avoid injury to yourself and others, set up the oxygas
equipment and prepare for cutting in a careful and systematic manner.
Take the following steps before attempting to light the torch:
Secure cylinders so they cannot be knocked over.

o Place in a corner or next to a vertical column; secure with a piece of line.
o Never secure to a structural member that is a current conductor.
Remove protective caps.
Stand to one side, crack each cylinder valve slightly, and immediately reclose
valve.
o This blows dirt and other foreign matter out of cylinder valve nozzle.
o
Do not bleed fuel gas into a confined area; it may ignite.
Wipe connections with a clean cloth.
Connect fuel-gas regulator to fuel-gas cylinder and oxygen regulator to oxygen

cylinder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-24
Snug connection nuts sufficiently with gang wrench to avoid leaks.
Back off regulator screws to prevent damage to regulators and gauges.
Open cylinder valves slowly.

o Open fuel-gas valve only one-half turn.
o Open oxygen valve all the way.
Note: Some fuel-gas cylinders have a hand wheel for opening the fuel-gas valve; others
require using a gang wrench or T-handle wrench. Leave any wrench in place while the
cylinder is in use so the fuel-gas bottle can be turned off quickly in an emergency.
Read high-pressure gauge to check contents in each cylinder.
Connect red hose to fuel-gas regulator (left-hand threads) and green hose to
oxygen regulator.
Purge oxygen hose by turning regulator screw in (clockwise) to between 2 and 5

psig; turn screw out (counterclockwise) to shutoff oxygen.
Repeat for fuel-gas hose ONLY in a well-ventilated place free from sparks,
flames, or possible sources of ignition.
Connect hoses to torch, red (left-threaded) to fuel, green to oxy.
With torch valves closed, turn both regulator screws clockwise to test hose
connections for leaks.
If no leaks are found, turn regulator screws counterclockwise to close.
Open torch valves to drain hose.
Install correct cutting tip in cutting torch head.

o Tighten assembly by hand; snug tighten with gang wrench.
Adjust working pressures.

o Adjust fuel-gas pressure by opening torch needle valve and turning fuel-gas
regulator screw clockwise. Adjust regulator to working pressure needed for
particular tip size; close torch needle valve.
- Adjust MAPP gas pressure with torch valves closed.
o Adjust oxygen pressure by opening torch needle valve and proceed as with
fuel-gas.
To light the torch and adjust the flame, always follow the manufacturers directions for
that particular model of torch. Procedures vary somewhat with different types and, in
some cases, even with different models of torches made by the same manufacturer.
In general, the procedure is to open the torch oxygen needle valve a small amount,
followed by opening the torch fuel-gas needle valve slightly more. Then use a spark
igniter or stationary pilot flame to light the mixture.
CAUTION
NEVER use matches to light the torch; their length requires bringing the hand too close
to the tip. Upon igniting, accumulated gas may envelop the hand and result in a severe
burn. Also, never light the torch from hot metal.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-25
After checking the fuel-gas adjustment, you can adjust the oxygas flame to obtain the
desired characteristics for the work at hand by further manipulating the oxygen and fuelgas needle valves according to the torch manufacturers direction.
A pure fuel-gas flame is long and bushy with a yellowish color. It takes the oxygen it
needs for combustion from the surrounding air and there is not enough oxygen available
to burn the fuel gas completely. Consequently, the flame is smoky, sooty, and
unsuitable for use.
To set the flame appropriately, you need to increase the amount of oxygen by opening
the oxygen needle valve until the flame takes on a bluish white color with a bright inner
cone surrounded by a flame envelope of a darker hue. The inner cone is the portion of
the flame that develops the required operating temperature.
All oxygas processes commonly

use one of three types of
preheat flames: carburizing,
neutral, or oxidizing.
You need to know their
characteristics to ensure proper
flame adjustment.
Figure 4-25 shows how the
three different flames look.
Figure 4-25 Example of carburizing, neutral,

and oxidizing flames.
2.1.1 Carburizing Flame
The temperature of a carburizing flame is about 5400F. It always shows distinct colors;
the inner cone is bluish white, the intermediate cone is white, the outer envelope flame
is light blue, and the feather at the tip of the inner cone is greenish.
The length of the feather can be used as a basis for judging the degree of carburization.
The highly carburizing flame is longer with yellow or white feathers on the inner cone;
the slightly carburizing flame has a shorter feather on the inner cone and becomes
whiter.
Strongly carburizing flames are not used in cutting low-carbon steels because the
additional carbon they add causes brittleness and hardness. However, these flames are
ideal for cutting cast iron; the additional carbon poses no problem, and the flame adds
more heat to the metal because of its size.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-26
Slightly carburizing flames are ideal for cutting steels and other ferrous metals that
produce a large amount of slag. Although a neutral flame is best for most cutting, a
slightly carburizing flame is ideal for producing a lot of heat down inside the kerf. It
makes reasonably smooth cuts and reduces the amount of slag clinging to the bottom of
the cut.
2.1.2 Neutral Flame
The temperature of a neutral flame is about 5600F. It is the most common preheat
flame for oxygas cutting. The carburizing flame becomes neutral when you add
additional oxygen. The feather will disappear from the inner flame cone, and all that will
be left is the dark blue inner flame and the lighter blue outer cone.
The neutral flame will not oxidize or add carbon to the metal you are cutting. In actuality,
a neutral flame acts like the inert gases that are used in TIG and MIG welding to protect
the weld from the atmosphere. When you focus a neutral preheat flame on a single spot
on the metal until it melts, it forms a clear-looking molten puddle that lies very quietly
under the flame.
2.1.3 Oxidizing Flame
The temperature of an oxidizing flame is about 6000F. When you add a little more
oxygen to the preheat flame, it will quickly become shorter. The flame will start to neck
down at the base next to the flame port, and the inner flame cone changes from dark
blue to light blue. Oxidizing flames are much easier to look at because they are less
radiant than neutral flames.
The oxidizing flame is rarely used for conventional cutting since it produces excessive
slag and does not leave square-cut edges. Oxidizing flames are used in conjunction
with cutting machines that have a high-low oxygen valve. The machine starts the cut
with an oxidizing flame then automatically reverts to a neutral flame.
The oxidizing flame gives you fast starts when using high-speed cutting machines and
is ideal for piercing holes in plate. They are used also in cutting metal underwater where
the only source of oxygen for the torch is supplied from the surface.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-27
2.2.0 Cutting Mild-Carbon Steel

To cut mild-carbon steel with the oxygas cutting torch, adjust the preheating flames to
neutral.
Hold the torch perpendicular to
the work, with the inner cones of
the preheating flames about
1/16 inch above the end of the
line to be cut (Figure 4-26).
Hold the torch in this position
until the spot you are heating is
a bright red.
Open the cutting oxygen valve
slowly but steadily by pressing
down on the cutting valve lever.
When the cut is started
correctly, a shower of sparks
will fall from the opposite side of
the work, indicating that the
flame has pierced the metal.
Figure 4-26 Typical position to start a cut.
Move the cutting torch forward along your proposed cut line just fast enough for the
cutting oxygen flame to continue to penetrate the work completely. If you make the cut
properly, you will get a clean, narrow cut
that looks almost like it was made by a saw.
When cutting round bar or heavy sections,
you can save preheating time by raising a
small burr with a chisel where you will begin
the cut. This small raised portion will heat
quickly, allowing you to start cutting
immediately.
Once you start the cut, move the torch
slowly along the cutting mark or guide;
watch the cut to observe progress and
adjust as necessary. You need to move the
torch at the correct speed.
Too slow the preheating flame melts the
top edges along the cut and they may weld
back together again behind the cut. Too fast
the oxidizing flame will not penetrate
completely, as shown in Figure 4-27.
Figure 4-27 Example of moving

too rapidly across the work.
When this happens, sparks and slag will blow back towards you. Make sure there is no
slag on the opposite side if you have to restart the cut.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-28
2.2.1 Cutting Thin Steel

When you cut steel 1/8-inch thick or less,
use the smallest cutting tip available and
angle the tip in the direction of travel to
give the preheating flames a chance to
heat the metal ahead of the oxygen jet
(Figure 4-28).
For thin metals, holding the tip
perpendicular decreases the amount of
preheated metal and the adjacent metal
cools the cut enough to prevent smooth
cutting action.
You can actually rest the edge of the tip on
the metal during this process. If you do so,
be sure to keep the end of the preheating
flame inner cone just above the metal.
Figure 4-28 Example of method for
cutting thin metal.
2.2.2 Cutting Thick Steel
For steel thicker than 1/8-inch, hold the torch so the tip is almost vertical to the surface.
One method, if you are right-handed, is to start at the right edge and move to left. Lefthanded people tend to cut left to right but either direction is correct, and if conditions
permit, cut in the direction that is most comfortable for you. Figure 4-29 shows the
progress of a cut in thick steel.
Figure 4-29 Example of progress cutting mild steel thicker than 1/8-inch.
A. Hold the preheat flame 1/16 to 1/8 inch from surface until the metal becomes
cherry red.
B. Press the cutting oxygen valve and move the torch at an even rate to maintain
rapid oxidation even though the cut is only partially through the metal.
C. The cutting oxygen cuts through the entire thickness as the bottom of the kerf
lags slightly behind the top edge.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-29
Avoid unsteady movement of the torch; a smooth movement helps prevent irregular
cuts and premature stopping of the cutting action.
There are three methods to starting a cut quicker in thick plate.
1. Start at the edge with the torch angled in the opposite direction of travel. When
the edge starts to cut with the cutting oxygen, bring the torch to a vertical position
to cut through the total thickness of the metal. As soon as the cut is through the
metal, start moving the torch in the direction of travel.
2. Nick the edge with a cold chisel at the point where the cut is to start. The sharp
edges of the metal upset by the chisel will preheat and oxidize rapidly, allowing
you to start the cut without preheating the entire edge of the plate.
3. Place an iron filler rod at the edge of a thick plate. As you apply the preheat
flames to the edge of the plate, the filler rod rapidly reaches the cherry red
temperature. At this point, turn the cutting oxygen on; the rod will oxidize and
cause the thicker plate to start oxidizing.
Table 4-2 provides recommended tip sizes and gas pressures when using Acetylene to
cut different steel thicknesses.
Table 4-2 Acetylene cutting tip chart.
Cutting Oxygen
Metal
Tip
Thickness Size Pressure
PSIG
Flow
SCFH
PreAcetylene
heat
Speed Kerf
Oxygen Pressure Flow IPM Width
PSIG
SCFH
PSIG
1/8"
000
20-25
20-25
3-5
3-5
6-11
20-30
.04
1/4"
00
20-25
30-35
3-5
3-5
6-11
20-28
.05
3/8"
25-30
55-60
3-5
3-5
6-11
18-26
.06
1/2"
30-35
60-65
3-6
3-5
9-16
16-22
.06
3/4"
30-35
80-85
4-7
3-5
8-13
15-20
.07
1"
35-40
140-160
4-8
3-6
10-18 13-18
.09
2"
40-45
210-240
5-10
4-8
14-24 10-12
.11
3"
40-50
280-320
5-10
5-11
18-28 10-12
.12
4"
45-55
390-450
6-12
6-13
22-30
.15
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-9
4-30
2.3.0 Cutting Cast Iron

The iron oxides in cast iron melt at a higher temperature than the cast iron itself. This
makes cutting cast iron more difficult than cutting steel. Before you cut cast iron,
preheat the whole casting to prevent stress fractures, but do not heat it to too high a
temperature; that will oxidize the surface and make cutting more difficult. A preheat
temperature of about 500F is normally satisfactory.
Use a carburizing flame when you cut cast iron. This prevents the formation of oxides
on the surface and provides better preheat.
A cast-iron kerf is always wider than a

steel kerf due to the presence of oxides
and the torch movement.
Use a torch movement similar to scribing
semicircles along the cutting line (Figure 430).
As the metal becomes molten, trigger the
cutting oxygen and use its force to jet the
molten metal out of the kerf.
The difficulty in cutting cast iron with the
usual oxygas cutting torch has led to the
development of other processes such as
the oxygen lance, carbon-arc powder,
inert-gas cutting, and plasma-arc methods.
Figure 4-30 Example of torch
movement for cast iron.
2.4.0 Gouging Mild Steel

A cutting torch can also be used to cut curved grooves on the edge or surface of a plate
or to remove faulty welds for rewelding. Typically, for gouging you use an angled tip with
a large orifice and a low-velocity jet of oxygen instead of a high-velocity jet. The lowvelocity jet oxidizes only the surface of the metal and gives you better control for more
accurate gouging. By varying travel speed, oxygen pressure, and tip to plate angle, you
can make a variety of gouge contours.
A gouging tip usually has five or six preheat orifices that provide a more even preheat
distribution. Figure 4-31 shows the variety of gouging tips available and an example of a
typical gouging operation. Note the large cutting oxygen orifice typical of gouging tips.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-31
Figure 4-31 Typical gouging tips and the gouging process.

You must start the gouging operation properly (not too deep) or you can unintentionally
cut through the entire thickness of the plate. Alternately, if you cut too shallow, you can
cause the operation to stop.
The travel speed of the torch along the gouge line is important as well; moving too fast
creates a narrow, shallow gouge, and moving too slow creates the opposite, a deep,
wide gouge.
2.5.0 Beveling Mild Steel

Often, Steelworkers must cut plate or pipe on a bevel to meet a joint design for welding.
To make a 45 bevel cut on a 2-inch steel plate, you will actually have to cut through 2.8
inches of metal and need to consider this when you select a tip and adjust the
pressures. You must use more pressure and less speed for a bevel cut than for a
straight cut.
When you make a bevel cut, adjust the tip
so the preheating orifices straddle the cut.
To help maintain the proper angle and
travel speed, use a piece of 1-inch angle
iron with the angle up as a guide for
beveling straight edges.
You can keep the angle iron in place by
using a heavy piece of scrap angle,
clamping a lighter angle down, or tack
welding the angle to the plate being cut.
Then move the torch along your guide, as
shown in Figure 4-32.
Figure 4-32 Example of using angle
iron to assist in a bevel cut.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-32
2.6.0 Electric Drive Cutting Torch Carriage

One improvement over a mechanical guide is an electric motor-driven cutting torch
carriage. With this tool, you can vary the speed of the motor to cut to dimensions at a
specific speed. A typical motor-driven carriage has four wheels: one driven by a
reduction gear, two on swivels (castor style), and one freewheeling.
The torch is mounted on the

side of the carriage and
adjusted up and down by a gear
and rack.
This machine comes with a
radial bar for use in cutting
circles and arcs (Figure 4-33).
The carriage is equipped with
an off-and-on switch, a
reversing switch, a clutch, and a
speed-adjusting dial calibrated
in feet per minute.
Figure 4-33 Example of using a cutting torch

carriage to cut a circle.
This machine comes with a

straight two-groove rack.
The rack is a part of the special
torch. The torch also can be
tilted for bevel cuts.
Figure 4-34 shows an electric
drive carriage on a straight track
being used for cutting a plate
straight edge to size.
Figure 4-34 Example of using a cutting torch

carriage on track to cut a straight edge.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-33
Still other specialty carriages are used in

commercial and industrial projects to
prepare pipe for welding
Figure 4-35 shows a cutting torch carriage
being used to bevel a large diameter pipe.
Regardless of which automatic carriage is
available, the operator must ensure that
the electric cord and gas hoses do not
become entangled on anything during the
cutting operation.
The best way to check for hose, electric
cord, and torch clearance is to free-wheel
the carriage the full length of the track by
hand.
Figure 4-35 Example of using a
cutting torch carriage to bevel a pipe.
On deployment, you may find the torch carriage a valuable asset, especially if your shop
is tasked with producing a quantity of identical parts, such as handhole covers for
runway fixtures or thick base plates for vertical columns.
When you use the torch carriage, perform the following steps in order.
Lay the track in a straight line along a line parallel to the edge of the plate you
are going to cut.
Perform the freewheeling exercise to check for hose and cord travel.
Light the torch and adjust the flame for the metal and thickness you are cutting.
Move the carriage so the torch flame preheats the edge of the plate.
Open the cutting oxygen valve and turn on the carriage motor.
The machine will begin to move along the track and continue to cut automatically until it
reaches the end of the track. The cutting speed will depend on the thickness of the steel
you are cutting.
When the cut is complete, perform these steps in order:
Promptly turn off the cutting oxygen.
Turn off the current.
Extinguish the flame.
2.7.0 Cutting and Beveling Pipe

You need practice, experience, and a steady hand to cut pipe in a smooth, true bevel.
Do not attempt to cut and bevel a heavy pipe in one operation until you have developed
that considerable skill.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-34
Instead, until you develop the single step

skills, cut the pipe off square, remove all
the slag from the inside of the pipe, then
bevel the pipe.
For the inexperienced Steelworker, this
procedure will produce a cleaner and
better job.
When you cut pipe, keep the torch pointed
toward the centerline of the pipe.
Start at the top and cut down one side;
then begin at the top again and cut down
the other side, finishing at the bottom, as
Figure 4-36 Example of cutting pipe.
The cutting torch is a valuable tool when you need to make T and Y fittings from pipe.
The usual procedure for fabricating pipefittings is to develop patterns like those shown
in Figure 4-37 Views A-1 and B-1. Be sure to leave enough material so the ends
overlap.
After you develop the patterns, wrap them around the pipe, as shown in Figure 4-37
Views A-2 and B-2, and trace around the pattern with soapstone or a scribe.
Figure 4-37 Example of fabricating a pipe T section.

It is also a good idea to mark the outline with a prick punch at 1/4-inch intervals. Place
the punch marks so the cutting action will remove them. If you leave them on the pipe,
they could provide notches where cracking could start. During the cutting procedure, as
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-35
the metal is heated, the punch marks stand out and make it easier to follow the line of
cut.
As already mentioned, an experienced Steelworker can cut and bevel pipe at a 45
angle in a single operation, but a person with little cutting experience should cut the pipe
at a 90 angle then bevel the edge of the cut to a 45 angle.
With the two-step procedure, you need to mark an additional line on the pipe. Draw the
second line parallel to the line traced around the pattern, but draw it on the waste area
away from the original pattern line at a distance equal to the thickness of the pipe wall.
Make your first (90) cut along the second line in the waste area. Make your second
(45) cut along the original pattern line.
The disadvantages of the two-step procedure are the time expended and the
consumption of oxygen and gas, but it is better than a wasted attempt if the single cut
effort damages the pipe. When deployed at the end of a long resupply, you will need to
weigh the risks.
The one-step method, while not particularly difficult, does require a steady hand and a
great deal of experience to turn out a first-class job.
Refer again to Figure 4-37 for an example of the one-step method for fabricating a T.
View A shows the steps for preparing the branch of the T.
View B shows the steps for preparing the main section of the T
View C shows the assembled T, tack-welded and ready for final welding.
View A, Step 3 shows the procedure for cutting the miter on the branch. Begin the cut at
the end of the pipe and work around until the one-half of one side is cut. Keep the torch
at a 45-degree angle to the surface of the pipe along the punched cut line. While the tip
is at a 45-degree angle, move the torch steadily forward, and at the same time, keep
swinging the butt of the torch upward through an arc, always angling the tip towards the
centerline of the pipe. This torch manipulation is necessary to keep the cut progressing
in the proper direction with a bevel of 45 degrees at all points on the miter. Cut the
second portion of the miter in the same manner as the first.
View B, Steps 3 and 4 show the torch manipulation necessary to cut the run in the main
branch of the T. Step 3 shows the torch angle for the starting cut, and Step 4 shows the
cut at the lowest point on the pipe. Here you change the angle to get around the sharp
curve and start the cut in an upward direction.
View B, Step 5 shows the completed cut for the run. The bevels must be smooth and
obtain complete fusion when you weld the joint. Of course you will check the fit of your
cut pieces, but before you do your final assembly and tack weld for a fabricated fitting,
you must clean all the slag from the inner pipe wall.
2.8.0 Piercing Holes

The cutting torch is also valuable for piercing holes in steel plate. Figure 4-38 shows the
steps to use.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-36
Lay plate on firebricks or

other suitable material so
no damage occurs at
burn through.
Hold torch over location

with tip of preheating
flames inner cone about
1/4 inch above surface.
Hold until small spot has

heated to a bright red.
Open cutting oxygen

valve gradually and raise
nozzle slightly away at
the same time.
Rotate torch with slow

spiral motion.
At burn through, lower tip

and oscillate to enlarge.
Figure 4-38 Typical steps in piercing a hole

with a cutting torch.
The molten slag will blow out of the hole and fly around, so BE SURE your goggles are
tightly fitted to your face, and avoid placing your head directly above the cut.
If you need a larger hole, outline the edge of the hole with a piece of soapstone, and
follow the procedure indicated above. Begin the cut from the hole you pierced by
moving the preheating flames to the normal distance from the plate and follow the line
drawn on the plate. You can make round holes easily by using a radius bar attachment
with the cutting torch.
2.9 0 Cutting Rivets

The cutting torch is a proven and excellent tool for removing rivets from structures to be
disassembled. The basic method is to heat the head of the rivet to cutting temperature
with the preheating flames and turn on the cutting oxygen to wash it off. The remaining
portion of the rivet can then be punched out with light hammer blows. The key is to
avoid gouging the surface metal. Figure 39 shows the rivet cutting procedures.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-37
Use tip size and oxygen

pressure required for size
and type of rivet.
Heat a spot on rivet head

until bright red.
Move tip to position

parallel with surface and
slowly turn on cutting
oxygen.
Cut slot in rivet head;

when cut nears plate,
draw nozzle back at least
1 inches from rivet.
Swing tip in an arc slicing

off half of rivet
Swing tip in an arc slicing

off other half of rivet.
Figure 4-39 Example of rivet cutting steps.
By the time you cut the slot, the rest of the rivet head is at cutting temperature. Just
before you get through the slot, draw the torch tip back the 1 inches to allow the
cutting oxygen to scatter slightly. This keeps the torch from breaking through the ever
present layer of scale between rivet head and plate and allows you to cut the rivet head
off without damaging the surface of the plate. If you do not draw the tip away, you could
cut through the scale and into the plate.
Figure 4-40 shows a typical rivet cutting tip. Use this
type whenever it is available.
For buttonhead and countersunk rivets, a low-velocity
cutting tip is better. This tip has a large diameter cutting
oxygen orifice similar to the gouging tip shown in Figure
4-31. It has three preheating orifices above the oxygen
orifice. Always place a low-velocity rivet cutting tip in the
torch so the heating orifices are above the cutting orifice
when it is in the cutting position.
Figure 4-40 Example of
a rivet cutting tip.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-38
2.10.0 Cutting Wire Rope

You can use a cutting torch to cut wire rope. Wire
rope is constructed by wrapping multiple strands
around a core, and since these strands do not form
one solid piece of metal, you could have trouble in
making the cut. When you cut wire rope, you need
to focus the torch on one strand at a time working
your way through the layers. Figure 4-41 is an
example of wire rope construction.
To prevent the wire rope strands from unlaying
during cutting, seize the wire rope on each side of
the place where you intend to cut.
Adjust the torch to a neutral flame and cut the
strands one at a time between the seizings.
If the wire rope is going to go through sheaves, you
should fuse the strand wires together and point the
end.
This makes reeving the block much easier,
particularly when you are working with a largediameter wire rope and when reeving blocks are
close together.
To fuse and point wire rope, adjust the torch to a
neutral flame; then close the oxygen needle valve
until you get a carburizing flame.
Figure 4-41 Typical wire

rope construction.
Manipulate the torch in an in-and-out and oscillating

manner to fuse the wires together and point the wire rope at the same time.
Wire rope is lubricated during fabrication and lubricated routinely during its service life.
Some lubrication burning is likely to occur, so ensure that excess lubricant is wiped off
before you begin to cut it with the oxygas torch.
2.11.0 Cutting on Containers

WARNING
Never cut or weld on containers that have held a flammable substance until they
have been cleaned thoroughly and safeguarded. Cutting, welding, or other work
involving heat or sparks on used barrels, drums, tanks, or other containers is
extremely dangerous and can lead to property damage or loss of life.
Whenever available, use steam to remove volatile materials. Washing the containers
with a strong solution of caustic soda or a similar chemical will remove heavier oils.
Even after thorough cleansing, the container should be further safeguarded by filling it
with water before doing any cutting, welding, or other hot work. In almost every
situation, it is possible to position the container so it can be kept filled with water during
these operations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-39
Always ensure there is a vent or opening in the container to release the heated vapor
that builds inside. You can do this by opening the bung, handhole, or other fitting above
the water level.
When it is practical to fill the container with water, you also should use carbon dioxide or
nitrogen in the vessel for added protection, and examine the gas content of the
container periodically to ensure the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) or
nitrogen (N ) is high enough to prevent a flammable or explosive mixture. You can test
the air-gas mixture inside any container with a suitable gas detector.
The carbon dioxide concentration should be at least 50 percent of the air space inside
the container, and 80 percent or more when you detect the presence of hydrogen (H ) or
carbon monoxide (CO ) . If you use nitrogen, ensure the concentration is at least 10
percent higher than that specified for carbon dioxide.
Even in apparently clean containers, you should use carbon dioxide or nitrogen
because there may still be traces of oil or grease under the seams. Although the vessel
was cleaned and flushed with a caustic soda solution, heat from the cutting or welding
operation could cause the trapped oil or grease to release enough flammable vapors to
form an explosive mixture inside the container.
A suspiciously light metal part may be hollow inside; therefore, you should vent the part
by drilling a hole in it before heating. Remember: air or any other gases confined inside
a hollow part will expand when heated and the internal pressure created may be
enough to cause the part to burst.
Before you do any hot work, take every possible precaution to vent any air confined in
jacketed vessels, tanks, or containers.

2.
What is the kindling temperature for steels?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1000F to 1200F
1200F to 1400F
1400F to 1600F
1600F to 1800F
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-40
3.0.0 JUDGING CUTTING QUALITY

How good a cutting job are you
doing? Refer to Figure 4-42.
To know how good a cut you
are making, you need to know
what constitutes a good oxygas
cut.
The quality of an oxygas cut is
judged generally by four
characteristics:
1. The shape and length of
the draglines
2. The smoothness of the
sides
3. The sharpness of the top
edges
4. The amount of slag
adhering to the metal
Figure 4-42 Typical effects of correct and
incorrect cutting procedures.
3.1.0 Drag Lines

Drag lines show on the face of the cut. Good drag lines are almost straight up and down
(Figure 4-42 View A). Poor drag lines are long and irregular or excessively curved
(Figure 4-42 View B). Poor drag lines indicate you are using a poor cutting procedure,
which could result in the loss of the cut (Figure 4-42 Views B and C).
3.2.0 Side Smoothness

A satisfactory oxygas cut will show smooth sides. A grooved, fluted, or ragged cut
surface is a sign of poor quality.
3.3.0 Top Edge Sharpness

The top edges should be sharp and square (Figure 4-42 View D). Rounded top edges
(Figure 4-42 View E) are unsatisfactory. The top edges melting may be a result of
incorrect preheating procedures or of moving the torch too slowly.
3.4.0 Slag Conditions

An oxygas cut is not satisfactory when slag adheres so tightly to the metal that it is
difficult to remove.
Overall, draglines are the best single indication of the quality of your cut with an oxygas
torch. When the draglines you make are short and almost vertical, the sides smooth,
and the top edges sharp, you can be assured that the slag conditions are satisfactory.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-41
4.0.0 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

In all cutting operations, you must ensure that hot slag is not exposed to combustible
material. Globules of hot slag can roll along the deck for long distances, so do not cut
within 30 to 40 feet of unprotected combustible materials. If you cannot remove
combustible materials, cover them with sheet metal or some other flameproof guards.
Keep the fuel gas and oxygen cylinders far enough away from the work so hot slag
does not fall on the cylinders or hoses.
Many of the safety precautions discussed in the welding chapters of this course apply to
cutting as well as to welding. Be sure you are completely familiar with all the appropriate
safety precautions before attempting oxygas cutting operations.
4.1.0 Backfire and Flashback

Backfire is the result of improperly operating the oxygas torch and the flame goes out
with a loud snap or pop. If this happens, close the torch valves, check the connections,
and review your operational techniques before relighting the torch. You may have
caused the backfire by touching the tip against the work, by overheating the tip, or by
operating the torch with incorrect gas pressures. It may also be caused by a loose tip or
head, or by dirt on the seat.
Flashback occurs when the flame burns back inside the torch, typically with a shrill
hissing or squealing noise. If this happens, close the torch oxygen valve at once to stop
the flashback; then close the gas valve and the oxygen and gas regulators.
Flashbacks may extend back into the hose or regulators. They indicate that something
is wrong either with the torch or with the way you are using it. Investigate every
flashback to determine the cause before you relight the torch. Allow the torch to cool
before relighting it and blow oxygen through the cutting tip for a few seconds to clear out
soot that may have accumulated in the passages.
A clogged orifice or incorrect oxygen and gas pressures are often responsible for
flashbacks. Avoid using gas pressures higher than manufacturers recommendations.
4.2.0 Cylinders
Gas cylinders are made of high-quality steel. High-pressure gases, such as oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and compressed air, are stored in cylinders of seamless
construction. Only nonshatterable, high-pressure gas cylinders may be used by ships or
activities operating outside the continental United States. Cylinders for low-pressure
gases, such as acetylene, may be welded or brazed. Cylinders are carefully tested,
either by the factory or by a designated processing station, at pressures above the
maximum permissible charging pressure.
4.2.1 Identification of Cylinders
Color warnings provide an effective means for marking physical hazards and for
indicating the location of safety equipment. The Navy uses uniform color codes for
marking compressed-gas cylinders, pipelines carrying hazardous materials, and fire
protection equipment.
Five classes of material have been selected to represent the general hazards for
dangerous materials, while a sixth class has been reserved for fire protection
equipment. Table 4-3 shows the colors that represent the six classes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-42
Table 4-3 Standard Colors for General Hazards

Class
Standard Color
Class of Material
Yellow, No. 13655
FLAMMABLE All materials known ordinarily as flammables or

combustibles.
Brown, No. 10080
TOXIC AND POISONOUS All materials extremely hazardous to life or

health under normal conditions as toxics or poisons.
Blue, No.15102
ANESTHETICS AND HARMFUL All materials productive of anesthetic

vapors and all liquid chemicals and compounds hazardous to life and
property but not normally productive of dangerous quantities of fumes or
vapors.
Green, No.14260
OXIDIZING All materials which readily furnish oxygen for combustion

and fire producers which react explosively or with the evolution of heat in
contact with many other materials.
Gray, No.16187
PHYSICALLY DANGEROUS All materials, not dangerous in

themselves, which are asphyxiating in confined areas or which are
generally handled in a dangerous physical state of pressure or
temperature.
Red, No. 11105
FIRE PROTECTION All materials provided in piping systems or in

compressed-gas cylinders exclusively for use in fire protection.
Since you work with fuel gas and oxygen, you must become familiar with the Navys
designated colors for the cylinders containing these gases; the fuel-gas cylinder is
yellow, the oxygen cylinder is green.
In further compliance with the Navys system, in addition to color-coding, the exact
identification of the material contained in a compressed-gas cylinder must be indicated
by a written title that appears in two locations-diametrically opposite and parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder. Cylinders with a background color of yellow, orange, or
buff have the title painted in black lettering. Cylinders with a background color of red,
brown, black, blue, gray, or green have the title painted in white lettering.
4.2.1.1 Color Warnings
A compressed-gas cylinder with one of the specified six colors appearing on the body
or top, or as a band or bands should provide you with a warning of danger from the
hazard involved.
4.2.1.2 Cylinder Color Bands
Cylinder color bands appear upon the cylinder body and serve as color warnings when
they identify one of the general hazards by being yellow, brown, blue, green, or gray.
The bands also provide color combinations to separate and distinguish cylinders for
convenience in handling, storage, and shipping. Color bands for segregation purposes
will not be specified for any new materials not presently covered by MIL-STD-101B.
4.2.1.3 Decals
Two decals may be applied on the shoulder of each cylinder. They should be
diametrically opposite and at right angles to the titles. They should indicate the name of
the gas, and precautions for handling and use. A background color should correspond
to the primary warning color of the contents.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-43
4.2.1.4 Shatterproof Cylinders

A shatterproof cylinder should be stenciled with the phrase NONSHAT longitudinally
90 degrees from the titles. Letters must be black or white as appropriate to the
background color and approximately 1 inch in size.
4.2.1.5 Service Ownership
On cylinders owned by or procured for the Department of Defense (DOD), the bottom
and the lower portion of the cylinder body opposite the valve end may be used for
service ownership titles.
Table 4-3 identifies the six colors used on a compressed-gas cylinders body and cap
(top), or as a band, to serve as a warning of the hazard involved in handling the type of
material the cylinder.
Figure 4-43 shows DOD titles and color codes for compressed-gas cylinders most often
found in a construction battalion or in a public works department where Seabee
personnel are working.
Title
Location on Cylinder
Top A
Band B
Band C
Body
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Argon, oil free
Gray
White
Gray
Gray
Carbon Dioxide
Gray
Gray
Gray
Gray
Carbon Dioxide (fire only)
Red
Red
Red
Red
Helium, oil-tolerant
Gray
Orange
Gray
Gray
Methyle Acetylene Propadiene (MAPP) mixture
Yellow
Orange
Yellow
Yellow
Oxygen
Green
Green
Green
Green
Acetylene
Figure 4-43 Typical DOD titles and colors found in Seabee working areas.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-44
Figure 4-44 shows how DOD cylinders are

identified by:
Class of material body color codes
Additional color codes for top and/or cap as

appropriate
Additional identifying color code bands as

appropriate
Stenciled name of the gas in contrasting

black or white
Refer to MIL-STD 101B, Color Code for Pipelines

and for Compressed-Gas Cylinders. Dec 1970, for
a complete listing of compressed-gas cylinder and
piping identification requirements.
NOTE
Ensure you have a manual with the latest up-todate changes inserted, as changes may occur in
MIL-STD 101B after this course is published.
NOTE
The color codes of cylinders shown in Figure 4-44
are military only; the commercial industry does not
comply with these color codes.
4.2.2 Handling and Storing Gas Cylinders
Each compressed-gas cylinder carries markings
indicating compliance with Interstate Commerce
Commission (ICC) requirements. Cylinders at
your work site are your responsibility, and when
handling and storing compressed-gas cylinders
there are several things you should not do.
Never fill your own cylinders; it requires

special training and special equipment.
Never alter or fix the safety devices on a

cylinder.
Figure 4-44 Typical

cylinder identifying color
patterns.
o It is illegal as well as stupid. Cylinder

owners and suppliers are the only personnel permitted to work on cylinder
safety devices.
Never store cylinders near a heat source or in direct sunlight.

o Heat causes the gas inside a cylinder to expand, which could result in
cylinder failure or fire.
Never store cylinders in a closed or unventilated space.

o If one of the cylinders were to leak, it could cause an explosion or asphyxiate
someone entering the space.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-45
o Store cylinders in protected, well-ventilated, dry spaces. Protect the cylinder

valves and safety devices from ice and snow. A safety device may not work if
it is frozen.
Never store fuel cylinders and oxidizers within the same space.
o Oxidizers must be stored at least 50 feet from fuel cylinders. Use fire-resistant
partitions between cylinder storage areas.
Never mix empty cylinders with full cylinders.

o Do not mix cylinders that contain different gases.
o Always replace the cylinder cap and mark the cylinder Empty or MT.
o Store the cylinders in a cool, dry place ready for pickup by the supplier.
o Chain the cylinders when they are stored in the upright position.
Never drag a cylinder to move it.

o Use a cylinder hand truck whenever available; leave the cylinders on the
hand truck and operate them from there as much as possible. Alternatively,
tilt the cylinder slightly and roll it on the bottom edge.
o Always install the cylinder cap before moving the cylinder.
Never use slings or magnets to carry cylinders.

o Avoid lifting a cylinder upright by the cap; make sure that it is screwed on
tightly. A cylinder cap suddenly releasing can be hazardous to your teeth,
and/or the cylinder can fall and either crush your foot or snap the valve off.
o A dropped pressurized cylinder with a sudden valve break can launch itself
like a rocket.
When cylinders have been stored outside in freezing weather, they sometimes become
frozen to the ground or to each other. This is true particularly in the Antarctic and Arctic
areas. To free the cylinders, you can pour warm water (not boiling) over the frozen or
icy areas. As a last resort, you can pry them loose with a pry bar. If you use a pry bar,
never pry or lift under the valve cap or valve.
Summary
This chapter has presented information on the different types of gases and equipment
available and necessary to perform quality oxygas cutting on metals. It has also
identified the operational steps you should take to prepare the material and adjust the
equipment to the characteristics of the metal. However, it takes handson practice and
experience to develop the skills and steady hand to make good quality cuts. Your
tasking is to practice your cutting techniques, judge your work by the criteria presented
here, and do so in a manner that is safe for you and those around you in both the shop
and field working environments.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-46

1.
What portion, if any, of a ferrous metal becomes oxidized during the oxygas
cutting process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
(True or False) Metals that oxidize readily are best suited for oxygas cutting.
A.
B.
3.
Improper cooling
Improper gas flow
Leakage
All of the above
What action should you take to keep cutting tips in proper working order when
they are not in use?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
True
False
What type of problem(s) can occur during their use if the cutting torch tips and
seats are not properly matched and assembled?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
True
False
(True or False) The principal difference between a standard cutting torch and an
oxygas welding torch is that the cutting torch has an extra tube for high-pressure
oxygen.
A.
B.
4.
Portion directly in the path of the preheating flame

Portion directly in the path of the oxygen jet
Portion previously cut
None
Place them in kits.

Store them in toolboxes20-foot.
Store them in a container equipped with a wooden rack.
Store them in a mount-out box.
Which of these basic types of MAPP tips do Steelworkers often use?

A.
B.
C.
D.
High pressure only

Standard pressure only
High pressure and normal cutting
Standard pressure and high cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-47
Refer to the figure below when answering questions 7-9.
7.
Which cutting torch tip is a low-velocity tip?

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What cutting torch tip is a MAPP gas two-piece tip?

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
1
2
3
4
Which cutting torch tip is specially designed for cutting rivets?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
(True or False) The FS type of MAPP gas-cutting tip can be used for machine
cutting.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-48
11.
What can you use as a tool to clean torch tip orifices when a tip cleaner is not
available?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
(True or False) When cleaning the orifices of a tip with a cleaner, you should
push the cleaner straight into the orifices and pull it straight out without twisting.
A.
B.
13.
True
False
With which of these tools can you correct slightly belled orifices by wearing down
the end of the tip?
A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Nail
Welding rod
Soft cooper wire
Twist drill
Grinding tool
Wire brush
Emery cloth
Rasp file
(True or False) Before starting to cut with a torch, you should inspect the
working area and adjacent areas for combustibles that must be removed or
covered to keep sparks or slag from igniting them.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-49
Refer to the table below when answering question 15.

Material
Thickness
inches
(millimeters)
1/8 (3)
3/16 (4.8)
1/4 (6.4)
1/2 (12.7)
3/4 (19)
1 (25.4)
1 1/4 (31.8)
1 1/2 (38)
2 (50.8)
2 1/2 (63.5)
3 (76)
4 (101)
15.
40-50
2-10
56
54
52
50-60
48
46
60-70
6-10
1 1/4 inches only

1 1/4 or 1 1/2 inches
1 1/2 or 2 inches
2 inches only
Safety match
Open flame
Spark igniter
Butane lighter
What type of flame should you use to cut steels that produce a lot of slag?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
MAPP Gas
Pressure
(psig)
What device is used to ignite a cutting torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
75
72
68
61
Oxygen
Cutting
Pressure
(psig)
What thickness material can you cut when using a Number 54 tip and setting the
oxygen cutting pressure between 50 to 60 psig?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Cutting Tip
Number
Oxidizing
Neutral
Carburizing
Cyanizing
What distance in inches should you maintain between the preheating flame and
the surface of the metal when using the cutting torch to preheat a mild-carbon
steel plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1/32
1/16
1/8
3/16
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-50
19.
How should the shower of sparks fall when you have started a cut properly and
the cut is going all the way through the material?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
Which of the following actions can save time when you need to cut a round piece
of metal stock with a cutting torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
three
four and one-half
six and one-half
eight
What error are you making when cutting metal plate with an oxygas torch and
you cause the top surfaces of the kerf to fuse?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Oxidizing
Neutral
Carburizing
Cyanizing
One 70-pound MAPP cylinder can accomplish the work of more than _____ 225cubic-foot acetylene cylinders.
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Using a one-piece standard pressure tip

Using a two-piece, fine spline, standard pressure tip
Chiseling a small burr at the starting point on the stock
Punching a small dent in the stock at the starting point
What type of flame is best for piercing holes in plate?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
Over both sides of the material

From the top of the material
Over one side of the material
From the bottom of the material
Using too much oxygen pressure

Advancing the torch too slowly
Holding the torch tip too close to the line of cut
Advancing the torch too rapidly
What effect does moving the cutting torch too fast have on the material during
the cutting process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
An incomplete cut
Slag buildup on the cutting side
Penetration by the cutting oxygen
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-51
25.
What results when you cut thin steel by holding the torch vertical to the metal
surfaces?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
When, if ever, can you place your cutting torch almost vertical to the surface for
cutting?
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
True
False
When cast iron is being cut, what is the preheating temperature?

A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
True
False
(True or False) One way you can commence a starting cut is to place an iron
filler rod at the edge of a thick metal plate and begin preheating it.
A.
B.
30.
bright
cherry
light
dark
(True or False) To start a cut quickly in thick plate, you should hold the cutting
torch so it slants toward the direction of travel.
A.
B.
29.
Cutting steel that is less than 1/8 inch thick

Cutting pipe that is over 1/4 inch thick
Cutting steel that is over 1/8 inch thick
Never
When cutting steel greater than 1/8 inch thick, you position the torch so the
preheat flames are from 1/16 to 1/8 inch from the plate. You then hold the flame
at this position until the steel becomes _____ red.
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
A smooth cutting action

An irregular cutting action
Accelerated flame penetration
Slow flame penetration
200F
300F
400F
500F
Which of these tasks are you accomplishing by varying the speed of travel, the
oxygen pressure, and the angle of a large orifice, and by using a low-velocity-jet
cutting tip on the surface of a metal plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Creating gouged contours

Beveling
Chamfering
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-52
32.
Which of these actions using a cutting torch can result in a deep, wide gouge on
a metal plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
When cutting bevels on a plate instead of cutting straight through on the same
plate, you must use (a)_____ oxygen pressure and (b)______ cutting speed.
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
B.
C.
D.
Releasing the clutch and pushing the carriage an arms-length in either

direction on the track
Releasing the clutch and freewheeling the carriage the full length of the
track by hand
Releasing the clutch, opening the oxygen torch valve, and measuring the
flame distance between the torch and material
Turning on the current and making a dry pass with the torch
In what sequence should you secure the machine after the desired cut with the
motor-driven cutting torch is completed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
Hand wheel only

Radial bar only
Reduction gear assembly and the hand wheel
Gear and rack assembly
By performing which of the following actions can you check the clearance of the
torch before cutting when using an electric drive carriage on a straight track?
A.
36.
(a) more (b) slower

(a) more (b) faster
(a) less (b) slower
(a) less (b) faster
By what component(s) do you adjust a motor-driven cutting torch up and down?

A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
Applying too much cutting oxygen

Moving the torch too fast in the cut
Moving the torch too slow in the cut
All of the above
Extinguish the flame, turn off the cutting oxygen, then turn off the electric
current.
Turn off the cutting oxygen, extinguish the flame, then turn off the electric
current.
Turn off the cutting oxygen, turn off the electric current, then extinguish the
flame.
There is no specific sequence to follow.
Which of the following actions should an inexperienced operator perform to

obtain a smooth bevel on heavy pipe with an oxygas cutting torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Cut the pipe off square, then cut the bevel.

Cut the pipe off square, then cut the bevel with a bench grinder.
Use a small cutting tip, one that is easy to manipulate.
Use a length of angle iron to guide the torch along the line of cut.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-53
38.
(True or False) When cutting pipe, you should always keep the torch pointed
toward the centerline of the pipe.
A.
B.
39.
True
False
What condition can develop if you do not cut out the punch marks used to mark
an outline when fabricating a T-fitting from pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Slag buildup
Enlarged kerf
Irregular bevel
Cracking
Refer to the figure below when answering questions 40-41.
40.
What step shows the procedure for cutting the miter on the branch of the pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
41.
Step 1, part B
Step 2, part A
Step 3, part A
Step 1, part C
What step shows the completed cut for the run?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Step 1, part C
Step 2, part B
Step 3, part A
Step 5, part B
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-54
42.
What is the desired distance relative to the preheating cones and the metal
surfaces when you use the cutting torch to pierce holes in a steel plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
What procedural step should you take just before slicing off a portion of the head
when removing a rivet from a plate with a cutting torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
B.
C.
D.
Clamp the wire rope with c-clamps on each side where the cut is to be
made.
Wrap the wire rope with seizing wire on each side where the cut is to be
made.
Place the wire rope in a riggers vise.
Heat the ends of the wire rope until the strands fuse together.
What action should you take before cutting a wire rope with an oxygas cutting
torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
47.
Low velocity
High velocity
Fast cut
Low speed
How can you prevent the strands of rope from unlaying when cutting wire rope
with a torch?
A.
46.
Heat the entire rivet and surrounding plate to cutting temperature.

Change the torch tip from preheating to cutting.
Remove the layer of scale between the rivet head and the plate.
Cut a slot in the rivet head.
What type of cutting tip with a large diameter cutting oxygen orifice is considered
best suited for cutting buttonhead rivets and removing countersunk rivets?
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
The inner preheating cones contact the metal surface.

The outer preheating cones are about 1/16 inch above the metal surface.
The inner preheating cones are about 1/8 inch above the metal surface.
The inner preheating cones are about 1/4 inch above the metal surface.
Remove excess lubricant.

Remove the outer layer of strands.
Coat the rope with a special flux material in the area to be cut.
Fuse the ends of the strands to prevent unlaying of the wire rope.
Acetylene is extremely dangerous if used above _____ pounds pressure.

A.
B.
C.
D.
8
10
12
15
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-55
48.
What element in an acetylene cylinder can contaminate cutting torch equipment if

the cylinder is not upright when in use?
A.
B.
C.
D.
49.
Under what conditions, if any, can you actually rest the cutting tip on the metal
you are cutting?
A.
B.
C.
D.
50.
True
False
Which characteristic indicates a good cutting job with an oxygas torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
54.
Copper
Aluminum
Stainless steel
Cast iron
(True or False) A single-stage regulators pressure will decrease as the cylinder

pressure decreases.
A.
B.
53.
narrower
wider
deeper
shallower
On which metal do you use a reciprocating torch movement to cut?

A.
B.
C.
D.
52.
When cutting cast iron

When the fuel-gas pressure is low
When cutting thin metal
Never
A cast iron kerf is always _____ than a steel kerf due to the presence of oxides
and the torch movement.
A.
B.
C.
D.
51.
Ketone
Acetone
Methyl acetate
Naphtha
Smooth at the sides

Sharp and square at the top
Free of slag
All of the above
Which characteristics of a drag line indicates proper cutting procedures were

followed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Long and irregular

Long and vertical
Short and vertical
Short and irregular
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-56
55.
What minimum distance in feet is permitted between unprotected combustibles

and oxygas cutting equipment that is being used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
56.
Under which of these circumstances can a backfire occur during the operation of
an oxygas cutting torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
57.
Loose tip or head

Clogged valves
Clogged orifices
Dirt in the seating
When, if ever, should you weld or cut a container that once held a flammable
substance?
A.
B.
C.
D.
60.
Close off the gas value first.

Close off the oxygen valve first.
Close off both valves simultaneously.
None
What component(s) of an oxygas cutting torch unit is/are usually responsible for
a flashback?
A.
B.
C.
D.
59.
Overheating of the cutting tip

Dirt on the tip seat
Incorrect gas pressure
All of the above
What action, if any, should you take to stop a flashback safely with an oxygas
cutting torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
58.
10
20
30
40
After cleaning
After filling with water
After cleaning and filling with water
Never
What percentage of air space inside a water-filled container should carbon

dioxide occupy when it is used in a vessel for additional protection?
A.
B.
C.
D.
40
50
60
80
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-57
61.
What additional safety precaution should you take when doing any hot work on
water-filled tanks or containers?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Vent them.
Stem them.
Wash them chemically.
Seal them.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-58

Infusorial earth
Another name for diatomaceous earth (light soil

consisting of siliceous diatom remains [microscopic
shells] often used as a filtering material).
psig
Pound-force per square inch gauge - a unit of pressure

relative to the surrounding atmosphere.
ppm
Parts per million - used especially in science and

engineering to denote relative proportions in measured
quantities, particularly in low-value (high-ratio)
proportions at the parts-per-million (ppm).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-59

MIL-STD-101B, Military Standard, Color Code for Pipelines and for Compressed Gas
Cylinders, December 1970
Oxyacetylene Welding, Cutting and Brazing, EW269 OAW, Hobart Institute of Welding
Technology, 1995
Safety and Health Requirements Manual, EM 385-1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1987.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-60

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
4-61
Chapter 5
Gas Welding
Topics
1.0.0
OXYGAS Welding Equipment
2.0.0
Operation and Maintenance of OXYGAS

Equipment
3.0.0
OXYGAS Welding Techniques
Overview
Welding (also called fusion welding) is the process of heating two or more materials
(usually metals) to a melting point where they can coalesce, sometimes with additional
material (a third metal) called filler. When the heating is provided by gas, naturally, the
term used is gas welding. Oxyacetylene and oxy-MAPP (methylacetylenepropadiene)
welding are two types of gas-welding processes. Both require a gas-fueled torch to
raise the temperature of two similar pieces of metal to the fusion point that allows them
to flow together. A filler rod is used to deposit additional metal as necessary to merge
the two base materials. The gas and oxygen must be mixed to correct proportion and
pressure in the torch, and you can adjust the torch to produce the type of flames
appropriate for the metal being welded.
This chapter presents information on the equipment and materials used in gas welding,
as well guidance on the operation and maintenance of oxyacetylene and oxy-MAPP
equipment. In addition, it will recommend welding techniques for both ferrous and
nonferrous metals.
Objectives
1. Describe the purpose and components of the OXYGAS welding equipment.
2. Describe the operation and maintenance of OXYGAS welding operations.
3. Identify the different types OXYGAS welding techniques.
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-1

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-2

again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-3
1.0.0 OXYGAS WELDING EQUIPMENT

Fundamentally, an oxygas welding outfit is the same as an oxygas cutting outfit; the
only exception is the torch, or in some combination torches, only the torch head. An
oxygas welding outfit is also called a welding rig (Figure 5-1).
Like the cutting outfit, the minimum welding outfit consists of the following parts:
Cylinder of acetylene or MAPP gas
Cylinder of oxygen
Two regulators
Two lengths of hose with fittings
Torch with welding tips
Figure 5-1 Typical oxygas welding rig similar to oxygas cutting rig.
In addition to the basic equipment shown, you also will use much of the same auxiliary
equipment as presented in Chapter 4 Gas Cutting, and the same safety equipment
identified in Chapter 3 Introduction to Welding, for example, tip cleaners, cylinder trucks,
clamps, strikers, gang wrench, and holding jigs. Safety apparel such as goggles, gloves,
as well as leather aprons, sleeves, and leggings are essential, and you should wear
them as appropriate for the work being performed (Figure 5-2).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-4
Figure 5-2 Examples of common auxiliary and safety equipment for oxygas
welding and oxygas cutting.
Like oxygas cutting equipment, a welding
rig may be stationary or portable.
Figure 5-3 shows the setup of a portable
oxygas welding or cutting rig. This portable
setup is very advantageous when it is
necessary to move the equipment,
particularly on a project site with rough
terrain since the metal wheels will not go
flat.
To perform your gas welding duties, you
must be able to set up and adjust the
equipment, so you must understand the
purpose and function of the basic pieces.
The gases, cylinders, regulators, hoses,
and safety equipment are covered in
Chapter 4. If you have any questions,
review Chapter 4 before continuing.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 5-3 Typical setup of a portable

welding or cutting rig.
5-5
1.1.0 Welding Torches

A properly adjusted oxygas welding torch mixes oxygen and the selected fuel-gas in the
proper proportion and delivers a controlled amount of the mixture to burn at the welding
tip. An oxygas welding torch has the following basic parts:
Handle (body) with two tubes (one for oxygen/ one for fuel) and two needle
valves
o One valve for adjusting oxygen flow
o One valve for adjusting fuel-gas flow
Mixing head
Tip
Welding tips are made from a

special copper alloy available in
a wide range of styles,
configurations, and sizes to
accommodate for various plate
thicknesses, and to meet
welders needs ranging from
industrial manufacturers to the
individual hobby shop user
(Figure 5-4).
Some manufacturers models
are designed as tubes, silverbrazed to the head with rearend forgings fitted into the
handle.
Other manufacturers have
welding tips with flexible tubes.
Figure 5-4 Examples of the variety of oxygas
welding tips available.
There are two general types of welding torches:
Low pressure
Medium pressure
The low-pressure torch is also known as an injector torch. The injector torch uses fuelgas pressure at about 1 psig (pound per square inch gauge) or less, with oxygen
pressure ranges set between 10 to 40 pounds, depending on the size of the torch tip.
The flow of relatively high-pressure oxygen produces the suction (venturi effect)
necessary to draw the low-pressure fuel-gas into the mixing head. The welding tips may
or may not have separate injectors in the tip. Figure 5-5 shows a typical mixing head for
a low-pressure (injector) torch.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-6
Figure 5-5 Mixing head for a low-pressure (injector) torch.

Medium-pressure torches are also known as balanced-pressure or equal-pressure
torches. While overall operating pressures will vary depending on the size and type of
tip necessary for the thickness of the material, these torches operate with the fuel-gas
and oxygen pressure relatively equal.
Figure 5-6 shows a typical equal-pressure (general-purpose) welding torch. A mediumpressure torch is easier to adjust than a low-pressure torch and, since you are using
equal oxygen and fuel-gas pressures, you are less likely to get a flashback. (Refer to
Chapter 4 for information on flashbacks.)
Figure 5-6 Typical equal-pressure (general-purpose) welding torch mixing

head.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-7
WARNING
If you use acetylene as the fuel-gas, never allow the pressure to exceed 15 psig;
acetylene becomes very dangerous at 15 psig and is self-explosive at 29.4 psi.
Welding mixers and tips are designed in
several ways.
Some torch designs have a separate
mixing head or mixer for each tip size
(Figure 5-7, View A). Other designs have
only one mixer for several tip sizes.
Tips come in various types; some are onepiece hard-copper tips, and others are
two-piece tips that include an extension
tube to make the connection between the
tip and the mixing head (Figure 5-7, View
B).
When used with an extension tube,
removable tips are made of hard copper,
brass, or bronze.
Figure 5-7 Examples of fixed and
removable tips.
Each manufacturer assigns its own arrangement for classifying tip sizes, but typically
they are designated by a number system which corresponds to the diameter of the hole
in the tip.
1.2.0 Filler Rods

The term filler rod refers to the filler metal you use in gas welding, brazing, and certain
electric welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding or TIG, where the filler
metal is not a part of the electrical circuit. As its name implies, filler rod supplies the filler
metal to the joint. Depending on the characteristics and thickness of the metal, a weld
designs required gaps and bevels may vary widely, so filler rod comes in a variety of
sizes and in wire or rod form to accommodate a projects needs.
Most rods are available in 36-inch lengths and a wide variety of diameters, ranging from
1/32 to 3/8 inch. The thickness of the base metal will determine which diameter you
need to use.
Rods for welding cast iron vary from 12 to 24 inches in length and are frequently
square, rather than round.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-8
As a rule, filler rods are uncoated except

for a thin film resulting from the
manufacturing process.
Filler rods for welding steel are often
copper-coated to protect them from
corrosion during storage (Figure 5-8).
Many different types of rods are
manufactured for welding ferrous and
nonferrous metals.
In general, welding shops stock only a few
basic types that are suitable for use in all
welding positions. These basic types are
known as general-purpose rods.
Figure 5-8 Typical filler rod and
packaging.
You select the proper filler rod based on the specifications (specs) of the metal being
joined, and there are federal, military, or Navy specs for filler rods that identify which
filler rod may be used with which metal. This means the specs apply to all federal
agencies, the military establishment, or the Navy, respectively.
Presently, one or more of these three types of specifications cover filler metals, but
eventually all Navy specifications will be rewritten as military (MIL) specifications.
Therefore, some of the specifications presented in this section may subsequently be
published as military rather than Navy specifications.

1.
Fundamentally, an oxygas welding outfit is the same as an oxygas cutting outfit.

A.
B.
True
False
2.0.0 OPERATION and MAINTENANCE of OXYGAS

EQUIPMENT
This section presents the basic procedures involved in setting up oxygas equipment,
securing the equipment, lighting it off, and adjusting the flame. It also provides
information on the maintenance of oxygas welding equipment.
2.1.0 Operation
A properly made gas weld has a consistent appearance that shows a uniform deposit of
weld metal and complete fusion of the sidewalls forming a good joint (Figure 5-9).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-9
You must consider some of the

following factors when making a
gas weld:
Edge preparation
Spacing and alignment of

parts
Temperature control
before, during, and after
the welding
Size of torch tip
Size and type of filler rod
Flame adjustment
Rod and torch

manipulation
Figure 5-9 Example of consistent appearance
and uniform deposit.
In some cases, you need to use fluxes to remove oxides and slag from the molten metal
and to protect the puddle from atmospheric contamination.
When you join sections of sheet and thin plate by gas welding, you need to melt the
edges uniformly with the heat from the torch. When you weld heavier plate, you need to
use filler metals to accommodate the designed gaps and beveled edges required to
permit heat and weld penetration to reach the base of the joint. You melt the filler metal
along with the base metals, and as they mix and solidify, they form a continuous piece.
Usually, you do not need filler metal for light sheet metal, and the edges of light sheet
metal are flanged at the joint so they flow together to form one solid piece when you
melt them.
2.1.1 Selecting the Welding Torch Tip Size
The size of a welding tip is designated by a number stamped on the tip, and the tip size
is determined by the size of the orifice (Figure 5-10).
The various manufacturers do not use a

common system of identifying welding tip
sizes; each has its own part number
identification system.
This course will refer to tip size by using
the number drill for the orifice size.
Figure 5-10 Welding tip orifices.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-10
Once you are familiar with a specific manufacturers torch and tip numbering system,
referring to the tip by the orifices number drill size will become unnecessary.
Number drills consist of a series of 80 drills, numbered 1 through 80. The diameter of a
number 1 drill is 0.2280 of an inch, and the diameter of a number 80 drill is 0.0135 of an
inch. Table 5-1 shows the full range of number drill sizes.
NOTE: The higher the number of the drill, the smaller the size the drill.
Table 5-1 Number Drill Bit Conversion Table
gauge
inches
mm
gauge
inches
mm
gauge
inches
mm
80
0.0135
0.343
53
0.0595
1.511
26
0.147
3.734
79
0.0145
0.368
52
0.0635
1.613
25
0.1495
3.797
78
0.016
0.406
51
0.067
1.702
24
0.152
3.861
77
0.018
0.457
50
0.07
1.778
23
0.154
3.912
76
0.02
0.508
49
0.073
1.854
22
0.157
3.988
75
0.021
0.533
48
0.076
1.93
21
0.159
4.039
74
0.0225
0.572
47
0.0785
1.994
20
0.161
4.089
73
0.024
0.61
46
0.081
2.057
19
0.166
4.216
72
0.025
0.635
45
0.082
2.083
18
0.1695
4.305
71
0.026
0.66
44
0.086
2.184
17
0.173
4.394
70
0.028
0.711
43
0.089
2.261
16
0.177
4.496
69
0.0292
0.742
42
0.0935
2.375
15
0.18
4.572
68
0.031
0.787
41
0.096
2.438
14
0.182
4.623
67
0.032
0.813
40
0.098
2.489
13
0.185
4.699
66
0.033
0.838
39
0.0995
2.527
12
0.189
4.801
65
0.035
0.889
38
0.1015
2.578
11
0.191
4.851
64
0.036
0.914
37
0.104
2.642
10
0.1935
4.915
63
0.037
0.94
36
0.1065
2.705
0.196
4.978
62
0.038
0.965
35
0.11
2.794
0.199
5.055
61
0.039
0.991
34
0.111
2.819
0.201
5.105
60
0.04
1.016
33
0.113
2.87
0.204
5.182
59
0.041
1.041
32
0.116
2.946
0.2055
5.22
58
0.042
1.067
31
0.12
3.048
0.209
5.309
57
0.043
1.092
30
0.1285
3.264
0.213
5.41
56
0.0465
1.181
29
0.136
3.454
0.221
5.613
55
0.052
1.321
28
0.1405
3.569
0.228
5.791
54
0.055
1.397
27
0.144
3.658
Orifice size will determine the quantity of fuel-gas and oxygen fed to the flame, and by
extension, it determines the amount of heat the torch tip can produce: the larger the
orifice, the greater the heat.
If you use a torch tip with too small an orifice, you will not be able to generate enough
heat to bring the metal to its fusion temperature.
If you use a torch tip with too large an orifice, you are likely to produce poor welds for
these reasons:
1) The weld is made too fast.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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2) You have difficulty controlling the melting of the filler rod.

3) You cannot control the appearance.
Therefore, the quality of the weld is unsatisfactory.
For practice purposes, use an equal-pressure torch with the filler welding rod sizes and
the tip sizes shown in Table 5-2; they should give you satisfactory results as you
develop your hands-on skills.
Table 5-2 Welding Rod Sizes and Tip Sizes Used to Weld Various Thickness of
Metal
Pressures
Oxygen Fuel-Gas
Metal Thickness
Diameter Welding
Rod*
Tip Drill Size
1/16
1/16-3/32
60-69
1/8
3/32-1/8
54-57
1/4
5/32-3/16
44-52
3/8
3/16-1/4
40-50
* Sizes listed in this table are approximate and will give satisfactory results. The size of the piece welded
will govern the choice. When welding small pieces, use the smaller size tip and welding rod. When
welding larger pieces, use the larger size tip and welding rod.
2.1.2 Equipment Setup

Except for the selection of the torch, or just the welding tip in the case of a combination
torch, you set up the oxygas equipment and prepare for welding the same way you set it
up for oxygas cutting. Review Chapter 4 Gas Cutting if you need a refresher.
Select the correct tip and mixing head (depending on the torch manufacturer), and
connect them to the torch body. Tighten the assembly snugly by hand, adjust the tip to
the proper working angle, and then tighten the tip. Depending on the manufacturer and
model, you tighten some equipment with a wrench (those with nut ends), while others
you only hand tighten (those with knurled ends).
2.1.3 Torch Lighting and Flame Adjustment
Light the torch and adjust the flame by following the manufacturers directions for the
particular model of torch you are using. Procedures vary with different manufacturers
torches and, in some cases, even with different models made by the same
manufacturer, so always use their guidance for lighting.
After lighting, adjust the flame according to the type of metal being welded: carburizing,
neutral, or oxidizing. Again, review Chapter 4 Gas Cutting if you need more in-depth
coverage of the different types of flames.
Always adjust the welding flame to neutral before setting it to work at either the
oxidizing or carburizing flame mixture.
A neutral flame is correct for welding most metals. When you weld steel with this
flame, the puddle of molten metal is quiet and clear, and the metal flows without
boiling, foaming, or sparking.
The carburizing flame is best used for welding high-carbon steels, hardfacing,
and welding nonferrous alloys such as Monel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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The oxidizing flame has a limited use and is harmful to many metals. When you
apply an oxidizing flame to steel, it causes the molten metal to foam and spark.
You use a slightly oxidizing flame to braze steel and cast iron. You use a
stronger oxidizing flame to fusion weld brass and bronze.
2.2.0 Maintaining the Equipment

Like any other equipment, you must perform minor upkeep and proper maintenance for
welding equipment to operate at peak efficiency, give useful service, and be readily
available when you need it. You are not required (or authorized) to make major repairs;
however, when major repairs are indicated, you need to remove the equipment from
service and turn it in for repair. This section presents some of the common types of
maintenance duties you will need to perform.
2.2.1 Torch Gas Leaks
Occasionally, the torch heads needle valves may fail to shut off when hand tightened in
the normal manner. If this occurs, do not use a wrench to tighten the valve stem.
Instead, use the following procedures:
Open the valve and try to blow the foreign matter off the valve seat by using
increased working gas pressure in the hose. (Do not exceed 15 psig for
acetylene.)
If this fails, remove the stem assembly and wipe the needle valve and seat clean.
Reassemble the valve and try closing it tightly by hand several times.
If these measures fail to stop the leak, have the parts replaced or the valve body
reseated. Only a qualified person should make this repair.
When there is leakage around the torch valve stem, you can tighten the packing nut or
repack it if necessary. For repacking, use only the packing recommended by the torchs
manufacturer. DO NOT USE ANY OIL. While it is disassembled for repacking, observe
the valve stem, and if bent or badly worn, replace it.
Before you use a new torch for the first time, check the packing nut on the valves to
make sure they are tight; some manufacturers ship torches with these nuts loose.
Leaks in a torchs mixing-head seat will cause the oxygen and fuel-gas to leak between
the inlet orifices leading to the mixing head; this causes improper gas mixing and
flashbacks. You can correct this problem by sending the equipment to the manufacturer
for repair by having the seat in the torch head reamed and the mixing-head seat trued.
2.2.2 Welding Torch Tips
Welding tips are subject to considerable abuse just by the nature of their working
environment. The tip may be damaged if you allow it to contact the welding work,
bench, or firebricks. This damage roughens the end of the tip and causes the flame to
burn with a fishtail. In addition, you must avoid dropping a tip because that may
damage the seat that seals the joint with the mixing chamber.
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For a welding tip to perform satisfactorily, you must:
Keep the orifice smooth and clean.
Maintain a flat and smooth face.
Remove carbon deposits and slag regularly.
Exercise care when you clean a welding

tip; do not enlarge or scar the orifice.
Special welding/cutting tip cleaners are
available to help remove carbon or slag
from the tip orifice (Figure 5-11).
The cleaner set contains a series of
broach wires that correspond to the
diameter of the tip orifices.
These wires are packaged in a holder,
which makes their use safe and
convenient.
Figure 5-11 Typical welding/cutting

tip cleaner.
Figure 5-12, View A shows a tip cleaner in

use.
Some welders prefer to use a number drill
the size of the tip orifice to clean welding
tip orifices (Figure 5-12, View B).
A number drill must be used carefully so
the orifice is not enlarged, bell-mouthed,
reamed out of round, or otherwise
deformed.
Refer to Table 5-1 for number drill sizes.
Figure 5-12 Typical welding/cutting

tip cleaner in use.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-14
Recondition the tip face if it becomes

rough, pitted, or the orifice is bell-mouthed.
To ensure a properly shaped flame, the
face end of the tip must be clean, smooth,
and at right angles to the centerline of the
tip orifice.
Some tip cleaner sets contain a small file
for maintaining the tip face (Figure 5-13,
View A).
As an alternative, you can use a 4-inch mill
file (Figure 5-13, View B) to recondition the
surface provided you exercise extreme
care not to over-file the surface of the
much softer copper.
Figure 5-13 Reconditioning the face
of a welding/cutting tip.
Another easy method involves a piece of emery cloth. Place it grit side up on a flat
surface; hold the tip face perpendicular to the emery cloth and rub the tip back and forth
just enough to true the surface and to bring the orifice back to its original diameter.
2.2.3 Regulator Leaks
Regulator creep, that is, gas leakage between the regulator seat and the nozzle, is the
most common type of trouble with regulators.
The most obvious indicator of this problem is the gradual rise of working-gauge
pressure without having moved the adjusting screw. This trouble can be caused by
worn or cracked seats, but it is due more often simply to foreign matter lodged between
the seat and the nozzle.
You need to remove leaking regulators from service at once, and then send them for
repair to prevent possible injury to personnel or additional equipment damage,
particularly with faulty fuel-gas regulators. Fuel-gas under pressure in a hose becomes
an explosive hazard, and remember, acetylene is over-pressured and dangerous at just
15 psig. To ensure the safety of personnel and equipment, ensure that regulators with
such leaks are removed from service and turned in for repair.

2.
What characteristics indicate a properly made gas weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Complete fusion of the sidewalls

Uniform deposit of weld metal
Consistent appearance
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-15
3.0.0 OXYGAS WELDING TECHNIQUES

You can use the forehand or backhand method to weld with oxygas. Each technique
has its advantages, particularly in different positions, so you need to become skillful with
both; it is the relative position of the torch and rod that determines whether you consider
a technique forehand or backhand, not the direction of welding. Under any
circumstances, you need to use the method considered best, but the best method will
depend upon a combination of factors: type of joint, joint position, joint design, and heat
control on the parts.
3.1.0 Forehand Welding

In forehand welding, also called puddle or ripple welding, you point the flame in the
direction of travel. You hold the tip at an angle of about 45 degrees to the working
surfaces and keep the rod ahead of the flame in the direction in which you are making
the weld (Figure 5-14).
This flame position preheats the

edges you are welding just
ahead of the molten puddle.
While moving with the torch tip,
rotate the tip and welding rod
back and forth in opposite,
semicircular paths to distribute
the heat evenly.
As the flame passes the welding
rod, it melts a short length of the
rod and adds it to the puddle.
The motion of the torch
distributes the molten metal
evenly to both edges of the joint
and to the molten puddle.
Figure 5-14 Example of forehand welding.

Forehand is ideal for thin plate; it permits better control of a small puddle and results in
a smoother weld.
You can use the forehand technique in all positions for sheet and light plate up to 1/8
inch thick. However, it is not the recommend method for heavy plate because it lacks
sufficient base metal penetration.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-16
3.2.0 Backhand Welding

In backhand welding, you point the flame away from the direction of travel and back at
the molten puddle and completed weld (Figure 5-15).
Hold the welding tip at an angle

of about 60 degrees with the
plates or joint being welded, and
place the welding rod between
the torch tip and the molten
puddle.
You use less motion in the
backhand method than in the
forehand method.
If you use a straight welding
rod, rotate it so the end rolls
from side to side and melts off
evenly.
You may, however, need to
bend the rod when working in
confined spaces.
Figure 5-15 Examples of backhand welding.
If you have to bend the rod, it becomes difficult to roll, so to compensate, move the rod
and torch back and forth at a rather rapid rate.
When you make a large weld, move the rod so it makes complete circles in the molten
puddle, and move back and forth across the weld while advancing slowly and uniformly
in the direction of the welding.
Backhand welding is best suited for material more than 1/8 of an inch thick. You can
use a narrower vee at the joint than is possible with forehand welding, and an included
angle of 60 degrees is sufficient to get good joint penetration. In addition, the backhand
method requires less welding rod or puddling than the forehand method.
By using the backhand technique on heavier material, you can increase your welding
speed, exercise better control of the larger puddle, and have more complete fusion at
the weld root. Also, if you use a slightly reducing flame (carburizing), you melt a smaller
amount of base metal while still welding the joint.
When you weld steel with a backhand technique and a slightly reducing flame, a thin
surface layer of metal absorbs carbon and reduces the melting point of the steel, thus
speeding up the welding operation. You can also use this technique in surfacing with
chromium-cobalt alloys.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-17
3.3.0 Multilayer Welding

You use multilayer welding with gas
welding for the same reason you do with
arc welding: to avoid carrying large,
difficult-to-control puddles when working
on thick plate and pipe (Figure 5-16).
Instead, concentrate on getting a good
weld at the bottom of the vee in the first
pass.
Then, in the next layers, concentrate on
getting good fusion with the sides of the
vee and the previous layer.
Generally, you can easily control the final
layer to get a smooth surface.
Figure 5-16 Example of multilayer
welding sequence.
Multilayer welding has an added advantage: you are refining the previous layer as you
make the succeeding layer. In effect, you heat-treat the weld metal by allowing one
layer to cool to a black heat before you reheat it, thus improving the ductility of the weld
metal. If you need to develop this added ductility in the last layer, you can deposit an
additional or succeeding layer and then machine it off.
3.4.0 Joint Edge Preparation

You can easily melt sheet metal and it does not require special edge preparation.
However, for a welding operation involving plate, you must prepare the joint edges and
provide for proper spacing. The plates thickness will determine the required amount of
edge preparation.
Up to 3/16 inch thick Butt the faces of square edges together and weld.
3/16 to 1/4 inch thick Provide a slight root opening between parts for complete
penetration.
More than 1/4 inch thick Use beveled edges and a root opening of 1/16 inch.
o Bevel each edge at an angle of 30 to 45 making the groove-included angle
from 60 to 90 .
o Prepare by flame cutting, shearing, flame grooving, machining, chipping, or
grinding.
o Ensure edge surfaces are free of oxides, scale, dirt, grease, or other foreign
matter.
You can weld plate 3/8 to inch thick from one side only, but you should prepare and
weld thicker sections on both sides. Generally, butt joints prepared on both sides permit
easier welding, produce less distortion, and ensure better weld qualities.
Only use oxygas welding for heavy steel plate when all other types of welding
equipment are unavailable. It is not cost effective due to the quantity of gases and the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-18
amount time needed to complete a weld. Instead, use a form of electric arc welding; you
can weld the joint faster and cheaper, with less heat distortion.
3.5.0 Ferrous Metals

The oxygas process easily welds low-carbon steel, low-alloy steel, cast steel, and
wrought iron. These metals have oxides that melt at a lower temperature than the base
metal, so you do not need to use flux.
During the welding process, enclose the molten puddle with the flame envelope. This is
to ensure the molten metal does not contact the air and begin to oxidize rapidly.
However, you need to reach a balance and avoid overheating the metal as well.
To make a good weld, you need a properly adjusted flame.
Adjust to neutral or slightly reducing (carburizing) flame.

o Do not use oxidizing flame.
Manipulate torch and rod with tip of oxygas cone about 1/16 to 1/8 inch from the
work surface.
Melt filler rod in the puddle, not with the flame.
There are no special problems involved in welding low-carbon steels and cast steels
other than selecting the proper filler rod.
Low-alloy steels usually require both pre- and post-welding heat treatment. This relieves
the stresses developed during welding and produces the desired physical properties of
the metal.
With steels, as carbon content increases, welding difficulty increases. Use a slightly
carburizing flame to weld steels with carbon content in the 0.3-percent to 0.5-percent
range, and these low-carbon steels require post-welding heat treatment to develop their
best physical properties.
High-carbon steel and tool steel require a slightly different technique.
Protect parts from drafts and slowly preheat to about 1000F.
Complete weld as rapidly as possible with carburizing flame and no flux.
Do not manipulate either rod or torch.
Add filler metal in small amounts as needed.
Use smaller flame and lower gas pressure than used for low-carbon steel.
o This is to ensure you do not overheat the steel.
After welding, you must heat-treat high-carbon steels and tool steels to develop the
physical properties required.
You use the same procedure for oxygas welding WROUGHT IRON as you do for lowcarbon or mild steel; however, you need to keep several points in mind (Figure 5-17).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-19
Wrought iron contains slag

incorporated during manufacturing.
Slag gives the molten puddles

surface a greasy appearance.
Do not confuse greasy appearance

with appearance of actual fusion.
Continue heating until sidewalls of

joint break down into puddle.
You obtain the best results with wrought

iron when you mix the filler metal (usually
mild steel) and base metal in the molten
puddle with a minimum of agitation.
Figure 5-17 Example of wrought iron
oxygas weld.
Oxygas welding CAST IRON is not difficult, but it does require a modification of the
procedure used with steel. Figure 5-18 shows some cast iron welding opportunities.
For metal:
Not exceeding 3/16 inch thick no V-groove required.
3/16 inch to 3/8 inch thick use a single V-butt joint with a 60 included angle.
Over 3/8 inch thick use a double V-butt joint with 60 included angles.
Preheat entire weldment

to between 750F and
900F.
Use neutral flame and

backhand method.
Use cast-iron filler metal.
Use appropriate flux but

sparingly.
Add filler metal by

directing inner cone of
flame against rod.
Do not dip rod into

puddle.
Deposit filler metal in

layers not exceeding 1/8
inch thick.
Figure 5-18 Examples of potential oxygas cast
iron welding projects.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-20
After you complete a cast iron weld, you must stress relieve the weldment by heating it
to between 1100F and 1150F and cooling it slowly.
Oxygas welding cast iron will provide a good color match and good machinability, but if
color match is not essential, you can use braze welding to make an easier and more
economical cast iron repair.
You can use oxygas welding for some CHROMIUM- NICKEL STEELS (STAINLESS
STEELS), but usually only for light sheet; typically, you join heavier pieces with one of
the electric arc welding processes.
On material 20 gauge (0.040 of an inch) or less thick, you can make the weld on a
turned up flange (equal to the metals thickness) without filler metal using the following
steps.
Clean joint surfaces with sandpaper or other abrasives.
Apply stainless steel flux.
Use torch tip one or two sizes smaller than used for mild steel of same thickness.
Use carburizing flame, as seen through goggles, with excess fuel-gas feather
extending about 1/16 inch beyond tip of inner cone.
Angle flame at an 80 angle to surface with cone tip almost, but not quite,
touching molten metal.
Weld in one pass using forehand technique.

o Do not puddle or retrace.
For welding light-gauge stainless steel, you need to use a uniform speed; if you find it
necessary to stop welding or reweld a section, wait until the entire weld has cooled.
3.6.0 Nonferrous Metals

Brazing and braze welding are the more common methods of joining nonferrous metals,
but oxygas welding is just as suitable in many situations. In most cases, joint designs
are the same for nonferrous metals as for ferrous metals, but welding nonferrous metals
usually requires you to clean the surfaces mechanically and also to use flux. Of course,
you must use filler metals suitable for the base metal as well.
3.6.1 Copper
You can oxygas weld pure copper, but where high-joint strength is a requirement, use
DEOXIDIZED copper (copper that contains no oxygen). Use the following guidance.
Use neutral flame.
Use flux.
Preheat to 500F to 800F.
Use larger size tip for welding.

o A larger tip supplies more heat to maintain the required temperature at the
joint.
Post-welding, cool slowly.
Other than the extra volume of heat required, the technique for welding deoxidized
copper is the same as for steel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-21
3.6.2 Copper-Zinc Alloy (Brasses)

You can weld copper-zinc alloys (brasses) using the same methods as for deoxidized
copper. However, for welding brasses you use a silicon-copper rod, which is usually
already flux-coated so you do not need additional flux. The preheat temperature for
brass is 200F to 300F.
3.6.3 Copper-Silicon Alloy (Silicon Bronze)
Welding copper-silicon alloy (silicon bronze) requires a different technique than for pure
copper and brass. Use the following guidance.
Use slightly oxidizing flame.
Use flux with high boric acid content.
Use filler metal of same composition as base metal.
As weld progresses, dip rod tip under viscous film covering puddle.
Keep puddle small so weld solidifies quickly.

CAUTION
Safeguard against zinc poisoning by doing welding outdoors or by wearing a

respirator, or by both, depending on the situation.
3.6.4 Copper-Nickel Alloy
To oxygas weld copper-nickel alloys, you must prepare the surface and preheat the
material. Use the following guidance.
Apply flux (a thin paste) by brush to all parts of joint and rod.
Use slightly carburizing flame.
Hold flame so inner cones tip just contacts base metal.

o Do not melt the base metal more than necessary to ensure good fusion.
Keep end of filler rod within protective envelope of flame.
Add filler metal without disturbing molten pool.
If possible, run weld from one end of joint to other without stopping.
After completion, cool slowly.
Remove remaining traces of flux with warm water.
3.6.5 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys

You can oxygas weld nickel and high-nickel alloys similar to the methods you use for
copper-nickel alloys.
Mechanically clean joint surfaces.
Use joint designs similar to steel thickness.

o For V-butt welds, use included angle of 75.
Apply flux (a thin paste) with a brush to both sides of seam, top and bottom, and
to filler rod.
o Plain nickel does not require flux.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-22
o High-nickel alloys require special boron-free and borax-free flux.
Use very slightly carburizing flame.
Use same size or one size larger tip as used for steel of same thickness.
Keep flame soft and cones tip in contact with molten pool.
Use suitable rod and keep it well within protective envelope of flame.
After completion, postheat and cool slowly.
Remove flux with warm water.
3.6.6 Lead
To oxygas weld lead, you need to use special tools and special techniques.
When you weld lead or lead alloys, wear a respirator approved for protection against
lead fumes.
WARNING
LEAD FUMES ARE POISONOUS.
Flux is not required, but you must ensure the metal in the joint area is scrupulously
clean by shaving the joint surfaces with a scraper and wire brushing them to remove all
oxides and foreign matter.
You can use a square butt joint if you are welding in the flat position, but for all other
positions, you need to use a lap joint with edges overlapping from to 2 inches,
depending upon the thickness.
Use special lightweight fingertip torch, with tips ranging from 68 to 78 in drill size.
Use neutral flame with gas pressure ranging from 1 to 5 psig, depending on
thickness.
o Flame length will vary from 1 to 4 inches depending upon gas pressures.
Use soft, bushy flame when welding in horizontal and flat positions.
Use more pointed flame when welding in vertical and overhead positions.
Ensure filler metal is same composition as base metal.
Manipulate flame in semicircular or V-shaped pattern to control and distribute

molten puddle.
Make separate, individual, tiny segment welds.

o Flick torch away upon completion of each semicircular or V-shaped
movement.
Make joints in thin layers.
Do not add filler metal on first pass; add on all subsequent passes.
3.6.7 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

If you are assigned to work with nonferrous metals, you can expect to do projects that
involve welding aluminum and aluminum alloys. Pure aluminum has a specific gravity of
2.70 and a melting point of 1210F, but pure aluminum is seldom used; it is soft, not
hard enough or strong enough for structural purposes. However, manufactured
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-23
aluminum is strengthened significantly with the addition of other elements to form

aluminum alloys.
Pure aluminum has only about the strength of steel, and the alloys are usually about
90 percent pure. Yet, when elements such as silicon, magnesium, copper, nickel, and/or
manganese are added to aluminum, the aluminum alloy is stronger than mild steel.
A considerable number of
aluminum alloys are available
and used to manufacture many
everyday items (Figure 5-19).
You may need to use some
aluminum alloys in sheet form to
make and/or repair lockers,
shelves, boxes, trays, and other
containers, or you may need to
repair chairs, tables, and other
items of furniture.
Typically, oxygas welding
aluminum alloy is confined to
materials from 0.031 to 0.125
inch thick, but you can weld
thicker material if necessary.
On the other hand, thinner
material is usually spot or seam
welded.
Figure 5-19 Examples of potential oxygas
aluminum alloy welding projects.
3.6.7.1 Melting Characteristics
Before you attempt to weld aluminum alloy for the first time, you need to be familiar with
how it reacts under the welding flame. You can practice using the following guidance.
Place a small piece of sheet aluminum on the welding table.
Use a neutral flame.
Hold the flame perpendicular to the surface and bring the tip of the inner cone
almost in contact.
o Observe almost without warning, the metal suddenly melts and runs away,
leaving a hole.
Repeat with the torch held at about 30 angle to the plane of the surface.
Move the flame slowly along the surface, melting a small puddle.
o Observe the puddle quickly solidifies when you remove the flame.
Continue this practice until you are able to control the melting. With a little practice, you
will be able to melt the surface metal without forming a hole.
When you have mastered this, proceed by practicing actual welding. Start with simple
flanged and notched butt joints that do not require a welding rod, then try using a
welding rod with thin sheet, and then with castings.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-24
3.6.7.2 WELDING RODS

There are two types of welding rods available for gas welding aluminum alloys.
1100
4043
For welding 1100 and 3003 type

aluminum alloys only.
For all other wrought aluminum

alloys and castings.
Provides maximum resistance to

corrosion.
Provides greater strength.
Offers high ductility.
Minimizes tendency for cracking.
3.6.7.3 Welding Fluxes

It is extremely important to use the proper flux when welding aluminum. Aluminum
welding flux is designed to remove the aluminum oxide by combining with it chemically.
In gas welding, oxide forms rapidly in the molten metal and must be removed or your
weld will be defective. To ensure proper flux distribution and minimize the oxide, paint
the flux on the welding rod as well as the surface to be welded.
Aluminum flux usually comes in powder form and you mix it with water to form a paste.
Keep the prepared paste in an aluminum, glass, or earthenware container; steel or
copper containers will contaminate the mixture.
For flanged joints where you do not use filler rod, it is essential that you apply plenty of
flux to the edges of both the bottom and top sides in the area of the weld.
On the other hand, after you finish welding, you must remove all traces of flux with a
brush and hot water; if you leave aluminum flux on the weld, it will corrode the metal.
3.6.7.4 Welding Preparation
The thickness of the aluminum will determine how you need to prepare edges.
On material up to 0.062 inch thick, form a 90 flange with
the height of the flange about the same height, or a little
higher, as the thickness of the material (Figure 5-20).
The flange edges must be straight and square.
You can use flange joints for material up to 0.125 (1/8)
inch thick.
No filler rod is necessary for welding flange joints.
Figure 5-20 Example
of aluminum alloy
flanged edge
preparation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-25
On material 0.062 to 0.188 inch thick, you can make

unbeveled butt welds, but notch the edges with a saw or
cold chisel similar to that shown in Figure 5-21.
When you edge notch aluminum welding, it aids in getting
full penetration and preventing local distortion.
All butt welds made in material over 0.125-inch thick are
usually notched in some manner.
Figure 5-21 Example
of aluminum alloy
notched edge
preparation.
To weld aluminum alloy more than 0.188 inch thick, both

bevel the edges and notch them as shown in Figure 5-22,
with the included angle of bevel from 90 to 120.
Figure 5-22 Example

of aluminum alloy
notched and beveled
edge preparation.
After you properly prepare the edges, clean the surfaces you will be welding. Use a
stainless steel wire brush to remove any heavy oxide, or a solvent-soaked rag to wipe
off any dirt, grease, or oil.
If you are welding aluminum plate 0.250-inch thick or greater, preheat it to 500F to
700F; this aids in avoiding heat stresses. Preheating also reduces fuel and oxygen
requirements for the actual welding.
Do not exceed 700F during your preheating operation or you may severely weaken the
alloy; high temperatures can cause large aluminum parts to collapse under their own
weight. Also, warm thin material with the torch before welding; this slight preheat helps
prevent cracking.
3.6.7.5 Welding Techniques
After preparing and fluxing the aluminum alloy pieces for welding, use the following
guidance to weld.
Pass flame in small circles over starting point until flux melts.
Keep flames inner cone off of flux to avoid burning it.

o If the flames inner cone burns the flux, it must be cleaned and reapplied.
Scrape rod over surface at 3- to 4-second intervals; let rod clear flame each time.
o A rod in the flame too long melts before the base metal melts.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-26
o Scraping action identifies softness and indicates when you can start welding
without overheating.
Maintain cycle throughout welding except allow rod to remain under flame long
enough to melt amount of filler metal needed.
With practice, you can easily master the rod and flame movement.
Generally, you should use the forehand method for welding aluminum alloys; the flame
points away from the completed weld, preheating the edges to be welded, which helps
prevent too rapid a melting as you progress.
For thin material, hold torch at a low angle.
For material 0.188-inch thick and above, increase torch angle to near vertical.
o Changing the torch angle according to the thickness minimizes burning
through sheet.
When you weld aluminum alloys up to 0.188-inch thick, you do not need to add any
motion to the torch other than forward, but on flanged material, you must break the
oxide film as the flange melts down. You can do this by stirring the melted flange with a
puddling rod, which is essentially a paddle flattened and shaped from a - inch
stainless steel welding rod.
When you weld aluminum alloys above 0.188 inch thick, give the torch a uniform lateral
motion to distribute the weld metal over the entire width of the weld. Also, use a slight
back-and-forth motion to assist the flux in removing oxides. Dip the filler rod in the weld
puddle with a forward motion.
Your welding speed will be directly related to the torchs angle; instead of having to lift
the flame to avoid melting holes, hold the torch at a flatter angle to the work. Never let
the flames inner cone contact the molten metal; keep it about 1/8-inch away from the
metal, and as you approach the end of the sheet, increase your welding speed.
If you are welding in the vertical position, give the torch an up-and down motion, rather
than a rotating one. If you are in the overhead position, give the torch a light back-andforth motion as in flat welding.
Whenever possible, hold heat-treatable alloys in a jig for welding to help eliminate
cracking. You can also reduce the likelihood of cracking by using the 4043 filler rod.
4043 rod has a lower melting range than the alloy being joined, thus permitting the base
metal to solidify before the weld puddle freezes.
The weld is the last area to solidify, so all of the contraction strains are in the weld bead
rather than throughout the base metal. To reduce cracking further, tack weld parts while
in the jig and then loosen the clamps and complete the work
As soon as the weld is complete and the work has cooled, thoroughly wash the weld by
scrubbing it vigorously with a stiff brush as hot water runs over it. Continue until you
have removed all traces of flux; if any flux is left on the weld, it can corrode the metal. If
hot water is unavailable, use a diluted solution of 10 percent sulfuric acid, then wash the
acid solution off with cold, fresh water.
3.7.0 Welding Pipe

In considering oxygas welding for pipe, many tests have proven that properly made
fusion-welded pipe joints are as strong as the pipe itself.
There are three essential requirements to meet for successful oxygas welding of pipe.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-27
1) You must have a convenient source of controlled heat available to produce rapid,
localized melting of the metal.
2) You must remove the oxides present on the surface or edges of the joints.
3) You must make a metal-to-metal union between the edges or surfaces by means
of molten metal.
Refer to Figure 5-23. It shows a welding operation at the top of a joint on a (assumed)
horizontal pipe. For certification welding test purposes, if the pipe is rolled, the test
would be to qualify the welder in the 1G position; if stationary, the test would be in the
5G position.
Figure 5-23 Example of a pipe welding operation using the backhand

technique.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-28
Now refer to Figure 5-24.

This figure shows a detail of the
flame and rod motions used to
weld the pipe with the backhand
technique.
The rod and flame are moved
alternately toward and away
from each other in an accordion
motion.
Figure 5-24 Example of the flame and rod

motion performed on a pipe with the backhand
technique.
An experienced welder can make full-strength oxygas welds in any physical welding
position, and on a stationary pipe, most positions will be used.
The cohesiveness of the molten metal, the pressure of the flame, the support of the
weld metal already deposited, and the manipulation of the rod all combine to keep the
molten metal in the puddle from running or falling.
The soundness and strength of your welds will depend heavily on the quality of the
welding rod you use. If you have any doubt about the quality of the rods available, or
you are unsure of which type to use, contact the rod manufacturer or one of the
distributors. If your rod was supplied through the federal stock system, supply personnel
should be able to look up the information you need based on the federal stock number.
The Linde Company has a method of fusion welding that is remarkably fast and
produces high quality welds. Anyone can use this process for welding pipe if they
adhere to the following conditions:
Use an excess fuel-gas (carburizing) flame.
Use a welding rod containing deoxidizing agents.
Use the backhand welding technique.
The following is a brief explanation:
Excess Fuel-Gas Flame As the base metal surface reaches white heat, it
absorbs carbon from the excess fuel-gas flame. This lowers the melting point of
steel; hence, the surface melts faster and speeds up the welding.
Special Deoxidizing Welding Rod Deoxidizing agents in the recommended rod

eliminate impurities and prevent excess oxidation of carbon.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-29
o Considerable carbon, the most valuable strengthening element of steel, would

be lost were it not for this action. Thus, even with high-carbon, high-strength
pipe, the weld metal is as strong as or stronger than the pipe material.
Backhand Technique This technique produces faster melting of the base

metal surfaces, and you can use a smaller bevel, resulting in a savings of 20 to
30 percent in welding time, rods, and gases.
One of the most valuable tools you can use when welding pipe is the pipe clamp. Pipe
clamps hold the pipe in perfect alignment until tack welds are placed. They are quickopening, and you can move or attach a clamp quickly. Figure 5-25 shows four different
variations of using chain clamps for pipe welding setup.
Figure 5-25 Examples of typical chain clamps aligning various pipefittings.

If these clamps are unavailable, you can fabricate your own by welding two C-clamps to
a piece of heavy angle iron; a piece of 4 x 4 x 3/8-inch angle iron about 12 inches long
is usually suitable. When you are butt-welding a small-diameter pipe, you can lay it in a
piece of channel iron to obtain true alignment, or when you are working on a large
diameter pipe, you can use a wide flange beam for alignment.
Summary
Gas welding is just one of many skills you need to practice and become proficient in as
a Steelworker. Depending on the characteristics and thickness of the material you have
for an assigned task, you may determine that gas welding is the preferred method for
either repair or fabrication. This chapter presented information about the necessary
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-30
equipment and identified how similar it is to gas cutting equipment in setup, use, and the
gases utilized. It also provided instructions on how to operate and maintain the
equipment in good working order with proper tip cleaning tools. Lastly, it offered gas
welding techniques with recommendations about when to use the forehand or backhand
technique relative to type of weld and specific metal. With this guidance, you should be
able to set up the equipment, adjust the pressures, select the appropriate filler metal to
match the base metal, and practice/practice/practice until you can demonstrate your
capabilities and proficiencies in gas welding to yourself and your supervisors.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-31

1.
Which factor should you consider when considering gas welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
From what special type of alloy(s) are welding tips made?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
One needle valve at the torch mixing head

Two needle valves at the torch mixing head
One separate mixing head for each gas
Two different size tips
In a low-pressure welding torch, the fuel-gas enters as a result of suction created

in the torch by a jet of higher-pressure _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
1 psig or less
2 to 3 psig
a constant 5 psig
greater than 7 psig
What device(s) control(s) the volume of oxygen and fuel-gas burned at the torch
tip?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Carbon and zinc

Tin and iron
Titanium
Copper
In a low-pressure torch, the fuel pressure in pounds per square inch (psig) is
_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Edge prep, spacing, and joint alignment

Flame adjustment and rod and torch manipulation
Temperature control, before, during, and after the welding process
All of the above
nitrogen
gasoline
oxygen
helium
(True or False) In a medium-pressure welding torch, the working pressure of

oxygen and fuel-gas is equal.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-32
7.
What primary function do filler rods serve in oxygas welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
The copper coating on steel filler rods enables the rods to _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
True
False
What mistake have you most likely made when you have difficulty controlling the
melting of the welding rod, the welds are being made too fast, and their
appearance and quality are unsatisfactory?
A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Specifications of the metal being joined

Composition of the rod coatings
Length and shape of available rods
Type of welding position required
(True or False) Welding tip sizes are standardized among manufacturers.

A.
B.
12.
Type of steel that the plates are made of

Thickness of the metal
Job specifications
Type of welding torch
Which factor determines the type of filler rods to use in oxygas welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
melt at a higher temperature

melt at a lower temperature
clean the weld joint of impurities
resist corrosion during storage
Which factor determines the proper diameter of filler rod to use for gas welding
two steel plates?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
As an electrical connection between the torch and the workpiece

As a source of metal to fill the weld joint
As a surface for braze welding
As a heat conductor
Used a welding rod that is too small

Used incorrect polarity
Used an incorrect dragging technique
Used a welding tip that is too large
What factor dictates the adjustment you must make to the flame after igniting a
welding torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Thickness of the metal

Type of filler rod used
Type of metal being welded
Polarity being used
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-33
14.
What type of flame is best used for welding high-carbon steels, nonferrous
metals, and hardfacing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What type of flame is correct for use on most metals?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
C.
D.
Use a wrench to tighten it.

Open the valve and using the working gas pressure blow out any foreign
matter.
Remove the stem assembly and wipe the seat clean.
Have the parts replaced by qualified personnel.
When there is a leak around the torch valve stem, you should tighten the packing
nut or repack it if necessary. For repacking, NEVER use oil. Instead, you should
use only _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
Neutral
Carburizing
Oxidizing
Normalizing
What is the first corrective step you should take when needle valves fail to shut
off when hand tightened in the usual manner?
A.
B.
18.
Neutral
Carburizing
Oxidizing
Normalizing
What flame is limited in use and harmful to many metals?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Neutral
Carburizing
Oxidizing
Normalizing
dry packing
the packing recommended by the manufacturer
heavy-weight packing
granulated packing
You must remove deposits of _____ regularly to ensure good performance of

welding tips.
A.
B.
C.
D.
copper and zinc oxide

sodium carbide and phosphorus
ferrous oxide and sodium phosphate
slag and carbon
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-34
20.
What procedure should you follow to recondition the end of a torch tip that has
become rough and pitted?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
What type of file is commonly used to recondition a welding tip?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
heavy plate that is between 1 to 3 inches thick

sheet and light plate up to 1/8 of an inch thick
sheet plate that is between 1 to 2 inches thick
any type of metal
When backhand welding, you point the flame away from the direction of travel
and hold the tip at about a _____ angle.
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
15
30
45
60
The forehand method is best for welding _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Mill
Pillar
Square
Taper
When forehand welding, you point the flame in the direction of travel and hold the
tip at about a _____ angle.
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Insert a drill one size larger than the orifice opening into the tip end.
Insert a tip drill into the seat opening and twist until penetration can be
made at the tip-end opening.
Place emery cloth, grit side up, on a flat surface and rub the tip end over it
until the tip is back to its original condition.
Use a bench grinder to square off the end of the tip, then drill out the
orifice.
15
30
45
60
For which of the following reasons should you use the backhand method instead
of the forehand method when welding plates thicker than 1/8 inch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It uses less welding rod and results in less puddling of molten metal.
It requires less motion of the rod and torch tip and increases welding
speed.
It results in better control of large puddles of molten metal and achieves
more complete fusion at the root of the weld.
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-35
26.
For which reason is it possible to weld steel plates faster by using the backhand
technique and a reducing flame rather than the forehand technique and a neutral
flame?
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
Which factor is an advantage of using multilayer welding instead of single layer

when welding thick plate and pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
1/16 to 1/8 inch

3/16 to 1/4 inch
1/4 to 3/8 inch
3/8 to inch
What size plate requires beveled edges 30 degrees to 45 degrees and a root
opening of 1/16 inch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
True
False
On what thickness of plate do you begin to make a slight root opening between
the parts to get complete penetration?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
The final layer is easier to control to get a smooth surface.

Ductility of the weld metal is improved since one layer cools before being
reheated when an additional layer is made.
There is better control over each layer since carrying large puddles of
molten metal is avoided.
All of the above
(True or False) Sheet metal melts easily and does not require special edge
preparation.
A.
B.
29.
More of the base metal is melted during the welding operation.

It is not necessary to control the heat on the plate.
A thin surface layer of steel absorbs carbon and reduces the melting point
of steel.
All of the above
1/8 inch and greater

inch and greater
What action must you take to relieve stresses developed when oxygas welding
low-alloy steels?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Chip and peen after welding

Quench after welding
Heat-treat before and after welding
Use special flux in the welding process
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-36
32.
What causes the surface of the molten puddle to appear greasy when welding
wrought iron?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
(True or False) When you oxygas weld cast iron, you must preheat the entire
weldment to between 750F and 900F. After completing the weld, you must
postheat the weldment to between 1100F to 1150F to relieve stresses.
A.
B.
34.
100F to 300F
300F to 500F
500F to 800F
800F to 900F
Assuming the same welding process and same part thickness, compared with
the technique for joining steel parts, the technique for joining deoxidized copper
calls for the use of a/an _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
No flux, a carburizing flame, no puddle, and a relatively small torch tip

No flux, an oxidizing flame, puddle, and a relatively large torch tip
Flux, an oxidizing flame, no puddle, and a relatively small torch tip
Flux, a carburizing flame, no puddle, and a relatively small torch tip
To what temperature range should you preheat the joint area when you oxygas
weld deoxidized copper?
A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
True
False
Which characteristics apply to the method of joining a light stainless steel sheet
by oxygas welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
High carbon content of the wrought iron

Slag used in manufacturing the wrought iron
Use of mild steel as a filler metal
Failure to use a special flux
smaller torch tip and no preheating

larger torch tip and more preheating
oxidizing flame and no flux
carburizing flame and oxygas brass flux
What type of rod is used for welding brass by the oxygas process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Lead
Steel
Silicon-copper
Silicon-bronze
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-37
38.
Which action should you take when oxygas welding copper-nickel alloys?
A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
You must wear a respirator to guard against poisonous fumes when you weld
_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
steel
iron
copper
titanium
For which reason do you use a flux when welding aluminum alloy?
A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
1100
3003
4043
5511
Pure aluminum is one fourth as strong as _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
silver
aluminum
lead
brass
What type of welding rod should you use to minimize cracking when gas welding
wrought aluminum alloys?
A.
B.
C.
D.
41.
Adjust the flame to a slightly oxidizing flame.

Agitate the molten puddle when adding filler metal.
Keep the welding rod end outside the protective envelope of the flame.
Remove all traces of flux with warm water after welding is completed and
the part has been cooled slowly.
To preserve the luster of the metal

To reduce the tendency of the metal to crack
To remove the aluminum oxide formed during the welding process
To lower the melting point of aluminum
Edge notching is a recommended procedure for oxygas butt welding aluminum

plate because it _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
gives a clear view of the weld area

aids in getting full penetration and prevents distortion
allows the torch flame to cover a greater area
allows the welder to use either the forehand or backhand method
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-38
44.
What temperature should you not exceed when preheating aluminum alloys?
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
(True or False) The forehand method of welding is preferred for aluminum

alloys.
A.
B.
46.
D.
Secure them in a jig.

Use 4043 filler rod.
Tack the work while clamped in a jig, then loosen before completing the
seam.
All of the above
Which requirement must be met to complete a successful weld when oxygas

welding pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
48.
True
False
What action should you take to reduce the possibility of heat-treatable aluminum
alloys cracking during the welding process?
A.
B.
C.
47.
300F
500F
700F
900F
A controlled heat source localized to produce rapid melting

Elimination of surface oxides
Union of edges or surfaces by means of molten metal
All of the above
(True or False) For welding pipe, the backhand technique is preferred

because it produces faster melting of the base metal surfaces, allows a smaller
bevel to be used, and results in a savings of 20% to 30% in welding time, rods,
and gases.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-39
Trade Terms Introduced in This Chapter

Venturi effect
The reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid

flows through a constricted section of pipe.
Broach
In machinery, an elongated, tapered, serrated cutting

tool for shaping and enlarging holes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-40

Safety and Health Requirements Manual, EM 385-1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1987.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-41

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
5-42
Chapter 6
Topics
1.0.0
Soldering
2.0.0
Brazing
3.0.0
Braze Welding
4.0.0
Wearfacing
Overview
Chapters 3 and 5, Introduction to Welding and Gas Welding, addressed two processes
for joining metals by fusion welding, the first by electricity and the second by heated
gases.
This chapter also presents procedures for joining metals, but without fusion. These
procedures, which include soldering, brazing, braze welding, and wearfacing, allow you
to join dissimilar metals and produce high-strength joints while not affecting the heat
treatment of the base metal or warping it as much as conventional welding may do with
the requisite high temperatures.
A Steelworker functioning at the civilian journeyman level is expected to be capable, if
not proficient, in each of these four methods of non-fusion metal joining. They are part
of the total package of skills you need to develop for your professional skills tool kit.
Working with metal, whether stock material or parts, you will encounter situations where
you must determine whether the tasking is a permanent or expedient effort, and what is
the best method of fabrication or repair given the tools and assets available.
With the capability to join metals by both fusion and non-fusion methods in your skills
inventory, you increase your value to yourself and the Seabees while upholding the
Can Do spirit.
Objectives
1. Describe the procedures utilized in soldering operations.
2. Describe the procedures utilized in brazing operations.
3. Identify the equipment and procedures for braze welding.
4. Describe the materials and procedures for wearfacing.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-1
the course map.

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-2

again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-3
1.0.0 SOLDERING
Soldering is a simple and fast means for joining sheet metal, making electrical
connections, and sealing seams against leakage. Like welding, soldering uses a filler
metal (commonly called solder) to join two metals. However, unlike welding, soldering
joins the two metals without heating them to their melting points. In addition, you can
also use soldering to join dissimilar metals such as iron, nickel, lead, tin, copper, zinc,
aluminum, and many other alloys.
800F is a key determining temperature. Because solders melting temperature is below
800F, it is not classified as a welding or brazing process. Welding and brazing usually
take place above 800F, the one exception being lead welding, which occurs at 621F.
Do not confuse silver soldering with soldering. The silver soldering process is a form of
brazing because it uses a temperature above 800F.
1.1.0 Equipment
Soldering requires very little equipment. Typically, you only need a heat source, a
soldering copper or iron, solder, and flux.
1.1.1 Sources of Heat
Heat sources can vary according to the available equipment and the method you need
to use. Some common sources are welding torches, blowtorches, forges, and furnaces,
all of which heat the soldering coppers that secondarily supply the direct heat to the
metal surfaces, thus melting the solder. Occasionally you may opt to use a heat source
directly to heat the metal, but if or when you do this, you must be careful not to damage
the metal or the surrounding material.
1.1.1.1 Soldering Coppers
Externally heated soldering coppers (soldering irons) consist of a forged copper head,
an iron rod, and a handle, usually wood or fiber either screwed or forced on. Other
soldering irons are electrically heated (Figure 6-1).
Figure 6-1 Examples of soldering coppers (soldering irons).

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Soldering heads are available in various shapes. Figure 6-2 shows three of the more
commonly used types.
Pointed copper for general

soldering work.
Stub copper for soldering flat
seams needing a considerable
amount of heat.
Bottom copper for soldering
hard to reach seams, such as
those in pails, pans, trays, and
similar objects.
Figure 6-2 Common soldering copper heads.

Nonelectrical coppers come in pairs so you can use one copper as the other is heating.
When coppers are referred to by size designation, they are referred to by weight (in
pounds) of the pair, so a reference to a pair of 4-pound coppers means each copper
head weighs 2 pounds.
Pairs of coppers are usually available in 1-pound, 1 1/2-pound, 3-pound, 4-pound, and
6-pound sizes. As you would expect, because of their differing heat transfer ranges,
heavy coppers are designed for soldering heavy gauge metals, while light coppers are
for thinner metals, and using the incorrect size of copper usually results in poorly
soldered joints from problems caused by not enough steady heat or by overheating.
1.1.1.1.1 Filing and Tinning Coppers
Before you can use new soldering coppers, you must tin them (coat with solder). In
addition, you must file and re-tin them if they overheat or lose their solder coating for
any reason.
Use the following procedure for filing and tinning a copper (Figure 6-3).
Heat to cherry red.
Clamp in vise.
File with single-cut bastard file.

o Bear down on forward stroke.
o Release pressure on return stroke.
o Do not rock file.
o
Continue filing tapered sides until bright and smooth.
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CAUTION
Remember, the copper is hot! Do not touch it with your bare hands!
Smooth off point and any sharp edges.
Reheat until hot enough to melt solder.
Rub each filed side back and forth across cake of sal ammoniac.
Apply solder to copper until tinned.

o Rub solder directly on copper, or place solder on a cake of sal ammoniac.
o Do not push copper into cake; this can split the cake.
Figure 6-3 Filing and tinning a soldering copper head with solder on a cake of
sal ammoniac.
If sal ammoniac is unavailable, you can
use powdered rosin (Figure 6-4).
Place powdered rosin on a brick.
Rub copper back and forth to pick

up rosin.
Place solder directly onto copper.
Commercially prepared soldering salts (in

powder form) are also used to tin soldering
coppers.
Dissolve the powder in water according to
the directions, dip the soldering copper
into the solution, and apply the solder.
Figure 6-4 Tinning with rosin on a
brick and direct solder application.
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1.1.1.1.2 Forging Soldering Coppers

When nonelectric soldering coppers become blunt or deformed, you can reshape them
by a forging process. Use the following procedures (Figure 6-5).
File to remove all old tinning and smooth surfaces.
Heat to bright red.
Hold on an anvil and forge to required shape by striking with a hammer.
NOTE
As you reshape the copper, a hollow will
appear at the point.
Keep this hollow to a minimum by striking
the end of the copper.
Do not shape too long a taper or sharp
point. These shapes cause the copper to
cool too rapidly when in use.
Turn it often to produce the necessary
squared-off sides and reheat as often as
necessary during this part of the forging.
Reheat to a bright red
Use a flat-faced hammer to remove

as many hollows as possible.
File and tin per previous guidance.
Figure 6-5 Forging a soldering

copper head.
1.1.1.2 Electric Soldering Coppers

Electric soldering coppers (usually called
soldering irons) use internal heating coils
to heat the head, and the heads are
removable and interchangeable.
Tinning is the same with the exception that
the tip usually does not become cherry red
as the internal coils have limiting resistors.
Forging or reshaping is not necessary
since the heads are easily replaced.
Electric soldering irons are especially
suited for, and usually used for, electrical
work or other small jobs (Figure 6-6).
They do not require auxiliary heating and
can be as small as a pencil.
Figure 6-6 Typical electric soldering
iron with replaceable heads.
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1.1.1.3 Gas Torches

You can use a gas torch in combination with soldering head attachments (Figure 6-7,
View A) or as a direct heat source.
Figure 6-7 Examples of using a gas torch as a heat source.

A Prest-O-Lite heating unit (Figure 6-7, View B) delivers a small controllable flame and
is ideal for soft soldering, or you can use it effectively to heat soldering coppers. The
unit includes a fuel tank regulator, hose, torch, interchangeable tips, and burns either
acetylene or MAPP gas in the presence of oxygen.
1.1.2 Soft Solder
Commercial industry uses many different types of solders, and they are available in
various forms including bar, ingot, powder, and wire, which is available with or without a
flux core. Because there are so many types of solders available, this chapter will cover
only solders that Steelworkers would most commonly use.
1.1.2.1 Tin-Lead Solder
The atomic symbol for tin is Sn; the symbol for lead is Pb. Occasionally, you may see
these symbols used as Sn-Pb instead of the term tin-lead but they have equal meaning.
The tin-lead alloy group of solders is the largest group used. You can use them for
joining most metals, they have good corrosion resistance, and they have excellent
compatibility with soldering processes, most types of flux, and cleaning.
Industry custom is to state the tin content first when describing solders, so a 40/60
solder has a content of 40% tin and 60% lead.
The melting characteristics of any tin-lead alloy will depend on the ratio of tin to lead;
the higher the tin content, the lower the melting temperature. Tin also increases the
wetting ability and lowers the solders cracking potential.
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Figure 6-8 shows the behavior

of a 63/37 tin-lead solder.
Note that 100% lead melts at
621F and 100% tin melts at
450F.
Also, solders containing 19.5%
to 97.5% tin remain a solid until
they exceed 360F.
The eutectic composition for
tin-lead solder is about 63% tin
and 37% lead.
The eutectic point is the point in
an alloy system when all the
elements of the alloy melt at the
same but lower temperature
than any other composition.
A 63/37 solder becomes liquid
at 361F.
Figure 6-8 Tin-lead alloy constitutional
diagram.
Other compositions do not. Instead, they remain in the pasty stage until the temperature
increases to the melting point of the other alloy. For an example, refer to Figure 6-8
again.
As already stated, tin solders containing 19.5% to 97.5% tin remain a solid until
they exceed 360F.
Therefore, a 50/50 solder with a solid temperature of 360F and a liquid
temperature range of 417F has a pasty temperature range of 57Fthe
difference between the solid and the liquid temperatures.
The less expensive solders with lower tin content are used primarily for sheet metal
products and other high-volume solder requirements. The solders with higher tin content
are used extensively in electrical work, and the solders with 60% tin or more (fine
solders) are used in instrument soldering where temperatures are critical.
1.1.2.2 Tin-Antimony-Lead Solder
Antimony (an'-tuh-moh-nee), symbol Sb, is added up to 6% to a tin-lead solder as a
substitute for some of the tin. It increases the solders strength and mechanical
properties.
CAUTION
Do not use solders with high antimony content on aluminum, zinc, or zinc-coated
materials. They form an intermetallic compound of zinc and antimony that causes
the solder to become very brittle.
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1.1.2.3 Tin-Zinc Solder

There are several tin-zinc solders available for joining aluminum alloys. The 91/9 and
60/40 are used for higher temperature ranges (above 300F), and normally the 80/20
and 70/30 are used as precoating solders.
1.1.2.4 Tin-Antimony Solder
Tin-antimony solders are used for refrigeration work or for joining copper to cast iron
joints. The 95/5 is the most common.
1.1.2.5 Tin-Silver Solder
Tin-silver solder (96/4) is used for food or beverage containers that must be cadmiumand lead-free. The 95/5 tin-silver can also be used as a replacement for the 95/5 tinantimony solder for refrigeration work.
1.1.2.6 Lead-Silver Solder
Lead-silver solders are useful where the requirement is for strength at moderately high
temperatures.
Lead by itself cannot be used since it does not normally wet steel, cast iron, or copper
and its alloys, so adding silver results in alloys that wet steel and copper more readily.
However, flow characteristics for straight lead-silver solders are rather poor, and they
are susceptible to humidity and corrosion during storage. By adding a tin content of 1%,
manufacturers enhance the wetting and flow characteristics, and increase resistance to
corrosion.
Lead-silver solders require higher soldering temperatures and special fluxing techniques
such as using a zinc-chloride-based flux (an acid flux) on uncoated metals because
rosin-based fluxes decompose rapidly at high temperatures.
You can find more information about these solders and the procedures for their use in
the NAVFAC Welding Materials Handbook P-433, 1991.
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1.1.3 Fluxes
Most metal surfaces form scale,
rust, and oxides when exposed
to air, and heating accelerates
their formation.
Solder will not adhere to or wet
metal with these pollutants.
Fluxes are chemical compounds
you use to clean and maintain
the metal surfaces during the
soldering process (Figure 6-9).
They also decrease the surface
tension of the solder, making it
a better wetting agent.
Fluxes are available in cake,
paste, liquid, or powder form
and are classified as either
noncorrosive or corrosive for
situational application with
specific metals.
Figure 6-9 Flux action during soldering.
Table 6-1 shows fluxes you would normally use for soldering common metals.
Table 6-1 Fluxes Used for Soldering Common Metals
Metals
Fluxes
Aluminum
Stearine, special flux
Brass, copper, tin
Rosin
Galvanized iron
Zinc chloride
Iron, steel
Borax sal ammoniac
Lead
Tallow, rosin
Stainless steel and other nickel alloys
Phosphenic acid
Zinc
Zinc chloride
1.1.3.1 Noncorrosive Fluxes

For soldering electrical connections or other work that must be free of any trace of
corrosive residue, you need to use a noncorrosive flux. Rosin is the most commonly
used noncorrosive flux. In the solid state, it is inactive and noncorrosive; when heated, it
melts and provides some fluxing action.
Available in powder, paste, or liquid form, rosin fluxes frequently leave a nonconductive
brown residue that is sometimes difficult to remove since it is made of purified pine sap.
You can reduce the removal problem by adding a small amount of turpentine to the
(pine sap) rosin, and you can add glycerin to it to make it more effective.
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1.1.3.2 Corrosive Fluxes

Corrosive fluxes provide the most effective cleaning action, but since any trace of
corrosive flux remaining on the work can cause corrosion later, do not use corrosive
fluxes on electrical connections or other work where corrosion would cause a problem.
Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) and zinc chloride, in either solution or paste form,
are the most common and frequently used corrosive fluxes.
If present, any solvent evaporates as the work heats, leaving a layer of solid flux on the
metal. When the metal heats further to soldering temperature, this layer of solid flux
melts, partially decomposes, and liberates hydrochloric acid. Then the hydrochloric acid
dissolves the oxides from the work surfaces and filler metal (solder) if applied, thus
providing a clean surface for the solder process to bond (refer again to Figure 6-9).
You can make zinc chloride (also called cut acid or killed acid) in the shop as long as
you follow specific safety precautions.
You must use rubber gloves, a full-face visor, and an apron. Fumes given off by muriatic
acid or the mixture of muriatic acid and zinc are explosive and a health hazard as well.
Prepare zinc chloride under a ventilation hood, out in the open, or near openings to the
outside to reduce the danger of explosion or inhalation, and take precaution to prevent
flames or sparks from coming in contact with the liberated hydrogen gas.
To prepare zinc chloride:
Pour small amount of muriatic acid (commercial form of hydrochloric acid) into
glass or acid-resistant container.
Add small pieces of zinc.

o As you add the zinc, the muriatic acid boils and bubbles (a chemical reaction),
producing zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Keep adding small pieces of zinc until liquid no longer boils and bubbles.
o At this point, the reaction is complete.
Dilute liquid in container with an equal amount of water.
WARNING
Always add acid to water when diluting. Adding water to acid can result in an
explosive reaction, resulting in serious injuries.
Make only enough as required and strain it before use; store any leftover in a
tightly sealed glass container.
Soldering salts are another type of corrosive flux. Commercial soldering salts are
normally manufactured in a water-soluble, powder form that allows you to mix only the
amount needed.
If you use a corrosive flux for soldering, upon completion, remove as much of the
residue as possible. Most corrosive fluxes are water-soluble, so you can wash the work
with soap and water and rinse it thoroughly with clear water to remove the corrosive
residue. To minimize potential damage, clean the work immediately after soldering.
1.2.0 Soldering Techniques

Soldering with coppers and torch soldering are the two most common methods of
soldering, and the same considerations apply to both methods.
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Clean all surfaces of oxides, dirt, grease, and other foreign matter.
Use proper flux for particular job.

o Some work requires corrosive fluxes; other work requires noncorrosive fluxes.
o The melting point of the flux must be BELOW the melting point of the solder.
Heat surfaces just enough to melt solder.

o Solder does not stick to unheated surfaces, but be very careful not to
overheat the solder, the soldering coppers, or the base metals.
o Heating solder above the work temperature increases the rate of oxidation
and changes the proportions of tin and lead.
Remove as much corrosive flux as possible after soldering.
1.2.1 Sweat Soldering

Use sweat soldering when you need to make a joint but do not want the solder exposed.
You can use this process on electrical and
pipe connections (Figure 6-10).
To make a sweated joint:
Clean, flux, and tin each adjoining

surface.
Hold pieces firmly together; heat

with soldering copper or torch until
solder melts and pieces join.
Remove source of heat; keep parts

firmly in position until solder
completely hardens.
Clean any residue from soldered

area.
Figure 6-10 Common application of
sweat soldering technique.
1.2.2 Seam Soldering

Seam soldering involves running a layer of solder along the edges of a joint (Figure 611), on the inside whenever possible. Soldering with coppers is the best method for
seam soldering; they provide better heat control and cause less distortion.
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To seam solder:
Clean and flux areas.
Tack pieces so work stays in

position (if not already riveted or
grooved).
Position piece so seam does not

rest directly on support (prevents
loss of heat to support).
Solder seam.
Figure 6-11 Common application of

seam soldering technique.
Heat area by holding copper

against work.
o The work must absorb enough
heat from the copper so the
work melts the solder.
Hold copper so one tapered side is

flat against seam (Figure 6-12).
When solder begins to flow freely

into seam, draw copper along seam
with slow, steady motion.
Add solder as necessary without

raising copper from work.
Figure 6-12 Example of soldering a
seam.
When copper becomes cold, use other copper and reheat first one.
o Change the coppers as often as necessary.
o The best-soldered seams are made without lifting the copper from the work
and without retracing the completed work.
Allow joint to cool and solder to set before moving.
If corrosive flux was used, rinse with water and brush or wipe with clean, damp
cloth.
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Riveted seams are often soldered to make

them watertight.
Figure 6-13 shows the procedure for
soldering a riveted seam.

riveted seam.
Solder beads, or solder shots, are

sometimes used for soldering the bottom
of square, rectangular, or cylindrical
vessels.
To make solder beads, simply hold the
solder against a hot copper and allow the
melted beads to drop onto a clean surface
(Figure 6-14).
Figure 6-14 Example of making

solder beads.
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To solder a bottom seam with solder

beads:
Flux seam.
Drop cold bead of solder into

container.
Place hot soldering copper against

seam (Figure 6-15).
Hold copper in position until solder

starts to flow freely into seam.
Draw copper slowly along seam,

turning work as you go.
Add beads and reheat copper as

necessary.

bottom seam.
To heat and use an electric soldering copper (electric iron), you merely plug it in;
otherwise, the procedure is much the same as that just described. Although electric
irons have built-in resistors to prevent it, be careful not to let an electric unit overheat.
Overheating can burn out the electrical element as well as damage the copper and
tinning.
1.3.0 Soldering Aluminum Alloys

Soldering is more difficult on aluminum alloys than on many other metals because of the
layer of oxide that always covers them, and the thickness of the layer will depend on the
type of alloy and the exposure conditions.
Wrought aluminum alloys are usually easier to solder than cast aluminum alloys, while
heat-treated aluminum alloys are extremely difficult to solder, as are aluminum alloys
containing more than 1% magnesium. However, you can still successfully solder many
aluminum alloys by using proper techniques.
Aluminum alloys usually require tin-zinc or tin-cadmium solder alloys, generally called
the aluminum solders. Most of these solders have higher melting points than the tin-lead
solders used for ordinary soldering, and both corrosive and noncorrosive fluxes are
used for soldering aluminum depending on a given situation.
To solder an aluminum alloy:
Clean surfaces and remove layer of oxide.

o Thick layer remove mechanically by filing, scraping, sanding, or wire
brushing.
o Thin layer remove by using corrosive flux.
Apply flux to work and solder.
Tin surfaces with aluminum solder.

o Use either a soldering copper or torch.
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If you use a torch, do not apply heat directly to the work surfaces, solder,
or flux. Instead, play the torch on a nearby unsoldered part of the work
and let the heat conduct through the metal to the work area.
Do not use any more heat than necessary to melt the solder and tin the
surfaces.
Work aluminum solder well onto surfaces.
Sweat parts together.
For an alternate procedure to solder an aluminum alloy:
Tin surfaces with aluminum solder.
Use regular tin-lead solder to join aluminum solder-tinned surfaces.

o No need to use flux when using tin-lead solder with aluminum solder.
You can use this procedure when the shape of the parts prevents you
from using the sweat method or the task demands a large amount of
solder.
For both methods, after you complete the soldering, clean with a wire brush, soap and
water, or emery cloth to ensure you remove all the flux from the joint; any flux left will
cause corrosion.
Test Your Knowledge 6HOHFWWKH&RUUHFW5HVSRQVH

1.
(True or False) Like welding, soldering joins two metals by heating them to their
melting points.
A.
B.
True
False
2.0.0 BRAZING
Do you remember the key determining temperature of 800F?
Brazing is the process of joining metal by heating the base metal to a temperature
above 800F and adding a nonferrous filler metal that melts below the base metals
temperature. Sometimes brazing is called hard soldering or silver soldering because the
filler metals are either hard solders or silver-based alloys.
Do not confuse brazing with braze welding, though the two terms are often
interchanged. In brazing, the filler metal is drawn into the joint by capillary action; in
braze welding the filler metal is distributed by tinning. Both processes require distinct
joint designs.
Like soldering, brazing offers important advantages over some other metal-joining
processes such as oxygas welding. It does not affect the heat treatment of the original
metal as much as welding, does not warp the metal as much, and allows you to join
dissimilar metals.
2.1.0 Equipment
Brazing requires three basic items: a heat source, filler metal, and flux.
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2.1.1 Heating Devices

The source of heat depends on the type and amount of brazing required. If you were
doing production work and the pieces were small enough, you could put them into a
furnace and braze them all at once. Alternatively, you could mount individual torches in
groups for assembly line work, or you could use an individual oxyacetylene or MAPPoxygen torch to braze an individual item.
2.1.2 Filler Metals
Brazing filler metals are nonferrous metals or alloys with a melting temperature below
the base metal, but above 800F. They must have the ability to wet and bond with the
base metal, be stable, and not be excessively volatile.
The most commonly used filler metals for brazing are the silver-based alloys available in
rod, wire, powder, and preformed form.
Brazing filler metals include the following groups:
Aluminum-silicon alloys
Gold alloys
Copper
Magnesium alloys
Copper-phosphorus alloys
Nickel alloys
Copper-zinc (brass) alloys
Silver-based alloys
2.1.3 Fluxes
Brazing requires flux to stop any oxides or similar contaminants from forming during the
process, and flux increases both the flow of the filler metal and its ability to stick to the
base metal. Flux helps form a strong joint by bringing the filler metal into immediate
contact with the adjoining base metals and permitting the filler to penetrate the pores of
the metal.
Carefully select the flux for each brazing operation; read the manufacturers label for the
type of metal than can be brazed with the flux. Consider the following three factors:
Base metal or metals Brazing filler metal Source of heat
Flux is available in powder, liquid, and paste form. You can apply the powdered form of
flux by dipping the heated end of the brazing rod into the container, allowing the flux to
stick to it. Alternatively, you can heat the base metal slightly and sprinkle the powdered
flux over the joint, allowing the flux to partly melt and stick. Sometimes you may find it
desirable to mix the powdered flux with distilled water to form a paste.
You can apply flux with a brush in either the paste or liquid form, but in either case, you
will achieve better results if you give the filler metal a coat also.
The most common type of flux for brazing is borax or a mixture of borax with other
chemicals, while some commercial fluxes contain small amounts of phosphorus and
halogen salts of iodine, bromine, fluorine, chlorine, or astatine.
When a prepared flux is not available, you can use a mixture of 12 parts borax and 1
part boric acid.
WARNING
Nearly all fluxes give off fumes that may be toxic. Use them only in WELL VENTILATED
spaces.
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2.2.0 Joint Design
In brazing, the filler metal is distributed by

capillary action.
Therefore, the joints must have close
tolerances and a good fit prior to brazing in
order to produce a strong bond.
Brazing has three basic joint designs: lap,
butt, and scarf (Figure 6-16), but they can
be found in flat, round, tubular, or irregular
shapes.
Figure 6-16 Examples of three types

of brazing joint designs.
2.2.1 Lap Joints
The lap joint is one of the strongest and most frequently used joint in brazing, especially
in pipe work. Its primary disadvantage is the increased thickness of the final product.
For maximum strength, the overlap should be at least three times the thickness of the
metal.
A 0.001-inch to 0.003-inch clearance between joint members provides the greatest
strength with a silver-based filler metal. With such close tolerances for pipefittings, you
need to take precautions to prevent heat expansion from closing joints before the
capillary action.
2.2.2 Butt Joints
The size of a butt joint is limited to the thinnest section, so maximum joint strength is
impossible, but you can maximize the available butt joint strength by maintaining a
clearance of 0.001 to 0.003 of an inch in the finished braze. The edges of the joint must
be perfectly square to maintain that uniform clearance between all parts of the joint. Butt
joints are usually used where it is undesirable to have double thickness.
2.2.3 Scarf Joints
When double metal thickness is objectionable but you still need more strength, the scarf
joint is a good choice. A scarf joint provides an increased bond area without increasing
the thickness of the joint. The amount of bond area depends on the angle the scarf is
cut; usually, an area two to three times the butt joint area is desirable. A 30 scarf angle
gives a bond area twice that of a 90 butt joint, and a 19 scarf angle increases the
bond area three times.
Figure 6-17 shows some variations of butt and lap joints designed to produce good
brazing results.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 6-17 Joints designed to produce good brazing results.

Figure 6-18 shows a comparison of some good and bad brazing joint designs and
preparations.
Figure 6-18 Comparison of some well designed joints prepared for brazing and
some poorly designed/prepared joints.
2.3.0 Brazing Procedures

The procedure for brazing is very similar to braze welding and oxyacetylene welding.
You must clean the metal mechanically, chemically, or with a combination of both to
ensure good bonding, fit the two pieces properly, and support them to prevent voids in
the joint or accidental movement during your brazing and cooling operations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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2.3.1 Surface Preparation

Clean the work. The metal surfaces must be clean for capillary action to take place.
When necessary and practical, you can chemically clean the surface by dipping it in
acid, then remove the acid by washing the surface with warm water. You can use steel
wool, a file, or abrasive paper for mechanical cleaning, but do not use an emery wheel
or emery cloth; abrasive particles or oil might become embedded in the metal.
2.3.2 Work Support
Support the work. If the joint moves during the brazing process, the finished bond will be
weak and subject to failure, so mount the work in position on firebricks or other suitable
means of support, and if necessary, clamp it.
2.3.3 Fluxing
Flux the work (and filler rod). Flux application varies depending on the form of flux you
are using and the type of metal you are brazing, but the flux must be suitable for the job.
Refer to the previously described material on fluxes and always refer to the
manufacturers information.
2.3.4 Brazing
Heat the work. The next step is to heat the parts to the correct brazing temperature. Use
a neutral flame; it gives the best results under normal conditions. A reducing flame
produces an exceptionally neat-looking joint, but you sacrifice strength; an oxidizing
flame produces a strong joint, but you get a rough-looking surface.
Watch the behavior of the flux as you heat it to determine the temperature of the joint.
First, the flux dries out as the moisture (water) boils off at 212F, then it turns milky in
color and starts to bubble at about 600F, and finally it turns into a clear liquid at about
1100F, just short of brazing temperature.
When the flux appears clear, it is time to start adding the filler metal with the heat of the
joint, not the flame, melting the filler metal.
If you have properly aligned the parts and applied the temperature, the filler metal will
spread over the metal surface and into the joint by capillary attraction. For good
bonding, ensure the filler metal penetrates the complete thickness of the metal.
Figure 6-19 shows a good position for the torch and filler metal when brazing a butt
joint. Note the position is the forehand method, so you are heating the metal ahead of
applying the filler metal to the joint.
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Figure 6-19 Example of good torch and filler metal position when brazing a butt
joint.
Stop heating the work. As soon as the filler metal has completely covered the surface of
the joint, turn off the torch and let the joint cool slowly. Do not remove the supports or
clamps or move the joint in any way until the surface is cool and the filler metal has
solidified completely.
Clean the work. Finally, after the joint has cooled sufficiently, clean it; you can do this
with hot water. Be sure you remove all traces of flux since it can corrode the metal, and
you can file off any excess metal left on the joint.
The procedure described is a general one, but it applies to the three major types of
brazing: silver, copper alloy, and aluminum, where the differences lay in the type of
base metal, composition of filler metal, and appropriate flux, not in the procedure.
2.3.5 Silver Brazing
You may be called upon often to do a silver brazing job. For many years, the primary
reference standard for silver solders was the American Society for Testing and
Materials standard ASTM B73-29 Specification for Silver Solders. In 1952, that
standard was withdrawn and replaced by ASTM B260-62 Specification for Brazing Filler
Metal. However, in 1968 the B260-62 standard was once again withdrawn, this time
with no replacement.
Currently, the primary source to access standards for silver-based brazing alloys is the
American Welding Society standard AWS 5.8 (Tables 6-2 and 6-3).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-22
Table 6-2 Standard AWS Silver-Based Brazing Alloys

Composition
AWS
5.8
Specs
Silver
Copper
Zinc
Others
BAg-1
44.046.0
14.016.0
14.018.0
23.025.0
Cd **
BAg-1a
49.051.0
14.516.5
14.518.5
BAg-2
34.036.0
25.027.0
BAg-2a
29.031.0
BAg-3
AWS
5.8
Specs
Silver
Copper
Zinc
Others
BAg-8
71.073.0
Remainder
17.019.0 Cd
BAg-8a
71.073.0
Remainder
19.023.0
17.019.0 Cd
BAg-13
53.055.0
Remainder
4.0-6.0
0.5-1.5
Ni
26.028.0
21.025.0
19.021.0 Cd
BAg13a
55.057.0
Remainder
1.5-2.5
Ni
49.051.0
14.516.5
13.517.5
16 Cd,
3N*
BAg-18
59.061.0
Remainder
10Sn.
0.125
max. P
BAg-4
39.041.0
29.031.0
26.030.0
1.5-2.5
Ni
BAg-19
92.093.0
Remainder
0.150.30 Li
BAg-5
44.046.0
29.031.0
23.027.0
BAg-20
29.031.0
37.0-39.0
BAg-6
49.051.0
33.035.0
14.018.0
BAg-21
62.064.0
27.5-29.5
BAg-7
55.057.0
21.023.0
15.019.0
30.034.0
6 Sn,
2.5 Ni
4.5-5.5
Sn
*Total maximum allowable impurities is 0.15%.
Cd=cadmium Sn=tin P=phosphorus Ni=nickel Li=lithium
Table 6-3 Standard AWS Brazing Alloy Usage Temperatures

Brazing Temperature
Brazing Temperature
AWS 5.8
Specs
AWS 5.8
Specs
BAg-1
1145-1400
618-760
BAg-8
1435-1650
779-899
BAg-1a
1175-1400
635-760
BAg-8a
1435-1650
779-899
BAg-2
1295-1550
702-843
BAg-13
1575-1775
857-968
BAg-2a
1310-1550
710-843
BAg-13a
1600-1800
871-982
BAg-3
1270-1500
688-816
BAg-18
1325-1550
718-843
BAg-4
1435-1650
779-899
BAg-19
1610-1800
877-982
BAg-5
1370-1550
743-843
BAg-20
1410-1600
766-871
BAg-6
1425-1600
774-871
BAg-21
1475-1650
802-899
BAg-7
1205-1400
652-760
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-23
Figure 6-20 shows a common and popular way to apply silver brazing metal on tubing,
by using silver alloy rings. This is a practical and economical way to add silver alloy
when using a production line system.
Figure 6-20 Silver-brazed joints designed to use silver alloy rings.

Figure 6-21 shows another method of brazing, by using preplaced brazing shims.
Figure 6-21 A machining tool bit with preplaced brazing filler metal shims.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-24
Jobs will vary according to the metal and the dictates of the task, but the experiences
will help you become capable of selecting the proper procedure to produce quality
brazing.
(True or False) Brazing is the process of joining metal by heating the base metal
to a temperature below 800F and adding a nonferrous filler metal that melts
below the base metals temperature.
2.
A.
B.
True
False
3.0.0 BRAZE WELDING

Braze welding (also called bronze welding) is another procedure you can use to join two
pieces of metal. It is very similar to fusion welding except you do not melt the base
metal and you distribute the filler metal onto the metal surfaces by tinning. Braze
welding can produce bonds comparable to those made by fusion welding without the
destruction of the base metal characteristics.
Advantages of braze welding over fusion welding:
Allows the joining of dissimilar metals
Minimizes heat distortion
Reduces extensive preheating
Eliminates stored-up stresses often present in fusion welding (extremely

important in repairing large castings)
Disadvantages of braze welding compared to fusion welding:
Loss of strength when subjected to high temperatures
Inability to withstand high stresses
3.1.0 EQUIPMENT
The equipment you need for braze welding is essentially identical to the equipment you
need for brazing. However, braze welding usually requires more heat than brazing, so
you should definitely use an oxyacetylene or oxy-MAPP torch for braze welding.
3.1.1 Filler Metal
Copper and zinc are the primary elements of a braze-welding rod; they provide ductility
and high strength. Iron, tin, aluminum, manganese, chromium, lead, nickel, and silicon
are also added in small amounts to improve the rods welding characteristics.
These elements aid in deoxidizing the weld metal, increasing flow action, and
decreasing the chances of fuming.
Table 6-4 lists some copper alloy brazing filler metals and their uses. Brass brazing
alloy and naval brass are the most commonly used filler rods, but the selection of the
proper brazing filler metal always depends on the types of base metals you need to join.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-25
Table 6-4 Copper Alloy Brazing Filler Metals

%
Cu
%
Zn
Brass Brazing
Alloy
60
40
Naval Brass
60
39.25
Tobin Brass
59
Manganese
Bronze
Low Fuming
Brass
Nickel Silver
%
Sn
%
Fe
%
Mn
%
Si
%
Ni
%
P
Use
Melting
F
Flow
F
Copper, Nickel Alloys, Steel
1650
1660
.75
Copper, Steel, Nickel Alloys
1630
1650
40.5
.50
Steel, Cast Iron
1625
58.5
39.25
1.0
1.0
.25
Steel
1590
1630
57.5
52
50
55-65
28
40.48
48
50
27-17
42
.9
1.0
.03
Cast Iron, Steel
1598
1570
1585
1595
1610
1690
1715
Copper Silicon
98.25
Phosphorus
Bronze
98.2
.09
Steel, Nickel Alloys, Cast

Iron, Steel, Nickel Alloys
18
10
.25
1.5
1.5
Steel to Copper
1981
Copper Alloys
1922
.3
Copper-Cu Zinc-Zn Tin-Sn Iron-Fe Manganese-Mn Silicon-Si Nickel-Ni Phosphorous-P
3.1.2 Flux
Proper fluxing is as essential in braze welding as it is in the other processes; if the
surface of the metal is not clean, the filler metal will not flow smoothly and evenly over
the weld area. Even after you have mechanically cleaned the workpiece, certain oxides
often remain and interfere with the flow of the filler metal, so always use the correct flux
to eliminate them.
You can apply flux directly to the weld area, or you can apply it by dipping the heated
end of the rod into the flux; once the flux sticks to the rod, you can transfer it to the weld
area. Some braze welding rod is also available in a prefluxed form; this eliminates the
need to add flux during welding.
3.2.0 Braze Welding Procedures

Edge preparation is essential in braze welding. You can bevel the edges of thick parts
by grinding, machining, or filing, but it is not necessary to bevel thin parts (1/4-inch or
less). You need to make the piece bright and clean on the underside as well as on the
top of the joint. If you clean with a file, steel wool, or abrasive paper, it will remove most
of the foreign matter such as oils, greases, and oxides, and using the proper flux will
complete the process to permit the tinning to bond.
After you prepare the works edges, use the following steps to braze weld:
Align parts and hold in position with clamps, tack welds, or both.
Preheat assembly to reduce expansion and contraction during welding.

o Preheat method depends on the size of the casting or assembly.
Adjust flame to slightly oxidizing flame.
Flux joint.
o Note: More flux during the tinning process produces stronger welds.
Apply heat to base metal until it begins to turn red.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-26
Melt some brazing rod onto surface and allow spreading along entire joint.
o Note: You may have to add more filler metal to complete the tinning.
o Note: Temperature control is critical.
Base metal too hot filler metal bubbles or runs around like beads of
water on a hot pan.
Base metal too cold filler metal forms little balls that run off the metal.
Complete tinning entire joint.
See Figure 6-22 for an example of tinning and welding with the backhand method.
Figure 6-22 Braze welding cast iron and nickel alloy using the backhand
method.
Begin adding beads of filler metal to fill joint.

o Use a slight circular motion with the torch and run the beads as in regular
fusion welding.
o Continue adding flux.
o If the weld requires several passes, ensure each layer fuses with the previous
one.
Upon completion of fill, heat area around joint on both sides for several inches to
ensure even rate of cooling.
When joint is cold, remove any excess flux or other particles with stiff wire brush
or steel wool.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-27

3.
Braze welding is also called _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
silver brazing
hard soldering
brazing
bronze welding
4.0.0 WEARFACING
Wearfacing (also called hardfacing, hard-surfacing, resurfacing, or surfacing) is the
process you use to apply an overlay to the surface of new or old parts to increase their
resistance to abrasion, impact, corrosion, and erosion, or to obtain other properties. It
can be used also to build up undersized parts.
The goal of wearfacing is to provide an additional means of maintaining sharp cutting
edges and reduce wear between metal parts. It is an excellent means for reducing
maintenance costs and downtime, thus improving productivity, profitability, efficiency,
and longevity of equipment (Figure 6-23).
Figure 6-23 Example of wearfacing (hardfacing) on a loader bucket.

Various types of construction equipment use repair and maintenance hardfacing on
their leading or wearing edges, and as a Steelworker and one of the Battalions metal
experts, there will be times when you need to build up and wearface some of that
equipment. It could be the cutting edges of scraper or dozer blades, sprocket gears, or
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-28
shovel and clamshell teeth. You may even get an opportunity to wearface new blades or
shovel teeth before they are put into service for the first time.
You can wearface using several different methods (typically it is done by arc welding),
but this presentation will cover only the oxygas process of wearfacing. Wearfacing with
an oxygas flame is, in many respects, similar to braze welding. The wearfacing metals
generally consist of high-carbon filler rods, such as high chromium (Cr) or a chromiumcobalt-tungsten (Cr-Co-W) alloy, but in some instances you may need to use special
surfacing alloys. In any of the methods, wearfacing is a process in which a layer of
metal of one composition is bonded to the surface of a metal of another composition.
Hardfacing is suitable for all low-carbon alloys and stainless steels as well as Monel and
cast iron, although it is not appropriate for aluminum, copper, brass, or bronze, as their
lower melting points prohibit using the hard-surfacing process.
You can increase the hardness of aluminum by applying a zinc-aluminum solder to the
surface, and you can improve the wear strength of copper, brass, and bronze with an
overlay of work-hardening bronze.
You can surface-hardened carbon and alloy tool steels also, but with difficulty due to the
frequent development of shrinkage and strain cracks. If you do surface these materials,
do so when they are in an annealed condition, not a hardened condition. When
necessary, you can heat treat and harden after the surfacing operation, but quench the
part in oil, not water.
4.1.0 Wearfacing Materials

Using a copper-base alloy filler metal will produce a relatively soft surface. Work
hardening bronzes are soft when applied and give excellent resistance against frictional
wear. Other types of alloys produce a corrosion- and wear-resistant surface at high
temperatures.
Many different manufacturers produce wearfacing materials, so be sure the filler alloys
you select for a particular hardfacing job meet Navy specs.
The Navy uses two general types of hard-surfacing materials: iron-base alloys and
tungsten carbide.
4.1.1 Iron-Base Alloys
Iron-base alloys are used for a number of applications requiring varying degrees of
hardness. They contain nickel, chromium, manganese, carbon, and other hardening
elements. Steelworkers frequently work with iron-base alloys when building up and
resurfacing parts of construction equipment.
4.1.2 Tungsten Carbide
Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest substances known to man. You use it to build up
wear-resistant surfaces on steel parts. You can apply tungsten carbide in the form of
inserts or composite rod. When applied as inserts, they are not melted; instead, they are
welded or brazed to the base metal as you saw in Figure 6-21 with the brazing shims.
When you apply it as a rod, you use the same surfacing technique as you use for
oxygas welding, but with a slightly carburizing flame.
4.2.0 Wearfacing Procedures

Like all work with metal, proper surface preparation is an important part of wearfacing
operations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-29
Remove all scale, rust, and foreign matter by grinding, machining, or chipping.
Round edges of grooves, corners, or recesses to a) prevent base metal from
overheating and b) provide a good cushion for wearfacing material.
Apply wearfacing material so it forms a thin layer over the base metal.
o Thickness is usually 1/16- to 1/8- inches thick, seldom over -inch thick.
o Deposit in a single pass.
If wear is extensive, you may need to use a buildup rod before adding the wearfacing
material. Check with your leading petty officer if you are in doubt about when to use a
buildup rod.
4.2.1 Preheating
Most parts that require wearfacing can be preheated with a neutral welding flame of
about 800F before surfacing. Do not preheat to a temperature higher than the critical
temperature of the metal, or to a temperature that can cause scale to form.
4.2.2 Application
In general, for wearfacing you manipulate the torch similar to the technique for brazing
but you need higher temperatures (about 2200F) for wearfacing, so use tips one to two
sizes larger than normal and adjust the torch to a carburizing flame.
Heat small area with sweeping movement until surface of base metal appears
sweating or wet.
o The ability to recognize a sweated surface is essential for surfacing.
Bring end of surfacing alloy into flame and allow melting.

o Do not stir or puddle the alloy; let it flow.
o When the surface area has been properly sweated, the alloy flows freely over
the surface of the base metal.
When you heat steel with a carburizing flame, it turns red first, but as you continue to
add heat, the color becomes lighter and lighter until the metal attains a bright whiteness.
Sweating occurs when you heat the steel with a carburizing flame to this white heat
temperature. It carburizes an extremely thin layer of the base metal, approximately
0.001 inch thick.
The carburized layer has a lower melting point than the base metal, and as a result, it
becomes a liquid, while the underlying metal remains a solid. This thin liquid film
provides the medium to flow the filler metal over the surface of the base metal. It is
similar to, and serves the same purpose as, a tinned surface in soldering and braze
welding.
Surfacing alloy added at this time flows over the sweated surface and absorbs the film
of carburized metal. This surface condition is not difficult to recognize, but you should
make several practice passes before you try your first wearfacing.
If you use an oxygas torch for surfacing with chromium cobalt (Cr-Co), you need to
adjust the torch flame to have an excess fuel-gas feather (carburizing flame) about
three times as long as the inner cone. If you do not use a carburizing flame, you will not
be able to develop the base metal surface properly to a condition that will allow the
surfacing alloy to spread over the surface of the part.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-30
Hardfacing, whether applied by oxygas or arc welding, can include a number of

configurations depending on the environmental conditions the equipment is expected to
work in. Figure 6-24 shows a few standard patterns along with their intended working
environments.
Figure 6-24 Hardfacing patterns for specific working environments.

For further information about wearfacing construction equipment, from dozers to crusher
rollers, and the appropriate pattern to use, from ripper teeth to drive sprockets, refer to
Section 2 of NAVFAC Welding Materials Handbook, P-433.
Summary
This chapter presented information on four processes for joining metals without fusion:
soldering, brazing, braze welding, and wearfacing. Each method has its own unique
application depending on the metal and the task. Your responsibility as one of the units
metal experts will be to know which process will best accomplish the given task, and
then be able to apply the process. Take whatever opportunities you can to practice
these (as well as other) processes to develop your hands-on skills; a well rounded
Steelworker/Ironworker is a valued asset in both the military and civilian labor force.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-31
Review Questions 6HOHFWWKH&RUUHFW5HVSRQVH

1.
(True or False) The soldering, brazing, braze welding, and wearfacing

processes allow the joining of dissimilar metals, produce high strength joints, and
do not affect heat treatment or warp the original metal as much as conventional
fusion welding.
A.
B.
2.
Below what temperature does the soldering process join metals by melting filler
metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
kilograms
pounds
grams
ounces
A pair of coppers has a weight designation of 3 pounds. This designation

indicates that each individual copper weighs _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Pointed
Stub
Bottom
Top
The size designation of soldering coppers refers to the weight of two copper
heads in _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
800F
850F
900F
950F
Which type of soldering coppers (irons) is used for soldering flat seams requiring
considerable heat?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
True
False
1 1/2 kilograms
1 1/2 pounds
10 grams
16 ounces
What type of file should you use to file a soldering copper head during the filing
and tinning process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Rasp
Half round
Single cut
Double cut
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-32
7.
What should you do to carry out the preliminary steps in filing a cold, but once
overheated soldering copper head?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What technique should you use to manipulate a file?

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
lead and tin

cadmium and aluminum
tin, lead, and zinc
tin, lead, and bismuth
Which solder has the lowest melting point?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
True
False
Most solder alloys consist of _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
On each forward stroke, bear down and rock the file, and on each return
stroke, let up on the file.
On both forward and return strokes, bear down and rock the file.
On each forward stroke, bear down on the file without rocking it; on each
return stroke, let up on the file.
On both strokes, bear down on the file without rocking it.
(True or False) In the forging process of reshaping a copper, you should ensure
a sharp point and a long taper are created.
A.
B.
10.
Without clamping it in a vise, heat the copper head, but not hot enough to
melt the solder.
Without clamping the copper head in a vise, heat the copper head until it
is hot enough to melt the solder.
Clamp the copper in a vise, then heat the copper head until it is cherry
red.
Heat the copper until it is cherry red, then clamp the copper in a vise.
30/70
40/60
50/50
60/40
What term describes the point in an alloy system when all the elements of the
alloy melt at the same temperature?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Constitutional range
Eutectic
Liquidus/solidus
Temperature differential
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-33
13.
What solder composition is best for joining aluminum alloys?

A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Which purpose does flux serve?

A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
Rosin
Zinc chloride
Soldering salts
Sal ammoniac
Which action should you make a practice when heating solder or surfaces to be
soldered?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Borax
Rosin
Sal ammoniac
Zinc chloride
What is the most commonly used noncorrosive flux?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
To clean the metal during the soldering process

To harden the solder
To soften the metal to be joined
To increase the ductility of solder
Which flux is used to solder galvanized iron?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
50% tin, 45% lead, and 5% antimony

63% tin and 37% lead
60% tin and 40% zinc
86% tin, 12% lead, and 2% zinc
Heat the surfaces to cherry red.

Heat just enough to melt the solder.
Overheat the solder, then allow it to cool slightly to the working
temperature.
Heat the surfaces until scum forms, then skim it off and discard.
Heating solder to a temperature higher than its working temperature increases

oxidation and changes the proportions of tin and _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
lead
copper
aluminum
silver
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-34
19.
What action should you take immediately after finishing the soldering when you
use a corrosive flux?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
How should you manipulate the copper when soldering seams that are held
together by rivets or other fasteners?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
Coat the alloy with noncorrosive flux.

Remove the oxide that covers the alloy.
Coat the alloy with a thin layer of tin-lead solder.
Dip the alloy in a solution of turpentine and powdered rosin.
A thick layer of oxides is present on the piece of aluminum you are going to
solder. Which cleaning method can you use to remove the oxides?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Hold the copper in one position until the solder flows freely into the seam.
Draw the copper along the seam.
Turn the work as you go.
All of the above
Which action should you take before soldering an aluminum alloy?

A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Keep it in contact with the work.

Raise it at regular intervals and retrace the work.
Raise it at intermittent intervals.
Hold it slightly above the work as you go.
Which action should you take when soldering a bottom seam using solder
beads?
A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
Sprinkle the joint with a powdered noncorrosive flux.

Remove all the traces of flux or as much as possible.
Clean the joint with powdered rosin.
Clean the joint with a solution of sal ammoniac and water.
Filing
Sanding
Wire brushing
All of the above
Toward what location should you direct the torch flame when soldering aluminum
with a torch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Solder
Flux
Work surface
Metal near the work
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-35
25.
What type of solder does NOT require the use of flux when you are using it in
combination with aluminum solder?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
What type of solder is recommended for food containers?

A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
True
False
Which function is NOT served by the use of flux in brazing operations?

A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
Oxidation
Fusion
Reduction
Capillary
(True or False) One of the advantages that brazing or braze welding has over
oxygas welding is that you can use it to join dissimilar metals.
A.
B.
30.
Braze welding
Bronze welding
Brazing
Soldering
What action in brazing distributes the filler metal to the joint?

A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
50% tin and 50% lead

50% tin, 45% antimony, and 2% lead
96% tin and 4% silver
95% tin and 5% antimony
What process is used to join two base metals together by using a filler metal
such as a hard solder?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
Tin and lead

Tin and zinc
Tin and silver
Tin and antimony
Increasing the flow of brazing filler material

Oxidizing the metal surface
Permitting the molten filler metal to penetrate the pores of the metal
Bringing the brazing filler metal into contact with the metals to be joined
What type of application should be used with paste or solution fluxes to ensure a
uniform coating on metals to be brazed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Spray gun
Brush
Cloth
Putty knife
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-36
32.
What chemical mixture should you use for brazing when a prepared flux is not
available?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
For which reason should you maintain a clearance of 0.001 inch to 0.003 inch
when lap joining two base metals with silver-based brazing filler metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
Weakness in the joint

Thickened joint
Over-oxidized surface
Loss of ductility
To what temperature do you heat two pieces of base metal before adding the
filler metal when brazing or braze welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
2
3
4
5
What condition will result if there is any movement of the base metal while you
are brazing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
To improve durability
To produce a finished braze
To extend the bonding area
To increase strength
A scarf of 19 1/2 produces a bond area _____ times greater than that of a 90
butt joint.
A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
Tallow and water

Copper sulfate and ammonia
Borax and boric acid
Muriatic acid and water
A temperature slightly below the melting temperature of the brazing filler

metal
A temperature at the melting point of the brazing filler metal
The temperature at which the flux turns milky
The temperature at which the flux turns clear
With what kind of flame from an oxygas torch should you obtain the heat needed
to braze or braze weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Carburizing
Oxidizing
Neutral
Reducing
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-37
38.
Which tool should NOT be used to clean base metals mechanically before
brazing or braze welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
What is the primary reason you must remove all traces of flux after brazing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
Brazing alloy
Silver shim
Copper alloy
Silver alloy
What is the next step in braze welding after you have cleaned, aligned, clamped,
or tack-welded the base metals?
A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
Braze
MIG
TIG
Arc
You can braze tubing by using a filler-metal rod or what type of rings?
A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
True
False
What type of welding has the disadvantages of loss of strength when subjected
to high temperatures and an inability to withstand high stresses?
A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
It will corrode the metal.

It will weaken the metal.
It will cause distortion in the pieces brazed.
It will reduce bonding strength.
(True or False) Braze welding often produces bonds that are comparable to
those made by fusion welding without the destruction of the base metal
characteristics.
A.
B.
41.
Any type of file

A piece of emery cloth
A piece of steel wool
Abrasive paper
Tinning
Fluxing
Preheating
Applying filler metal
(True or False) When using a prefluxed braze welding rod, you do NOT have to
add flux during welding.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-38
45.
What condition has developed in braze welding if the filler metal forms little balls
and runs off the metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
46.
Which is NOT a purpose of wearfacing?

A.
B.
C.
D.
47.
True
False
With (a) what type of flame and (b) at what temperature do you preheat parts that
require wearfacing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
50.
iron-base alloys and low-carbon alloys

iron-base alloys and tungsten carbide
stainless steel and copper-base alloys
stainless steel and low-carbon alloys
(True or False) Before commencing wearfacing procedures, you must remove

scale, rust, and foreign matter from the metal surfaces.
A.
B.
49.
To increase resistance to abrasion

To build up undersized parts
To stop corrosion and erosion
To increase ductility
The two types of hard-surfacing materials in general use by the Navy are _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
48.
The joint is not clean enough.

The wrong flux was used.
The metal is too hot.
The metal is too cold.
(a) oxidizing (b) 800

(a) carburizing (b) 700
(a) neutral (b) 800
(a) neutral (b) 700
What type of flame do you use in wearfacing to heat the steel to a white heat
temperature for sweating?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Oxidizing
Carburizing
Neutral
Normalizing
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-39

Wetting
Solder wetting pertains to the formation of a relatively

uniform, smooth, and unbroken film of solder that
exhibits excellent adherence on the soldered surface.
Non-wetting is the condition wherein the solder coating
contacted the surface but did not adhere completely to
it, causing the surface or a part thereof to be exposed.
Dewetting is the condition wherein the solder recedes
after coating a surface, creating irregular mounds of
solder, but leaving behind no exposed areas.
Eutectic
NAVEDTRA 14250A
A eutectic system is an alloy system that has a single

chemical composition that solidifies at a lower
temperature than any other composition. This
composition is known as the eutectic composition and
the temperature is known as the eutectic temperature.
6-40

NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-41

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
6-42
Chapter 7
Topics
1.0.0
Plasma Arc Cutting Process
2.0.0
Equipment and Consumables
3.0.0
Cutting and Gouging Operating

Sequence
4.0.0
Plasma Arc Gouging
5.0.0
Qualities of a Plasma Cut
6.0.0
Safety Procedures
Overview
As a Steelworker, you will be expected to become familiar with the Plasma Arc Cutting
(PAC) process. To achieve optimum performance of your plasma cutting system, first
you must know what plasma is and understand the basic plasma cutting process.
Plasma is a physical state of matter. In fact, plasma is the most abundant form of matter
in the universe. Physical matter may be found in four states: solid, liquid, gas, or
plasma. Changes from one physical state to another occur by either adding or removing
energy. Plasma looks and behaves like a high temperature gas, but with an important
difference: it conducts electricity. Lightning is a naturally occurring example of plasma.
A plasma arc is created by electrically heating a gas to a very high temperature; this
ionizes the atoms, which enables the gas to conduct electricity. This is the major
difference between a neutral gas and plasma; the particles in plasma can exert
electromagnetic forces on one another.
This chapter will present an introductory explanation of plasma arc cutting. Since the
Navy supply system purchases equipment from different manufacturers, always refer to
the manufacturers manuals for specific operating and maintenance instructions.
Objectives
1. Describe the Plasma Arc Cutting process.
2. Describe plasma arc equipment and consumables.
3. Identify the plasma cutting and gouging sequence.
4. Describe the steps in arc gouging.
5. Identify the steps of a quality plasma cut.
6. Describe the safety procedures for plasma arc processes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-1
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R
Flux Cored Arc Welding-FCAW

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-2

Figure and table numbers in the text are italicized. The figure or table is
either next to or below the text that refers to it.
The first time a glossary term appears in the text, it is bold and italicized.
When your cursor crosses over that word or phrase, a popup box displays
with the appropriate definition.
Audio and video clips are included in the text, with an italicized instruction
telling you where to click to activate it.
Knowledge banner at the end of the section. Select the answer you
choose. If the answer is correct, you will be taken to the next section
heading. If the answer is incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the
chapter where the information is for review. When you have completed
your review, select anywhere in that area to return to the review question.
Try to answer the question again.
Review questions are included at the end of this chapter. Select the
answer you choose. If the answer is correct, you will be taken to the next
question. If the answer is incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-3
1.0.0 PLASMA ARC CUTTING PROCESS

Plasma arc cutting is such a simple process you could almost take it out of the box and
start using it. However, as with any piece of equipment you need to know how and why
it does what it does and the necessary precautions to do the job safely.
1.1.0 Description
Materials in nature exist in one of four different states: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.
Plasma is very rare on Earth because of its very high temperature; however, most of the
matter in the universe is plasma. The Sun, stars, and galaxies are made of plasma. On
Earth, you will find naturally occurring plasma in lightning and a few other places (Figure
7-1). Neon tubes and florescent lights generate low-temperature plasma. It is the energy
from ionization that you are actually seeing.
Figure 7-1 Naturally occurring plasma.

Experiments with plasma arcs date back to early in the twentieth century but it was in
the 1950s when PAC torches were patented. The equipment was large and bulky and
used a variety of cutting and cooling gases. Today, the introduction of cutting with clean,
compressed air or nitrogen is replacing many
other types of cutting equipment.
Temperature makes the difference between
water ice, liquid water, and water vapor. In
each of these states, temperature energy
pushes the molecules of water away from
each other to change the waters state. At
very high temperature and pressure, the
water molecules themselves break apart and
the atoms begin to ionize.
Normal atoms consist of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by a cloud
of electrons. In plasma, the negatively
charged electrons separate from the nucleus
leaving behind their positively charged nuclei
known as ions. When the fast-moving
electrons collide with other electrons and
ions, they release vast amounts of energy.
This energy is what gives plasma its cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-2 Plasma arc.

7-4
power. Plasma cutters work by electrically charging a gas within a plenum (chamber)
that surrounds the electrode (Figure 7-2). This charge superheats and ionizes the gas,
which is now a greatly expanded (in volume and pressure) plasma gas. The electrically
charged plasma then exits the torch nozzle through a constricting orifice and arcs to the
surface of the grounded workpiece, creating a stream of directed plasma, approximately
30,000 F (16,649 C) moving at approximately 20,000 feet per second (6,096 m/sec),
reducing metal to molten slag. The plasma itself conducts electrical current. The cycle
of creating the arc is continuous as long as
power is supplied to the electrode and the
plasma stays in contact with the grounded
metal being cut.
The PAC process uses this high
temperature, high velocity jet of ionized gas
(exiting from the constricting orifice of the
torch tip) to melt a localized area, and
removes the molten material by the force of
the plasma jet. The force of the arc pushes
the molten metal through the workpiece and
severs the material (Figure 7-3). You can
make extremely clean and accurate cuts
with PAC, and because of the tightly
focused heat energy, there is very little
warping, even when cutting thin sheet metal.
PAC also offers quality gouging and piercing
capabilities.
1.2.0 Plasma vs. Oxy-Fuel Cutting
Figure 7-3 PAC torch cutaway.
Before the PAC process became commonplace, if you wanted to cut carbon steel,
stainless steel, or aluminum, chances were you would be using several means or
methods of cutting. Perhaps you would use oxy-fuel gas flame cutting for steel, but that
process is not recommended for cutting stainless steel and aluminum due to the
formation of an oxide that prevents oxidation from fully occurring. You could use
bandsaws, shears, abrasive cut-off wheels, or power hacksaws, but you would need
special blades to cut the stainless steels and alloy steels.
With engineering advances in PAC equipment, all metals that conduct electricity,
whether they are common or exotic metals, can be cut economically with one process.
Since the plasma arc cutting process is capable of hand-held or machine torch cutting,
metals ranging from thin gauge aluminum to 1 1/2-inch carbon or stainless steel can be
plasma cut. It can be used in many applications, including stack and shape cutting,
beveling, gouging, and piercing in all positions. The PAC process is used in industries
such as metal fabrication, construction, maintenance, metal salvage (scrap and
recycling), automotive repair, metal art, and sculpting.
The PAC process is compared primarily to the oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) process. The
OFC process severs or removes metal by the chemical reaction of oxidation. It is known
as burning or rapid oxidation. This occurs when you apply pure oxygen to hot,
preheated metal and maintain the elevated temperature with a flame from a burning
oxy-fuel gas mixture. It requires a high purity oxygen and fuel gas, which comprises an
explosive fuel gas mixture usually supplied from high-pressure compressed gas
cylinders.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-5
A properly installed Air Plasma Arc Cutting

setup can be safer than an OFC system.
Safety precautions on the PAC torches can
be safer than oxy-fuel gas torches where
there is a chance of flashback and the
danger of flammable gases in exposed
hoses (Figure 7-4).
OFCs advantage is its capability of cutting
very thick carbon steel with relatively
inexpensive equipment that does not require
electricity. OFCs disadvantage is its
recommended limitation to cut carbon steels
only.
PAC requires minimum training to operate
the equipment safely and efficiently. One of
PACs major advantages is speed. PAC
Figure 7-4 Oxy-fuel cutting
operates at a much higher heat energy
setup.
level, so it cuts faster than OFC, especially
on metal less than 2 inches thick, and
cutting speed makes a significant difference in production time and operator comfort.
Also, unlike the OFC process, PAC does not require preheating, another major
advantage besides the faster cutting speed.
Because of this, PAC results in less
distortion of the metal being cut. This is due
also to a very narrow heat-affected zone
(area changed in characteristics near the
cut). The clean, dross-free cut produced
with the PAC process can eliminate the
secondary operations of other cutting
methods such as cleaning up rough edges
and dross on the bottom or backside of the
cut (Figure 7-5).
When compared to OFC, PAC in some
areas will not be as portable, due to its
dependence on primary electrical power
from a utility line or engine-driven generator.
Figure 7-5 Clean cut.

1.
What happens to an atom when it is

exposed to very high temperatures?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It adds a valence shell

It becomes an ion
It disintegrates
It remains stable
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-6
2.
What characteristic makes plasma different than a gas?

A.
B.
C.
D.
It has a greater atomic weight

It is incandescent
It can conduct electricity
It has a distinct odor
2.0.0 EQUIPMENT and CONSUMABLES
A pilot arc between the electrode and the constricting tip initiates the plasma arc
process. The tip is connected to ground through a current-limiting resistor and a pilot arc
relay contact in the torch assembly. One of two methods, either a high frequency
generator connected to the electrode and tip or an internal contact start, initiates the
pilot arc. The welding power supply then maintains a low current arc inside the torch.
Figure 7-6 Basic PAC setup.

Ionized orifice gas from the pilot arc is blown through the constricting tip orifice by a
compressed gas. This forms a low resistance path to ignite the main arc between the
electrode and the workpiece (Figure 7-6). When the main arc ignites, the pilot arc relay
may be opened automatically to avoid unnecessary heating of the constricting tip, which
helps extend the life of the tip and electrode.
2.1.0 Equipment Requirements

A typical air-cooled PAC system consists of the following components:
Power source
Either a hand-held or a machine-style torch
Supply of compressed air or nitrogen
2.1.1 Power Source

Plasma arc cutting uses a direct current power source. The polarity setting for the power
source is direct current electrode negative (DCEN). In most systems there is also a
positive connection to the torch tip in which the current is limited by a resistor. This
circuit establishes a "pilot arc," which then establishes the cutting arc.
The power source is a constant current power source with a high open circuit voltage
(250-400 volts). The amperage is usually adjustable within the range of the power
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-7
source, and amperage is directly proportional to the thickness and speed in which the
metal can be cut.
Most manual PAC systems now use switch-mode or inverter technology. These
sophisticated, electronically-controlled or microprocessor-controlled devices are better
able to tolerate variations in line voltage, take more abuse in the field, and deliver better
cutting performance while consuming less power with a longer duty cycle.
The term duty cycle identifies the number of minutes out of a 10-minute period that
you can operate a plasma cutter at its rated capacity. For example, a 300-amp welder
with a 60% duty could operate at 300 amps for 6 minutes and then needs to cool with its
fan running for 4 minutes. Manufacturers rate their products based on ambient air
temperature, so if a cutter is rated at 104 F
and the ambient temperature where you
are working is 84 F, the duty cycle of the
machine increases. Conversely, if the
ambient temperature is hotter than the
manufacturers initial rating, the duty cycle
decreases. You need to know what
ambient temperature the manufacturer
used to rate its PAC in order to operate the
equipment at the appropriate duty cycle
and prevent damage.
2.1.2 Rated Cutting Capacity
Selection of the PAC is based on the type
and thickness of the metal to be cut and the
speed at which the metal needs to be cut.
The higher the PAC ampere and duty cycle
rating, the thicker and faster it will cut
Figure 7-7 Cutting capacity
(Figure 7-7). While there is no standard for
rating
PAC cutting speeds in the welding/cutting
industry, some manufacturing companies qualify their PAC rated cutting capacity by
three (3) standards (Figure 7-8):
Figure 7-8 Rated cutting capacity.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-8
"Rated Cutting Capacity," at ten (10) inches per minute travel speed, is
considered the minimum speed at which an operator achieves a smooth, steady
cut using a hand-held torch at the machines Rated Output.
"Maximum Quality Cutting Capacity" is a good quality cut that is achieved at

slower than ten (10) inches per minute travel speed.
"Sever Cut Capacity" is the maximum metal thickness cut achieved in ideal
conditions. Sever Cut does not include allowances for rating quality of cut or
travel speed.
2.1.3 Cutting Speed

As indicated previously, the cutting speed will affect the thickness of the material that
can be cut. The slower you move the torch, the thicker the material that can be cut, but
if you move the torch too slow the plasma arc will remove all of the material directly
underneath it and the arc will bend to the side of the kerf, causing a jagged cut. The
faster the travel speeds, the thinner the material that can be cut, but if you increase the
torch speed too much, the torch will be unable to cut completely through the workpiece.
Cutting speed is measured in inches per minute. Maximum cutting speed is determined
by the arc current, nozzle diameter, and metal thickness.
2.2.0 Consumables
The plasma torch is designed to generate and focus the plasma cutting arc (Figure 7-9).
Figure 7-10 Swirl

ring.
Figure 7-9 PAC torch assembly.
In either hand held or machine torches, the same parts are used: an electrode to carry
the current from the power source, a swirl ring to spin the compressed air, a tip that
constricts and focuses the cutting arc, and a shield and
retaining ring to protect the torch.
2.2.1 Swirl Ring
The swirl ring, made of a high temperature plastic, is
designed with angled holes to spin the cutting gas in a
vortex (Figure 7-10). Spinning the gas centers the arc on
the electrode and helps control and constrict the arc as it
passes through the tip. Some plasma cutting equipment
swirls the gas in a clockwise direction, others in a counterNAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-10 Swirl

ring.
7-9
clockwise direction. Check the manufacturers manual; the direction of flow will indicate
which side of the cut will be beveled.
2.2.2 Electrode
The purpose of the electrode is to provide a path for the
electricity from the power source and generate the cutting arc
(Figure7-11). The electrode is typically made of copper with
an insert made of hafnium. The hafnium-alloyed electrodes
have good wear life when you use clean, dry compressed air
or nitrogen, although electrode consumption may be greater
with air plasma than with nitrogen.
Figure 7-11
Electrode.
2.2.3 Tip
The purpose of the torch tip is to constrict and focus the
plasma arc (Figure 7-12). Constricting the arc increases the
energy density and velocity. The tips are made of copper,
with a specifically sized hole or orifice in the center of the
tip. Tips are sized according to the amperage rating of their
respective torch.
Figure 7-12 Tip.
2.2.4 Retaining Cup

The retaining cup serves two functions (Figure 7-13). First, it
holds the other consumable parts firmly in place. Second, it
insulates and keeps the other consumable parts from
making contact with the work piece.
2.2.5 Shields
Figure 7-13
Retaining cup.
There are two types of shields used on plasma torches: a

drag shield (Figure 7-14) and a deflector (Figure 7-15). The drag shield insulates the
front end of the torch from the work piece and protects the torch tip from spatter.
The deflector insulates the electrode and protects it from spatter. It is used when
extended cutting consumables are needed.
Figure 7-14 Drag

shield.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-15
Deflector shield.
7-10
2.2.6 Consumables Used During Extended Cutting vs. Drag Cutting

The use of extended cutting consumables
requires the operator to maintain a torch
standoff of about 1/8". Torch stand-off is
the distance from the outer face of the torch
tip or constricting orifice nozzle to the base
metal surface (Figure 7-16). Extended
cutting is used in situations where the
operator needs extra control of the cutting
arc, such as when cutting in a corner or
when a machine torch is used.
The drag shield is constructed so that the
required standoff is maintained inside the
torch. Using drag cutting consumables
allows the operator to drag the torch on the
work piece while cutting at full output, which
increases operator comfort and makes
template cutting easier.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-16 Extended vs. drag.
7-11
2.2.7 Consumable Tips for Different Amperages

Tip size is directly proportionate to amperage; the higher the amperage, the larger the
tip you would use. As you can see in Figure 7-17, the 40-amp tip opening is smaller
than the 80-amp tip. Exercise caution and be sure to use the correct tip for the
amperage. If you use an 80-amp tip for a 40-amp machine, the plasma arc will not
constrict enough and will cut an uneven wide kerf. If you use a 40-amp tip on an 80-amp
machine, internal arcing will damage the tip and electrode, decreasing their service life.
Figure 7-17 Consumables chart.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-12
2.2.8 Replacing Consumables

Good preventive maintenance (PM) requires
keeping a supply of electrodes, tips, and shield
cups on hand and replacing them as wear
appears. You should inspect the shield cup, tip
and electrode before each use, hourly during
operation, or whenever the cutting speed has
reduced significantly. Do not operate the PAC
torch without a tip or an electrode in place. A tip
and electrode that are worn beyond the
manufacturers recommended values, or
operating a torch without the tip or electrode in
place can damage the torch. Refer to Figure 718 for a comparison of new and worn
consumables. Figure 7-19 shows what to look
for in the inspection process.
Figure 7-18 New and worn
consumables.
Figure 7-19 Consumable inspection process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-13
2.2.9 Cutting Gases

Plasma arc cutting gases must have high ionization potential (energy), high thermal
conductivity to deliver high heat energy to the work piece, and high atomic weight to
produce the energy to blow or push out metal from the cut. Compressed air
(approximately 80% nitrogen) with its high ionization potential and density is commonly
used to minimize gas costs. Compressed air may require installation of filters or line
dryers to remove oil vapors and moisture. Clean, dry, compressed air may be
purchased in cylinders. As a plasma gas, nitrogen is considered to be the gas that
creates the least slag or dross.
The gas pressure and flow rates must be properly set to the equipment manufacturers
recommendation. The gas supply piping and hoses to the cutting unit must be of
sufficient size to carry the pressure and gas volume required. Use a minimum 3/8" ID
(inside diameter) piping or nonconductive hoses to provide the necessary pressure and
volume of gas to the PAC power source. If the piping or hose is more than 40 feet in
length, use a minimum 1/2" ID (Figure 7-20).
Figure 7-20 Cutting gasses.
2.3.0 Improving Consumable life

1. Maintain proper gas pressure setting.
Setting the correct amount of gas pressure is very important to consumable life. If the
pressure setting is too high, electrode life will be shortened. If the pressure setting is too
low, the tip life will be shortened.
2. Maintain the correct stand off.
If extended cutting consumables are being used, make sure to maintain the
recommended amount of standoff. Too little standoff may damage the torch and
consumables. Too much standoff will result in inconsistent arc starts.
3. Pierce within the limits of the plasma system.
Do not try to pierce metals that are too thick for the plasma cutter. The typical rating is
to pierce up to half the rated cutting thickness of the plasma cutter. For example, if the
plasma cutter is rated to cut 1" steel, it could pierce 1/2" steel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-14
4. Make sure the gas used is clean and dry.

Plasma cutting systems require clean, dry gas to operate
properly. Moisture in the gas line is the cause of many
system problems. It can cause shortened consumable life
and premature torch failure. To check for moisture in the
gas line, set the system to the gas/air set position and hold
a mirror under the tip (Figure 7-21). If any moisture appears
on the mirror, inspect the system for the source of the
moisture or install an air dryer in the system.
5. Use edge starts.
Figure 7-21
Checking for
moisture.
Use edge starts whenever possible instead of pierce starts.

Edge starts improve consumable life since there is less chance for molten metal to be
blown back into the tip.
6. Use the tip saver setting.
Whenever possible, use the tip saver position for the pilot arc. More pilot arc time than
is necessary will lead to shorter consumable life. Use the expanded metal setting only
when absolutely necessary.
7. Remove buildup from shields.
Inspect the shields on the end of the torch frequently and remove any slag from the
shield. Slag can cause double arcing, which shortens tip life.
8. Purge gas after changing consumables.
Purge gas lines for 23 minutes after changing consumables or extended periods of
little or no use. This will ensure that any moisture built up in the lines is removed.
9. Keep torch and consumables clean.
Any type of contamination in the torch or consumables can affect the performance of
the cutting system. When you change consumables, always try to keep the new parts
on a clean rag.

3.
How many minutes make up a duty cycle?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
5
10
15
20
What is hafnium used for?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Shield material
Grounding clamp
Electrode tip
Insulator
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-15
3.0.0 CUTTING and GOUGING OPERATING SEQUENCE

The first step in operating a PAC system is
to perform a system check. Make sure that
the torch is assembled properly. Turn the
power source and air supply on. Next, check
the status lights on the power source.
The status lights advise the operator if the
system is ready to cut or if there is a
problem that will keep the unit from
operating properly. There may be two to four
status lights depending on the model of the
power source (Figure 7-22).
Typically, the top light is labeled power.
When this light is on, it indicates the power
source is on. If the power light is the only
light on, that indicates that the system is
ready to cut. If an additional light is on, that
is the indication of a problem in the system.
Figure 7-22 Control panel.
Three parts of the system are monitored and

when not functioning properly cause the additional status light to turn on and keep the
system from cutting. These parts are the torch assembly, the air pressure setting, and
the internal temperature of the power supply.
Should an additional status light come on, check to make sure the torch is properly
assembled, the air pressure is set to the recommended setting, and it has had a chance
to cool if the power source has been cutting continuously for more than the rated duty
cycle time period. Once these problems have been fixed, the status light will turn off and
the system will be ready to cut.
After verifying that the status lights indicate that the system is ready to cut, purge the
gas lines for a minute to get rid of any moisture that may have formed inside the lines.
When the trigger has energized the circuit, a preflow of gas will flow through the torch
for a few seconds. This is done to ensure
that the right amount of gas flow is
available before an arc is created. The
cutting arc is created by one of two
different starting methods: high frequency
starts or contact starts.
3.1.0 High Frequency Starts

The tried-and-true method is a highfrequency (HF) starting circuit built into the
power supply. This system uses a highvoltage transformer (similar to a bug
zapper), capacitors, and a spark-gap
assembly to generate a high-voltage spark
at the torch (Figure 7-23).
The spark ionizes the plasma gas,
enabling current to flow across the air gap
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-23 HF starting circuit.
7-16
between the nozzle and electrode. The resulting arc is called the pilot arc. Highfrequency starting systems are simple, relatively dependable, and require no moving
parts in the torch. However, they do need periodic maintenance to prevent hard-starting
problems. Another potential problem is the high frequency that radiates from the
system, creating electrical noise that may interfere with sensitive electronic equipment.
3.2.0 Contact Starts

A contact start torch uses a moving electrode or nozzle to create the initial spark that
enables the pilot arc (Figure 7-24). When the torch is fired, the electrode and nozzle are
in contact in a dead short, or short circuit. When the operator depresses the trigger, gas
enters the plasma chamber; it blows the electrode back (or the nozzle forward) creating
a spark. This process is similar to the spark created when an electrical plug is pulled
quickly from a receptacle.
After the initial arc is created, the gas flow pushes the arc through the orifice and
reestablishes it on the outside of the tip. This forms a J-shaped arc called the pilot arc.
The pilot arc forms a path to the metal surface to be cut. When the torch is close
enough to the metal, the arc will transfer from a pilot arc between the electrode and the
tip to a cutting arc between the electrode and the workpiece.
Contact start torches produce much less electrical noise than HF systems, and they are
instant-on torches, which reduces cycle time because of the lack of preflow.
3.3.0 Pilot Arc Control Methods

On some power sources the pilot arc remains on even after the cutting arc is
established. An advantage to this is that if the operator is cutting over a piece of
expanded metal, for example, the cutting arc is maintained as the arc moves from one
piece of metal to the other. One disadvantage of leaving the pilot arc on at all times
during the cutting process is that it can lead to faster consumable wear. To help address
these issues, some power sources have ways of controlling the pilot arc so that it is on
when needed and can be shut off when not needed.
In some cases the power source has a switch that gives the operator a choice of
settings for the pilot arc. The operator can select the expanded metal position for a
continuous pilot arc or the tip saver position where the pilot arc shuts off after the cutting
arc is established.
Figure 7-24 Contact start.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-17
Other power sources are equipped with a circuit that automatically controls the pilot arc.
The pilot arc will switch in and out as fast as needed when cutting expanded metal or
multiple pieces of metal. When cutting on a solid piece of metal, the pilot arc will drop
out after the cutting arc has been
established.
3.4.0 Starting the Cut

With a hand-held torch there are two
methods for starting the cut: edge starts
and pierce starts. To use an edge start,
place the torch directly over the edge of
the work piece (Figure 7-25). With the tip
centered on the edge of the metal, start
the arc and begin moving the torch along
the cut line (Figure 7-26).
Figure 7-25 Starting an edge

cut.
Figure 7-26 Edge cut process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-18
Pierce cuts are a little more difficult. The

torch will need to be angled slightly over the
starting point (Figure 7-27).This will prevent
the molten metal from the beginning of the
cut from being blown back into the tip and
electrode. Once the cutting arc has pierced
through the metal, move the torch to a
vertical position and continue along the cut
line. The thicker the metal, the longer it will
take the cutting arc to pierce through the
metal. The process of piercing a hole in the
metal will cause a blow hole that is wider
than the normal kerf, so the initial pierce
should be done in the scrap portion of the
part not on the cut line (Figure 7-28).
Figure 7-27 Pierce cut.
Figure 7-28 Pierce cut process.
4.0.0 PLASMA ARC GOUGING

Plasma Arc Gouging is a variation or an
adaptation of the PAC process. Gouging
utilizes a different torch tip that produces a
reduction in the arc constriction, which
results in a lower arc stream velocity. Note
the larger diameter orifice of the gouging tip
(Figure 7-29). This larger diameter orifice
provides the reduction in arc constriction,
which results in a lower arc stream velocity.
It gives a softer, wider arc and proper
stream velocity. Gouging may be used for
edge preparation (J or U-grooves), removal
of welds, or discontinuities in welds, and it
may be used in all positions.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 7-29 Gouging tips.
7-19
When comparing PAC with Air Carbon Arc

Gouging (CAC-A), one major difference is that
with PAC, the gouge surface is bright and clean.
This is particularly true with the aluminum alloys
and stainless steels. There is virtually no cleanup
required because the gouges are clean and
absent of carbon contamination, as is the case
when using the CAC-A process. Because of this,
CAC-A is not recommended as a weld
preparation for stainless steel and aluminum
without subsequent and sufficient cleaning.
The technique for plasma arc gouging requires
the torch be angled 30 to 45 from the base
metal surface. This torch angle and the speed of
travel will determine the gouging depth. It is
important that not too much material be removed
in a single pass. It is better to remove by gouging
to the required depth and width by using multiple
passes (Figure 7-30).
Figure 7-30 Gouging

process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-20
5.0.0 QUALITIES of a PLASMA CUT

Good quality cuts result in less time and effort being spent on cleaning up the part
before it goes to the next step in the manufacturing process. If the part is to be welded,
a clean cut is important in order to produce a good weld. It takes several terms to define
a quality cut (Figures 7-31and 7-32).
Figure 7-31 Elements of a

quality cut.
Figure 7-32 Direction of cut.
5.1.0 Kerf
The kerf is the width of the cut, or the amount of metal removed by the cutting process.
All cutting processes produce a kerf. You must account for the kerf when cutting to
specific dimensions or determining the number of parts that can be cut from a piece.
Factors that affect the size of the kerf include cutting speed, amperage setting, amount
of standoff, and the size of the orifice in the tip.
5.2.0 Bevel Angle

As the plasma gas cuts through the metal, it has a swirling motion. As a result of this
motion the arc has more energy on one side of the cut than the other. This leads to a
cut that is straight on one side and has a bevel angle (typically four to six degrees) on
the other side.
The direction of travel and the swirl of the gas determine which side will be straight and
which side will be beveled. On a torch with a clockwise swirl (this includes all Miller
torches) the straight side of the cut will be the right side of the cut in the direction of
travel. Being aware of this characteristic of plasma cutting will ensure that the part being
produced has straight edges while the scrap piece has the beveled edge.
5.3.0 Drag Line

Drag lines are ripples along the surface of the cut. The travel speed and amperage
setting will have the most effect on the appearance of the drag lines.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-21
5.4.0 Top Rounding

Top edge rounding is a slight rounding over of the metal at the top of the cut. It is
caused by the fact that the arc is hotter at the top of the cut than at the bottom. There is
usually some top edge rounding in any plasma cut part. It is most affected by material
thickness and is more apparent on thicker metals.
5.5.0 Dross
Dross is re-solidified oxidized molten metal that is not fully ejected from the kerf during
cutting. It is the most common cut quality problem of plasma cutting. Dross may form as
a thick bubbly accumulation along the bottom edge of the plate, a small, hard bead of
uncut material (high-speed dross), or a light coating along the top surface of the plate
(top spatter).
Dross is affected by the materials variables, such as thickness and type, grade,
chemical composition, surface condition, flatness, and even temperature changes as
the material is cut. However, the three most critical variables to consider in dross
formation are cutting speed, amperage, and standoff distance.
If the cutting speed is too slow, the plasma jet begins to look for more material to cut.
The arc column grows in diameter, widening the kerf to a point where the high velocity
portion of the plasma jet no longer ejects the molten material from the cut. As a result,
this molten material begins to accumulate along the bottom edge of the plate in a thick
globular form. This is called low-speed dross. At extremely low speeds the arc
extinguishes because there is not enough metal to sustain a transferred arc. Increasing
the amperage or decreasing the standoff (while keeping material thickness and speed
constant) have a similar effect on the cut as slowing down the cut speed. Both of these
changes cause more energy from the plasma jet to contact a given area of the material
in a given period of time. Excessive amperage or low standoff can also cause lowspeed dross. Some low speed dross in the corners of a plasma cut is normal since
velocity does not remain constant through a sharp turn.
To prevent low-speed dross form forming, increase the cut speed in 5 ipm increments,
increase the standoff in 1/16-inch increments or 5 volt increments, or decrease the
amperage in 10 amp increments. If none of these measures improves the cut, consider
a smaller nozzle size.
If the cutting speed is too fast, the arc begins to lag back in the kerf, leaving a small,
hard bead of uncut material or rollover dross along the bottom of the plate. This highspeed dross is more tenacious and usually requires extensive machining to remove. At
extremely high speeds, the arc becomes unstable and begins oscillating up and down in
the kerf, causing a rooster tail of sparks and molten material. At these speeds, the arc
may fail to penetrate the metal or may extinguish. High standoff or low amperage (for a
given material thickness and cutting speed) can also cause high-speed dross since both
of these changes cause a reduction in the energy of the plasma jet.
To prevent high speed dross, first check the nozzle for signs of wear (gouging, oversize
or elliptical orifice), decrease the cutting speed in 5 ipm increments, decrease the
standoff in 1/16-inch increments or 5 volts increments, or increase the amperage (do
not exceed 95% of the nozzle orifice rating).
Top spatter is an accumulation of re-solidified metal that sprays along the top of the cut
piece. It is usually very easy to remove. The usual cause is a worn nozzle, excessive
cutting speed, a high standoff, or the swirling flow of the plasma jet, which at a certain
angle of attack flings molten material out in front of the kerf rather than down through it.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-22
To eliminate top spatter, check the nozzle for signs of wear, decrease the cutting speed
in 5 ipm increments, or decrease the standoff in 1/16-inch increments or 5 volt
increments.

5.
What is dross?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Excess plasma formation

Resolidified molten metal
Angle on the top of a cut
Preferred shielding material
What is the most likely reason the plasma torch would not cut through the work
piece?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Incorrect angle
Wrong shielding gas
Rapid torch speed
Inexperienced technician
5.6.0 Six Steps to Good Cut Quality

1. Use quality consumable parts.
You will not get quality cuts without quality parts. Use the parts recommended by the
manufacturer. These parts are made to the exact tolerances required to ensure quality
cuts. To further ensure quality cuts, always start with a new set of consumables.
2. Assemble the torch properly.
Assemble the torch carefully, making sure the parts are properly aligned and fit together
snugly. This will ensure good electrical contact and cutting performance. Keep parts in
their storage containers until needed in order to prevent contamination from dirt and
dust.
3. Set the amperage no higher than necessary.
The amperage should be set based on the metal thickness being cut. Using more
amperage than needed will shorten consumable life.
4. Square the torch with the part to be cut.
If the torch is not aligned perpendicular with the part, the cut may form a beveled edge
instead of a straight edge. Check the squareness of the torch visually before starting to
cut.
5. Verify the direction of travel.
Depending on the manufacturer and the direction of the air flow, the square side of the
cut may be the right-hand side in the direction of travel. Perform a test cut to verify the
location of the square edge.
6. Adjust the travel speed.
During the test cut, determine the travel speed that will provide either a dross-free or
minimal-dross cut. Increasing travel speed will also insure that you do not have a
negative bevel angle.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-23
6.0.0 SAFETY PROCEDURES

As it is with any cutting or welding process, safety is the prime consideration. The
equipment owners manuals will provide safety recommendations that must be followed.
The plasma arc emits intense visible and invisible radiation (ultraviolet and infrared).
Operators need to be fully clothed with dark leather or woolen clothing. Ultraviolet
radiation can cause rapid disintegration of cotton-based clothing.
Dark clothing reduces reflection, particularly underneath the welding helmet where
reflected ultraviolet burns can occur to the face and neck.
To provide adequate protection for the eyes, use filter lenses conforming to ANSI Z49.1
(Table 7-1).
Table 7-1 Suggested filter glass shades for plasma.
Arc Current in Amps
Lowest Shade Number
Recommended Shade Number
Under 40
40-60
60-80
80-300
300-400
12
400-800
10
14
When cutting thicker materials, it may be necessary to wear ear protection.

Also, water tables are sometimes used beneath cutting tables. If a water table is used,
strict guidelines must be followed to avoid such problems as hydrogen gas buildup
beneath the plate being cut. This is especially the case when cutting aluminum and also
when argon/hydrogen mixtures are used as the cutting gas.
The PAC process produces fumes and gases that can harm your health. The
composition and rate of generation of fumes and gases depend on many factors
including arc current, cutting speed, material being cut, and gases used. The fume and
gas by-products will usually consist of the oxides of the metal being cut, ozone, oxides
of nitrogen, and phosgene gas.
Adequate ventilation is required during the plasma arc cutting process due to the
brightness of the plasma arc, which causes air to break down into ozone. These fumes
must be removed from the work area or eliminated at the source by an appropriate
exhaust system.
Take the proper precautions to avoid being burned by hot molten material; sparks can
travel in excess of 35 feet during the cutting process. Do not wear any clothing with
cuffs or uncovered pockets, and always wear the proper insulated gloves.
Handle compressed gas cylinders carefully. Secure them when stored or in use;
knocks, falls, or rough handling can damage cylinders and valves, causing leakage and
potential accidents.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-24
Use the following guidance when setting up and using cylinders of gas:
1. Properly secure the cylinder.
2. Before connecting a regulator, purge the valve of dust and debris.
3. When you attach a regulator to a cylinder, be sure it is in a fully closed condition.
Once you have opened the cylinder valve slowly, adjust the screw on the
regulator slowly until you obtain the correct pressure.
4. When the cylinder is not in use, close the valve and the regulator.
Operators and maintenance people should keep in mind that PAC equipment operates
with a higher output voltage than typical welding equipment. Always follow
recommended safety procedures as outlined by the equipment manufacturer. Read
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for metals, consumables, and coatings.
Further information on safety can be found in the American Welding Society
publications Safety in Welding and Cutting, ANSI ASC Z49.1.
Summary
This chapter introduced you to the basics of plasma arc cutting, a very easy method of
cutting all conductive metals, which requires very little training to use. It discussed the
formation of plasma and its properties, explained the equipment used for plasma arc
cutting, and gave some proper cutting techniques.
It also presented some advantages and disadvantages of plasma arc cutting over other
cutting methods. The main theme of the chapter was to select the right size PAC for the
job at hand based on the type and thickness of the metal to be cut, while keeping a
constant eye on the torch consumables to ensure proper production efficiency is
maintained. Finally, it cannot be overemphasized to follow all of the manufacturers
recommended operating and safety procedures.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-25

1.
What is the most common form of matter in the universe?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
What action is visible during an electrical arc?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
Intense light
Chemical reaction
Weak valence shells
Extremely high pressure and temperature
What causes the release of vast amounts of energy between electrons and ions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Atomic weight
Chemical composition
Number of protons
Temperature
What causes atoms to break apart?

A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Ionization
Fusion
Fission
Transpiration
What is responsible for the difference between the different states of the same
matter?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Plasma
Their collisions
Their velocity
Their atomic structure
The reaction of their protons
How is plasma produced in a plasma cutting torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
High pressure gas

Extreme heat
Shielding gas
Chemical reaction
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-26
7.
What must be created between the torch and workpiece to maintain cutting?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What attribute makes plasma different from steam?

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
It uses less energy than oxy-fuel

It causes little to no oxidation
It is easier to use
It results in minimal warping
For a plasma cutter to function on metal, what physical condition must?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Shielding gas
Plasma jet
Gravity
Skilled technician
What is the main reason PAC is used on aluminum?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
Voltage
Speed
Tip constriction
Type of electrode
What removes molten metal from the cut area?

A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Conductivity
Directionality
Pressure
Atomic structure
What controls the radius of the plasma arc?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Contact
Air pressure
Electrical pathway
Heat transfer
It must be grounded
It must conduct electricity
It must be fully submerged in water
It must be preheated
What is a disadvantage of plasma cutting?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Its speed
Overall weight of the system
Necessity of having a source of electricity
Its highly flammable nature
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-27
14.
Why does plasma cutting cause less workpiece distortion than oxy-fuel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
In the transferred arc mode where is the arc struck?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Transformer
Capacitor
Diode
Microprocessor
How many minutes can an 80-amp plasma arc cutter operate continuously with a
duty cycle of 70%?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
Heavy dross
Double bevel
Bevel and straight
Double straight
What component does an inverter power supply use to adjust the frequency of
incoming AC?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
Open the pilot arc relay

Increase the output gas pressure
Decrease the output current
All of the above
What type of kerf is produced by a plasma torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Between the tip and the nozzle

Between the electrode and the shield
Between the electrode and the workpiece
Between the tip and the workpiece
How do you avoid unnecessary heating of the constricting tip during cutting
operations?
A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
No preheating is required
A smaller torch is used
A smaller standoff is used
Plasma is not as hot as oxy-fuel
3
7
30
70
What does a rating of 104 F refer to in regard to a PAC?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Ambient temperature
Maximum operating temperature
Preheat temperature
Plasma temperature
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-28
21.
How is PAC cutting speed measured?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
What is the purpose of a swirl ring in a PAC torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Solid state
Contact start
High frequency
Hafnium
What torch component is made of high temperature plastic?

A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
Spark
Gas pressure
Heat transfer
Contact with the workpiece
What type of torch is also known as an instant-on torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
FM and contact
HF and contact
HF and automatic
CW and automatic
What enables current to flow across the air gap between the tip and electrode?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Conduct electricity
Focus the plasma arc
Spin the compressed air
Control the temperature
What are the two most common torch systems to initiate the plasma pilot arc?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Feet per second

Inches per second
Feet per minute
Inches per minute
Tip
Electrode
Swirl ring
Retaining cup
What type of shield is used for extended cutting applications?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Drag
Deflector
Directional
Dimensional
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-29
28.
What is the recommended torch standoff of an extended tip, in inches?

A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
The tip size of the torch is directly proportional to what PAC characteristic?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
Project
Workday
Workweek
Month
The condition of torch consumables is directly related to what torch

characteristic?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
Ambient temperature
Type of electrode
Thickness of the workpiece
PAC manufacturer
The PAC should be inspected at the beginning of what?

A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
Perpendicular to the workpiece

Parallel to the workpiece
Slightly angled away from you
Slightly angled toward you
What is the PAC current selection based on?

A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
Voltage
Amperage
Speed rating
Material composition
What is the recommended pierce starting position of the PAC torch in relation to
the workpiece?
A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
1/8
Cutting speed
Production efficiency
Output amperage
Duty cycle
What does a kerf refer to on the workpiece?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Molten material left on the bottom of the workpiece

Amount of material removed by the cutting process
Direction of travel of the gas swirl
Bevel angle on the edge of the cut
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-30
35.
What are drag lines on the surface of the cut?

A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
What causes top edge rounding on a cut edge?

A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
Increases melting temperature

Causes the metal to warp
Increases welding quality
Causes a crystalline deposit
How do you determine the maximum cutting speed of a PAC torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
41.
Compressed air
Hydrogen
Argon
Nitrogen
What is the effect of oxidation on a workpiece?

A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
Once a day
Once every ten hours of operation
After significant wearing appears
After every job
Which gas is considered to produce the least dross?

A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
Torch is too close to the workpiece

Torch is too far away from the workpiece
The arc is hotter at the top of the cut
The arc is cooler at the top of the cut
How often should an electrode be replaced?

A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
Ripples along the surface of the cut

Scratches left by the torch tip
Gouges left by the grounding strap
Measurement marks
Arc current, nozzle diameter, and metal thickness

Arc current, electrode material, and type of metal
Gas pressure, nozzle diameter, and metal thickness
Gas pressure, electrode material, and type of metal
Why is very little workpiece preparation necessary after plasma cutting?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Preciseness of the arc

The lack of chemical reactions
The low temperature used
Potential harm to material
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-31
42.
What causes a bevel angle on one side of a workpiece?

A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
How do you correct a negative bevel angle?

A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
Kerf gets sharper edge

Less dross is formed
Kerf gets wider
Oxidation increases
What has the greatest effect on the appearance of drag lines?

A.
B.
C.
D.
46.
Decrease the torch speed

Increase the torch speed
Decrease the torch angle
Increase the torch angle
What occurs to the workpiece when the cutting speed is too slow?
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
Amperage and angle of the torch

Direction of swirl of the plasma gas
Size and standoff of the torch
Standoff and amperage of the torch
Amperage and angle of the torch

Height and speed of the torch
Speed and amperage of the torch
Standoff and amperage of the torch
What ANSI standards should be followed when selecting the proper filter glass
shade numbers?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Z49.1
Z59.1
Z69.1
Z79.1
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-32

Dross
The oxidized material that melts during cutting and adheres

to the workpiece.
Hafnium
A grey metallic element that resembles zirconium chemically

and is found in zirconium minerals; used in filaments for its
ready emission of electrons.
Kerf
The groove or cut made by the cutting torch
Ionized
A gas is acted upon by the intense heat of plasma causing a

net electric charge by adding or removing one or more
electrons.
Oxidation
The deposit that forms on the surface of a metal as it

oxidizes. This deposit increases the melting temperature of
the metal causing uneven flow of welding material and
therefore a bad weld.
Plenum
The state or space in which a gas, usually air, is contained

at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-33

Basic Plasma Theory, Hypertherm, New Hampshire, 2000
Colt, Jim. The Evolution of Plasma Cutting, Hypertherm, New Hampshire, 2004
Plasma Cutting and Gouging, Miller Electric Manufacturing Company, 2009
Plasma Cutting Guide, Miller Electric Manufacturing Company, 2009
Safety Quick-Guide for Arc Welding and Cutting the Safe Way! Miller Electric
Manufacturing Company, 2007
Welding and Allied Processes, S9086-CH-STM-010/CH-074R4, Commander, Naval
Sea Systems Command, Washington D.C., 1999
Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington D.C., 1976
NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-34

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
7-35
Chapter 8
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Topics
1.0.0
Introduction to the Process
2.0.0
Principles of Operation
3.0.0
Equipment for Welding
4.0.0
Covered Electrodes
5.0.0
Welding Applications
6.0.0
Welding Metallurgy
7.0.0
Weld and Joint Design
8.0.0
Welding Procedure Variables
9.0.0
Welding Procedure Schedules
10.0.0
Preweld Preparations
11.0.0
Welding Defects and Problems
12.0.0
Postweld Procedures
13.0.0
Welder Training and Qualification
14.0.0
Welding Safety
Overview
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is an arc welding process in which the fusing of
metals is produced by heat from an electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a
consumable covered electrode and the surface of the base metal in the joint being
welded. Shielded Metal Arc welding is one of the most widely used welding processes,
particularly for short welds in production, maintenance, and repair work and for field
construction.
This chapter will give you an understanding of the safety precautions for SMAW and an
awareness of the importance of safety in welding. You will also get a basic
understanding of the SMAW process and equipment along with the key variables that
affect the quality of welds such as electrode selection, polarity and amperage, arc
length, travel speed, and electrode angles. We will also cover core competencies such
as setting up welding equipment, preparing weld materials, fitting up weld materials,
welding carbon steel plates, and repairing welds.
Always refer to the manufacturers manuals for specific operating and maintenance
instructions.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-1
Objectives
1. Describe the process of shielded metal arc welding.
2. Describe the principles of operation used for shielded metal arc welding.
3. Describe the equipment associated with shielded metal arc welding.
4. Identify the classification and selection of covered electrodes used for shielded
metal arc welding.
5. Identify the welding applications for shielded metal arc welding.
6. Describe the welding metallurgy of shielded metal arc welding.
7. Identify weld and joint designs used for shielded metal arc welding.
8. Describe the welding procedure variables associated with shielded metal arc
welding.
9. Identify welding procedure schedules used for shielded metal arc welding.
10. Describe preweld preparations for shielded metal arc welding.
11. Identify defects and problems associated with shielded metal arc welding.
12. Describe post weld procedures for shielded metal arc welding.
13. State the welder training and qualifications associated with shielded metal arc
welding.
14. Describe the welding safety associated with shielded metal arc welding.
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-2

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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question again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-4
1.0.0 INTRODUCTION to the PROCESS

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is an electric arc welding process in which an
electric arc between a covered metal electrode and the work generates the heat for
welding. The filler metal is deposited from the electrode, and the electrode covering
provides the shielding. Some slang names for this process are ''stick welding" or ''stick
electrode welding': Figure 8-1 shows a diagram of this process.
The shielded metal arc welding process is
one of the simplest and most versatile arc
welding processes. It can be used to weld
both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and it
can weld thicknesses above approximately
18 gauge in all positions. The arc is under
the control of the welder and is visible. The
welding process leaves slag on the surface
of the weld bead which must be removed.
The most common use for this process is
welding mild and low alloy steels. The
equipment is extremely rugged and simple,
and the process is flexible in that the welder
needs to take only the electrode holder and
work lead to the point of welding.
Most sources give credit for the invention of
the electric arc to Sir Humphrey Davy of
Figure 8-1 Shielded metal arc
England in 180l. For the most part, the
welding.
electric arc remained a scientific novelty
until 1881, when the carbon arc street lamp was invented and the first attempts to weld
using the carbon arc process were made. The metal arc welding process came into
being when metal rods replaced the carbon electrodes in 1889. Coverings for the bare
wire electrodes were first developed in the early 1900's. The first major use occurred
during World War I, especially in the shipbuilding industry. After the war, there was a
period of slow growth until the early 1930's when shielded metal arc welding became a
major manufacturing method and a dominant welding process. Today, the shielded
metal arc welding process is widely used, even though its relative importance has been
declining slowly in recent years.
1.1.0 Methods of Application

The shielded metal arc welding process is basically a manually operated process. The
electrode is clamped in an electrode holder and the welder manipulates the tip of the
electrode in relation to the metal being welded. The welder strikes, maintains, and stops
the arc manually.
Several variations of this process are done automatically rather than manually. These
are: gravity welding, firecracker welding, and massive electrode welding. These
methods comprise only a very small percentage of welding done by the shielded metal
arc welding process.
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1.2.0 Advantages and Limitations

Shielded metal arc welding is widely used because of its versatility, portability, and
comparatively simple and inexpensive equipment. In addition, it does not require
auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux.
Welders can use the shielded metal arc welding process for making welds in any
position they can reach with an electrode. Electrodes can be bent so they can be used
to weld blind areas. Long leads can be used to weld in many locations at great
distances from the power source. Shielded metal arc welding can be used in the field
because the equipment is relatively light and portable. This process is also less
sensitive to wind and draft than gas shielded arc welding processes.
Shielded metal arc welding can be used to weld a wide variety of metal thicknesses.
This process is more useful than other welding processes for welding complex structural
assemblies because it is easier to use in difficult locations and for multi-position
welding.
Shielded metal arc welding is also a popular process for pipe welding because it can
create weld joints with high quality and strength. However, the shielded metal arc
welding process has several limitations. Operator duty cycle and overall deposition
rates for covered electrodes are usually less than those of a continuous electrode
process. This is because electrodes have a fixed length and welding must stop after
each electrode has been consumed to discard the remaining portion of the used
electrode clamped into the holder and reapply another. Another limitation is that the slag
must be removed from the weld after every pass. Finally, the shielded metal arc welding
process cannot be used to weld some of the non-ferrous metals.
2.0.0 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION

The shielded metal arc welding process uses the heat of the electric arc to melt the
consumable electrode and the work being welded. The welding circuit includes a power
source, welding cables, an electrode holder, a work clamp and a welding electrode. One
of the welding cables connects the power source to the electrode holder and the other
cable connects to the workpiece.
The welding begins when the welder initiates the arc by momentarily touching the
electrode to the base metal, which completes the electrical circuit. The welder guides
the electrode manually, controlling both the travel speed and the direction of travel. The
welder maintains the arc by controlling the distance between the work material and the
tip of the electrode (length of the arc). Some types of electrodes can be dragged along
the surface of the work so that the coating thickness controls the arc length, which
controls the voltage.
The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal and forms a molten weld puddle.
The melted electrode metal is transferred across the arc and becomes the deposited
weld metal. The deposit is covered by a slag produced by components in the electrode
coating. The arc is enveloped in a gas shield provided by the disintegration of some of
the ingredients of the electrode coating. Most of the electrode core wire is transferred
across the arc, but small particles escape from the weld area as spatter, and a very
small portion leaves the welding area as smoke.
2.1.0 Arc Systems

The constant current type of power source is best for shielded metal arc welding. The
constant current welding machines provide a nearly constant welding current for the arc.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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The constant current output is obtained with a drooping volt ampere characteristic,
which means that the voltage reduces as the current increases. The changing arc
length causes the arc voltage to increase or decrease slightly, which in turn changes the
welding current. Within the welding range, the steeper the slope of the volt-ampere
curve, the smaller the current change for a given change in the arc voltage.
Under certain conditions, there is a need for variations in the volt-ampere slope. A steep
volt-ampere characteristic is desirable when the welder wants to achieve maximum
welding speed on some welding jobs. The steeper slope gives less current variation
with changing arc length, and it gives a softer arc. The types of machines that have this
kind of curve are especially useful on sheet metals. Machines with this characteristic are
typically used with large diameter electrodes and high amperages. On some
applications, such as welding over rust, or a position pipe welding where better arc
control with high penetration capability is desired, a less steep volt-ampere
characteristic is more desirable. Machines with the less steep volt-ampere curve are
also easier to use for depositing
the root passes on joints with
varying fit-up. This type of power
source characteristic allows the
welder to control the welding
current in a specific range by
changing the arc length and
producing a more driving arc.
Differences in the basic power
source designs cause these
variations in the power sources.
Figure 8-2 shows volt-ampere
curves for different performance
characteristics. This shows
several slopes, all of which can
provide the same normal voltage
and current. The flatter slopes
give a greater current variation
for a given voltage change or arc
length change. Machines that
have a higher short circuit current
Figure 8-2 Typical volt-ampere curves
give more positive starting.
for constant current types of power
sources.
2.2.0 Electrical Terms
Many terms are associated with arc welding. The following basic terms are especially
important.
Alternating current Alternating current is an electrical current that has alternating
negative and positive values. In the first half-cycle, the current flows in one direction and
then reverses itself for the next half-cycle. In one complete cycle, the current spends 50
percent of the time flowing one way and the other 50 percent flowing the other way. The
rate of change in direction is called frequency, and it is indicated by cycles per second.
In the United States, the alternating current is set at 60 cycles per second.
Ampere Amperes, sometimes called amps, refers to the amount of current that
flows through a circuit. It is measured by an amp meter.
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Conductor Conductor means any material that allows the passage of an electrical
current.
Current Current is the movement or flow of an electrical charge through a conductor.
Direct current Direct current is an electrical current that flows in one direction only.
Electrical circuit Electrical circuit is the path taken by an electrical current flowing
through a conductor from one terminal of the source to the load and returning to the
other terminal of the source.
Polarity Polarity is the direction of the flow of current in a circuit. Since current flows
in one direction only in a dc welder, the polarity becomes an important factor in welding
operations.
Resistance Resistance is the opposition of the conductor to the flow of current.
Resistance causes electrical energy to be changed into heat.
Volt A volt is the force required to make the current flow in an electrical circuit. It can
be compared to pressure in a hydraulic system. Volts are measured with a volt meter.
2.3.0 Metal Transfer

The intense heat of the welding arc melts the tip of the electrode and melts the surface
of base metal. The temperature of the arc is about 9000F (5000C) which causes
almost instantaneous melting of the surface of the work. Globules form on the tip of the
electrode and transfer through the arc to the molten weld puddle on the surface of the
work. When the detaching globules are small during the transfer, this is known as spray
type metal transfer. When the globules are relatively large during transfer, it is known as
globular type metal transfer. Surface tension sometimes causes a globule of metal to
connect the tip of the electrode to the weld puddle. This causes an electrical short and
makes the arc go out. Usually this is a momentary occurrence, but occasionally the
electrode will stick to the weld puddle. When the short circuit occurs, the current builds
up to a short circuit value and the increased current usually melts the connecting metal
and reestablishes the arc. A welding machine with a flatter volt-ampere curve will give a
higher short circuit current than one with a steeper volt-ampere curve. The electrode
sticking problem will be slightly less with a machine that has a flatter volt-ampere curve.
A softer arc, produced by a steeper slope, will decrease the amount of weld spatter. A
more driving arc, produced by a flatter slope, causes a more violent transfer of metal
into the weld puddle, which will cause a greater splashing effect. This greater splashing
effect will generate more spattering from the weld puddle. When the welds are made in
the flat or horizontal positions, the forces of gravity, magnetism, and surface tension
induce the transfer of the metal. When the welds are made in the vertical or overhead
positions, the forces of magnetism and surface tension induce the metal transfer, while
the force of gravity opposes metal transfer. Lower currents are used for vertical and
overhead welding to allow shorter arc lengths and promote a smaller metal droplet size
less affected by gravity.

1.
What does the welding process leave on the surface of the weld bead which
must be removed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Dross
Splatter
Slag
Rust
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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2.
When is a steep volt-ampere characteristic desirable?

A.
B.
C.
D.
When welding thick metal

When the welder wants to achieve maximum welding speed
When the welder wants to gouge the work piece
When welding stainless steel in the vertical position
3.0.0 EQUIPMENT for WELDING

The equipment for the shielded metal arc welding process consists of a power source,
welding cable, electrode holder, and work clamp or attachment. Figure 8-3 shows a
diagram of the equipment.
Figure 8-3 Equipment for shielded metal arc welding.
3.1.0 Power Sources

The purpose of the power source or welding machine is to provide the electric power of
the proper current and voltage to maintain a welding arc. Many different sizes and types
of power sources are designed for shielded metal arc welding. Most power sources
operate on 230 or 460 volt input electric power, but power sources that operate on 200
or 575 volt input power are also available.
3.1.1 Types of Current
Shielded metal arc welding can use either direct current (DC) or alternating current
(AC). Electrode negative (straight polarity) or electrode positive (reverse polarity) can be
used with direct current. Each type of current has distinct advantages, but selection of
the type of welding current used, usually depends on the availability of equipment and
the type of electrode selected. Direct current flows in one direction continuously through
the welding circuit. The advantages it has over alternating current are:
Direct current is better at low currents and with small diameter electrodes.
All classes of covered electrodes can produce satisfactory results.
Arc starting is generally easier with direct current.
Maintaining a short arc is easier.
Direct current is easier to use for out-of position welding because lower currents can be
used.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Direct current is easier to use for welding sheet metal.

It generally produces less weld spatter than alternating current.
Polarity or direction of current flow is important in the use of direct current. Electrode
negative (straight polarity) is often used when shallower penetration is required.
Electrode positive (reverse polarity) is generally used where deep penetration is
needed. Normally, electrode negative provides higher deposition rates than electrode
positive. The type of electrode often governs the polarity to be used .
Alternating current is a combination of both polarities that alternates in regular cycles. In
each cycle the current starts at zero, builds up to a maximum value in one direction,
decays back to zero, builds up to a maximum value in the other direction, and again
decays to zero. The polarity of the alternating current changes 120 times during the 60
Hertz cycle used in the United States. Depths of penetration and deposition rates for
alternating current are generally intermediate between those for DC electrode positive
and DC electrode negative. Some advantages of alternating current are:
Arc blow is rarely a problem with alternating current.
Alternating current is well suited for welding thick sections using large diameter
electrodes.
3.1.2 Power Source Duty Cycle
Duty cycle is the ratio of arc time to total time. For a welding machine, a 10 minute time
period is used. Thus, for a 60% duty cycle machine, the welding load would be applied
continuously for 6 minutes and would be off for 4 minutes. Most industrial type constant
current machines are rated at 60% duty cycle. The formula for determining the duty
cycle of a welding machine for a given load current is:
% Duty Cycle =
For example, if a welding machine is rated at a 60% duty cycle at 300 amperes, the
duty cycle of the machine when operated at 350 amperes would be.
% Duty Cycle =
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 8-4 represents the ratio of the square of the rated current to the square of the
load current multiplied by the rated duty cycle. A line is drawn parallel to the sloping
lines through the intersection of the subject machines rated current output and rated
duty cycle. For example, a question might arise whether a 400 amp 60% duty cycle
machine could be used for a fully automatic requirement of 300 amps for a 10-minute
welding job. It shows that the machine can be used at slightly over 300 amperes at a
100% duty cycle. Conversely, there may be a need to draw more than the rated current
from a welding machine, but for a short period. This illustration can be used to compare
various machines. Relate all machines to the same duty cycle for a time comparison.
Figure 8-4 Duty cycle vs. current load.

3.1.3 Types of Power Sources
The output characteristics of the power source must be of the constant-current (CC)
type. The normal current range is 25 to 500 amps using conventional size electrodes.
The arc voltage is 15 to 35 volts.
3.1.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding
Machines
The generator can be powered by an
electric motor for shop use or by an internal
combustion engine (gasoline, gas, or
diesel) for field use. Engine driven welders
can have either water or air cooled engines,
and many of them provide auxiliary power
for emergency lighting, power tools, etc.
Generator welding machines can provide
both AC and DC power, See Figures 8-5
and 8-6.
An alternator welding machine is an electric
generator that produces AC power. This
power source has a rotating assembly.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-5 Portable

welder/generator.
8-11
These machines are also called rotating or revolving field machines.

On dual control machines, normally a generator, the slope of the output curve can vary.
The fine adjustment control knob controls open circuit, or "no load", voltage. This control
is also the fine welding current adjustment during welding. The range switch provides
coarse adjustment of the welding current. In
this way, a soft or harsh arc can be
obtained. With the flatter curve and its low
open circuit voltage, a change in arc voltage
will produce a greater change in output
current. This produces the digging arc
preferred for pipe welding. With a steeper
curve and its high open circuit voltage, the
same change in arc voltage will produce
less of a change in output current. This is a
soft or quiet arc, useful for sheet metal
welding. This type of welding machine gives
the smoothest operating arc because it
produces less voltage ripple.
3.1.3.2 Transformer Welding Machines
The transformer type welding machine is the
least expensive, lightest, and smallest type
Figure 8-6 Diesel engine
of welder. It produces alternating current for
driven power source.
welding. The transformer welder takes
power directly from the line, transforms it to the power required for welding, and by
means of various magnetic circuits, inductors, etc., provides the volt-ampere
characteristics proper for welding. The welding current output of a transformer welder
may be adjusted in many different ways. The simplest method of adjusting output
current is to use a tapped secondary coil on the transformer. This is a popular method
many of the limited input, small welding transformers employ. The leads to the electrode
holder and the work are connected to plugs, which the welder may be insert in sockets
on the front of the machine in various locations to provide the required welding current.
Some machines employ a tap switch instead of the plug-in arrangement. In any case,
exact current adjustment is not entirely possible.
Industrial types of transformer welders usually employ a continuous output current
control. This can be obtained by mechanical means, or electrical means. The
mechanical method usually involves moving the core of the transformer. Any method
that involves mechanical movement of the transformer parts requires considerable
movement for full range adjustment. The more advanced method of adjusting current
output is by means of electrical circuits. In this method the core of the transformer or
reactor is saturated by an auxiliary electric circuit which controls the amount of current
delivered to the output terminals. By merely adjusting a small knob, to the welder can
provide continuous current adjustment from the minimum to maximum of the output.
Although the transformer type of welder has many desirable characteristics, it also has
some limitations. The power required for a transformer welder must be supplied by a
single phase system, and this may create an unbalance of the power supply lines,
which is objectionable to most power companies. In addition, transformer welders have
a rather low power factor unless they are equipped with power factor correcting
capacitors. The addition of capacitors corrects the power factor under load and
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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produces a reasonable power factor that is not objectionable to electric power

companies.
Transformer welders have the lowest initial cost. They require less space and are
normally quiet in operation. In addition, alternating current welding power supplied by
transformers reduces arc blow, which can be troublesome on many welding
applications. They do not, however, have as much flexibility for the operator as the dual
controlled generator.
3.1.3.3 Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines
The previously described transformer welders provide alternating current to the arc.
Some types of electrodes operate
successfully only with direct current power.
A method of supplying direct current power
to the arc without using a rotating generator
is adding a rectifier, an electrical device
which changes alternating current into
direct current. Transformer-rectifier welding
machines operate on single phase input
power. These machines are used when
both AC and DC current are needed. A
single phase type of AC welder is
connected to the rectifier which then
produces DC current for the arc. By means
of a switch that can change the output
terminals to the transformer or the rectifier,
the operator can select either AC or DC
current for the welding requirement.
Transformer-rectifier welding machines are
Figure 8-7 AC/DC single phase
available in different sizes. These machines
power source.
are more efficient electrically than the
generator welding machines, and they provide quieter operation. Figure 8-7 shows an
AC/DC single phase power source.
3.1.3.4 Three Phase Rectifier Welding
Machines
Three phase rectifier welding machines
provide DC welding current to the arc.
These machines operate on three phase
input power. The three phase input helps
overcome the line unbalance that occurs
with single phase transformer-rectifier
welding machines. In this type of machine,
the transformers feed into a rectifier bridge,
which then produces direct current for the
arc. The three-phase rectifier unit is more
efficient electrically than a generator and
provides quiet operation. This type of
machine also gives the least voltage ripple
and produces the smoothest arc of the
static type welding machines. Figure 8-8
shows a three phase solid state constant
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-8 Three-phase

constant voltage power source.
8-13
voltage power source. It automatically monitors output voltage and makes required
changes to compensate for line voltage fluctuation.
3.1.3.5 Multiple Operator System
A multiple operator welding system uses a heavy duty, high current, and relatively high
voltage power source which feeds a number of individual operator welding stations. At
each welding station, a variable resistance is adjusted to drop the current to the proper
welding range. Based on the duty cycle of the welding equipment, one welding machine
can supply welding power simultaneously to a number of welding operators. The current
supplied at the individual station has a drooping characteristic similar to the single
operator welding machines described above. The power source, however, has a
constant voltage Output. Constant voltage power sources are those that maintain a
constant voltage for a given current setting. The volt-ampere curve for this type of power
source is nearly flat. The welding machine size and the number and size of the
individual welding current control stations must be carefully matched for an efficient
multiple operator system. The formula for determining the number of arcs that can be
operated off of one power source is:
3.1.3.6 Inverter Power Sources

In this type of power source, which utilizes
the inverter, the power from the line is first
rectified to pulsing direct current (Figure 89). This current then goes to a high
frequency oscillator or chopper, which
changes the DC into high-voltage, highfrequency AC in the range 5 to 30 kHz. The
output of the chopper circuit is controlled in
accordance with welding procedure
requirements. The high frequency AC is
then transformed down to the operating
welding voltage. The advantage of the
inverter is the use of a small lightweight
transformer, since transformers become
smaller as frequency increases. The high
frequency AC current is then rectified with
silicon diodes to provide direct current
output at normal welding current and
Figure 8-9 Inverter power
voltage. The inverter power source has
source.
become economically feasible due to the
availability of high current, high speed solid
state electronic components at a reasonable cost. Inverter power sources are about
25% the weight of a conventional rectifier of the same power capacity and about 33% of
the size. They provide higher electrical efficiency, a higher power factor, and a faster
response time. Several variations of the inverter power source are available.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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3.1.4 Selecting a Power Source

Selecting a welding machine is based on:
The amount of current required for the work.
The power available to the job site.
Convenience and economic factors.
The size of the machine is based on the welding current and duty cycle required.
Welding current, duty cycle, and voltage are determined by considering weld joints,
weld sizes, and welding procedures. The incoming power available dictates this fact.
Finally, the job situation, personal preference, and economic considerations narrow the
field to the final selection. Consult the local welding equipment supplier to help make
your selection. Know the following data when selecting a welding power source:
Rated load amperes (current)
Duty cycle
Voltage of power supply (incoming)
Frequency of power supply (incoming)
Number of phases of power supply (incoming)
3.2.0 Controls
The controls are usually located on the front panel of the welding machine. These
usually consist of a knob or tap switch to set the rough current range and a knob to
adjust the current within the set range. On DC welding machines there is usually a
switch to change polarity, and on combination AC-DC machines, there is usually a
switch to select the polarity or AC current. An On-Off switch is also located on the front
of the machine.
Arc Force Control is a function of amperage triggered by a preset (internal module)
voltage. The preset trigger voltage is 18 volts. What this means is that anytime the arc
voltage drops from normal welding voltage to 18 volts or less, the drop triggers the arc
force current, which gives the arc a surge of current to keep the arc from going out.
When an arc is struck, the electrode is scratched against the work. At that point, the
voltage goes to -0- which triggers the arc force current and the arc is initiated quickly.
On a standard machine without arc force control, arc striking is difficult and electrode
sticking may occur.
After the arc is established, a steady burn-off is desired. As the electrode burns and
droplets of metal are transferred from the end of the electrode to the work piece, there is
a time period when the droplet is still connected to the end of the electrode but is also
touching the work piece. When this occurs, the machine is, in effect, in a "dead-short" the voltage drops, the arc force is triggered and the droplet is transferred. On machines
without arc force, the burn-off is the same; however, without the arc force to help, an arc
outage may occur, and the electrode will stick in the puddle.
In tight joints, such as pipe welding, the arc length is very short and with standard
machines, it is difficult to maintain the arc since it wants to "short-out" against the
sidewalls or bottom of the joint. The arc force control can be adjusted on this type
application to prevent electrode sticking; whenever the voltage drops, the drop triggers
the arc force current and the sticking doesn't happen because the current surge occurs.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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In many applications, there is a need for a very forceful arc to obtain deeper
penetration, or in the case of arc gouging, the forceful arc is essential in helping to force
the metal out of the groove being gouged. With arc force control, this type application is
made much easier than with conventional machines, with which arc length becomes
critical and arc outages can occur.
When welding with a given size electrode, there is always an optimum amperage
setting. When using arc force control, the optimum amperage setting is continually
working to maintain the arc, which means that although we can't see it on the meters,
there is usually some added amperage to assist in rod burn-off. This in turn means we
really get a slightly faster burn-off than with a conventional rectifier.
When working out-of-position, a forceful arc is needed to help put metal in place. Each
individual operator can adjust the arc force control to provide just the amount needed.
Arc force can also be of assistance when welding rusty or scaly material, since the more
forceful arc will help to break up these deposits.
3.3.0 Electrode Holder

An electrode holder, commonly called a
stinger, is a clamping device for holding the
electrode securely in any position. The
welding cable attaches to the holder
through the hollow insulated handle. The
design of the electrode holder permits quick
and easy electrode exchange. Two general
types of electrode holders are in use:
insulated and noninsulated (Figure 8-10).
The noninsulated holders are not
recommended because they are subject to
accidental short circuiting if bumped against
the workpiece during welding. For safety
reasons, try to ensure the use of only
insulated stingers on the jobsite.
Electrode holders are made in different
sizes, and each manufacturer has its own
Figure 8-10 Insulated pincher
system of designation. Each holder is
and collet types of electrode
designed for use within a specified range of
holders.
electrode diameters and welding current.
Welding with a machine having a 300-ampere rating requires a larger holder than
welding with a 100-ampere machine. If the holder is too small, it will overheat.
3.4.0 Welding Cables

The welding cables and connectors connect the power source to the electrode holder
and to the work. These cables are normally made of copper or aluminum. The cable
that connects the work to the power source is called the work lead. The work leads are
usually connected to the work by pincher clamps or a bolt. The cable that connects the
electrode holder to the power source is called the electrode lead.
The welding cables must be flexible, durable, well insulated, and large enough to carry
the required current. Use only cable specifically designed for welding. Always use a
highly flexible cable for the electrode holder connection. This is necessary so the
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operator can easily maneuver the electrode holder during the welding process. The
work lead cable need not be so flexible because once it is connected, it does not move.
Two factors determine the size of welding cable to use: the amperage rating of the
machine and the distance between the work and the machine. If either amperage or
distance increases, the cable size must also increase. Cable sizes range from the
smallest at AWG No.8 to AWG No. 4/0 with amperage ratings of 75 amperes and
upward. Table 8-1 shows recommended cable sizes for use with different welding
currents and cable lengths. The best size cable is one that meets the amperage
demand but is small enough to manipulate easily.
As a rule, the cable between the machine and the work should be as short as possible.
Use one continuous length of cable if the distance is less than 35 feet. If you must use
more than one length of cable, join the sections with insulated lock-type cable
connectors. Joints in the cable should be at least 10 feet away from the operator.
Table 8-1 Suggested copper welding cable sizes for SMAW.
3.5.0 Ground Clamps

A good ground clamp is essential to produce quality welds. Without proper grounding,
the circuit voltage fails to produce enough heat for proper welding, and there is the
possibility of damage to the welding machine and cables. Three basic methods are
used to ground a welding machine. You can fasten the ground cable to the workbench
with a C-clamp, attach a spring-loaded clamp directly onto the workpiece, or bolt or
tack-weld the end of the ground cable to the welding bench. The third way creates a
permanent common ground.
3.6.0 Accessories
Accessory equipment used for shielded metal arc welding consists of items used for
removing slag and cleaning the weld bead. Chipping hammers are often used to
remove the slag. Wire brushes or grinders are the most common methods for cleaning
the weld.
Manufacturers offer various options and accessories also, depending on the type of
power source and the procedure recommendations.
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3.7.0 Equipment Operation and Maintenance

Learning to arc weld requires many skills. Among these are the abilities to set up,
operate, and maintain your welding equipment.
In most factory environments, the work is brought to the welder. In the Seabees, the
majority of the time the opposite is true. You will be called to the field for welding on
buildings, earthmoving equipment, well drilling pipe, ship to shore fuel lines, pontoon
causeways, and the list goes on. To accomplish these tasks, you have to become
familiar with your equipment and be able to maintain it in the field. It would be
impossible to give detailed maintenance information here because of the many different
types of equipment found in the field; therefore, we will only cover the highlights.
Become familiar with the welding machine you will be using. Study the manufacturers
literature and check with your senior petty officer or chief on items you do not
understand. Machine setup involves selecting current type, polarity, and current
settings. The current selection depends on the size and type of electrode used, position
of the weld, and the properties of the base metal.
Cable size and connections are determined by the distance required to reach the work,
the size of the machine, and the amperage needed for the weld.
Operator maintenance depends on the type of welding machine used. Transformers
and rectifiers require little maintenance compared to engine-driven welding machines.
Transformer welders require only to be kept dry and need a minimal amount of
cleaning. Only electricians should perform internal maintenance due to the possibility of
electrical shock. Engine-driven machines require daily maintenance of the motors. In
most places you will be required to fill out and turn in a daily inspection form called a
hard card before starting the engine. This form is a list of items, such as oil level, water
level, visible leaks, and other things, that affect the operation of the machine.
After checking all of the above items, you are now ready to start welding.
Listed below are some additional welding rules you must follow:
Clear the welding area of all debris and clutter.
Do not use gloves or clothing that contain oil or grease.
Check that all wiring and cables are installed properly.
Ensure that the machine is grounded and dry.
Follow all the manufacturers directions on operating the welding machine.
Have on-hand a protective screen to protect others in the welding area from flash burns.
Always keep fire-fighting equipment on hand.
Clean rust, scale, paint, or dirt from the joints to be welded.
4.0.0 COVERED ELECTRODES

The covered electrode provides both the filler metal and the shielding for the shielded
metal arc welding process. Covered electrodes have different compositions of core wire
and a wide variety of types of flux coverings that perform one or all of the following
functions, depending upon the type of electrode:
1. Forming a slag blanket over the molten puddle and solidified weld
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2. Providing shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of both the arc

stream and the weld metal
3. Providing ionizing elements for smoother arc operation
4. Provides deoxidizers and scavengers to refine the grain structure of the weld
metal
5. Providing alloying elements such as nickel and chromium for stainless steel
6. Providing metal such as iron powder for higher deposition rates
The first two functions listed prevent the pickup of nitrogen and oxygen into the weld
puddle and the red hot solidified weld metal. The nitrogen and oxygen form nitrides and
oxides which cause the weld metal to become brittle.
4.1.0 Classification
The classification system for covered electrodes used throughout industry in the United
States was devised by the American Welding Society. In this system, designations for
covered electrodes consist of the letter E (for electrode) and four (or five) digits for
carbon steel and low-alloy steel covered electrodes. Sometimes a suffix appears on the
end as well. These digits have specific meanings, which are:
1. The first two (or three) digits indicate the minimum tensile strength in 1,000 psi,
of the weld metal deposited. Table 8-2 lists the different digits used.
2. The third (or fourth) digit indicates the welding positions in which the electrode
can be used. Table 8-3 lists the use of the different digits.
3. The fourth (or fifth) digit indicates the current characteristics and the types of
electrode coating. Table 8-4 shows what the different digits indicate.
4. A suffix is sometimes added to the EXXXX designation (it does not apply to the
E60XX classification). The suffix indicates the chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal. Table 8-5 shows the meaning of various suffixes.
Table 8-2 Digit position indicating tensile and yield strength.
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Table 8-3 Digit indicating position electrode can be used in.
Table 8-4 Digits indicating electrode arc and coating characteristics.
For example, the E8018-B1 designation indicates an electrode that deposits metal that
has a minimum tensile strength of 80,000 psi (550 MPa), can be used in all welding
positions, has a low hydrogen iron powder classification, and has chemical composition
in the weld deposit of .12 C, .90 Mn, .03 P, .04 S, .BO Si, .40-.65 Cr and .40-.65 Mo.
(Table 8-5).
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Table 8-5 Chemical composition.
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Other types of electrodes are classified in different ways. Table 8-6 lists the American
Welding Society (AWS) specifications covering filler metals for shielded metal arc
welding.
Table 8-6 AWS filler metal specifications for covered electrodes used in
SMAW.
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For example, stainless steel electrodes are classified according to the chemical analysis
of the weld metal and the type of welding current they can use. An example of this is the
E308-15 designation. The E stands for Electrode. The 308 indicates the chemical
composition of the weld metal. Table 8-7 shows the different classifications.
Table 8-7 AWS classifications.
The suffix indicates the positions and the type of welding current to be used. A suffix of
15 means to use direct current electrode positive and a 16 means that you may use
alternating current or direct current electrode positive. All stainless steel electrode
classifications that are now used have a one in the suffix that indicates that they are all
position electrodes.
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4.2.0 Sizing
The size of the electrode is designated by the diameter of the core wire and the length
of the electrode. Standard electrode diameters are 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) to 5/16 in. (7.9
mm). Lengths of the electrodes are from 9 in. (229 mm) to 18 in. (457 mm), although
electrodes for special applications can be up to 36 in. (914 mm) long. The most
common electrode length is 14 in. (346 mm). The bare uncoated end of the electrode,
which is needed to make electrical contact with the electrode holder, is standardized at
lengths ranging from 3/4 in. (19 mm) to 11/2 in. (38 mm).
4.3.0 Selection of Electrode Class

The deposited weld metal should equal or exceed the mechanical properties of the base
metal and have approximately the same composition and physical properties.
Identification of the base metal is absolutely required to properly select the correct
electrode. If you do not know the identification, you must make tests based on
appearance, magnetic check, chisel test, flame test, fracture test, spark test, or
chemistry test. The selection of welding electrodes for specific job applications is quite
involved, but can be based on the following eight factors:
4.3.1 Base Metal Strength Properties
Identification of the base metal is required. In the cases of mild and low alloy steels,
choose the electrodes to match (at least) the tensile strength of the base metal.
4.3.2 Base Metal Composition
The chemical composition of the base metal must be known, but matching the chemical
composition is not as important for mild steels as it is for stainless steels, low alloy
steels, and nonferrous metals. For these metals, matching the chemical composition of
the filler metal to the base metal is required.
4.3.3 Welding Position
Electrodes are designed to be used in specific positions. Choose the electrodes to
match the positions of the welding you will encounter.
4.3.4 Welding Current
Covered electrodes are designed to operate on specific currents and polarity. The type
of electrode you use might depend on the type of welding current available. Operate
electrodes on their recommended current type.
4.3.5 Joint Design and Fit-Up
Choose the electrodes according to their penetration characteristic. For joints with no
beveling or tight fit-up, an electrode with a digging arc would be the best. For welding on
thin material, a light penetrating electrode would be the best.
4.3.6 Thickness and Shape of Base Metal
Weldments may include thick sections or complex shapes which require maximum
ductility to avoid weld cracking. Use electrodes that give the best ductility.
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4.3.7 Service Conditions and/or Specifications

For weldments subject to severe service conditions such as low temperature, high
temperature, or shock loading, use the electrode that matches the base metal
composition, ductility, and impact resistance properties. This usually indicates selecting
low hydrogen types of electrodes.
4.3.8 Production Efficiency and Job Condition
Some electrodes are designed for high deposition rates but may be used under specific
position requirements. If they can be used, the high deposition electrodes would be the
best.
According to Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the AWS
Structural Welding Code, the covered electrodes for welding mild and low-alloy steel
can be placed into four categories. The electrodes within each of these categories
generally operate and run the same way.
F-1
High Deposition Group (EXX20,

EXX24, EXX27, EXX28)
F-2
Mild Penetration Group (EXX12,

EXX13, EXX14)
F-3
Deep Penetration Group

(EXX10, EXX11)
F-4
Low-Hydrogen Group (EXX15,

EXX16, EXX18)
The high deposition types of electrodes have additions of iron powder in their coatings.
These additions of iron powder usually range from 40-55% of the weight of the coating.
During welding, the large amounts of iron powder in the electrode coating go into the
weld puddle which increases the deposition rates. These electrodes are usually
selected when high deposition welding is desired.
The mild penetration types of electrodes are generally used for welding sheet metal,
partial penetration welds when strength is not the governing factor, and other less
critical applications. These electrodes have rutile as a main component in their
coatings. The EXX14 electrodes have an addition of 25-40% iron powder in the coatings
to give them a higher deposition rate than the EXX12 and EXX13 types.
The deep penetration types of electrodes are the EXX10 and the EXX11 electrodes.
The electrodes are used on applications where the deep penetrating characteristics of
the weld are needed and for full penetration welding. These electrodes have cellulose
as the major component in their coatings. The cellulose is the material that gives these
electrodes their deep penetrating characteristic.
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The low hydrogen electrodes are those which have very low moisture content in their
coatings. These electrodes are used for welding steels when hydrogen cracking can be
a problem, such as in many of the low alloy steels. Much of the hydrogen in the weld
metal comes from the electrode coating. The cellulose types of electrodes require
higher moisture contents in their coatings to operate properly.
Table 8-8 shows the general characteristics of different types of electrodes on
penetration, surface contour, and deposition rates.
Table 8-8 Relative Comparison of different characteristics for several mild
steel electrodes.
4.4.0 Selection of Electrode Size

The correct choice of electrode size involves consideration of a variety of factors such
as:
1. Type, position, and preparation of the joint
2. Ability of the electrode to carry high current values without weakening the weld
metal or losing deposition efficiency
3. Mass of the work metal and its ability to maintain its original properties after
welding
4. Characteristics of the assembly with reference to the effect of stresses set up by
heat application
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5. Practicability of heat treatment before and/or after welding

6. Specific requirements as to welding quality
7. Cost of achieving the desired results
Most classes of electrodes are designed for multiple pass welding. Each diameter
electrode has its own specific limits on the current carrying capacity. The large diameter
electrodes are also used to give the highest welding speed possible. When welding in
the vertical and overhead positions, smaller diameter electrodes are preferred because
gravity will affect a smaller weld puddle less than a larger one. The weld puddle small
diameter electrodes create is easier for the welder to control. The type of weld joint also
has a limiting effect on the size of the electrodes. Small diameter electrodes may have
to be used to reach the root of the joint where larger electrodes would not fit. For
example, in V groove joints, smaller diameter electrodes may have to be used to put in
the root pass and possibly several more of the initial passes. The experience of the
welder will also influence the size of the electrode used depending on the welders
manipulative skill with the electrode. Use the largest possible electrode size to obtain
the fastest welding speeds, providing that this does not cause overwelding. Overwelding
can be harmful and wasteful. The proper electrode diameter to use is the one that,
when used with the proper welding conditions, will result in a weld of the required quality
and size at the greatest productivity.
4.5.0 Conformances and Approvals

Covered electrodes must conform to the specifications of or be approved by code
making organizations for many applications of shielded metal arc welding. Some of the
organizations that issue specifications or approvals are the American Welding Society
(AWS), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American Bureau of
Shipping (ABS), Federal Bureau of Roads, U.S. Coast Guard, Canadian Welding
Bureau, and the Military. The American Welding Society (AWS) provides specifications
for covered electrodes. The electrodes manufactured must meet specific requirements
in order to conform to a specific electrode classification. Most code making
organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the
American Petroleum Institute (API) recognize and use the AWS Specifications. Some of
the code making organizations such as the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and the
Military must directly approve the electrodes before they can be used for welding on a
project covered by that code. These organizations send inspectors to witness welding
and testing and approve the classification of covered electrodes.
To conform to the AWS specifications for mild steel electrodes, the covered electrode
must be able to produce a weld deposit that meets specified mechanical properties. The
requirements vary depending on the class of electrode. Table 8-9 gives a list of
mechanical properties different mild steel covered electrodes require.
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Table 8-9 Minimum mechanical properties required for the different mild
steel covered electrodes (AWS A5.1).

3.
What is the normal current range of a power supply when using conventional size
electrodes?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
25 to 500 amps
500 to 750 amps
750 to 900 amps
900 to 1250 amps
(True or False) Electrodes are designed to be used in specific positions.

A.
B.
True
False
5.0.0 WELDING APPLICATIONS

Shielded metal arc welding is widely used because of its versatility. Welding can be
performed at a distance from the power source which makes it popular for welding in
the field. The equipment for this process is relatively simple to operate, portable, and
inexpensive. Shielded metal arc welding is a major process used for maintenance and
repair work. It is popular in small production shops where limited capital is available and
where the amount of welding done is minor compared to other manufacturing
operations. Shielded metal arc welding is often used for tacking parts together which
are then welded by another process.
5.1.0 Industries
Shielded metal arc welding is the welding process of choice in a number of civilian
industries because it is versatile and user friendly. It has been replaced in recent years
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by flux cored arc welding but remains competitive because of the low equipment costs
and wide applicability.
5.1.1 Field Welded Storage Tanks
Field welded storage tanks differ from pressure vessels because they are used to store
petroleum, water or other liquids at atmospheric pressure. Shielded metal arc welding is
widely used in the fabrication and erection of field welded storage tanks. These tanks
are generally constructed of low-carbon and structural steels. Nickel steels are
employed when the tanks require higher toughness. This process is used to weld
longitudinal and circumferential seams on the tanks as well as the structural support
members. Figure 8-11 shows field welding of a large circumference pipe. An engine
driven generator power source is being used because there is no electricity available.
Figure 8-11 Pipe welding.

5.1.2 Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels and boilers are also welded using this process. Shielded metal arc
welding is primarily used for welding attachments to the vessel. This kind of welding
commonly uses all sizes of electrodes. For applications where the vessels will be
operating at low temperatures, smaller electrodes are used on multiple pass welds. This
will produce smaller weld beads that build up the weld in relatively thin layers. The
smaller weld beads give a stronger, tougher weld.
5.1.3 Industrial Piping
Shielded metal arc welding is widely used in the industrial piping industry which includes
many types of pressure piping. The types of electrodes most often used are the E6010
and E7018 electrodes for welding low-carbon steel pipe. A common practice is the use
of E6010 electrodes to weld in the root passes and the E7018 electrodes to weld in the
fill and cover passes. Industrial piping is generally welded from the bottom to the top,
except on small diameter pipe where it is done both ways. The reason that welding from
bottom to top is most common is because slag is often trapped when welding in the
opposite direction. For welding low-carbon steel pipe with a 70,000 psi (485 MPa)
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tensile strength, use E7010 and E7018 electrodes. Figure 8-12 shows shielded metal
arc welding with E7018 electrodes to weld structural supports.
Another example of this process is shown in Figure 8-13, where pulsed shielded metal
arc welding is being used to cylindrical support beams. Shielded metal arc welding is
often used for welding on other types of industrial piping. EXX15, EXX16, and EXX18
electrodes are used for welding chromium-molybdenum alloy pipe. When welding
stainless steel pipe, gas tungsten arc welding (TIG) is often used to put in the root pass,
and shielded metal arc welding is used to weld in the fill and cover passes. Medium and
high-carbon steel pipe are also welded by this process. For these, smaller diameter
electrodes are used than on low-carbon steels, in order to reduce the heat effect on the
pipe.
Figure 8-12 E7018 electrode

being used to weld structural
supports.
Figure 8-13 SMAW cylindrical

support beams.
5.1.4 Transmission Pipelines

The shielded metal arc welding process is by far the major process for welding on
transmission or cross-country pipelines. Welding is done in the field, usually from the
outside of the pipe, but whenever possible, welding should be done from both sides of
the pipe. E6010 and E7018 electrodes are the types used for welding transmission
pipelines. Several common procedures are in use for welding transmission pipelines.
One of these is to put in the root pass with E6010 electrodes and put in the fill and cover
passes with E7018 electrodes. Another is to use E7018's to weld in all passes, and a
third is to weld in the root pass with the gas metal arc welding process and put in the
rest of the passes with E7018 electrodes.
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5.1.5 Nuclear Power Plants

The nuclear power industry employs this process for many applications. It is often used
in the shop fabrication of low-carbon and low alloy steel heavy-walled pressure vessels
and for welding longitudinal and
circumferential weld seams.
Shielded metal arc welding is the
best method for welding nozzles
and attachments to the vessels. A
major application of this process
is welding pressure piping for use
in the nuclear power facilities.
Nuclear power system pressure
piping requires stronger quality
control than normal pressure
piping.
5.1.6 Structures
The construction industry is a
major application for shielded
metal arc welding. Most of the
welding on buildings and bridges
is done in the field at long
distances from the power sources,
which makes this process popular
for these applications. Most types
Figure 8-14 Structural welding with the
of covered electrodes are used in
SMAW process.
structural work because of the
wide variety in the tensile
strengths of the steels used. Figure 8-14 shows structural welding with the shielded
Figure 8-15 Hinge support

welding.
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Figure 8-16 I beam welding.
8-31
metal arc welding process. Figure 8-15

shows a section of hinge being welded. In
Figure 8-16, a Seabee is welding an Ibeam. Another example of the use of
shielded metal arc welding in the
construction industry is shown in Figure 817, where this process is being used to
weld armor plating.
5.1.7 Ships
Shielded metal arc welding is still the major
process used in shipbuilding. It is used for
many different applications including
welding in areas where the other processes
cannot reach. Most types of low-carbon
steel covered electrodes are used except
the EXX12, EXX13, and EXX14 types.
Figure 8-17 Welding armor
These three types of electrodes are not
plating.
approved for use on the main structural
members in the ship because of the
relatively low ductility obtained from the weld deposits of these electrodes. The
electrodes with large amounts of iron powder in their coatings are popular for many
shipbuilding applications because of the high deposition rates obtained. These types of
electrodes are especially used on the many fillet welds that are made in a ship
structure. Backing tape is often used for backing the weld metal when one side welding
is done.
5.1.8 Transportation
Another industry that widely uses this welding process is the railroad industry. It uses
E60XX and E70XX electrodes to weld many parts of the underframe, cab, and engine of
the locomotive. The underframe fabrication consists of mostly fillet welds. The frames
and brackets for the diesel engines are also welded with these electrodes.
Railroad cars are commonly welded together by the shielded metal arc process.
Underframes are often welded with E6020,
E7016, and E7018 electrodes. The sills for
the underframes are welded using E7024
electrodes because high deposition rates
are desired for this application.
The automotive industry uses this process
to a lesser extent. There, it is mainly used
for welding low production components or
on items where there are frequent model
changes. This is because the fixtures and
equipment for this process are less
expensive.
5.1.9 Industrial Machinery
The frames of many types of heavy
industrial machinery are welded together
using this process. It is the major process
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-18 Welding bars on a door.
8-32
used for welding piping associated with this machinery. Shielded metal arc welding is
used for welding areas the other processes cannot reach. Figure 8-18 shows a welder
welding bars on a door.
5.1.10 Heavy Equipment
Another major application of this process is
in the heavy equipment industry such as
mining, agricultural, and earthmoving
equipment. In these industries, shielded
metal arc welding is used for welding
structural steels, which are used for the
frames, beams, and many other items in the
assembly. Most types of covered electrodes
are used depending on the type of steel
being welded. Stainless steel and
nonferrous metals are also used for some
parts. Figure 8-19 shows a Seabee welding
a plate for a backhoe bucket.
5.1.11 Maintenance and Repair
Figure 8-19 Welding a

One industry where shielded metal arc
structural plate.
welding is and will probably always remain
the major welding process is the maintenance and repair industry. This is especially true
in small shops and general plant maintenance, where relatively inexpensive equipment,
portability, and versatility are important considerations. This process is the major one for
repair welding on railroad engines and cars as well as cast iron engine blocks and
heads on automobiles. This kind of welding commonly employs nickel electrodes for
repairing cast iron parts. Resurfacing worn parts and putting a hard surface on parts
(wearfacing) are two other applications. Special surfacing and build-up electrodes are
used for these purposes.
5.2.0 Variations of the Process

Gravity welding, which is seldom used today, was an automatic variation of the shielded
metal arc welding process. Gravity welding was popular because one operator could
operate several gravity feeders at the same time, increasing the production rate. The
welder installed the electrode in the feeder and the electrode fed as it burned off, which
gave a high quality horizontal fillet weld. The welders usually used 28 in. (710 mm) long
electrodes of the drag type (E6027, E7024, E7028). These were used in diameters of
7/32 in. (5.6 mm) and in 1/4 in. (6.4 mm). This was possible in some shipbuilding work
since the welds were often close together, which allowed the welding operator to quickly
move from one holder to another to reload them, start them, and allow them to operate
unattended.
Firecracker welding is a method of automatically making welds using a long electrode
with an electrically nonconductive heavy coating. This method has been used very little
in North America because of the popularity of semi-automatic processes. This method
can be used for square groove butt welds and full fillet lap welds. To make a firecracker
fillet weld, position the work flat. Place the welding electrode in the joint and place a
retaining bar over it. Start the arc by shorting the end of the electrode to the work. The
arc length depends on the thickness of the coating. As the arc travels along the
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electrode, the electrode melts and makes a deposit on the metal immediately
underneath it. Once the arc is started, the process automatically proceeds to
completion.
Another variation of shielded metal arc welding is the use of massive electrodes which
have extremely large diameters and long lengths. These electrodes are so heavy that
they require a manipulator to hold and feed them. Massive electrode welding is primarily
used for repairing very large castings.
5.3.0 Wearfacing
The Seabee welder can greatly extend the life of construction equipment by using
wearfacing procedures. Wearfacing is the process of applying a layer of special
composition metal onto the surface of another type of metal for the purpose of reducing
wear. The selection of a wearfacing alloy for application is based on the ability of the
alloy to withstand impact or abrasion. Impact refers to a blow or series of blows to a
surface that results in a fracture or gradual deterioration. Abrasion is the grinding action
that results when one surface slides, rolls, or rubs against another. Under highcompressive loads, this action can result in gouging.
Alloys that are abrasion resistant are poor in withstanding impact. Conversely, those
that withstand impact well are poor in resisting abrasion; however, there are many
alloys whose wearfacing properties fall between the two extremes. These alloys offer
some protection against abrasion and withstand impact well.
5.3.1 Workpiece Preparation
Before you wearface a workpiece, remove all dirt, oil, rust, grease, and other foreign
matter. If you do not, your finished product will be porous and subject to spalling. You
also need a solid foundation; therefore, repair all cracks and remove any metal that is
fatigued or rolled over.
5.3.2 Preheating
Depending on the type of metal, sometimes it is necessary to preheat the base metal to
lessen distortion, prevent spalling or cracking, and avoid thermal shock. The preheating
temperature depends on the carbon and alloy content of the base metal. In general, as
carbon content increases so does the preheating temperature. However, improper
heating can adversely affect a metal by reducing its resistance to wear, making it hard
and brittle or more prone to oxidation and scaling.
To preheat properly, you must know the composition of the base metal. You can use a
magnet to determine if you are working with carbon steel or austenitic manganese
steel. Carbon steel is magnetic, but be careful because work-hardened austenitic
manganese steel is also magnetic. Make sure that you check for magnetism in a nonworked part of the austenitic manganese steel. There are other ways to tell the
difference between metals such as cast iron and cast steel; cast iron chips or cracks,
while cast steel shaves. Also, some metals give off telltale sparks when a chisel strikes
them.
In preheating, raise the surface temperature of the workpiece to the desired point and
soak it until the heat reaches its core. After wearfacing, cool the work places slowly.
5.3.3 Techniques
Where possible, position the workpiece for downhand welding. This allows you to finish
the job more quickly and at less cost.
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Building up and wearfacing cast iron is not generally recommended because cast iron
tends to crack. However, some cast-iron parts that are subject to straight abrasion can
be wearfaced successfully. You must preheat these parts to temperatures of 1000F to
1200F and then allow them to cool slowly after wearfacing. Peening or hammering the
deposits on cast iron helps to relieve stresses after welding.
Welding materials for building up worn parts differ from those used in wearfacing the
same parts. Before wearfacing a badly worn part, you must first build it up to 3/16 to 3/8
of an inch of its finished size. The buildup material must be compatible with the base
metal and the wearfacing overlay and strong enough to meet the structural
requirements. Also, they must have the properties that enable them to resist cold
flowing, mushing under high-compressive loads, and plastic deformation under heavy
impact. Without these properties, the buildup materials cannot support the wearfacing
overlay. When the overlay is not properly
supported, it will spall.
Many times, high-alloy wearfacing materials
are deposited on the parts before they are
placed in service. The maximum allowable
wear is usually no more than two layers
deep (1/4-inch) before wearfacing. Try to
deposit the wearfacing alloy in layers that
are not too thick. Thick layers create more
problems than no overlay at all. Usually you
only need two layers. The first layer
produces an admixture with the base metal;
the second forms a wear-resistant surface.
In wearfacing built-up carbon-steel parts,
maintain high interpass temperatures and
use a weaving bead rather than a stringer
bead. (Figure 8-20) Limit the thickness of a
single pass bead to 3/16-inch. Use the same
technique for each layer and avoid severe
quenching.
Figure 8-20 Wearfacing

techniques.
Deposits made with high-alloy electrodes should check on the surface. Checking
reduces residual (locked-in) stresses. Without checking, the combination of residual
stresses and service stresses may exceed tensile strength and cause deep cracks or
Figure 8-21 Comparison between cross-checking and cracking.
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spalling (Figure 8-21). Be sure to induce checking if it does not occur naturally or if it is
unlikely to occur, as in large parts where heat builds up. You can bring on checking by
sponging the deposit with a wet cloth or by spraying it with a fine mist of water. Also you
can speed up checking by occasionally striking the deposit with a hammer while it is
cooling. When you require a check-free deposit, use a softer alloy and adjust preheating
and post-heating requirements.
5.3.3.1 Bulldozer Blades
Bulldozer blades are wear-faced by placing the end bits in the
flat position and welding beads across the outer corners and
along the edges. Be sure to preheat the high-carbon blades
before wearfacing. On worn end bits, weld new corners and
then wear-face (Figure 8-22).
5.3.3.2 Shovel teeth
Figure 8-22
Wearfacing.
Shovel teeth should be wear-faced before being placed into
service. The weld bead pattern used in wearfacing can have a
marked effect on the service life of the teeth. Wear-face shovel teeth that work mainly in
rock with beads running the length of
each tooth (Figure 8-23). This allows the
rock to ride on the hard metal beads.
Wear-face teeth that are primarily used
to work in dirt, clay, or sand with beads
running across the width of each tooth,
perpendicular to the direction of the
material that flows past the teeth. This
allows the material to fill the spaces
Figure 8-24
Figure 8-23
between
the
beads
and
provides
more
Waffle or
Wearfacing
protection
to
the
base
metal.
Another
crosshatching
shovel teeth.
effective pattern is the waffle or
crosshatch (Figure 8-24). Lay the wearfacing on the top and sides of each tooth, 2
inches from its point. Stringer beads behind a solid deposit reduce wash (Figure 8-25).
Figure 8-25 Comparison of wearfacing patterns for shovel teeth.

More information on wearfacing applications may be obtained from the NCF Welding
Materials Handbook, NAVFAC P-433.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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5.4.0 Carbon-Arc Cutting

Metals can be cut cleanly with a carbon electrode arc because it does not introduce
foreign metals at the arc. The cutting current should be 25 to 50 amps above the
welding current for the same thickness of metal. See Table 8-10 for more information.
Table 8-10 Recommended Electrode Sizes, Current Settings, and Cutting
Speeds for Carbon-Arc Cutting Different Thickness of Steel Plate
Thickness of
Plate Inches
Current Setting and Carbon Diameter

300 amps.
500 amps.
700 amps.
in. Diameter
5/8 in. Diameter
in. Diameter
1000 amps.
1 in. Diameter
Speed of Cutting in Minutes Per Foot
3.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
4/7
3.0
2.0
1.4
6.8
4.1
2.9
2.0
1-1/4
9.8
5.6
4.0
2.9
8.0
5.8
4.0
8.0
5.3
1-1/2
1-3/4
2
7.0
Grind the carbon electrode point so that it is very sharp. During the actual cutting, move
the carbon electrode in a vertical elliptical movement to undercut the metal; this aids in
removing the molten metal. As in oxygen cutting, a crescent motion is preferred. Figure
8-26 shows the relative positions of the electrode and the work in the cutting of cast
iron.
The carbon-arc method of cutting is
successful on cast iron because the arc
temperature is high enough to melt the
oxides formed. It is especially important to
undercut the cast-iron kerf to produce an
even cut. Position the electrode so the
molten metal flows away from the gouge or
cutting areas. Table 8-10 is a list of cutting
speeds, plate thicknesses, and current
settings for carbon-arc cutting.
Because of the high currents required, the
graphite form of carbon electrode is better.
To reduce the heating effect on the
electrode, do not let it extend more than 6
inches beyond the holder when cutting. If the
carbon burns away too fast, shorten the
Figure 8-26 Carbon-arc cutting
length it extends out of the electrode holder
on cast iron.
to as little as 3 inches. Operating a carbon
electrode at extremely high temperatures causes its surface to oxidize and burn away,
resulting in a rapid reduction in the electrode diameter.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-37
Carbon-arc cutting does not require special generators. Standard arc-welding

generators and other items of arc-welding station equipment are suitable for use.
Always use straight polarity direct current (DCSP).
Because of the high temperature and the intensity of the arc, choose a shade of helmet
lens darker than the normal shade you would use for welding on the same thickness of
metal. A number 12 or 14 lens shade is recommended for carbon-arc welding or cutting.
5.4.1 Air Carbon-Arc Cutting
Air carbon-arc cutting (ACC) is a process of
cutting, piercing, or gouging metal by
heating it to a molten state and then using
compressed air to blow away the molten
metal. Figure 8-27 shows the process. The
equipment consists of a special holder,
shown in Figure 8-28, that uses carbon or
graphite electrodes and compressed air fed
through jets built into the electrode holder. A
push button or a hand valve on the
electrode holder controls the air jet.
The air jet blows the molten metal away and
usually leaves a surface that needs no
further preparation for welding. The
electrode holder operates at air pressures
between 60 and 100 psig.
Figure 8-27 Air carbon-arc

cutting.
Figure 8-28 Air carbon-arc electrode holder with carbon electrode installed.
During use, bare carbon or graphite electrodes become smaller due to oxidation caused
by heat buildup. Copper coating these electrodes reduces the heat buildup and
prolongs their use.
The operating procedures for air carbon-arc cutting and gouging are basically the same.
The procedures are as follows:
Adjust the machine to the correct current for electrode diameter.
Start the air compressor and adjust the regulator to the correct air pressure. Use the
lowest air pressure possible, just enough pressure to blow away the molten metal.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-38
Insert the electrode in the holder. Extend the carbon electrode 6 inches beyond the
holder. Ensure that the electrode point is properly shaped.
Strike the arc; then open the air-jet valve. The air-jet disc can swivel, and the V-groove
in the disc automatically aligns the air jets along the electrode. Adjust the electrode
relative to the holder.
Control the arc and the speed of travel according to the shape and the condition of the
cut desired.
Always cut away from the operator as molten metal sprays some distance from the
cutting action. You may use this process to cut or gouge metal in the flat, horizontal,
vertical, or overhead positions.
5.4.2 Air Carbon-Arc Gouging
Air carbon-arc gouging is useful in many
metalworking applications, such as metal
shaping and other welding preparations. For
gouging, hold the electrode holder so the
electrode slopes back from the direction of
travel. The air blast is directed along the
electrode toward the arc. The electrode angle
and travel speed control the depth and
contour of the groove. The diameter of the
electrode governs the width of the groove.
When cutting or gouging a shallow groove on
the surface of a piece of metal, position the
electrode holder at a very flat angle in
relation to the work. The speed of travel and
the current setting also affect the depth of the
Figure 8-29 V-groove gouged
groove. The slower the movement and the
in 2-inch thick carbon steel.
higher the current, the deeper you can cut
the groove. Figure 8-29 shows an example of
a V-groove cut made in a 2-inch-thick mild steel plate by a machine guided carbon-arc
air-jet.
5.4.3 Metal Electrode Arc Cutting
You can remove metal with the standard
electric arc, but for good gouging or cutting
results, use special metal electrodes
designed for this type of work,
Manufacturers have developed electrodes
with special coatings that intensify the arc
stream for rapid cutting. The covering
disintegrates at a slower rate than the
metallic center. This creates a deep recess
that produces a jet action that blows the
molten metal away (Figure 8-30). The main
disadvantage of these electrodes is that the
additional metal they produce must be
removed.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-30 Steel electrode

being used to cut plate.
8-39
These electrodes are designed for cutting stainless steel, copper, aluminum, bronze,
nickel, cast iron, manganese, steel, or alloy
steels.
A typical gouge-cutting operation is shown in
Figure 8-31. Notice that the angle between
the electrode and plate is small (5 degrees or
less). This makes it easy to remove the extra
metal the electrode produces.
The recommended current setting is as high
as the electrode will take without becoming
overheated to the point of cracking the
covering. For 1/8-inch electrodes, the setting
ranges from 125 to 300 amperes; for 5/32inch electrodes, the setting ranges from 250
to 375 amperes; and for 3/16-inch electrodes,
the setting ranges from 300 to 450 amperes.
Use a very short arc, and when cutting takes
place underwater, the coating must be
waterproof.
Figure 8-31 Gouge-cutting

operation using a solid core arccutting electrode.

5.
Which of the following electrodes is typically used to weld in the root passes in
industrial piping?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
E6010
E7010
E6024
E7024
What characteristic makes the carbon-arc method of cutting successful on cast

iron?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Directionality
Versatility
High temperature
Low voltage
6.0.0 WELDING METALLURGY

Welding metallurgy concerns the chemical, physical, and atomic properties and
structures of metals and the principles by which metals are combined to form alloys.
6.1.0 Properties of the Weld

The properties of the weld are items such as chemical composition, mechanical
strength and ductility, and microstructure. These items will determine the quality of the
weld. The types of materials used affect the chemical properties. The heat input of
welding and the chemical composition of the materials determine the mechanical
properties and microstructure of the weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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6.1.1 Chemical Properties

The chemical composition of the base metal is a major factor in determining the choice
of the electrodes to use for welding. The chemical composition of the base metal
influences the need for preheating and postheating, because preheating and
postheating are used to prevent the weld area from becoming brittle and weak.
When welding steels, the carbon and other alloy content influences the hardness and
hardenability of the weld metal, which in turn influences the amount of preheat and
postheat needed. The two terms, hardness and hardenability, are not the same. The
maximum hardness of the steel is primarily a function of the amount of carbon in the
steel. Hardenability is a measure of how easily a martensite structure is formed when
the steel is quenched. Martensite is the phase or metallurgical structure in steel where
the maximum hardness of the steel can be obtained. Steels with low hardenability must
have very high cooling rates to form martensite; whereas, steels with high hardenability
will form martensite even when slow cooled in air. The hardenability will determine the
extent to which a steel will harden during welding. The carbon equivalent formula is one
of the best methods of determining the weldability of steels. The amounts of some of the
alloying elements used determine this. There are several different formulas used, one of
these is as follows:
Steels with lower carbon equivalents generally are more readily weldable and require
fewer precautions such as the use of preheat and postheat.
Steels with higher carbon equivalents are generally more difficult to weld. Matching the
chemical properties of the filler metal is not as important as matching the mechanical
properties when welding many of the steels. Often, filler metal with a lower carbon
content than the base metal is used because the weld metal absorbs carbon from the
base metal during solidification.
The amount of preheat needed depends on the type of metal being welded, the metal
thickness, and the amount of joint restraint. Preheating helps reduce the cooling rate of
the part being welded. This is important on many steels because a slower cooling rate
will not allow as much of the hard and brittle martensite structure to form in the metal.
Since martensite formation is the carbon equivalent, steels with high-carbon equivalents
will generally require higher preheat temperatures than those with low-carbon
equivalent values. Table 8-11 shows typical preheat values for different steels and cast
iron.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Table 8-11 Typical Recommended Preheats for Various Steels and Cast Iron
Welded by the SMAW Process
Type of Steel
Preheat
Low-Carbon Steel
Room Temperature or up to 200F (93C)
Medium-Carbon Steel
400-500F (205-260C)
High-Carbon Steel
500-600F (260-315C)
Low Alloy Nickel Steel
Room Temperature
-Less than (6.4 mm) thick
500F (260C)
-More than (6.4 mm) thick

Low Alloy Nickel-Chrome Steel
200-300F (93-150C)
-Carbon content below .20%
600-800F (315-425C)
-Carbon content .20% to .35%
900-1100F (480-595C)
-Carbon content above .35%

Low Alloy Manganese Steel
400-600F (205-315C)
Low Alloy Chrome Steel
Up to 750F (400C)
Low Alloy Molybdenum Steel
Room Temperature
Carbon content below .150%
400-650F (205-345C)
Carbon content above .15%

Low Alloy High Tensile Steel
150-300F (66-150C)
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Room Temperature
Ferritic Stainless Steel
300-500F (150-260C)
Martensitic Stainless Steel
400-600F (205-315C)
Cast Irons
700-900F (370-480C)
NOTE
The actual preheat needed may depend on several other factors such as the
thickness of the base metal, the amount of joint restraint, and whether or not lowhydrogen types of electrodes are used. This chart is intended as general
information; check the specifications of the job for the specific preheat temperature
to use.
Another major factor that determines the amount of preheat needed is the base metal
thickness. Thicker base metals usually need higher preheat temperatures than thinner
base metals because of the larger heat sinks that the thicker metals provide. Thick
metals draw the heat away from the welding zone more quickly because there is a
larger mass of metal. This increases the cooling rate of the weld if the same preheat
temperature is used as with thinner base metals. The third major factor determining
preheat is the amount of joint restraint. Joint restraint is the resistance of a joint
configuration to moving during the heating and cooling of the weld zone. When there is
high resistance to moving or high joint restraint, large amounts of internal stress builds
up. Higher preheat temperatures are needed as the amount of joint restraint increases.
Slower cooling rates reduce the amount of internal stresses that build up as the weld
cools.
For welding nickel-base metals, copper base metals, and stainless steels, the chemical
properties of the weld metal are often the most important properties of the weld. The
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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chemical composition of the weld metal must closely match the chemical composition of
the base metal to give the weldment good corrosion resistance and creep resistance.
Creep resistance of a metal is the resistance to softening at high temperatures which
can cause deformation if there is a load on the metal.
6.1.2 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties that are most important in the weld are the tensile strength,
yield strength, elongation, reduction of area, and impact strength. The first two are
measures of the strength of the material, the next two are a measure of ductility, and the
last is a measure of impact toughness. These properties are important in shielded metal
arc welding.
Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
elongation, and reduction of area are all
measured from a .505 in. (12.B mm)
diameter machined testing bar. The metal is
tested by pulling it in a tensile testing
machine. Figure 8-32 shows a tensile bar
before and after testing. The yield strength of
the metal is the stress at which the material
is pulled beyond the point where it will return
to its original length. The tensile strength is
the maximum load the metal can carry. This
is also measured in psi (MPa). Elongation is
a measure of ductility that is also measured
on the tensile bar. Two points are marked on
the bar 2 in. (51 mm) apart before testing.
After testing, the distance between the two
points is measured again and the percent of
change in the distance between them, or
percent elongation, is measured.
Reduction of area is another method of
measuring ductility. The original area of the
cross section of the testing bar is .505 sq. in
(104 sq. mm). During the testing, the
diameter of the bar reduces as it elongates.
When the bar finally breaks, the diameter of
the bar at the breaking point is measured,
which is then used to determine the area.
The percent reduction of this cross sectional
area is called the reduction of area.
Impact tests are used to measure the
toughness of a metal. The toughness of a
metal is its ability to absorb mechanical
energy by deforming before breaking. The
Charpy Vee-notch test is the most
commonly used method of testing impact
toughness. Figure 8-33 shows some typical
Charpy Vee-notch test bars. Bars with Veenotches are put in a machine where they are
struck by a hammer attached to the end of a
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-32 Tensile strength

testing bars.
Figure 8-33 Charpy V-notch

bars
8-43
pendulum. The energy required to break these bars is known as the impact strength
and is measured in foot-pounds (Newtonmeters).
6.1.3 Microstructure
Figure 8-34 shows a cross section of a weld
bead showing the weld metal zone, the heat
affected zone, and the base metal zone.
The weld metal zone is where the metal was
molten during welding. The heat affected
zone is the area where the heat from
welding has had an effect on the
microstructure of the base metal. The base
metal zone is the area that was not affected
by the welding. The extent of change of the
microstructure depends on four factors:
1. Maximum temperature to which the
weld metal was subjected
2. The time that the weld spent at that
temperature
3. The chemical composition of the
base metal
Figure 8-34 Cross section of

weld bead showing in the three
areas.
4. The cooling rate of the weld

The weld metal zone, the area heated above about 2800F (1540C) and melted,
generally has the coarsest grain structure of the three areas. For the most part, welding
with the shielded metal arc process produces a fairly fine grain size in steels, so a large
grain size in the weld zone is not much of a problem when this process is used. Large
grain size is undesirable because it gives the weld poor toughness and cracking
resistance. The solidification of the weld metal starts at the edge of the weld puddle next
to the base metal. The grains that form at the edge are called dendrites and they grow
toward the center of the weld into the area that is still molten. This gives the weld metal
its characteristic columnar grain structure. The grains that form in the weld zone are
similar to the grains that form in castings. The grain size in the weld zone can be
affected by the electrode covering as well as the factors mentioned before. One of the
functions of the electrode coverings is to provide deoxidizers and scavengers to reduce
the grain size of the metal. The greater the heat input to the weld and the longer it is
held at high temperatures, the larger the grain size will be. A fast cooIing rate will
produce a smaller grain size than a slower cooling rate. Preheating will give larger grain
sizes, but it is often necessary to prevent the formation of the hard and brittle martensite
structure.
The heat affected zone is the area around the metal zone which has been affected by
the heat of welding but did not become molten. For example, in mild steels, the area
that reaches a temperature of 2200-2800F (1220-1550C) goes through a grain
coarsening. The area of the heat affected zone that reaches 1700-2200F (950-1220C)
will go through grain refinement. The area that is heated from 1400-1700F (780-950C)
is annealed and made considerably softer.
The base metal zone is the area that is heated to 1300F (720C) or less and is
basically unchanged.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-44
6.2.0 Metals Weldable

Shielded metal arc welding may be used to weld a wide variety of base metals. The
metals that are the most easily welded with the shielded metal arc welding process are
the mild steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels and chromium-molybdenum steels.
Cast irons, medium- and high-carbon steels, and hardenable types of steel may also be
welded using this process, but special precautions must be taken. The selection and
care of the electrodes is more critical when welding hardenable steels. Copper alloys
and nickel are often welded by this process, but gas metal arc welding (MIG) and gas
tungsten arc welding (TIG) are more widely used for welding these metals. Zinc, lead,
and tin cannot be welded by shielded metal arc welding because of their low melting
points. Aluminum can be welded by this process, but it is not very popular. Magnesium
is not welded with the shielded metal arc welding process.
6.2.1 Steels
In general, steels are classified according to carbon content, such as low-carbon,
medium-carbon, or high-carbon steels. Steels are also classified according to the types
of alloy used such as chrome-moly, nickel-manganese, etc. For the purpose of
discussion in this chapter, steels will be classified according to their welding
characteristics.
6.2.1.1 Mild Steels
Mild steels are generally those that have low carbon content and are most readily
weldable. These steels are the most widely used type of metal for industrial fabrication.
Included in this group are the low-carbon steels and the high strength structural steels.
Low-carbon steels have carbon content up to .30%. Mild steel electrodes of the E60XX
series classification may be used for welding these steels, but E70XX series electrodes
are used when higher strengths are required. The E70XX series electrodes are used,
especially when the carbon content of the steels approach .30%. Preheating is often
used, especially on thicker sections, highly restrained joints, or where codes require
preheating. Other precautions such as controlled interpass temperature and postheating
are often required. These heat controls help reduce the cooling rate of the weld metal
and prevent large amounts of martensite from forming. On thicker sections, cracking
may occur in the weld deposit or the heat affected zone. If preheating, interpass
temperature control and postheating are not used. Use of these heat controls will help
prevent the reduction of weld toughness, strength, and ductility.
The high strength structural steels are steels with yield strength between 45,000 psi
(310 MPa) and 70,000 psi (485 MPa) and carbon content generally below .25%. These
steels have relatively small amounts of alloying elements. Some common examples of
these steels are ASTM designations A242, A441, A572, A588, A553 and A537.
Preheating is generally not required when low hydrogen electrodes are used, except on
thick sections or highly restrained joints where preheating is required. Preheating is
required when the higher hydrogen types of electrode are used.
6.2.1.2 Low Alloy Steels
The low alloy steels discussed here will be those that are low-carbon and have alloy
additions less than 5%. This includes the quenched and tempered steels, heat treated
low alloy steels, and low nickel alloy steels. Elements such as nickel, chromium,
manganese, and molybdenum are the main alloying elements these steels contain.
These steels have a higher hardenability than mild steels and this factor is the principal
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-45
complication in welding. This higher hardenability permits martensite to form at lower

cooling rates. As the alloy content and the carbon content increase, the hardenability
also increases. In general, the weldability of the steel decreases as the hardenability
increases. One of the best methods for determining the weldability of a low alloy steel is
the carbon equivalent formula. Steels that have carbon equivalents below about .40%
usually do not require preheating and postheating in the welding procedure and
generally have the best weldability. Steels with carbon equivalents higher than .40%
require more precautions for welding. Generally, the higher the carbon equivalent, the
more difficult the steel is to weld. Low alloy steels are fairly weldable but not as easily
weldable as the mild steels. Except in the case of the low nickel alloys, the selection of
electrodes for welding these steels is based on the strength and mechanical properties
desired of the weld rather than matching chemical compositions.
The quenched and tempered heat treated steels have yield strengths ranging from
50,000 psi (345 MPa) to very high yield strengths and have carbon content up to .25%.
Some common examples of these types of steel are ASTM designations A533 Grade B,
A537 Grade B, A514, A517, A543, and A553. The .25% carbon limit provides fairly
good weldability. These steels provide high tensile and yield strength along with good
ductility, notch toughness, corrosion resistance, fatigue strength and weldability. The
presence of hydrogen is always bad in steel but it is even more critical in these types of
steels compared to mild steels. Low hydrogen electrodes should be used when welding
these steels. Preheat is generally not used on thinner sections, but it is used on thicker
or highly restrained sections. Postweld heat treatment is generally not used because the
shielded metal arc welds made in these have good toughness. The steels are generally
used in the welded or stress relieved conditions.
The nickel alloy steels in these low alloy steel groups are those with less than 5% nickel
content. The 2 1/4% and 3 1/2% nickel steels are usually welded with covered
electrodes that have the same general chemical composition as the base metal.
Preheating is required with highly restrained joints.
6.2.1.3 Heat Treatable Steels
The heat treatable steels are the medium- and high-carbon steels and medium-carbon
steels that have been alloyed. This group includes steels quenched and tempered after
welding, normalized or annealed steels, and medium- and high-carbon steels. These
steels are more difficult to weld than the other types this chapter mentions. The most
important factor for selecting the type of covered electrode to use is matching the
chemical compositions of the base metal and the filler metal.
Medium-carbon steels have carbon content ranging from .30% to .60% and high-carbon
steels have carbon content ranging from .6% to about 1.0%. When welding mediumand high-carbon steels, include precautions in the welding procedure because of the
hardness that can occur in the weld joint. As the carbon content increases up to .60%,
the hardness of the fully hardened structure (or martensite) increases to a maximum
value. When the carbon content is above .60%, the hardness of the fully hardened
structure does not increase, so these steels can be welded using about the same
welding procedures as the medium-carbon steels. Martensite, which is the phase in
which steel is at its fullest hardness, is harder and more brittle in high-carbon steel than
in low-carbon steel. A high-carbon martensitic structure can have a tendency to crack in
the weld metal and the heat affected zone during cooling. Welding procedures that
lower the hardness of the heat affected zone and the weld metal reduce the cracking
tendency. This can be done by using a procedure that reduces the carbon content in the
filler metal and by slowing the cooling rate. The procedure includes the use of low
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-46
hydrogen electrodes, preheat, interpass temperature control, and a postheat. The

procedures for welding medium-carbon steels can be simpler than the one just
mentioned, but that depends on the specific application. Medium-carbon steels can be
welded with the low hydrogen electrodes of the E70XX, E80XX, or E90XX
classifications. Weld high-carbon steels with the low hydrogen electrodes of the E80XX
to the E120XX classes using the electrode of the proper tensile strength to match the
tensile strength of the base metal. Generally, high-carbon steels are not used in welded
production work. These steels are usually only welded in repair work. Mild steel
electrodes may also be used, but the deposited weld metal absorbs carbon from the
base metal and thus loses a considerable amount of ductility. Stainless steel electrodes
of the austenitic type are sometimes used, but the fusion zone may still be hard and
brittle. A preheat and/or postheat wiII help eliminate the brittle structure.
The steels quenched and tempered after welding have carbon content from about .25%
to .45%, which distinguishes them from the steels that are quenched and tempered
before welding. These steels also have small additions of alloying elements. Some
common examples of these steels are the AISI designations 4130, 4140 and 4340.
Because of the higher carbon contents, the steels in this group can be heat treated to
extremely high levels of strength and hardness. Some of these steels have enough alloy
content to give them high hardenability. Because of this combination of carbon and alloy
content, the steels must be preheated before welding. The weldability of these steels is
also influenced by the purity of the steels. High amounts of sulfur and phosphorous in
the steel increase sensitivity to cracking and reduce ductility. The shielded metal arc
welding process is often used for welding steels that are quenched and tempered after
welding. The selection of the proper electrode to use is based on the chemical
composition, strength required, and thickness of the base metal. The composition of the
weld metal is usually similar to that of the base metal. Low hydrogen electrodes are the
most commonly used for welding of steels.
6.2.1.4 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
The chromium-molybdenum steels in this section are those with alloy contents of 6% or
less. These steels are in the low-carbon range, generally up to .15%, and are readily
weldable. The chromium and molybdenum alloying elements provide these steels with
good oxidation resistance and high temperature strength. The chromium is mainly
responsible for the oxidation resistance, the molybdenum mainly responsible for the
high temperature strength. All of the electrodes manufactured for welding stainless
steels, recognized by the AWS, are of the low hydrogen type. Stainless steel electrodes
of the EXXX-15 type have a lime based coating and the EXXX-16 types have a Titania
based coating. The type EXXX-15 electrodes give greater penetration where the EXXX16 type gives a smoother surface finish.
The shielded metal arc welding process is one of the most common methods of welding
the chromium-molybdenum steels. The stainless steel low hydrogen electrodes (EXXX15, EXXX-16.and EXXX-18) are used for welding except on the 1/2% Cr % Mo steels
where the mild steel EXX10, EXX11, and EXX13 may be used. The cellulose coated
electrodes for welding the other chromium-molybdenum steels are not used because
they can cause underbead cracking. The use of the low hydrogen electrodes greatly
reduces the amount of hydrogen present during welding.
6.2.1.5 Stainless & Higher Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
The steels included in this group are the higher chrome-moly steels, martensitic
stainless steels, ferritic stainless steels and austenitic stainless steels. The major
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element that sets these steels apart from other steels is the high chromium content.
Stainless steels have more than 11% chromium. The addition of chromium gives the
steels a very high resistance to oxidation and increases the hardenability up to a point.
If steel has too much chromium in it, it cannot be hardened at all. Stainless steels
containing chromium above about 16% are generally non-hardenable. Chromium levels
above about 25% give the stainless steel very good oxidation resistance at high
temperatures. Normally, when you weld stainless steel, you should match the chemical
composition of the filler metal and the base metal.
The higher chrome-moly steels contain about 6-10% chromium and .5-1% molybdenum.
These steels are limited to a maximum carbon content of about .10% to limit the
hardness because these steels are very sensitive to air hardening. For welding these
steels, preheating, interpass temperature control, slow cooling, and postweld heat
treatment are required to make a weld with good mechanical properties.
The martensitic hardenable stainless steels generally have chromium contents between
11 and 13%. Some typical examples of these kinds of steels are the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) designations 403, 405, 410, 420, and 440. The most easily
weldable are the steels with the lowest carbon contents. For applications requiring high
hardness, such as cutlery, higher carbon contents, such as those types 420 and 440
contain, are desired. Types such as 420 and 440 are rarely welded. Electrodes with the
same chemical compositions as the base metal are usually required for welding
martensitic stainless steels. Sometimes, austenitic stainless steel or Inconel types of
covered electrodes are used to weld martensitic stainless steel to avoid the use of
preheat, but they give weld metal with lower strength than the base metal. When using
martensitic stainless steel covered electrodes, preheating and postheating are required
so that the weld metal will not be weaker than the base metal. The ferritic
nonhardenable stainless steels have chromium contents greater than 13%. As
mentioned before, the higher chromium content makes these steels nonhardenable.
Some typical examples of these types of stainless steels are the AISI designations 430,
436, 442 and 446. These stainless steels require preheating and postheating. Type 446
steel, which has 25% chromium, is very susceptible to rapid grain growth in the weld
heat affected zone. Large grain sizes reduce the toughness and make the weld area
more susceptible to cracking. Preheating and postheating minimize this grain growth.
Austenitic stainless steel electrodes are often used, but this does not help reduce the
grain size of the heat affected zone.
The austenitic nonhardenable stainless steels have at least 11 or 12% chromium and
up to about 26% chromium with additions of nickel ranging from about 3.5 to 22%.
Nickel is a strong austenite former, and it helps keep these kinds of steels in the
austenitic phase at all temperatures, which also makes these steels nonhardenable.
Austenitic stainless steels have very good oxidation resistance and high temperature
strength. The austenitic stainless steels are designated by the AISI as the 200 and 300
series. In the 200 series of steels, manganese is used to replace some of the nickel.
Some common examples of these steels are the Types 302, 304, 308, 310, 316, 321,
347, 201, and 202. Austenitic stainless steels have good toughness and ductility and
are the most readily weldable of the stainless steels. When shielded metal arc welding
is used to weld austenitic stainless steel, the filler metal composition is generally chosen
to match the base metal.
The weld metal deposited by austenitic stainless steel electrodes generally has higher
chromium and nickel contents than the base metal. Distortion is often a problem when
welding these steels because they have a coefficient of expansion that is about 50%
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higher than for carbon steels, which creates residual stresses. Preheating and
postheating are usually not required, but preheating may be used to remove the chill.
6.2.1.6 Free Machining Steels
Free machining steels are steels that have additions of sulfur, phosphorous, or lead in
them to make these steels easier to machine. Except for the lead, phosphorous, and
sulfur contents, these steels often have chemical compositions of mild, low alloy, and
stainless steels. This addition of these elements makes these steels unweldable. The
reason for this is because the elements lead, phosphorous and sulfur have melting
points that are much lower than the melting point of steel. As the weld solidifies, these
elements remain liquid much longer than the steel so that they coat the grain boundary
which causes hot cracking in the weld. Hot cracking is cracking that occurs before the
weld has had a chance to cool. Because of this hot cracking problem, free machining
steels cannot be welded successfully.
6.2.2 Cast Irons
Many types of cast irons may be welded using shielded metal arc welding. Cast irons
have a carbon content higher than that of steel. Carbon is present in cast irons in two
forms, as free carbon (graphite) and as combined carbon (as in steels). There are
several types of cast irons: white, gray, malleable, modular, and austenitic. All of these
are weldable except white cast iron, which is considered unweldable.
6.2.2.1 Gray Cast Iron
In gray cast irons, the graphite has a flake appearance. These flakes produce sharp
notches and discontinuities which make gray cast iron brittle. The tensile strength of
gray cast iron is usually between 30,000 psi (210 MPa) and 40,000 psi (280 MPa).
The success of shielded metal arc welding usually depends on the specific tensile
strength, the form and distribution of graphite, the amount of sulfur and phosphorous,
and the amount of joint restraint. Nickel base welding electrodes are widely used for
welding gray cast iron, and preheating and interpass temperature controls are required
except on minor repair jobs.
6.2.2.2 Nodular and Malleable Cast Irons
In malleable cast irons, the graphite has a nearly spheroidal appearance and in nodular
iron, the graphite has a spheroidal appearance. The malleable and nodular cast irons
do not have the brittleness that the gray cast irons have because of the shape of the
graphite.
Nickel-base covered electrodes are also used for welding malleable and nodular cast
irons. After these cast irons have been welded, they should be annealed to obtain
optimum ductility.
6.2.3 Copper and Copper Alloys
When it is used to weld copper and copper alloys, shielded metal arc welding is mainly
used for minor repair jobs, difficult to reach fillets, or dissimilar metals. Shielded metal
arc welding does not do as good a job as the gas metal arc welding (MIG) or the gas
tungsten arc welding (TIG) process. The filler metal used for welding copper and copper
alloys contains deoxidizers. Shielded metal arc welding of these metals is generally
restricted to the flat position. Out of position welding can only be performed satisfactorily
on phosphor bronzes and copper nickels. Shielded metal arc welding is usually not
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recommended for welding many of the copper alloys because it produces poor
mechanical properties and many unsound welds. The coppers and brasses are
generally not welded using this process.
6.2.4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys
The shielded metal arc welding process can be used to weld nickel and nickel alloys in
thicknesses ranging down to about .050" (1.3 mm). The covered electrodes used have
chemical compositions similar to the base metals being welded. Elements such as
manganese, columbium and titanium are contained by the electrodes and act as
deoxidizers and prevent weld metal cracking. Direct current electrode positive welding
current is used when welding nickel and nickel alloys. Flat position welding is used
whenever possible because it produces a better quality weld. Molten nickel alloy weld
metal does not flow as well as molten steel weld metal so the nickel alloy weld metal
must be deposited where it is needed. Oscillating or weaving techniques are usually
needed because of this. The heat of the welding arc usually does not have a negative
effect on the nickel base metals. Preheat is usually not required for welding these
metals, but the base metal should be warmed to at least 70F (21C) to avoid
condensation of moisture, which could produce porosity in the weld metal.

7.
What primary property determines the maximum hardness of steel?

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
The amount of heat used to make the steel

The amount of carbon in the steel
The amount of alloy in the steel
Which cast iron is considered unweldable?

A.
B.
C.
D.
White
Gray
Modular
Austenitic
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7.0.0 WELD AND JOINT DESIGN

The weld joint design used for shielded metal arc welding is determined by the design of
the workpiece, metallurgical considerations, and codes or specifications. Joints are
designed for accessibility and economy during construction. Good accessibility during
construction also helps reduce the cost and generally raises the quality of the weld joint.
A weld joint consists of a type of weld made in a type of joint. There are five basic types
of joints, but these can be used in various combinations. A joint is the junction of
members that are to be joined or have been joined. Figure 8-35 shows the five basic
joint classifications.
Figure 8-35 Types of joints.

Each type of joint can be joined by many different types of welds. Figure 8-36 shows the
most common types of welds made. The type of weld made is governed by the joint
configuration. Figure 8-37 shows the weld nomenclature for groove and fillet welds.
Figure 8-36 Types of welds.

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Figure 8-37 Weld nomenclature.
7.1.0 Strength
The strength required of the weld joint is a major consideration for determining the
design of a welded joint. Weld joints are either full penetration or partial penetration,
depending on the strength required for the weld joint. Full penetration weld joints have
weld metal through the full cross section of the joint. Partial penetration weld joints have
an unfused area in the joint. Welded joints subject to dynamic, cyclic, or impact loads
usually require full penetration when full strength is required. These factors are even
more important when the weld joints are used for low temperature service. Partial
penetration welds may be adequate for joints that are statically loaded. These types of
joints are easier to prepare and require less filler metal than full penetration joints.
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7.2.0 Position
The shielded metal arc welding process can be used in all welding positions. The
position in which the welding is to be done affects the design of the joint. The figures at
the end of the section show some examples of this. A diagram of the welding position
capabilities of shielded metal arc welding is shown in Figure 8-38. Welding in the
horizontal, vertical, and overhead positions depends on the skill of the welder and the
type of electrode the welder uses. The high deposition class of electrodes can normally
only be used in the flat and horizontal positions because of the large weld puddles they
produce.
Welding positions are classified by a set of numbers and letters. The four basic welding
positions are designated by the numbers 1 for flat, 2 for horizontal, 3 for vertical, and 4
for overhead. F designations are used for fillet welds and G designations for groove
welds. The 5G and 6G positions are test positions used in pipe welding. Figure 8-38
also shows the number and letter designations for both plate and pipe.
Figure 8-38 Welding test positions.
7.3.0 Thickness
The thickness of the metal that can be welded by the shielded metal arc welding
process depends on welder skill, joint position, type of joint, fit-up, type of electrode,
welding speed, arc length, welding current, and arc characteristics. The minimum
thickness of metal that can be welded is dependent on the skill of the welder; a skilled
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welder can weld steel as thin as 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). Steel as thick as 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) can
be welded without groove preparation if the width of the root opening is adequate to
achieve full penetration welds. Partial penetration welds can be made in 1/2 in. (12.7
mm) thick metal without beveling. Thicker materials than those mentioned require joint
preparation and multiple passes. Common beveled joint configurations for groove welds
are the U, V, J, bevel, and combination grooves. The J, bevel, and combination groove
configurations are also used for fillet welds. These configurations make it possible to get
full penetration welds on thicker material. The thicker the material, the more passes it
takes to fill the joint for a given joint design. Single bevel and V groove are the most
often used types of edge preparation.
U grooves are the most common because they are the easiest to prepare. The bevels
on the sides of the groove can be prepared by flame cutting; the joint faces of the J and
U grooves are prepared by machining. Flame cutting is quicker than machining, so
flame cutting reduces the preparation time.
U grooves generally require less filler metal than V grooves. Welding U grooves allows
use of larger electrodes for the first pass than does welding V grooves because of the U
grooves rounded bottom. However, spacer strips may be used in V grooves to provide
easier access to the root.
Single bevel and J grooves are often used for corner and Tee-joints. Single V, single U,
and single bevel grooves are the most common types of edge preparation for butt joints
3/16 in. (4.8 mm) or 1/4 in. (6.5 mm) thick to about 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) thick.
When the base metal is 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) or
more, double V, double U, double bevel, and
double J grooves are usually recommended
if welding from both sides is possible. Joints
welded with these grooves produce less
distortion and require less filler metal than
grooves that must be welded from one side.
Groove angles of 45 to 60 are used for
thinner base metals needing grooves, but
are too large for use in thicker base metals.
Smaller groove angles are used for the
larger metal thicknesses because they
require less welding time to fill than a 45 or
60 groove angle.
There are many variations of the basic joint
designs. One design often used for the
welding of thick walled pipe and thick plate
over 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) is the variation of the
Figure 8-39 Variation of single
single V groove joint shown in Figure 8-39.
V-groove joint design for
This is used when the joint is accessible
unlimited thickness base metal.
from one side. It uses a steeper slope
toward the top of the joint where the bevel angle has been reduced. The advantage of
this type of joint design over a normal V groove design is that it is less expensive to
weld because it requires less filler metal to fill the joint. The wider V groove toward the
bottom gives good accessibility to the root of the joint. A disadvantage of this joint
design is that it is more difficult to prepare the two different bevel angles.
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7.4.0 Accessibility
Accessibility is another important factor in determining the joint design for shielded
metal arc welding. Welds can be made either from one side or from both sides of the
base metal. On thicker metals, when both sides of the joint are accessible, double
bevels are usually made. The advantage of this is that the double bevels have less area
to fill than single bevels and require less filler material. The roots of the welds are
usually near the center of the base metal when double bevels are used. When the joints
are only accessible from one
Table 8-12 Effective throat thickness for partial
side, U and J groove
preparations are often used
joint penetration grove welds.
so that the root is more easily
accessible, and on thick
sections, less filler metal is
required to fill the joint than
with a standard V groove
preparation. However, U and
J grooves are harder and
more expensive to prepare.
The weld joint designs in the
rest of the chapter are those
commonly used for shielded
metal arc welding. Table 8-12
shows the minimum effective
throat thicknesses for partial
penetration welds, according
to the AWS Structural
Welding Code (AWS D1.1).
The effective throat thickness
is the minimum distance
between the root of the weld
and the surface less the
reinforcement. Figures 8-40
and 8-41 show the American
Welding Societys "Standard Welding Symbols," some of which have been used in the
weld joint designs.
Figures 8-42 through 8-52 show different welding position symbols.
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Figure 8-40 Welding symbols.
8-56
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Figure 8-41 Welding symbols (cont.).
8-57
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Figure 8-42 Basic joints.
8-58
Figure 8-43 Applications of arrow and other side conventions.

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Figure 8-44 Applications of break in arrow of welding symbol.

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Figure 8-45 Combinations of weld symbols.
Figure 8-46 Combinations of weld symbols (cont.).
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Figure 8-47 Specification of location and extent of fillet welds.

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Figure 8-48 Specification of location and extent of fillet welds (cont.).
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Figure 8-49 Specification of extent of welding.
8-64
Figure 8-50 Specification of extent of welding (cont.).

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Figure 8-51 Applications of typical welding symbols.

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Figure 8-52 Applications of melt-through symbol.

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7.5.0 Weld Joint Designs

The details of a joint, which include both the geometry and the required dimensions, are
called the joint design. Just what type of joint design is best suited for a particular job
depends on many factors. Although welded joints are designed primarily to meet
strength and safety requirements, other factors must be considered. A few of these
factors are as follows:
1. Whether the load will be in tension or compression and whether bending, fatigue,
or impact stresses will be applied
2. How a load will be applied; that is, whether the load will be steady, sudden, or
variable
3. The direction of the load as applied to the joint
4. The cost of preparing the joint
Another consideration is the ratio of the strength of the joint compared to the strength of
the base metal. This ratio is called joint efficiency. An efficient joint is one that is just as
strong as the base metal.
Normally, the joint design is determined by a designer or engineer and included in the
project plans and specifications. Even so, understanding the joint design for a weld
enables you to produce better welds.
Earlier in this course, we discussed the five basic types of welded jointsbutt, corner,
tee, lap, and edge.
Keep in mind that there are many different variations of the basic joint welds. If you want
more information, refer to Chapter 3, Introduction to Welding.
7.6.0 Arc Welding Positions

The types of welds, joints, and welding positions used in shielded metal arc welding are
very similar to those used in oxygas welding. Naturally, the techniques are somewhat
different because the equipment involved is different.
7.6.1 Flat-Position Welding
Welding can be done in any position, but it is much simpler in the flat position. In this
position, the work is less tiring, welding speed is faster, the molten puddle is not as
likely to run, and you can achieve better penetration. Whenever possible, try to position
the work so you can weld in the flat position. In the flat position, the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.
Butt joints are the primary type of joints used in the flat position of welding; however,
flat-position welding can be made on just about any type of joint providing you can
rotate the section you are welding on to the appropriate position. Techniques useful in
making butt joints in the flat position, with and without the use of backing strips, are
described below.
Butt joints without backing strips A butt joint is used to join two plates having surfaces
in about the same plane. Figure 8-53 shows several forms of butt joints.
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Plates up to 1/8-inch thick can be welded in one pass with no special edge preparation.
Figure 8-53 Butt joints in the flat position.

Plates from 1/8- to 3/16 -inch thick also can be welded with no special edge preparation
by welding on both sides of the joint. Use tack welds to keep the plates aligned for
welding. The electrode motion is the same as that used in making a bead weld.
Figure 8-54 Butt welds with multipass beads.
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In welding 1/4-inch plate or heavier, prepare the edges of the plates by beveling or by J, U-, or V-grooving, whichever is the most applicable. Use single or double bevels or
grooves when the specifications and/or the plate thickness require it. Deposit the first
bead to seal the space between the two plates and to weld the root of the joint.
Thoroughly clean this bead or layer of weld metal to remove all slag and dirt before
depositing the second layer of
metal.
In making multi pass welds, as
shown in Figure 8-54, make the
second, third, and fourth layers
of weld metal with a weaving
motion of the electrode. Clean
each layer of metal before laying
additional beads. Use one of the
weaving motions shown in
Figure 8-55, depending upon the
type of joint and size of
electrode.
In the weaving motion, oscillate
or move the electrode uniformly
from side to side, with a slight
hesitation at the end of each
oscillation. Incline the electrode 5
to 15 degrees in the direction of
welding as in bead welding.
Improper weaving motion could
result in undercutting at the joint,
Figure 8-55 Weave motions used in
as shown in Figure 8-56.
SMAW.
Excessive welding speed also
can cause undercutting and poor fusion at the edges of the weld bead.
Butt joints with backing strips Welding
3/16-inch or thicker plate requires backing
strips to ensure complete fusion in the weld
root pass and to provide better control of
the arc and the weld metal. Prepare the
edges of the plates in the same manner as
required for welding without backing strips.
For plates up to 3/8-inch thick, the backing
strips should be approximately 1-inch wide
and 3/16-inch thick. For plates more than
1/2-inch thick, the backing strips should be
1 1/2 inches wide and 1/4-inch thick. Tackweld the backing strip to the base of the
joint, as shown in Figure 8-57. The backing
strip acts as a cushion for the root pass.
Complete the joint by welding additional
layers of metal. After you complete the
joint, the backing strip may be cut away
with a cutting torch. When specified, place
a seal bead along the root of the joint.
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Figure 8-56 Undercutting in

butt joint welds.
8-70
Bear in mind that many times using a backing strip will not be possible; therefore, the
welder must be able to run the root pass and get good penetration without the formation
of icicles.
Figure 8-57 Use of back strips in welding

butt joints.
7.6.2 Horizontal-Position Welding
You will discover that it is impossible to
weld all pieces in the flat position. Often you
must do the work in the horizontal position.
The horizontal position has two basic forms,
depending upon whether it is used with a
groove weld or a fillet weld. In a groove
weld, the axis of the weld lies in a relative
horizontal plane, and the face of the weld is
in a vertical plane (Figure 8-58). In a fillet
weld, the welding is performed on the upper
side of a relatively horizontal surface and
against an approximately vertical plane
(Figure 8-59).
Inexperienced welders usually find the
horizontal position of arc welding difficult,
until they develop a fair degree of skill in
Figure 8-58 Horizontal groove
applying the proper technique. The primary
weld.
difficulty is that in this position you have no
shoulder of previously deposited weld metal to hold the molten metal.
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7.6.2.1 Electrode Movement

In horizontal welding, position the electrode so that it points upward at a 5- to 10-degree
angle in conjunction with a 20-degree travel angle (Figure 8-60). Use a narrow weaving
motion in laying the bead. This weaving motion distributes the heat evenly, reducing the
tendency of the molten puddle to sag. Use the shortest arc length possible, and when
the force of the arc undercuts the plate at the top of the bead, lower the electrode holder
a little to increase the upward angle.
As you move in and out of the crater, pause slightly each time you return. This keeps
the crater small, and the bead has fewer tendencies to sag.
Figure 8-59 Horizontal fillet

weld.
Figure 8-60 Horizontal welding

angles.
7.6.2.2 Joint Type

Horizontal-position welding can be used on most types of joints, but it is most commonly
used on tee joints, lap joints, and butt joints.
Tee joints When you make tee joints in the horizontal position, the two plates are at
right angles to each other in the form of an inverted T. The edge of the vertical plate
may be tack-welded to the surface of the horizontal plate, as shown in Figure 8-61.
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Use a fillet weld in making the tee joint, and use a short arc to provide good fusion at
Figure 8-61 Tack-weld to hold

the tee joint elements in place.
Figure 8-62 Position of

electrode on a fillet weld.
the root and along the legs of the weld (Figure 8-62, view A). Hold the electrode at an
angle of 45 degrees to the two plate surfaces (Figure 8-62, view B) with an incline of
approximately 15 degrees in the direction of welding.
When practical, weld light plates with a fillet weld in one pass with little or no weaving of
the electrode. Welding of heavier plates may require two or more passes in which the
second pass or layer is made with a semicircular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 863. To ensure good fusion and the prevention of undercutting, make a slight pause at
the end of each weave or oscillation.
For fillet-welded tee joints on 1/2-inch plate or heavier, deposit stringer beads in the
sequence shown in Figure 8-64.
Figure 8-63 Weave motion for

multipass fillet weld.
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Figure 8-64 Order of string

beads for tee joint on heavy
8-73
Chain-intermittent or staggered-intermittent fillet welds, as shown in Figure 8-65, are

used on long tee joints. Fillet welds of these types are for joints that do not require high
weld strength; however, the short welds are arranged so the finished joint is equal in
strength to a joint that has a fillet weld along the entire length of one side. Intermittent
welds also have the advantage of reduced warpage and distortion.
Figure 8-65 Intermittent fillet

welds.
Figure 8-66 Tack welding a lap

joint.
Lap joints To make a lap joint, tackweld two overlapping plates in place (Figure 8-66), and deposit a fillet weld along the
joint.
The procedure for making this fillet weld is similar to that used for making fillet welds in
tee joints. Hold the electrode so it forms an angle of about 30 degrees from the vertical
and is inclined 15 degrees in the direction of welding. The position of the electrode in
relation to the plates is shown in Figure 8-67. The weaving motion is the same as that
used for tee joints, except that the pause at the edge of the top plate is long enough to
ensure good fusion without undercut. Lap joints on 1/2-inch plate or heavier are made
by depositing a sequence of stringer beads, as shown in Figure 8-67.
In making lap joints on plates of different thickness, hold the electrode so that it forms
an angle of between 20 and 30 degrees from the vertical (Figure 8-68). Be careful not to
overheat or undercut the thinner plate edge.
Butt joints Most butt joints designed for horizontal welding have the beveled plate
positioned on the top. The plate that is not beveled is on the bottom and the flat edge of
this plate provides a shelf for the molten metal so that it does not run out of the joint
(Figure 8-69). Often, both edges are beveled to form a 60-degree included angle. Using
this type of joint requires more skill because there is no retaining shelf to hold the
molten puddle.
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electrode on a lap joint.
Figure 8-68 Lap joints on

plates of different thickness.
The number of passes required for a joint depends on the diameter of the electrode and
the thickness of the metal. When multiple passes are required (Figure 8-70), place the
first bead deep in the root of the joint. Incline the electrode holder about 5 degrees
downward. Clean and remove all slag before applying each following bead. The second
bead should be placed with the electrode holder held about 10 degrees upward. For the
third pass, hold the electrode holder 10 to 15 degrees downward from the horizontal.
Use a slight weaving motion and ensure that each bead penetrates the base metal.
Figure 8-69 Horizontal butt

joint.
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Figure 8-70 Multiple passes.
8-75
7.6.3 Vertical-Position Welding

A vertical weld is a weld applied to a
vertical surface or inclined 45 degrees or
less (Figure 8-71). Erecting structures, such
as buildings, pontoons, tanks, and
pipelines, requires welding in this position.
Welding on a vertical surface is much more
difficult than welding in the flat or horizontal
position due to the force of gravity. Gravity
pulls the molten metal down. To counteract
this force, use fast-freeze or fill-freeze
electrodes.
Vertical welding is done in either an upward
or downward position. The terms used for
the direction of welding are vertical up or
vertical down. Vertical down welding is
suited for welding light gauge metal
because the penetration is shallow and
diminishes the possibility of burning through
the metal. Furthermore, vertical down
welding is faster, which is very important in
production work.
Figure 8-71 Vertical weld plate

positions.
7.6.3.1 Current Settings and Electrode Movement

In vertical arc welding, the current settings should be less than those for the same
electrode in the flat position. Another difference is that the current for welding upward on
a vertical plate is slightly higher than the current for welding downward on the same
plate.
To produce good welds, maintain the proper angle between the electrode and the base
metal. In welding upward, hold the electrode at 90 degrees to the vertical, as shown in
Figure 8-72, view A. When weaving is necessary, oscillate the electrode, as shown in
Figure 8-72, view B. In vertical down welding, incline the outer end of the electrode
downward about 15 degrees from the horizontal while keeping the arc pointing upward
toward the deposited molten metal (Figure 8-72, view C). When vertical down welding
requires a weave bead, oscillate the electrode, as shown in Figure 8-72, view D.
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Figure 8-72 Bead welding in vertical position.

7.6.3.2 Joint Type
Vertical welding is used on most types of joints, but the types you will most often use it
on are tee joints, lap joints, and butt joints.
When making fillet welds in either tee or lap joints in the vertical position, hold the
electrode at 90 degrees to the plates, or not more than 15 degrees off the horizontal, for
proper molten metal control. Keep the arc short to obtain good fusion and penetration.
Tee joints To weld tee joints in the vertical position, start the joint at the bottom and
weld upward. Move the electrode in a triangular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 873, View A. A slight pause in the weave, at the points indicated, improves the sidewall
penetration and provides good fusion at the root of the joint.
When the weld metal overheats, quickly shift the electrode away from the crater without
breaking the arc, as shown in Figure 8-73, View B. This permits the molten metal to
solidify without running downward. Return the electrode immediately to the crater of the
weld in order to maintain the desired size of the weld.
When more than one pass is necessary to make a tee weld, use either of the weaving
motions shown in Figure 8-73, Views C and D. A slight pause at the end of the weave
will ensure fusion without undercutting the edges of the plates.
Lap joints To make welds on lap joints in the vertical position, move the electrode in
a triangular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 8-73 , View E. Use the same procedure
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Figure 8-73 Fillet welds in the vertical position.

outlined above for the tee joint except direct the electrode more toward the vertical plate
marked G. Hold the arc short and pause slightly at the surface of plate G. Try not to
undercut either of the plates or allow the molten metal to overlap at the edges of the
weave.
A lap joint on heavier plate may require more
than one bead. If it does, clean the initial bead
thoroughly and place all subsequent beads as
shown in Figure 8-73, View F. The
precautions to ensure good fusion and uniform
weld deposits, previously outlined for tee
joints, also apply to lap joints.
Butt joints Prepare the plates used in
vertical welding identically to those prepared
for welding in the flat position. To obtain good
fusion and penetration with no undercutting,
hold a short arc and carefully control the
motion of the arc.
You can weld butt joints on beveled plates
1/4-inch thick in one pass by using a triangular
weave motion, as shown in Figure 8-74, View
A.
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Figure 8-74 Butt joint welding

in the vertical position.
8-78
Make welds on 1/2-inch plate or heavier should in several passes, as shown in Figure
8-74, View B. Deposit the last pass with a semicircular weaving motion and a slight
whip-up and pause of the electrode at the edge of the bead. This produces a good
cover pass with no undercutting. Make welds on plates with a backup strip in the same
manner.
7.6.3.3 E-7018 Electrode Welding Technique
The previously described vertical welding techniques generally cover all types of
electrodes; however, modify the procedure slightly when using E-7018 electrodes.
When vertical down welding, drag the electrode lightly using a very short arc. Refrain
from using a long arc since the weld depends on the molten slag for shielding. Small
weaves and stringer beads are better than wide weave passes. Use higher amperage
with ac than with dc. Point the electrode straight into the joint and tip it forward only a
few degrees in the direction of travel.
On vertical up welding, a triangular weave motion produces the best results. Do not use
a whipping motion or remove the electrode from the molten puddle. Point the electrode
straight into the joint and slightly upward in order to allow the arc force to help control
the puddle. Adjust the amperage in the lower level of the recommended range.
7.6.4 Overhead-Position Welding
Overhead welding is the most difficult position in welding. Not only do you have to
contend with the force of gravity, but the majority of the time, you also have to assume
an awkward stance. Nevertheless, with practice it is possible to make welds equal to
those made in the other positions.
To retain complete control of the molten puddle, use a very short arc and reduce the
amperage as recommended. As in the vertical position of welding, gravity causes the
molten metal to drop or sag from the plate. When you hold too long an arc, the transfer
of metal from the electrode to the base metal becomes increasingly difficult and the
chances of large globules of molten metal dropping from the electrode increase. When
you routinely shorten and lengthen the arc, the dropping of molten metal can be
prevented; however, you will defeat your purpose should you carry too large a pool of
molten metal in the weld.
One of the problems encountered in overhead welding is the weight of the cable. To
reduce arm and wrist fatigue, drape the cable over your shoulder when welding in the
standing position. When sitting, place the cable over your knee. With experience, cable
placement will become second nature.
WARNING
Because of the possibility of falling molten metal, use a protective garment that has
a tight fitting collar that buttons or zips up to the neck. Roll down your sleeves and
wear a cap and appropriate shoes.
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7.6.4.2 Type of Welds

The following paragraphs discuss
techniques used in making bead
welds, butt joints, and fillet welds
in the overhead position.
Bead welds For bead welds,
the work angle of the electrode is
90 degrees to the base metal
(Figure 8-75, View A). The travel
angle is 10 to 15 degrees in the
direction of welding (Figure 8-75,
View B).
Make weave beads using the
motion shown in Figure 8-75,
View C. A rather rapid motion is
necessary at the end of each
semicircular weave to control the
molten metal deposit. Avoid
excessive weaving because this
can cause overheating of the
weld deposit and the formation of
a large, uncontrollable pool.
Figure 8-75 Position of electrode and

Butt Joint Prepare the plates
weave motion in the overhead position.
for overhead butt welding in the
same manner as required for the flat position. The best results are obtained using
backing strips; however, you must remember that you will not always be able to use a
backing strip. When you bevel the plates with a featheredge and do not use a backing
strip, the weld will repeatedly
burn through unless you take
extreme care.
For overhead butt welding, bead
welds are better than weave
welds. Clean each bead and chip
out the rough areas before
placing the next pass. The
electrode position and the order
of deposition of the weld beads
when welding on 1/4- or 1/2-inch
plate are shown in Figure 8-76,
views B and C. Make the first
pass with the electrode held at 90
degrees to the plate, as shown in
Figure 8-76, view A. When you
use an electrode that is too large,
you cannot hold a short arc in the
root area. This results in
insufficient root penetration and
inferior joints.
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Figure 8-76 Multipass butt joint in the

overhead position.
8-80
Fillet welds In making fillet welds in either tee or lap joints in the overhead position,
maintain a short arc and refrain from weaving the electrode. Hold the electrode at
approximately 30 degrees to the vertical plate and move it uniformly in the direction of
welding, as shown in Figure 8-77, View B. Control the arc motion to secure good
penetration in the root of the weld and good fusion with the sidewalls of the vertical and
horizontal plates. When the molten metal becomes too fluid and tends to sag, whip the
electrode quickly away from the crater and ahead of the weld to lengthen the arc and
allow the metal to solidify. Immediately return the electrode to the crater and continue
welding.
Overhead fillet welds for either tee or lap joints on heavy plate require several passes or
beads to complete the joint. One example of an order of bead deposition is shown in
Figure 8-77, View A. The root pass is a string bead made with no weaving motion of the
electrode. Tilt the electrode about 15 degrees in the direction of welding, as shown in
Figure 8-77, View C, and with a slight circular motion make the second, third, and fourth
pass. This motion of the electrode permits greater control and better distribution of the
weld metal. Remove all slag and oxides from the surface of each pass by chipping or
wire brushing before applying additional beads to the joint.
Figure 8-77 Fillet welding in the overhead position.

7.6.5 Pipe welding
Welding is the simplest and easiest way to join sections of pipe. The need for
complicated joint designs and special threading equipment is eliminated. Welded pipe
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has less flow restriction compared to mechanical connections and the overall installation
costs are less. The most popular method for welding pipe is the shielded metal arc
process; however, gas shielded
arc methods (TIG & MIG) have
made big inroads as a result of
advances in welding technology.
Pipe welding has become
recognized as a profession in
itself. Even though many of the
skills are comparable to other
types of welding, pipe welders
develop skills unique to pipe
welding. Because of the
hazardous materials that most
pipelines carry, pipe welders are
required to pass specific tests
before they can be certified.
The following paragraphs,
discuss pipe welding positions,
pipe welding procedures,
definitions, and related
information.
7.6.5.1 Pipe welding positions
Figure 8-78 Butt joints and socket fitting

joints.
You may recall that there are

four positions used in pipe
welding (Figure 8-38). They are known as the horizontal rolled position (1G), the
horizontal fixed position (5G), pipe inclined fixed (6G), and the vertical position (2G).
Remember, these terms refer to the position of the pipe and not to the weld.
7.6.5.2 Pipe welding
procedures
Welds that you cannot make in a
single pass, make in interlocked
multiple layers, not less than one
layer for each 1/8-inch of pipe
thickness. Deposit each layer
with a weaving or oscillating
motion. To prevent entrapping
slag in the weld metal, clean
each layer thoroughly before
depositing the next one.
Butt joints are commonly used
between pipes and between
pipes and welded fittings. They
are also used for butt welding
flanges and welding stubs. In
making a butt joint, place two
pieces of pipe end to end, align
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Figure 8-79 Flange connections.
8-82
them, and then weld them. (See Figure 8-78).

When the wall thickness of the pipe is 3/4-inch or less, use either the single V or single
U type of butt joint; however, when the wall thickness is more than 3/4-inch, use only
the single U type.
Fillet welds are used for welding slip-on and threaded flanges to pipe. Depending on the
flange and type of service, fillet welds may be required on both sides of the flange or in
combination with a bevel weld (Figure 8-79). Single fillet welds are also used in welding
screw or socket couplings to pipe (Figure 8-78). Sometimes flanges require alignment.
Figure 8-80 shows one type of flange square and its use in vertical and horizontal
alignment.
Another form of fillet weld used in pipe fitting is a seal weld. A seal weld is used
primarily to obtain tightness and prevent leakage. Seal welds do not add strength to the
joint.
7.6.5.3 Joint preparation and fit-up
Prepare pipe joints for welding carefully if you want good results. Clean the weld edges
or surfaces of all loose scale, slag, rust, paint, oil, and other foreign matter. Ensure that
the joint surfaces are smooth and uniform. Remove the slag from flame-cut edges;
however, it is not necessary to remove the temper color.
When you prepare joints for welding, remember to cut bevels accurately. You can make
bevels by machining, grinding, or using a gas cutting torch. In fieldwork, you usually
must make the bevel cuts with a gas torch. When you are beveling, cut away as little
metal as possible to allow for complete fusion and penetration. Proper beveling reduces
the amount of filler metal required, which in turn reduces time and expense. In addition,
it also means less strain in the weld and a better job of design and welding.
Align the piping before welding and maintain it in alignment during the welding
operation. The maximum alignment tolerance is 20 percent of the pipe thickness. To
ensure proper initial alignment, use clamps or jigs as holding devices. A piece of angle
iron makes a good jig for a small-diameter pipe (Figure 8-81), while a section of channel
or I-beam is more suitable for larger diameter pipe.
Figure 8-80 Flange alignment.

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Figure 8-81 Angle iron jig.

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7.6.6 Tack welding

When welding material solidly, you may use tack welds to hold it in place temporarily.
Tack welding is one of the most important steps in pipe welding or any other type of
welding. The number of tack welds required depends upon the diameter of the pipe. For
1/2-inch pipe, you need two tacks; place them directly opposite each other. As a rule,
four tacks are adequate for standard size pipe. The size of a tack weld is determined by
the wall thickness of the pipe. Be sure the tack weld is not more than twice the pipe
thickness in length or two thirds of the pipe thickness in depth. Tack welds should be
the same quality as the final weld. Ensure that the tack welds have good fusion and are
thoroughly cleaned before proceeding with the weld.
7.6.7 Spacers
In addition to tack welds, spacers sometimes are required to maintain proper joint
alignment. Spacers are accurately machined pieces of metal that conform to the
dimensions of the joint design used. Spacers are sometimes referred to as chill rings or
backing rings, and they serve a number of purposes; for example, they provide a means
of maintaining the specified root opening, provide a convenient location for tack welds,
and aid in pipe alignment. In addition, spacers can prevent weld spatter and the
formation of slag or icicles inside the pipe.
7.6.8 Electrode selection
Select the electrode best suited for the position and type of welding you are doing. For
the root pass of a multilayer weld, you need an electrode large enough, without
exceeding 3/16-inch, to ensure complete fusion and penetration without undercutting
and slag inclusions.
Make certain the welding current is within the range recommended by the
manufacturers of the welding machines and electrodes.
7.6.9 Weather conditions
Do not assign a welder to a job under any of the conditions listed below unless the
welder and the work area are properly protected:
When the atmospheric temperature is less than 0F
When the surfaces are wet
When rain or snow is falling, or moisture is condensing on the weld surfaces
During periods of high wind
At temperatures between 0F and 32F, within 3 inches of the joint, heat the weld area
with a torch to a temperature warm to the hand before beginning to weld.

9.
How many basic types of weld joints are there?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4
5
6
8
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10.
Which type of weld is used for welding slip-on and threaded flanges to pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fillet
Bead
Butt
Tee
8.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES

The welding procedure variables are those that control the welding process and the
quality of the welds produced. There are three major types of welding variables. These
are the fixed or preselected, primary adjustable, and the secondary adjustable
variables.
The fixed or preselected welding variables are set before the actual welding takes
place. These are items such as electrode type, electrode size, and type of current.
These variables cannot be changed after welding starts.
The primary adjustable variables are the major variables used to control the welding
process once the fixed variables have been selected. The primary variables control the
formation of the weld bead by affecting the bead width, bead height, penetration, arc
stability, and weld soundness. The primary welding variables are welding current, arc
voltage, and travel speed. These can be easily adjusted and measured so they can be
used effectively to control the welding
process.
The secondary adjustable variables are the
minor adjustable variables used to control
the welding process. These variables are
usually more difficult to measure. Secondary
adjustable variables are the work angle and
the travel angle of the electrode.
The penetration of the weld is the greatest
depth below the surface of the base metal
that the weld metal reaches. The bead
height or reinforcement is the height of the
weld metal above the surface of the base
metal. The deposition rate is the weight of
the metal that is deposited per unit of time.
Figure 8-82 shows the definitions of bead
height, bead width, and penetration.
Figure 8-82 Bead height, bead

The welding variables are discussed with
width and penetration.
particular attention to the three major
characteristics of penetration, deposition
rate, and bead shape. Table 8-13 is a chart showing the effects of welding variables on
the three major characteristics.
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Table 8-13 Effects of welding variables on the penetration, the bead size and
shape, and the deposition rate.
8.1.0 Fixed Variables

Fixed variables include electrode size and type, welding current type, and polarity.
8.1.1 Electrode Type
The type of electrode used has an effect on the penetration, deposition rate, and shape
of the weld bead and usually depends upon the specific application. Some types of
electrodes have a digging arc and produce welds with deep penetration. The deep
penetrating effect of these electrodes results from the high amount of cellulose in their
coatings. Some types of electrodes produce moderate penetration while others produce
light penetration. The type of electrode used also greatly influences the deposition rate
of the electrode. Iron powder is the main influence on deposition rate. Electrodes with
high amounts of iron powder in their coatings can operate at higher welding currents
than other types of electrodes. The iron powder goes into the weld metal and helps give
the electrodes with iron powder in their coatings the highest deposition rates of any of
the mild steel electrodes. The electrodes with the thinnest electrode coatings generally
have the lowest deposition rates. The type of electrode used also influences the bead
size and shape. The iron powder electrodes generally produce wider and flatter beads.
The characteristics of the different electrodes were discussed in topic 4.
8.1.2 Electrode Size
Larger diameter electrodes use higher welding currents, so the deposition rates and
penetration depths increase as the electrode wire diameter increases. Lower deposition
rates and penetration depths are obtained with smaller electrode wire diameters
because they use lower welding currents. Table 8-14 shows typical deposition rates for
different sizes of E6010, E7018, and E7024 electrodes.
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Table 8-14 Typical deposition rates of different sizes of E6010, E7018, and
E7024 electrodes.
8.1.3 Current Type

The melting rate in the arc zone is directly related to the electrical energy in the welding
arc. Part of the energy is used to melt the electrode and coating, some is lost to the
atmosphere, and the rest goes to melt the base metal. The electrical polarity determines
the energy balance, and the constituents of the electrode covering the different types of
current affect the deposition rate and depth of penetration.
Direct current electrode positive gives the most penetration at a given welding current
setting, followed by alternating current, with direct current electrode negative giving the
least penetration. However, direct current electrode negative gives the highest
deposition rates at a given welding current setting, followed by alternating current, with
direct current electrode positive giving the lowest deposition rates.
8.2.0 Primary Variables

Primary variables include welding current, travel speed, and welding voltage.
The welding current is the most important factor in determining the characteristics of the
weld. The welding current is controlled by a knob or handle on the welding machine.
The amount of current used during a welding operation depends primarily upon the
diameter of the electrode. As a rule, higher currents and larger diameter electrodes are
better for welding in the flat position than the vertical or overhead position.
Manufacturers of electrodes usually specify a current range for each type and size of
electrode; this information is normally found on the face of the electrode container.
Since most recommended current settings are only approximate, final current settings
and adjustments need to be made during the welding operation. For example, when the
recommended current range for an electrode is 90-100 amperes, the usual practice is to
set the controls midway between the two limits, or at 95 amperes. After starting the
weld, make your final adjustments by either increasing or decreasing the current. When
the current is too high, the electrode melts faster and the molten puddle will be
excessively large and irregular. High current also leaves a groove in the base metal
along both sides of the weld. This is called undercutting, and an example is shown in
Figure 8-83.
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With current that is too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal and the
molten pool will be too small. The result is poor fusion and an irregular shaped deposit
that piles up. This piling up of molten metal is called overlap. The molten metal from the
electrode lays on the work without penetrating the base metal. Poor welds result from
both undercutting and overlapping.
When the electrode, current, and polarity are correct, a good arc produces a sharp,
crackling sound. When any of these conditions are incorrect, the arc produces a steady,
hissing sound, such as steam escaping.
8.2.2 Travel Speed
Travel speed is another important factor in controlling the weld characteristics. The
travel speed is determined by the welder, who manually controls the rate that the arc
travels along the work. Increasing travel speed while the other variables remain
constant reduces the width of the weld bead and increases the weld penetration. There
is an optimum travel speed at which the penetration is at its maximum. Increasing the
travel speed beyond this point will decrease the penetration. Excessive travel speed will
produce a weld bead that is too small with an irregular contour. This can produce welds
that have too small a cross section. A very slow travel speed can result in excessive
piling up of weld metal and lack of fusion at the edges of the weld. The effects of travel
speed are also shown in Figure 8-83.
Figure 8-83 Effects of the welding variables on the weld bead.

8.2.3 Welding Voltage (Arc Length)
The welding voltage is another important variable in shielded metal arc welding. The arc
voltage is determined by the arc length between the end of the electrode and the base
metal. The welder controls the arc voltage manually by moving the tip of the electrode
close to or away from the surface of the base metal. Increasing the arc length increases
the arc voltage; decreasing the arc length decreases the arc voltage. The welding
voltage primarily affects the shape of weld bead cross-section and the general
appearance of the weld. Increasing the welding voltage produces a wider and flatter
weld bead and increases the susceptibility to arc blow. When the arc length is too long,
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which makes the welding voltage too high, the weld bead can look irregular with poor
penetration and spatter. Also, the weld metal may be not be properly shielded by the
gas from the decomposition of the electrode coating and much of the heat may be lost
to the atmosphere. Decreasing the arc length will produce a stiffer and more easily
controlled arc, but a very short arc length can cause the electrode to stick to the base
metal. The effects of too long an arc length are also shown in Figure 8-83.
8.2.4 Starting the Arc
There are two basic methods for starting the arc: the striking or brushing method (Figure
8-84) and the tapping method (Figure 8-85). In either method, the arc is started by short
circuiting the welding current between the electrode and the work surface. The surge of
high current causes the end of the electrode and a small spot on the base metal
beneath the electrode to melt instantly. In the striking or brushing method, bring the
electrode down to the work with a lateral motion similar to striking a match. As soon as
the electrode touches the work surface, raise it to establish the arc (Figure 8-84). The
arc length or gap between the end of the electrode and the work should be equal to the
diameter of the electrode. When you have obtained the proper arc length, it produces a
sharp, crackling sound.
Figure 8-84 Striking or

brushing method of starting the
arc.
Figure 8-85 Tapping method of

starting the arc.
In the tapping method, hold the electrode in a vertical position to the surface of the
work. Start the arc by tapping or bouncing it on the work surface and then raising it to a
distance equal to the diameter of the electrode (Figure 8-85). When you have
established the proper length of arc, you will hear a sharp, crackling sound.
In either of the starting methods described above, withdrawing the electrode too slowly
will cause it to stick or freeze to the plate or base metal. If this occurs, you can usually
free the electrode by a quick sideways wrist motion to snap the end of the electrode
from the plate. If this method fails, immediately release the electrode from the holder or
shutoff the welding machine, and use a light blow with a chipping hammer or chisel to
free the electrode from the base metal.
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CAUTION
NEVER remove your helmet or the shield from your eyes as long as there is any
possibility that the electrode could produce an arc.
After you strike the arc, the end of the electrode melts and flows into the molten crater
of the base metal. To compensate for this loss of metal, you must adjust the length of
the arc. Unless you keep moving the electrode closer to the base metal, the length of
the arc will increase. An arc that is too long will emit a humming sound. One that is too
short makes a popping noise. When the electrode is fed down to the plate and along the
surface at a constant rate, a bead of metal is deposited or welded onto the surface of
the base metal. After striking the arc, hold it for a short time at the starting point to
ensure good fusion and crater deposition. Good arc welding depends upon controlling
the motion of the electrode along the surface of the base metal.
8.2.4.1 Breaking the Arc
The most commonly used method to break the arc is to hold the electrode stationary
until the crater is filled and then slowly withdraw the electrode. This method reduces the
possibilities of crater cracks.
8.2.4.2 Reestablishing the Arc
To reestablish the arc (as in a long weld that requires the use of more than one
electrode), clean the crater before striking the arc. Strike the tip of the new electrode at
the forward (cold) end of the crater and establish an arc. Move the arc backward over
the crater, and then move forward again and continue the weld. This procedure fills the
crater and prevents porosity and slag inclusions.
8.2.4.3 Peening
Peening is a procedure that involves lightly hammering a weld as it cools. This process
aids in relieving built-up stresses and preventing surface cracking in the joint area;
however, peening should be done with care because excess hammering can work
harden and increase stresses in the weld. This condition leads to weld embrittlement
and early failure. Some welds are covered by specific codes that prohibit peening, so
check the weld specification before peening.
8.3.0 Secondary Variables

Secondary variables include work and travel angles of the electrode,
8.3.1 Angles of the Electrode
The angular position of the electrode in relation to the work may have an effect on the
quality of the weld deposit. The position of the electrode determines the ease with which
the filler metal is deposited, freedom from undercutting and slag inclusions, and the
uniformity of the bead.
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Figure 8-86 Travel angle and work angle.

The electrode angles are called the travel angle and the work angle. The travel angle of
the electrode is the angle between the joint and the electrode in the longitudinal plane.
The work angle is the angle between the electrode and the perpendicular plane to the
direction of travel. These are shown in Figure 8-86. Increasing the travel angle in the
direction of welding generally builds up the bead height. A work angle that is too large
may result in undercutting. Especially with the low-hydrogen types of electrodes, the
electrode angles are important in maintaining weld quality.
9.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES

The welding procedure schedules in this chapter give typical welding specifications that
can be used to obtain high quality welds under normal welding conditions. These
welding procedure schedules provide only a few examples of the many different welding
procedures you can use. These tables are not the only conditions that can be used,
because factors such as weld appearance, operator skiII, and the specific application
often require variation from the schedules. As the particular requirements of the
application become better known, the settings may be adjusted to obtain the optimum
welding conditions. Make qualifying tests or trials prior to actual production. The
following schedules are based on welding low-carbon mild steels with recommended
types of mild steel, covered electrodes under normal welding conditions.
When adjusting or changing the variables for welding, you must consider the effect of
one variable on the others. You cannot usually change one variable very much without
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adjusting or changing the other variables in order to maintain a stable arc and good
overall welding conditions.
Figures 8-87 through 8-90 show the type of weld, base metal thickness, welding
position, number of passes, welding current, travel speed, electrode size, and type of
covered electrode used. The arc voltage is not included because it depends on the arc
length held by the welder; it is not constant and will vary from welder to welder.
Figure 8-87 Square groove welds in plate 1/8- to -in. thick.
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Figure 8-88 Vee groove welds in plate 3/8- to 5/8-in. thick
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Figure 8-89 U-groove welds in plate greater than 1 inch (2.54 mm) thick. First
pass put back side and its root gouged or chipped out.
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Figure 8-90 Filet Welds
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10.0.0 PREWELD PREPARATIONS

Several operations may be required before making a weld. These include: preparing the
weld joint, setting up or fixturing the weldment, setting the variables, and in some cases
preheating. The amount of preweld preparation depends upon the size of the weld, the
material to be welded, the ease of fit-up, the quality requirements, the governing code or
specification, and the welder.
10.1.0 Preparing the Weld Joint

There are different ways of preparing the edge of the joint for welding. Joints for fillet or
square groove welds are prepared simply by squaring off the edges of the members to
be welded. Common types of machined bevels are V, U, J, bevel, and combination
grooves. The more complex the type of bevel, the longer the edge preparation takes
and the more expensive it becomes. The methods that are the most often used for edge
preparation are oxygen-fuel gas cutting, shearing, machining, air carbon arc gouging,
grinding, chipping, and plasma arc cutting. Plasma arc cutting is widely used for the
cutting and beveling of stainless steels and nonferrous metals.
V groove and single bevel grooves are the types of grooves most often used because
they can easily be prepared by oxygen-fuel cutting. If correctly done, this process
leaves a smooth surface with a scale that can be easily removed. The edges of U
grooves can be done by using special types and techniques, or by machining which will
produce a more uniform groove.
To produce good quality welds, the surfaces of the weld joint should be clean of rust,
scale, dirt, oil and grease. Grinding is useful for removing rust and scale including the
scale left by oxyacetylene cutting and other related processes. Grease and oil must be
removed from the joint surfaces by wiping or using degreasers. Scale, rust, dirt, oil, and
grease can contaminate the weld metal and cause defects in the weld.
10.2.0 Fixturing and Positioning

Fixtures and jigs are devices used to hold the parts to be welded in proper relation to
each other. This alignment is called fit-up. Good fit-up is required for obtaining high
quality welds. Poor fit-up increases welding time and causes many poor quality welds.
The size of the root opening has an effect on the speed at which the welding of the root
pass can be accomplished. Root openings are used so that full penetration welds can
be made. Root passes in joints with a proper root opening can be welded much faster
than joints that have excessive root opening.
Fixtures and jigs are used for three major purposes:
1. To minimize distortion caused by welding heat
2. To minimize fit-up problems
3. To increase the welding efficiency of the welder.
When a welder employs a welding fixture or jig, the components of a weldment can be
assembled and securely held in place while the weldment is positioned and welded. The
use of those devices is dependent on the specific application. These devices are more
often used when a large number of similar parts are produced. Using fixtures and jigs,
when possible can greatly reduce the production time for the weldments.
Positioners are used to move the workpiece into a position so that welding can be done
more conveniently. Positioning is sometimes needed simply to make the weld joint
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-96
accessible. The main objective of positioning is to put the joint in the flat or other
position that increases the efficiency of the welder because the welder can use higher
welding speeds. Flat position welding usually increases the quality of the weld because
it makes the welding easier.
10.3.0 Preheating
Preaheat is sometimes necessary, depending on the type of metal being welded, the
base metal thickness, and the amount of joint restraint. The specific amount of preheat
needed for a given application is often obtained from the welding procedure.
The preheat temperature of the base metal is often carefully controlled. Several good
methods of doing this are furnace heating, electric induction coils, and electric
resistance heating blankets. On thin metals, hot air blasts or radiant lamps may be
used. With these methods, temperature indicators are connected to parts being
preheated. Another method of preheating is using torches; these give more localized
heating than the previously mentioned methods. However, when using torches for
preheating, it is important to avoid localized overheating and prevent deposits of
incomplete combustion products from collecting on the surface of the parts to be
welded. Colored chalks and pellets that melt at a specific predetermined temperature
are often used to measure the preheat temperature. Another method of measuring the
temperature is by using a hand held temperature indicator. These can give meter
readings, digital readings or recorder readings depending on the type of temperature
indicator.

11.
Which of the following is NOT a major type of welding variable?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
Fixed
Primary adjustable
Secondary adjustable
Secondary fixed
Fixtures and jigs are devices used to hold the parts to be welded in proper
relation to each other. What is this alignment called?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fixed-up
Jigged-up
Fit-up
Butted-up
11.0.0 WELDING DEFECTS and PROBLEMS

Shielded metal arc welding, like other welding processes, may develop welding
procedure problems that can cause defects in the weld. Some defects are caused by
problems with the materials. Others may not be foreseeable and may require immediate
corrective action.
11.1.0 Discontinuities Caused by Welding Technique

A poor welding technique and improper choice of welding parameters can cause weld
defects. Defects that can occur when using the shielded metal arc welding process are
slag inclusions, wagon tracks, porosity, wormhole porosity, undercutting, lack of fusion,
overlapping, burn through, arc strikes, craters, and excessive weld spatter. Many of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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these welding technique problems weaken the weld and can cause cracking. Other
problems that can reduce the quality of the weld are arc blow, fingernailing, and
improper electrode coating moisture contents.
11.1.1 Slag Inclusions
Slag inclusions (Figure 8-91) occur when slag particles are
trapped inside the weld metal, which produces a weaker weld.
These can be caused by:
1. Erratic travel speed
2. Too wide a weaving motion
3. Slag left on the previous weld pass
Figure 8-91
Slag
inclusions.
4. Use of too large an electrode

5. Letting slag run ahead of the arc
This defect can be prevented by:
1. A uniform travel speed
2.
3.
4.
5.
A tighter weaving motion

Complete slag removal before welding
Using a smaller electrode
Keeping the slag behind the arc by
shortening the arc, increasing the travel
speed, or changing the electrode angle
11.1.2 Wagon Tracks
Figure 8-92
Wagon tracks.
Wagon tracks (Figure 8-92) are linear slag inclusions that run
the longitudinal axis of the weld. They result from allowing the slag to run ahead of the
weld puddle and by slag left on the previous weld pass. These occur at the toe lines of
the previous weld bead.
11.1.3 Porosity
Porosity (Figure 8-93) is gas pockets in the weld metal. They
may be scattered in small clusters or along the entire length of
the weld. Porosity weakens the weld in approximately the
same way that slag inclusions do. Porosity may be caused by:
1. Excessive welding current
2. Rust, grease, oil, or dirt on the surface of the base
metal
3. Excessive moisture in the electrode coatings
Figure 8-93
Porosity.
4. Impurities, such as sulfur or phosphorous in the base metal

5. Too short an arc length, except when using low-hydrogen or stainless steel
electrodes
6. Travel speed too high, which causes freezing of the weld puddle before gases
can escape
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Porosity can be prevented by:

1. Lowering the welding current
2. Cleaning the surface of the base metal
3. Redrying electrodes
4. Changing to a different base metal with a different composition
5. Using a slightly longer arc length
6. Lowering the travel speed to let the gases escape
7. Preheating the base metal, using a different type of
electrode, or both
11.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)
Wormhole porosity (Figure 8-94) is the name given to
elongated gas pockets and is usually caused by sulfur or
moisture trapped in the weld joint. The best method of
preventing this is to lower the travel speed to permit gases to
escape before the weld metal freezes.
11.1.5 Undercutting
Figure 8-94
Wormhole.
Undercutting (Figure 8-95) is a groove melted in the base metal next to the toe or root of
a weld that is not filled by the weld metal. Undercutting causes a weaker joint and can
cause cracking. This defect is caused by:
2. Too long an arc length
3. Excessive weaving speed
4. Excessive travel speed
On vertical and horizontal welds, it can also be caused by too
large an electrode size and incorrect electrode angles. This
defect can be prevented by:
1. Choosing the proper welding current for the type and
size of electrode and the welding position
Figure 8-95
Undercutting.
2. Holding the arc as short as possible

3. Pausing at each side of the weld bead when using a
weaving technique
4. Using a travel speed slow enough so that the weld
metal can completely fill all of the melted-out areas of
the base metal
11.1.6 Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion (Figure 8-96) is when the weld metal is not
fused to the base metal. This can occur between the weld
metal and the base metal or between passes in a multiple
pass weld. Causes of this defect can be:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-96
Lack of
fusion.
8-99

2. Electrode size too large
3. Welding current too low
4. Poor joint preparation
5. Letting the weld metal get ahead of the arc
Lack of fusion can usually be prevented by:
1. Reducing the travel speed
2. Using a smaller diameter electrode
3. Increasing the welding current
4. Better joint preparation
5. Using a proper electrode angle
11.1.7 Overlapping
Overlapping (Figure 8-97) is the protrusion of the weld metal
over the edge or toe of the weld bead. This defect can cause an
area of lack of fusion and create a notch which can lead to
crack initiation. Overlapping is often produced by:
1. Too slow a travel speed which permits the weld puddle
to get ahead of the electrode
2. An incorrect electrode angle that allows the force of the
arc to push the molten weld metal over unfused sections
of the base metal
Figure 8-97
Overlapping.
3. Welding away from the ground connection with large electrodes like the E6020,
E6027, E7024, and E7028, which have very fluid weld puddles
Overlapping can be prevented by or corrected by:
1. A higher travel speed
2. The electrode angle should be such that the force of the arc does not push the
molten metal out of the weld puddle and over the cold base metal
3. Grinding off excess weld metal
11.1.8 Burn Through
Burn-through (Figure 8-98) is when the arc burns through the
bottom of the weld. This can be caused by:
2. Too slow a travel speed
3. Too wide a root gap
This can be prevented by:
1. Reducing the welding current
Figure 8-98
Burn through.
2. Increasing the travel speed

3. Reducing the size of the root gap
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-100
11.1.9 Arc Strikes

Many codes prohibit striking the arc on the surface of the workpiece. Striking the arc on
the base metal outside of the weld joint can produce a hard spot on the base metal
surface. Failures can then occur due to the notch effect. The arc strikes might create a
small notch on the surface of the metal which can act as an initiating point for cracks.
11.1.10 Craters
A weld crater (Figure 8-99) is a depression on the weld
surface at the point where the arc was broken. These are
caused by the solidification of the metal after the arc has
been broken. The weld crater often cracks and can serve as
an origin for linear cracking back into the weld metal or into
the base metal. These craters can usually be removed by
chipping or grinding and the depression can be filled in with a
small deposit of filler metal. The best way of preventing weld
craters is to reverse the travel of the electrode a little way
back into the weld bead from the end of the weld bead before
breaking the arc.
Figure 8-99
Weld crater.
11.1.11 Excessive Weld Spatter

Excessive weld spatter gives the weld a poor appearance, wastes electrodes, spreads
difficult-to-remove slag, and can lead to lack of fusion in the case of multiple pass
welds. If the spatter is coarse, it is usually produced by an arc length that is too long. If
the spatter is fine, it is usually caused by too high a welding current. Spatter can be
removed by grinding or prevented by using a shorter arc length and lower welding
currents.
11.2.0 Cracking
Cracking may be caused by an improper welding procedure, welder technique, or
materials. All types of cracking can be classified as either hot cracking or cold cracking,
and these cracks can be oriented transversely or longitudinally to the weld. Transverse
cracks are perpendicular to the axis of the weld; longitudinal cracks are parallel to the
axis of the weld. Transverse cracks are often the result of longitudinal shrinkage strains
acting on excessively hard and brittle weld metal. Longitudinal cracks are often caused
by high joint restraint and high cooling rates. Hot cracking is a defect that occurs at
higher temperatures and generally happens just after the weld metal starts to solidify.
This type of cracking is often caused by excessive sulfur, phosphorous, and lead
content in the base metal. It can also occur because of an improper method of breaking
the arc or in a root pass when the cross sectional area of the weld bead is small
compared to the mass of the base metal. Hot cracking often occurs in deep penetrating
welds and it can continue through successive layers if it is not repaired. Hot cracking
may be prevented or minimized by:
1. Preheating
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using low-hydrogen electrodes

Increasing the cross sectional area of the weld bead
Changing the contour of the weld bead
Using base metal with very low sulfur, phosphorous, and lead content
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-101
Crater cracks are shallow hot cracks caused by improperly breaking the arc. Several
types of these are shown in Figure 8-100.
Figure 8-100 Crater cracks.

Crater cracks may be prevented the same way that craters are, by reversing the travel
of the electrode a little way back into the weld from the end of the weld before breaking
the arc.
Cold cracking occurs after the weld metal solidification is complete. Cold cracking may
occur several days after welding and is generally caused by hydrogen embrittlement,
excessive joint restraint, and rapid cooling. Preheating and
using low hydrogen electrodes helps reduce this problem.
Centerline cracks are cold cracks that often occur in single
pass concave fillet welds. A centerline crack is a longitudinal
crack that runs down the center of the weld, as shown in
Figure 8-101.
This problem may be caused by:
1. Too small a weld bead for the thickness of the base
metal
2. Poor fit-up
Figure 8-101
Centerline
crack.
3. High joint restraint

4. Extension of a crater crack
The major methods of preventing centerline cracks are:
1. Increasing the bead size
2. Decreasing the gap width
3. Positioning the joint slightly uphill
4. Preventing weld craters
Base metal and underbead cracks are cold cracks that form
in the heat affected zone of the base metal. Underbead
cracks occur underneath the weld bead as shown in Figure
8-102.
Base metal cracks originate in the heat affected zone of the
weld. These types of cracking are caused by excessive joint
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 8-102
Centerline
crack.
8-102
restraint, hydrogen, and a brittle microstructure. A brittle microstructure is caused by

rapid cooling or excessive heat input. Underbead and base metal cracking can be
reduced or eliminated by using preheat and low-hydrogen electrodes.
11.3.0 Other Problems

A number of other welding problems may occur, such as those caused by magnetic
fields, improper moisture, or indirect electrode arc.
11.3.1 Arc Blow
The electric current that flows through the electrode, workpiece, and ground cable sets
up magnetic fields in a circular path perpendicular to the direction of the current. When
the magnetic fields around the arc are unbalanced, it tends to bend away from the
greatest concentration of the field. This deflection of the arc is called arc blow.
Deflection is usually in the direction of travel or opposite it, but it sometimes occurs to
the side. Arc blow can result in excessive weld spatter and lack of fusion.
Direct current is highly susceptible to arc blow, especially in welding corners and near
the end of joints. Arc blow also occurs in welding complex structures and on massive
structures with high currents and poor fit-up. Arc blow occurs with direct current
because the induced magnetic field is in one direction. Alternating current is rarely
subject to arc blow because the magnetic field is building and collapsing all the time due
to the reversing current. Forward arc blow is encountered when welding away from the
ground connection or at the beginning of the weld joint. Backward arc blow occurs
toward the ground connection, into a corner, or toward the end of a weld joint. There are
several methods to correct the arc blow problem:
1. Changing to alternating current
2. Welding towards an existing weld or a heavy tack weld
3. Placing the work connection as far as possible from the weld at the end of the
weld, or at the start of the weld and welding toward a heavy tack weld
4. Reducing the welding current and making the arc length as short as possible
5. Wrapping the work lead around the workpiece so that the magnetic field caused
by the current in the ground cable will neutralize the magnetic field causing the
arc blow
11.3.2 Improper Moisture Content
The coatings of all covered electrodes contain a certain amount of moisture. Incorrect
moisture content in an electrode coating can cause operating problems with the
electrode. Some typical coating moisture contents of various mild steel electrode
coatings are shown in Table 8-15.
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8-103
Table 8-15 Moisture Contents of Various Mild Steel Electrode Coverings

Electrode Type
Moisture Content
E6010
3-6%
E6011
3-5%
E6012
.8-1.2%
E6013
.8-1.2%
E6027
.4-.6%
E7014
.4-.6%
E7016
.3-.5%
E7018
.3-.5%
E7024
.4-.6%
E7028
.4-.6%
The E6010 and E6011 electrodes have relatively high moisture content in their
coverings. These electrodes can operate fairly well when the moisture content is above
the maximum limit, but an excessive amount of moisture in these electrode coatings can
cause blistering of the coatings and poor arc operation. Low moisture content will cause
the electrodes to give excessive amounts of spatter and possibly porosity. Too much
moisture in the coatings of the other types of electrodes can cause blistering of the
coating, poor arc operation, and underbead cracking.
Low hydrogen electrodes are called low hydrogen because of their very low moisture
content. Covered electrodes should always be stored in dry places. High moisture
content in low hydrogen electrode coatings will damage the quality of the weld deposit.
Redrying is often done after a long storage period except on the cellulose electrodes for
which it is generally not recommended.
11.3.3 Fingernailing
Fingernailing is a problem that occurs when the arc
does not come straight off the tip of the electrode,
but moves over and comes more off the side of the
electrode. This is usually because the electrode
core wire is not concentric in the electrode coating.
Fingernailing is shown in Figure 8-103. When the
core wire is off center, a hard to control arc is
Figure 8-103 Fingernailing.
produced because the electrode burns off more
quickly on the side with the thinner coating. A
cracked or damaged coating can also cause this problem.
12.0.0 POSTWELD PROCEDURE

Several operations may be done after the weld. The first postweld procedure is to clean
the slag off the weld bead. Other postweld procedures might call for cleaning, inspecting
the weld for defects, straightening, and postheating.
12.1.0 Cleaning
After depositing the weld bead and breaking the arc broken, begin the clean up process.
Remove the slag covering either by chipping or some other form of slag removal. This is
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-104
particularly important when making multiple-pass welds. Complete removal of the slag
for multiple pass welds prevents slag inclusions, porosity, and lack of fusion in the weld.
After removal of the slag, a grinder is often used to grind the surface of the weld to give
a more uniform surface. A wire brush is also often used to clean up the surface of the
weld.
12.2.0 Inspection and Testing

The weld is inspected and tested after cleaning to determine the quality of the weld
joint. There are many different methods of inspection and testing which will not be
covered in detail in this course. The use of these methods wiII often depend on the code
or specification that covered the welding. Testing of a weldment may be done
nondestructively or destructively.
Nondestructive testing is used to locate defects in the weld and base metal. There are
many different nondestructive testing methods. Some of the most widely used methods
are visual, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic, and radiographic. Visual,
magnetic particle, and liquid penetrant inspection are used to locate surface defects;
ultrasonic and radiographic inspections are used to locate internal defects.
Destructive testing is used to determine the mechanical properties of the weld such as
the strength, ductility, and toughness. Destructive testing is also done by several
methods, depending on the mechanical properties being tested for. Some of the most
common types of destructive testing are tensile bar tests, impact tests, and bend tests.
12.2.1 Welding Quality Control
In the fabrication or repair of equipment, there are tests to determine the quality and
soundness of welds. Many different tests have been designed for specific faults. The
type of test used depends upon the requirements of the welds and the availability of
testing equipment. This section will briefly discuss nondestructive and destructive
testing.
12.3.0 Repairing of Welds

Repair of the weld metal is sometimes necessary when testing reveals defects. The
defects may be discovered by visual inspection and by other nondestructive testing
methods. Where a defect is found, it is usually ground out or gouged out. Using a
grinder is usually better for surface defects and for defects fairly near the surface of the
weld metal. For deeper defects, an air carbon-arc gouging torch or some similar
gouging method is often used for removal. Once the defects have been removed, the
low areas created by the grinding and gouging can be filled in using the shielded metal
arc process. The parts are then reinspected to make sure that the defects have been
properly repaired.
12.4.0 Postheating
Postheating is a heat treatment applied to the metal after welding. Postheating is often
required after the weld has been completed, but this depends upon the type of metal
being welded, the specific application, and the governing codes or specifications.
Various types of postheating are used to obtain specific properties. Types of
postheating are annealing, stress relieving, normalizing, as well as quenching and
tempering. Postheating is done with many of the same methods used for preheating,
such as furnace heating, induction coils, and electric resistance heating blankets. One
method used for stress relieving that does not involve heating is called vibratory stress
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-105
relief. This method does not use heating because the part being stress relieved is
vibrated mechanically to relieve the residual stresses.
Annealing is a process involving heating and cooling that is usually applied to induce
softening. There are different kinds of annealing, but when it is applied to ferrous alloys,
it is called full annealing. Full annealing is a softening process in which a ferrous alloy is
heated, usually in a furnace, to a temperature above the transformation range and
slowly cooled to a temperature below the transformation range.
Stress relieving is the uniform heating of a structure to a high enough temperature, but
below the critical range, to relieve most of the residual stresses due to welding. This is
followed by uniform cooling. The terms normalizing and annealing are often misnomers
for this application.
Normalizing is a process in which a ferrous alloy is heated to a temperature above the
transformation range and then cooled in still air to a temperature below the
transformation range.
Quenching and tempering is another postweld heat treatment commonly used. The
metal is heated and then quenched to provide a very hard and brittle metallurgical
structure. The part is then tempered by reheating to a particular temperature dependent
upon the degree of ductility, tensile strength, yield strength, and hardness required.
After welding with the shielded metal arc process, postheating is often required. For
many applications, heat treating low-carbon steels after welding is unnecessary. The
medium-carbon steels usually use postheating from 1100 to 1200F (590 to 650C) to
remove the brittle microstructure that may have been caused by too rapid cooling. Highcarbon steels are often stress relieved at 1200F (650C). The various low alloy steels
often require stress relieving from 1100-1250F (590-680C). Stainless steels are often
post-weld heat treated to reduce the grain size and preserve good corrosion resistance.
Annealing is used to reduce the grain size, which gives better ductility. The
temperatures used depend on the specific stainless steel.

13.
What causes slag inclusions?

A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Steady travel speed

Too narrow a weaving motion
Slag left on the previous weld pass
Too small an electrode being used
Which of the following is a nondestructive test?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Etching
Liquid penetrant
Tensile strength
Free-bend
13.0.0 WELDER TRAINING and QUALIFICATION

To become a fully certified welder, you must know the requirements for training and
qualifications. While these may differ somewhat from organization to organization, and
you may need to demonstrate your skills to qualify for a particular project and specific
welding task, the basic guidelines are the same for achieving the training and
qualifications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-106
13.1.0 Welder Training

Shielded metal arc welding generally requires a high degree of welder skill to produce
good quality welds. As a result, many training programs emphasize this process in their
training schedule. A welder skilled in this process generally has much less trouble
learning to weld with the other arc welding processes.
The exact content of a training program will vary depending on the specific application
of the process. The training program should be flexible enough to be adapted to
changing needs and applications. Emphasis may be placed on certain areas of the
training schedule because of this. The complexity of the parts to be welded and the
governing codes or specifications involved also dictate the length of such a training
program.
The United States Department of Labor published a book entitled "Dictionary of
Occupational Titles" that describes the duties of the different job titles for welders. The
training programs used to develop the entry level skills for these job titles may vary
depending on the amount of skill required. For instance, a pipe welder needs more skill
than a tack welder, so the length of a training program for a pipe welder is greater than
the length of a training program for a tack welder.
The job title of arc welder (DOT 810.384-014) describes a person who has the duty of
welding together components of many products made of metal. This job includes setting
up the machine and part to be welded, striking the arc and guiding it along the joint, and
performing duties such as chipping, grinding, and slag removal. The welder should be
able to weld in all positions, be able to pass employer performance tests, and meet
certification standards of governmental agencies or professional and technical
associations.
A tack welder (DOT 810.684-010) makes short beads at specified points to hold the
parts in place for final welding. The tack welder also performs the duties of fitter helper.
A production line welder (DOT 819.684-01 0) welds previously set up parts on a
production line. The production line welder may also perform tack welding.
A combination welder (DOT 819.384-010) welds metal parts together to fabricate or
repair the assembly. The combination welder uses both gas welding and any
combination of arc welding processes. Other duties include seting up parts, cutting,
grinding, and other related tasks. A combination welder may be required to pass
employer performance tests to meet certification standards of governmental agencies or
professional and technical associations.
The welder portion of the pipefitter course(DOT 862.381-018) is a person who welds the
pipe together after it has been located and tacked in place.
13.1.1 Basic Shielded Metal Arc Welding
The basic shielded metal arc welding training program is used to teach the student the
basic entry level skills required for the job titles of arc welder, tack welder, production
line welder, and the arc welder portion of combination welder. This course provides
training on how to strike an arc, run weld beads, make good quality fillet welds, and an
introduction to making groove welds. The training the student receives should impart
enough skill to get a job as a tack welder, production line welder and enough skill for
many of the simple arc welding jobs. This course should also provide the background
skill required to take an advanced shielded metal arc welding course. The following is
an outline for an approximately 140 hour course:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-107
Topic
1. Lecture/Discussion, "Arc Welding Introduction"
2. Lecture/Discussion, "Safety and Health of Welders"
3. Strike Arc and Run Bead, Surface Weld, Flat Position
4. Pad of Beads, Surface Weld, Flat Position
5. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position
6. Lecture/Discussion, "Visual Inspection and Practical Weld Tests"
7. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Horizontal Position
8. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Flat Position
9. Pad of Beads, Surface Weld, Horizontal Position
10. Square Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Position
11. Lecture/Discussion, "Electrode Selection"
12. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Vertical-Up Position
13. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Vertical-Up Position
14. Square Groove, Butt, Joint, Vertical-Up Position
15. Lecture/Discussion "Power Sources for Welding"
16. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Overhead Position
17. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Overhead Position
18. Square Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position
19. Lecture/Discussion, "Welding Distortion Control"
20. Fillet Weld, Lap and Tee Joints, Flat and Vertical Down Positions
21. String Beads, Flat, Horizontal and Vertical Positions
22. Fillet and Square Groove Weld Lap-Butt and Corner Joints, Flat-Horizontal and
Vertical Positions
23. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Vertical-Down Position
24. Square Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position
25. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position
26. Lecture/Discussion, "The Low Hydrogen Electrode and Its Use"
27. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Vertical-Up Position
28. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Overhead Position
13.1.2 Advanced Shielded Metal Arc Welding
The prerequisites for the advanced shielded metal arc welding course should be
successful completion of the basic shielded metal arc welding course or equivalent
welding training or experience. The purpose of this course is to develop the entry level
skills for arc welder, production line welder, tack welder and the arc welding portion of
combination welder. This course provides the skill training required for the student to
make good quality fillet and multiple pass groove welds. This includes learning to use
the proper weld bead sequence and welding grooved joints in all positions. A student
who successfully completes this course should be able to do more complicated arc
welding jobs on plate material. The following is approximately a 140 hour course outline
for advanced shielded metal arc welding:
Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Lecture/Discussion, "Introduction"
Lecture/Discussion, "Safety and Health of Welders"
Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position
Lecture/Discussion, "Air Arc Cutting and Gouging"
Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Overhead Position
Lecture/Discussion, "Procedure and Welder Qualification"
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-108
7. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Vertical Position, Up Hill Travel

8. Lecture/Discussion, "Destructive Testing"
9. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Cross Section Etch test
10. Lecture/Discussion, "Non-Destructive Testing"
11. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Position
12. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position
13. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position, Guided Bend Test
14. Lecture/Discussion," Metals Identification for Welding"
15. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Position
16. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Position, Guided Bend Test
17. Lecture/Discussion, "Welding of Cast Iron and Surfacing of Steel"
18. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position
19. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, All Positions
13.1.3 Shielded Metal Arc Pipe Welding
The prerequisites for the shielded metal arc pipe welding should be to have successfully
completed the basic and advanced shielded metal arc welding courses or have
equivalent welding training or experience. The pipe welding is divided into two
categories, uphill and downhill pipe welding. The purpose of these courses is to develop
the entry level skills required for the welder portion of pipefitter.
Since pipe welding is more difficult than plate welding, the student should be proficient
in welding groove joints in plate in all positions before starting pipe welding.
Shielded metal arc pipe welding, uphill method is used on power plant, refinery, and
chemical installation construction. This course covers pipe welding in the 2G, 5G, and 6
G positions on mild steel pipe. An outline for approximately a 210 hour course is as
follows:
1. Lecture/Discussion, "Introduction to Up Hill Pipe Welding"
2. Lecture/Discussion, "Safety and Health of Welders"
3. Prerequisite Skill Test, Single Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical and Overhead
Positions
4. Lecture/Discussion, "How to Read and Apply Pipe Welding Procedures"
5. Preparation and Assembly of a Pipe Joint
6. Lecture/Discussion, "Weld Quality: Reading the Puddle"
7. Single Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G)
8. Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G), Visual
Inspection
9. Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G)
10. Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G), Visual Inspection
11. Lecture/Discussion, "Preheat and Interpass"
12. Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Fixed Position (6G)
13. Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Fixed Position (6G), Guided-Bend Test
In addition to the basic course outline, topics covering the welding of stainless steel pipe
and the use of backing rings may be covered. Both of these are specialty items that are
commonly welded by the uphill pipe welding method and are covered for use on special
applications. Each of these items consists of approximately 70 hours additional training
time.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-109
The downhill pipe welding method is primarily used on cross country transmission
pipelines. This course covers welding downhill in the 5G and 6G positions on mild steel
pipe. The following is an outline for approximately a 140 hour course:
1. Lecture/Discussion, "Introduction to Downhill Pipe Welding"
2. Lecture/Discussion, "The Safety and Health of Welders"
3. Prerequisite Skill Test, Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical and
Overhead Positions
4. Lecture/Discussion, "How to Read and Apply Pipe Welding Procedures"
5. Preparation and Assembly of a Pipe Joint
6. Lecture/Discussion, "Weld Quality-Reading the Puddle"
7. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G), Downhill
8. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G), Visual
Inspection
9. Lecture/Discussion, "Pipe Welding Fixtures and Line-up Clamps"
10. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Fixed Position (6G), Downhill
11. Single Vee Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Fixed Position, Guided-Bend Test
13.2.0 Welder Qualification

Before a welder can begin work on any job covered by a welding code or specification,
he must become certified under the code that applies. Many different codes are in use
today, and it is exceedingly important that the specific code is referred to when taking
qualification tests. In general, the following type of work is covered by codes: pressure
vessels and pressure piping, highway and railway bridges, public buildings, tanks and
containers that hold flammable or explosive materials, cross country pipeline, aircraft,
ordnance material, ships and boats, and nuclear power plants.
Certification is obtained differently under the various codes. Certification under one
code will not necessarily qualify a welder to weld under a different code. In most cases
certification for one employer will not allow the welder to work for another employer.
Also, if the welder uses a different process or if the welding procedure is altered
drastically, recertification is required. In most codes, if the welder is continually
employed, welding recertification is not required providing the work performed meets
the quality requirement. An exception is the military aircraft code which requires
requalification every six months.
Responsible manufacturers or contractors may give qualification tests. On pressure
vessel work, the welding procedure must also be qualified, and this must be done
before the welders can be qualified; under other codes, this is not necessary. To
become qualified, the welder must make specified welds using the required procedure,
base metal, thickness, electrode type, position, and joint design. Test specimens must
be made according to standardized sizes and under the observation of a qualified
person. In most government specifications, a government inspector must witness the
making of welding specimens. Specimens must be properly identified and prepared for
testing. The most common test is the guided-bend test. However, in some cases, X-ray
examinations, fracture tests, or other tests are employed. Satisfactory completion of test
specimens, providing they meet acceptability standards, will qualify the welder for
specific types of welding. Again, the welding that will be allowed depends on the
particular code. In general, however, the code indicates the range of thicknesses which
may be welded, the positions which may be employed and the alloys which may be
welded.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-110
Qualification of welders is a highly technical subject and cannot be covered fully here.
You should obtain the actual code, study it, and practice it prior to taking any
qualification test.
Some often used codes are:
"Structural Welding Code", AWS D1.1
"ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code", Section IX, Welding Qualifications
"Standard For Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities", API 1104
14.0.0 WELDING SAFETY

Safety is an important consideration when welding. Every welding shop should have a
safety program and take adequate safety precautions to help protect welders. The
welders should also be made aware of safety precautions and procedures. Employees
who fail to follow adequate safety precautions can cause physical injury to themselves
and others and damage property. Any of these conditions can result in physical
discomfort and loss of property, time, and money. Welding is a safe occupation when
safety rules and common sense are followed. A set of safety rules is presented in the
American National Standard Z49.1, "Safety in Welding and Cutting", published by the
American Welding Society. Welders must follow these rules.
There are several types of hazards associated with shielded metal arc welding. These
do not necessarily result in serious injuries; they can also be of a minor nature. Even
these minor injuries, however, can cause discomforts that irritate and reduce the
efficiency of the welders. These hazards are:
1. Electrical shock
2.
3.
4.
5.
Arc radiation
Air contamination
Fire and explosion
Weld cleaning and other hazards
14.1.0 Electrical Shock

Several precautions should be taken to prevent an electrical shock hazard. The first is
to make sure before welding that the arc welding equipment is installed properly,
grounded, and in good working condition. The electrical equipment should be
maintained and installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code and any state
and local codes that apply. Power supplies should be connected to an adequate
electrical ground such as an approved building ground, cold water pipe, or ground rod.
Power supplies are connected to ground through the cable that connects the power
supply to the electrical system ground. Cables with frayed or cracked insulation and
faulty or badly worn connections can cause electrical short circuits and shocks. If it is
necessary to splice lengths of welding cable together, make sure the electrical
connections are tight and insulated. Use the proper size welding cables also because
constantly overloading a welding cable that is too small can destroy the insulation and
create bare spots in the insulation. This occurs because excessive heat builds up in the
cable and destroys the insulation. An improperly insulated welding cable is both an
electrical shock hazard and a fire hazard. Be sure the welding area is dry and free of
any standing water which could cause electrical shock. When it is necessary to weld in
a damp or wet area, wear rubber boots and stand on a dry insulated platform.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-111
14.2.0 Arc Radiation

The welding arc of shielded metal arc welding emits large amounts of invisible
ultraviolet and infrared rays. Skin that is exposed to the arc even for a short time can
suffer serious ultraviolet and infrared burns, which are essentially the same as sunburn,
but the burn caused by welding can take place in a much shorter time and be very
painful. Because of this, always wear protective clothing suitable for welding. These
clothes should be fairly heavy and not easily burned. Leather is often used to make
jackets, capes and bibs, or other similar arrangements to shield the arms, shoulders,
chest, and stomach from the arc radiation and arc spatter. Leather is also used to make
gloves and gauntlets for the welder.
The eyes should also be protected from the radiation emitted by the welding arc. Arcburn can result if the eyes are not protected. Arc-burn of the eye is similar to sunburn of
the skin and it is extremely painful for about 24 to 48 hours. Usually arc-burn does not
permanently injure the eyes, but it can cause intense pain as though several grains of
sand were in your eyes. There are several commercial solutions available to soothe the
skin and eyes during the period of suffering.
Infrared arc rays can cause fatigue of the retina. The effects of infrared rays are not
nearly as noticeable or immediate as the effects of ultraviolet rays. Infrared rays are
probably more dangerous in that their effects can be longer lasting and result in
impaired vision. The best protection for the eyes and face is a headshield that has a
window set in it with a filter lens in the window. Headshields are generally made of
fiberglass or a pressed fiber material to be lightweight. The filter lens is made of a dark
glass capable of absorbing infrared rays, ultraviolet rays and most visible light coming
from the arc. The type of lens used varies for different welders but it should be dark
enough so the arc can be viewed without discomfort yet not so dark the welder cannot
see what he or she is doing. Table 8-4 shows the different lenses commonly
recommended for use in shielded metal arc welding. The higher the lens numbers the
darker the lens. A clear, replaceable glass should be put on the outside of the welding
lens to protect it from spatter and breakage.
Table 8-4 -Recommended Filter Lens Shades Used in Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(ANSI/AWS Z49.1)
Electrode Diameter-In. (mm)
Lens Shade Number
1/16 (1.6), 3/32 (2.4), 1/8 (3.2), 5/32 (4.0)
10
3/16 (4.8), 7/32 (5.6), 1/4 (6.4)
12
5/16 (7.9), 3/8 (9.5)
14
14.3.0 Air Contamination

The arc and the decomposition of the electrode coating during welding generate
welding smoke and fumes. Because of this, the following warning is printed on the
containers packaging the covered electrodes: "Welding may produce fumes and gases
hazardous to health. Avoid breathing these fumes and gases. Use adequate ventilation.
See American National Standard Z49.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, published by the
American Welding Society."
The welding area should be adequately ventilated because welding produces fumes
and gases such as ozone, which is a hazardous gas for the welder to breathe. Welding
in confined areas requires an external air supply. This is furnished by a gas mask on a
special helmet. A second person should stand just outside the confined area to lend
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-112
assistance to the welder if necessary. Use a mechanical exhaust when welding metals
with toxic coatings such as lead, copper, cadmium, and zinc.
14.4.0 Fires and Explosions

Fires and explosions are hazards that can exist in a welding area if the proper
precautions are not taken. The shielded metal arc welding process produces sparks and
spatters which can start a fire or explosion in the welding area if it is not free of
flammable, volatile, or explosive materials. Never weld near degreasing and other,
similar operations. Wear leather clothing for protection from burns, because leather is
fireproof. Electrical shorts or overheated worn cables can also start fires. In case of a
fire started by a flammable liquid or an electrical fire, a CO2 or dry chemical type of fire
extinguisher is used. Fire extinguishers should be kept at handy spots around the shop
and welders should make a mental note of where they are located.
Other precautions that have to do with explosions are also important. Do not weld on
containers that have held combustibles unless it is absolutely certain there are no fumes
or residue left. Do not weld on sealed containers without providing vents and taking
special precautions. Never strike the welding arc on a compressed gas cylinder. When
the electrode holder is set down or not in use never allow it to touch a compressed gas
cylinder.
14.5.0 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards

Welders can also encounter hazards during the weld cleaning process. Always take
precautions to protect the skin and eyes from hot slag particles. The welding helmet,
gloves, and heavy clothing protect the skin from slag chipping and grinding of the weld
metal. Wear safety glasses underneath the welding helmet to protect the eyes from
particles that could get inside the welding helmet.
The discarded stubs of the electrodes can also be a safety hazard. If these are dropped
on the floor during electrode changes they can become a hazard because they roll or
slide easily. If a welder steps on one, he or she could fall and possibly sustain injury, so
it is necessary to keep the floor of the welding area clear of electrode stubs.
14.6.0 Summary of Safety Precautions

1. Make sure your arc welding equipment is properly installed, grounded, and in
good working condition.
2. Always wear protective clothing suitable for welding.
3. Always wear proper eye protection when welding, grinding or cutting.
4. Keep your work area clean and free of hazards. Make sure no flammable,
volatile, or explosive materials are in or near the work area.
5. Do not weld in a confined space without special precautions.
6. Do not weld on containers that have held combustibles without taking special
precaution.
7. Do not weld on sealed containers or compartments without providing vents and
taking special precautions.
8. Use mechanical exhaust at the point of welding when welding lead, cadmium,
chromium, manganese, brass, bronze, zinc, or galvanized steel.
9. When it is necessary to weld in a damp or wet area, wear rubber boots and stand
on a dry, insulated platform.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-113
10. If it is necessary to splice lengths of welding cable together, make sure all
electrical connections are tight and insulated. Do not use cables with frayed,
cracked, or bare spots in the insulation.
11. When the electrode holder is not in use, hang it on brackets provided. Never let it
touch a compressed gas cylinder.
12. Dispose of electrode stubs in a proper container since stubs on the floor are a
safety hazard.
13. Shield others from the light rays produced by your welding arc.
14. Do not weld near degreasing operations.
15. Ensure that the scaffold, ladder, or work surface has a solid base when working
above ground.
16. When welding in high places without railings, use a safety belt or lifeline.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to the SMAW process from the types of power sources,
controls, and electrodes to the types of training and qualifications needed. It also
described the industries that use the SMAW process and its applications. Welding
metallurgy, weld and joint design as well as welding procedure variables were also
discussed. The chapter finished up with a description of possible weld defects, and how
to identify for them using multiple methods of destructive and nondestructive tests and
inspections. As always, use the manufacturers operator manuals for the specific setup
and safety procedures of the welder you will be using.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-114

1.
What type of current is used in shielded metal arc welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
A constant flow of electrical current that travels in one direction only has what
type of polarity?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
C.
D.
35
25
15
10
When selecting an electrode holder for a specific task, you should base your
selection on what criteria?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
The size of the electrode and number of lock connections

The amperage rating of the machine and distance from the work to the
machine
The size of the ground cable and capacity of the electrode holder
The distance from the ground clamp and type of electrode
The distance between an operator and any joint in the welding cable should be a
minimum of how many feet?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Alternating
Reverse
Direct
Straight
What factors determine the size of a welding cable needed for a job?
A.
B.
4.
Constant
Indirect
Unmodulated low frequency
Modulated high frequency
Current capacity and cable size

Type of machine and polarity
Electrode diameter and welding current
Type of holder insulation and polarity
The use of a good ground clamp that provides proper grounding is essential to
the production of quality welds. Which of the following conditions could develop
without this proper grounding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Circuit voltage that fails to produce enough heat

A damaged welding machine
Damaged cables
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-115
7.
Which of the following safety devices should you use to protect other personnel
in a welding work area from eye flash burns?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
The coating on an arc-welding electrode provides which of the following

advantages?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
E11810
E8024
E8018-C3
E7018
A welding electrode that has an AWS classification of E-7024 should be used for
a metal-arc welding job in what position(s)?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
AISC/CRSI
AWS /ASTM
NAVOP 1061 (welding)
Engineering Standards, U.S. (1996 Ed.)
An electrode that has a minimum tensile strength of 80,000 psi for use in all
positions for low alloy has what designation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Improved weld penetration

Prevention of oxidation
Control and increased stability of the arc
All of the above
Electrodes manufactured in the U.S. must conform to what standards?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Welding helmets
Flash goggles
Face masks
Welding screens
Horizontal position only

Flat position only
Horizontal and flat positions
Vertical and overhead
When welding stainless steel, you must use what type of electrode?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Sulfur/titanium
Hydrogen/manganese
Cellulose/sodium
Chromium/nickel
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-116
13.
Which of the following properties is the basic criterion for selecting an electrode
for a job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
When the electrode is positive and the workpiece is negative, the electrons flow
from the workpiece to the electrode. What polarity is being used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
Cracking
Humming
Whistling
Hissing
Which one of the following steps do you take to correct arc blow?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Greater heat is generated at the workpiece.

Less heat is generated in the workpiece.
Greater heat is required in the base metal.
A higher deposition of filler metal is required.
What kind of sound does improper polarity emit?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Straight
Negative
Positive
Reverse
Which of the following factors is a reason why reverse polarity is used in out-ofposition welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Great tensile strength

Composition similar to the base metal
The melting temperature
The least expensive
Change the position of the work piece.

Weld away from the ground clamp.
Change to alternating current.
All of the above
What is the first thing you should do to start an arc by the striking method?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Hold the electrode at right angles to the work and strike it sharply against
the base metal.
Bring the electrode into contact with the work using a lateral motion.
Slowly lower the electrode on to the work until the arc strikes.
Place the electrode on the work until the base metal melts.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-117
19.
(True or False) Upon striking an arc; you immediately start the weld to ensure
good fusion and penetration.
A.
B.
20.
What ampere setting should you initially use when welding with a 5/32-inch
diameter electrode?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
Overlap only
Poor fusion only
Undercutting and poor fusion
Overlap and poor fusion
What kind of sound does a good arc produce when the electrode, current, and
polarity are correct?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Overlap
Poor fusion
Undercutting
Porosity
What condition(s) can develop when the welding current is too low?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
125
250
380
450
What condition occurs when the welding current is too high?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
True
False
Sharp cracking
Humming
Whistling
Hissing
When shield metal arc welding, the distance between the electrode and the base
metal, except in vertical and overhead welding, should be approximately equal to
which of the following characteristic?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Length of the electrode

Length of the electrode holder
Thickness of the base metal
Diameter of the electrode
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-118
25.
Of the following practices, which one is correct for breaking an arc with an
electrode?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
What is the maximum thickness a plate can be welded, in one pass, without edge
preparation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
(a.) 1 1/2 inches (b.) 1/4-inch

(a.) 1 1/4 inches (b.) 3/8-inch
(a.) 1 1/4 inches (b.) 1/8-inch
(a.) 1 1/2 inches (b.) 1/4-inch
What angle should be maintained between the electrode and the vertical plate of
a tee joint when 1/4-inch plate is used in the flat position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
To reinforce the weld

To hold plates in position while tack welding in place
To obtain complete fusion at the root pass of the weld
To reflect the heat from the electrode
What (a) width and (b) thickness of backing strip should be used on plate over
1/2-inch thick?
A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
1/16-inch
1/8-inch
3/16-inch
1/4-inch
For what purpose do you use a backing strip when making a butt weld on 3/16inch plate or heavier in the flat position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
Withdrawn it slowly from the crater after the arc has lengthened.
Hold it stationary until the crater is filled, then withdraw it slowly.
Hold it stationary until the equipment is secured.
Lower it into the crater until contact is made, then quickly withdraw it.
35
40
45
50
What angle from the vertical should you hold the electrode when welding a lap
joint on plates of varying thicknesses?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15 to 20
20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-119
31.
When vertical welding upwards, how many degrees do you hold the electrode to
the vertical?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
For which of the following reasons do you use relatively small electrodes for
overhead butt welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
Current too high

Current too low
Faulty preheating
Joints too rigid
Which of the following mistakes can cause excessive spatter in welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Which of the following mistakes can cause undercutting in welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
A long arc is needed to penetrate to the root of the joint.

A short arc is needed to develop penetration at the root of the joint.
Reduced current flow through the small electrode is needed to create a
fluid puddle.
Accelerated current flow is needed to control the fluid puddle.
What string bead do you deposit without the weaving motion of the electrodes
when making a fillet weld of a lap or Tee-joint-in the overhead position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
30
45
60
90
Arc too short

Arc too long
Current too low
Rigid joints
Which of the following mistakes can cause cracked welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Faulty preparation
Using the wrong electrode
Using a rigid joint
All of the above
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-120
37.
Which of the following mistakes can cause poor penetration?

A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
Which of the following mistakes can cause brittle welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
Clean the edges of surfaces to be welded.

Adjust the joint surfaces so they are smooth and uniform.
Remove slag from flame-cut edges.
Remove temper color.
What is the maximum size a tack weld should be when applied to a pipe with a
wall thickness of 1/2-inch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
1/4-inch or less
1/2-inch or less
1/2-inch or more
3/4-inch or more
You do NOT need to do which of the following procedures when preparing a joint
for welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
41.
Current too low

Current too high
Rigid joints
Faulty preheating
When pipe has _____ wall thickness, only the single U-type of butt joint should
be used.
A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
Current too low

Current too high
Welding Voltage too high
Welding voltage too low
1-inch long and two thirds of the thickness of the pipe in depth
3/4-inch long and two thirds of the thickness of the pipe in depth
1/2-inch long and 2/3-inch deep
1 1/4-inches long and 1/8-inch deep
What maximum nominal diameter of electrode should you NOT exceed when
making the root pass of a multilayer weld on pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3/32-inch
1/8-inch
3/16-inch
1/4-inch
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-121
43.
The root of a fillet weld is where the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
The face of a fillet weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
face to the toe

root of the weld to the face
root to the toe
toe to the leg
Electrode holders should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
49.
length of the weld

distance from the root of the joint to the toe
groove face adjacent to the root joint
exposed surface of the weld
The throat of a fillet is the shortest distance from the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
48.
junction between the face of the weld and the base metal
rippled surface of the weld
edge of the weld that intersects the base metal
The leg of the weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
47.

separation between the members to be joined
The toe of a fillet weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
46.
edge of the weld intersects the base metal

back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces
face of the weld and the base metal meet
face and the toe meet
uninsulated
insulated
powder coated
laminated
Welding machine installations should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
installed according to electrical codes

plugged into the nearest receptacle
connected to mobile generators only
simple with no grounding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-122
50.
Welding machine frames should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
51.
The welding arc gives off ultra-violet rays which can cause eye injury. Injury can
be prevented by _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
52.
are hazardous
can be ignored
are used as shielding gases
are inert gases
Carbon dioxide produced by shielded metal arc welding is not considered

harmful _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
56.
an inspector is near
working in a closed area
working with nickel alloys
a fan is not available
Vaporized metals, such as zinc, cadmium, lead, and beryllium _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
55.
do not damage skin

can cause skin damage similar to sunburn
are a good source of vitamin C
are harmful if inhaled
You only need ventilation when _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
54.
wearing the proper lens shade in the helmet

using eye drops
closing your eyes
turning your head away from the arc
Ultra-violet rays from the arc _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
53.
grounded electrically
not grounded electrically
rigid and heavy
insulated from ground
if properly ventilated
in confined areas
when using a dust mask
in tank welding operations
Before welding in a new area, _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
get to know the people you will be working with

find out where the emergency room is located
thoroughly search the area for flammable material and remove or cover it
with the fireproof material
assume that the area is safe for welding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-123
57.
Safety glasses with side shields _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
58.
When working in confined areas _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
59.
hold a long arc to melt the slag on the previous bead

use a weaving motion for deep penetration
tap the weld bead and electrode several times
clean the previous bead thoroughly before depositing the next weld
At the completion of the weld, the crater should _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
63.
preheat the base metal

light up the area so you can see
clear the slag from the workpiece
clean the dirt from the workpiece
When welding over a previously deposited bead _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
62.
leave the electrode in the holder and lay the holder on the weld table
remove the electrode and hang the holder on an ungrounded bracket
remove all power and grounds from output power
return all knobs and switches to the off or zero position
When striking an arc, hold the arc length for a moment to _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
61.
have a look-out stand by for quick rescue if needed

take a fire extinguisher with you
ensure another person is in the space with you
bring an oscillating fan
When you stop welding, you should _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
60.
are not needed in welding areas

should be worn during welding and cleaning operations
are not authorized at any time during welding operations
provide adequate protection for welding operations
overlap the workpiece

be filled to the height of the bead
remain unfilled
be twice the size it originally was
When welding in the overhead position the electrode should be_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
120 to the weld face

90 to the weld face
45 to the weld face
15 to the weld face
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-124
64.
How is the melting rate related to the arc zone?

A.
B.
C.
D.
65.
When restriking an arc to continue a bead (such as when changing electrodes),

the arc should be restruck _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
66.
upper side of the joint

lower side of the joint
perpendicular to the weld
opposite side of the face of the joint
In the flat position welding, the face of the weld is approximately _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
69.
an imaginary line drawn through the weld along its length

an imaginary line drawn through the weld across its width
the rippled surface of the weld
parallel to the leg of the weld
Flat position welding is done from the_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
68.
in the crater
as far away from the crater as possible
about 1/2-inch ahead of the crater
at least two electrode widths ahead of the crater
The axis of a weld is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
67.
The output current of the power supply

The electrical energy in the welding arc
The power supplies current rating
The travel speed of the electrode
parallel
at a right angle
horizontal
vertical
Horizontal position fillet welding is performed _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
with the electrode in the horizontal position

with the electrode in the vertical position
on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against an
approximately vertical surface
on the lower side of an approximately vertical surface against an
approximately horizontal surface
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-125
70.
In a horizontal position groove weld, the axis of the weld lies in an approximately
_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
71.
In vertical position welding, the axis of the weld is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
72.
5 and 10
20 and 30
30 and 45
45 and 90
Tack welds should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
75.
90 angle not more than 15 off the horizontal

When lap welding base metal of different thickness the electrode should form an
angle between _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
74.
in an approximately vertical position

in an approximately horizontal position
welded with an electrode held in the vertical position
welded with an electrode held in the horizontal position
When making a horizontal fillet weld in a lap joint, the electrode should be positioned with a _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
73.
horizontal plane and the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical
position
horizontal plane and the face of the weld lies in an approximately
horizontal position
vertical plane and the face of the weld lies in an approximately horizontal
position
vertical plane and the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical
position
cleaned before the full weld is made

half the length of the weld joint
welded over without cleaning
only on opposite corners
Compared to an E6012 electrode, an E6010 electrode _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
Deeper penetration
Shallower penetration
Higher deposition
Lower deposition
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-126
76.
When ending a butt joint on a multipass weld you should whip up and pause the
electrode _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
77.
(True or False) Before a welder can begin work on any job covered by a welding
code or specification, he must become certified under the code that applies.
A.
B.
78.
True
False
Some of the most common types of destructive testing are _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
83.
True
False
(True or False) A sound weld can be made over dirt, paint, and grease if the
correct electrode is used.
A.
B.
82.
True
False
(True or False) Using a filler metal not matching the base material may produce
a faulty weldment.
A.
B.
81.
True
False
(True or False) The downhill pipe welding method is primarily used on cross
country transmission pipelines
A.
B.
80.
True
False
(True or False) A combination welder welds metal parts together to fabricate or

repair the assembly
A.
B.
79.
1 diameter back from the edge of the bead

2 diameters back from the edge of the bead
1/4 diameter back from the edge of the bead
At the edge of the bead
tensile bar
big break
liquid penetrant
ultrasonic
Lay the wearfacing on the top and sides of each tooth _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
4 inches from the point

2 inches from the point
4 inches from the base
2 inches from the base
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-127
84.
The minimum tensile strength of an E11018 electrode is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
11,018 pounds per square inch

NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-128

Alloy
An alloy is a compound of one or more metals or other

elements. For example, Brass is the alloy of copper and
zinc.
American Wire Gauge

(AWG)
Standard numbering system for the diameters of round,

solid, nonferrous, electrically conducting wire.
Austenitic

Ferritic

Ferrous

Inconel
A registered trademark that refers to a family of

austenitic nickel-chromium-based super alloys. Inconel
alloys are typically used in high temperature
applications, and often referred to in English as "Inco"
(or occasionally "Iconel")
Inverter
An electrical converter that converts direct current into

alternating current.
Malleable
Capable of great deformation without breaking, when

Martensite
A solid solution of iron and up to one percent of carbon,

the chief constituent of hardened carbon tool steels.
MPa
Mega Pascal. The Pascal (unit) (Pa), is the International

Standard (SI) unit of pressure (equivalent to one
Newton per square meter).
Nodular
Occurring in the form of small rounded or irregular

shapes.
Nonferrous

Rutile
A natural mineral composed primarily of titanium

dioxide, TiO2, and widely used as a welding electrode
covering.
Spalling
Chipping or flaking
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-129

Principles of Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Miller Electric Manufacturing Company,
Appleton, WI.
Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, ANSI/ASC Z49.1:2005 An American
National Standard, American Welding Society, Miami FL, 2005.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Hobart Institute of Welding Technology , Troy Ohio,1998.
Sea Systems Command, Washington Navy Yard, Washington D.C.,1999.
Welding Theory and Application, TC 9-237, Department of the Army Technical Manual,
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-130

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
8-131
Chapter 9
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Topics
1.0.0
2.0.0
3.0.0
4.0.0
Equipment Setup, Adjustment, and Shut Down
5.0.0
Electrodes, Shielding Gas, and Filler Metal
6.0.0
7.0.0
Welding Metallurgy
8.0.0
Weld Joint Design
9.0.0
10.0.0
11.0.0
12.0.0
Welding Discontinuities and Problems
13.0.0
Postweld Procedures
14.0.0
15.0.0
Welding Safety
Overview
The gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process, also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG)
welding, uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. A shielding
gas (usually an inert gas such as argon), protects the weld area from atmospheric
contamination, and the process normally uses a filler metal, though some welds, known
as autogenous (aw-toj-uh-nuhs) welds, do not require a filler metal.
A constant-current welding power supply produces energy that is conducted across the
arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as plasma. Welders
most commonly use TIG to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals
such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
TIG provides the welder with greater control over the weld than competing procedures
such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) and gas metal arc welding (GMAW), thus
allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW/TIG is comparatively more
complex and difficult to master (closer tolerance requirements and filler metal usually
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-1
added by other hand), and is significantly slower than most other welding techniques as
well.
This chapter will present a basic understanding of the GTAW/TIG process and
equipment, along with the key variables that affect the quality of welds. It will also cover
core competencies such as setting up equipment, preparing materials, fitting up, starting
an arc, welding pipes and plates, and repairing welds. Lastly, you will get an
understanding of the safety precautions for GTAW/TIG and an awareness of the
importance of safety in welding.
Although this chapter is very comprehensive, always refer to the manufacturers
manuals for specific operating and maintenance instructions.
Objectives
1. Describe the process of gas tungsten arc welding.
2. Describe the principles of operation used for gas tungsten arc welding.
3. Describe the equipment associated with gas tungsten arc welding.
4. Describe the processes for installation, setup, and maintenance of equipment for
gas tungsten arc welding.
5. State the shielding gas and electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding.
6. Identify the welding applications for gas tungsten arc welding.
7. Describe the welding metallurgy of gas tungsten arc welding.
8. Identify weld and joint designs used for gas tungsten arc welding.
9. Describe the welding procedure variables associated with gas tungsten arc
welding.
10. Identify welding procedure schedules used for gas tungsten arc welding.
11. Describe preweld preparations for gas tungsten arc welding.
12. Identify defects and problems associated with gas tungsten arc welding.
13. Describe postweld procedures for gas tungsten arc welding.
14. State the welder training and qualifications associated with gas tungsten arc
welding.
15. Describe the welding safety associated with gas tungsten arc welding.
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-2

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-3

This manual has several features that make it easy to use online.
Figure and table numbers in the text are italicized. The figure or table is next to or
below the text that refers to it.
again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-4

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an arc welding process that produces coalescence
of metals by heating them with an arc between a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode
and the work. Shielding comes from a gas or gas mixture (Figure 9-1). Both pressure
and filler metal may or may not be used. This process is also known as TIG welding,
which stands for tungsten inert gas welding, unless you are on deployment in Europe,
where you may hear it called WIG welding, using Wolfgram, the German word for
tungsten. Throughout this chapter, the process will be referred to as TIG.
Figure 9-1 Gas tungsten arc welding.

The gas tungsten arc welding process is very versatile. This process may be used to
weld ferrous and a wide variety of non-ferrous metals. It is an all-position welding
process. Welding in other than flat positions depends on the base metal, the welding
current, and the skill of the welder. The process was developed for the "hard-to-weld"
metals and can be used to weld more different kinds of metals than any other arc
welding process.
Gas tungsten arc welding has an arc and a weld pool clearly visible to the welder. It
produces no slag for entrapment in the weld, and no filler metal carries across the arc,
so there is little or no spatter. Because the electrode is non-consumable, you can make
a TIG weld by fusing the base metal without a filler wire.
The TIG welding process was invented by Russell Meredith of Northrop Aircrafts
welding group in 1941. Mr. Jack Northrop's dream was to build a magnesium airframe
for lighter, faster warplanes. This new process was called "Heliarc," as it used an
electric arc to melt the base material and helium (He) to shield the molten puddle. The
Linde Division of Union Carbide bought the patents, developed a number of torches for
different applications, and sold them under the brand name Heliarc. Linde also
developed procedures for using argon (Ar) gas, a more readily available and less
expensive gas than helium.
At first, only direct current with a positive electrode was used. However, the electrode
tended to overheat and deposit particles of the tungsten electrode in the weld. This
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-5
problem was overcome by making the electrode negative, which then also made it
satisfactory for welding stainless steel.
During World War II, welding machines producing alternating current and high
frequency stabilization were developed. Alternating current with a superimposed high
frequency, high voltage current over the basic welding current achieved good quality
welding of aluminum and magnesium. With helium largely replaced by argon due to its
greater availability, the gas tungsten arc welding process became more widely accepted
by the early 1950s, and today is classified by the American Welding Society by that
term.

Welders can apply the gas tungsten arc welding process by the manual, semiautomatic,
machine, or automatic methods, although the manual method produces the greatest
majority of work; the torch is operated by hand, and filler metal, if used, is added with
the other hand. A foot pedal is an additional refinement that controls the amount of
welding current and switches the current on and off. TIG allows the welder extreme
control for precision work by very closely controlling the heat and accurately directing
the arc.
Operators can also use TIG semi automatically, that is by operating the torch by hand
with a wire feeder adding the filler metal automatically. Semiautomatic gas tungsten arc
welding is rarely used; however, machine and automatic methods are becoming
increasingly popular for many applications.
TIG machine welding occurs when equipment performs the welding only under the
control and observation of the welding operator.
Automatic welding occurs when the equipment performs the welding without adjustment
or control by a welding operator. The amount of automation or mechanization applied to
the process depends on the accessibility of the joint, quality control requirements,
number of identical welds to be made, and the availability of capital.

TIG welding generally produces welds far superior to those produced by metallic arc
welding electrodes. Especially useful for welding aluminum, it is quite useful for welding
many other types of metals as well. The TIG process is most effective for joining metals
up to 1/8 inch thick, although you can use it to weld thicker material with appropriate
preheating.
Gas tungsten arc welding has many advantages over most other types of welding
processes. The outstanding features are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
It makes high quality welds in almost all metals and alloys.

There is no slag, so very little, if any, postweld cleaning is required.
There is no filler metal carried across the arc, so there is little or no spatter.
Welding can be performed in all positions.
Filler metal is not always required.
Pulsing may be used to reduce the heat input.
The arc and weld pool are clearly visible to the welder.
Because the filler metal does not cross the arc, the amount added is not
dependent on the weld current level.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-6
The limitations of the gas tungsten arc welding process include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The welding speed is relatively slow.

The electrode is easily contaminated.
It is not very efficient for welding thick sections because deposition rates are low.
The arc requires protection from wind drafts that can blow the stream of shielding
gas away from the arc.

TIG uses the heat produced by the arc between the non-consumable tungsten electrode
and the base metal. An inert shielding gas supplied through the torch shields the molten
weld metal, heated weld zone, and non-consumable electrode from the atmosphere.
The gas protects the electrode and molten material from oxidation, and provides a
conducting path for the arc current.
An electric current passing through an ionized gas produces an electric arc. In this
process, the inert gas atoms are ionized by losing electrons and leaving a positive
charge. Then the positive gas ions flow to the negative pole and the negative electrons
flow to the positive pole of the arc. The
intense heat developed by the arc melts the
base metal and filler metal (if used) to make
the weld. As the molten metal cools,
coalescence occurs and the parts join.
There is little or no spatter or smoke. The
resulting weld is smooth and uniform, and
requires minimum finishing (Figure 9-2).
You do not need to add filler metal when
welding thinner materials, edge joints, or
flange joints. This is known as autogenous
welding. For thicker materials, an externally
fed or "cold" filler rod is generally used. The
filler metal in gas tungsten arc welding does
not transfer across the arc, but is melted by
it.
You strike the arc in one of three ways:
Figure 9-2 TIG process.

1. By briefly touching the electrode to
the work and quickly withdrawing it a short distance.
2. By using an apparatus that will cause the arc to jump from the electrode to the
work.
3. By using an apparatus that starts and maintains a small pilot arc. This pilot arc
provides an ionized path from the main arc.
The torch then progresses along the weld joint manually or mechanically after remaining
in one place until a weld puddle forms. Once the welder obtains adequate fusion, the
torch moves along the joint so the adjacent edges join and the weld metal solidifies
along the joint behind the arc, thus completing the welding process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-7
2.1.0 Arc Systems

The TIG process uses a constant current power source, either direct or alternating
current. A constant current welding machine provides nearly constant current during
welding, so both stick (SMAW) and TIG (GTAW) can operate from the same power
supply. The exception is that you do not need a high frequency attachment, often added
for gas tungsten arc welding, to scratch start the arc.
The constant current output is obtained with
a drooping volt-ampere characteristic, which
means that the voltage is reduced as the
current increases. The changing arc length
causes the arc voltage to increase or
decrease slightly, which in turn changes the
welding current. Within the welding range,
the steeper the slope of the volt-ampere
curve, the smaller the current change for a
given change in the arc voltage. Figure 9-3
shows volt-ampere curves for different
welding machine performance
characteristics. This shows several slopes,
all of which can provide the same normal
voltage and current.
Differences in the basic power source
design cause the variations in power
Figure 9-3 Volt-ampere curves.
sources. A machine with a higher short
circuit current will give more positive
starting. A steep volt-ampere characteristic is generally the most desirable when the
welder wants to achieve maximum welding speeds on some welding jobs. The steeper
slope gives less current variation with changing arc length, and gives a softer arc.
The types of machines that have this kind of curve are especially useful on sheet metal.
These types of machines are also typically used for welding at high current levels. On
some applications, such as all-position pipe welding, a welder may want a less steep
volt-ampere characteristic for better arc control with high penetration capability.
Machines with a less steep volt-ampere curve are also easier to use for depositing the
root passes on joints that have varying fitup. This power source characteristic allows the
welder to control the welding current in a specific range by changing the arc length. This
type of machine also produces a more driving arc.

1.
The predominant shielding gas used for TIG is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
O2
NO2
Ar
He
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-8
2.
How is the arc struck using the manual TIG process?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Holding the electrode to the work until a puddle is formed.

Briefly tapping the electrode on the work.
Depressing the torch trigger and the arc will start.
Clipping the grounding strap on the workpiece.

A typical TIG welding system usually consists of the following elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Welding power supply

Welding torch
Tungsten electrode
Welding cables
Gas shielding system
Since welders can apply TIG by various methods with a wide variety of equipment
configurations, often they will include several available items of optional equipment such
as water circulators, foot rheostats, programmers, motion devices, oscillators, automatic
voltage controls (AVC), and wire feeders. Figure 9-4 shows a diagram of the equipment
used for a manual welding setup.
Figure 9-4 Equipment for gas tungsten arc welding.
3.1.0 Power Sources

the proper current and voltage to maintain a welding arc. Manufacturers offer several
various sizes and types of power sources for gas tungsten arc welding. Most of these
power sources operate on 230 or 460 volt input electric power. Power sources that
operate on 200 or 575 volt input power are available as options.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-9

The duty cycle of a power source is defined as the ratio of arc time to total time. For
rating a welding machine, a ten minute time period is used. Thus, for a machine rated at
a 60% duty cycle, the rated welding current load could be safely applied continuously
for six minutes and be off for four minutes. Most power sources used for gas tungsten
arc welding have a 60% duty cycle. For the machine and automatic methods, a welding
machine with 100% duty cycle rating would be best, but these are not normally
available.
The formula for determining the duty cycle of a welding machine for a given current load
is:
duty cycle of the machine when operated at 250 amperes would be:
Figure 9-5 represents the ratio of the square of the rated current to the square of the
load current, multiplied by the rated duty cycle. This chart can be used instead of
working out the formula. A line is drawn parallel to the sloping lines through the
intersection of the subject machines rated current output and rated duty cycle. For
example, a question might arise whether a 300 amp 60% duty cycle machine could be
used for a fully automatic requirement of 225 amps for a 10-minute welding job. The
chart shows that the machine can be safely used at slightly over 230 amperes at a
100% duty cycle. Conversely, there may be a need to draw more than the rated current
from a welding machine, but for a shorter period. This graph can be used to compare
various machines. All machines should be rated to the same duty cycle for comparison.
Figure 9-5 Duty cycle vs. current load.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-10
3.2.0 Types of Welding Current

The type of power source determines the type of current available. The most important
factor in selecting the type of current is the type of metal to be welded. The thickness of
the metal can also have an influence. You can use either alternating or direct current for
both gas tungsten arc welding and high frequency arc ignition, and you may pulse the
welding current.
3.2.1 Direct Current
You can connect direct current
in one of two ways: electrode
negative (straight polarity)DCEN
or electrode positive (reverse
polarity)DCEP. The electrically
charged particles flow between
the tip of the electrode and the
work (Figure 9-6). You can use
electrode negative for welding
all metals.
Follow special procedures to
weld alloys of magnesium and
aluminum, which have a
refractory surface oxide that
hinders their fusion. You can
make welds on aluminum and
magnesium with a short arc
length using electrode negative
and a helium-bearing shielding
gas, but you can weld these
metals more easily by using
Figure 9-6 Negative and positive polarity.
electrode positive because this
connection breaks down the
oxide layers on the surfaces.
The main problem with using electrode positive is that the current carrying capacity of
the electrode is extremely low. In fact, the electrode will begin to melt if the currents are
too high. For this reason, you should rarely use electrode positive except for welding
thin sheet metal.
3.2.2 Pulsed Current
The pulsed current method of TIG employs two levels of welding current instead of a
steady current. The welding current switches periodically between the high and low
levels to produce a pulsating current or arc. See Figure 9-7 for a diagram of pulsed
direct current. This pulsed current produces a continuously welded seam consisting of
overlapping arc spot welds. Figure 9-8 shows a cross-sectional view of the pulsed
current weld bead. Each of the spots is produced by the high level welding current after
which the current is switched to the lower level. This lower level allows the weld to
solidify partially between spots and maintains the arc to avoid re-ignition problems.
Pulsed current may be used with direct or alternating current, but it is most commonly
used with direct current.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-11
Figure 9-7 Pulsed current

terminology.
Figure 9-8 Weld produced by

pulsed current.
The pulsed direct current method of gas tungsten arc welding has several advantages
over steady direct current for welding thin materials. The pulsed method is more tolerant
of edge misalignment, normal fixturing can be used with thinner materials, and it gives
better distortion control and root penetration. For open root welding, the high pulse
provides high current for complete penetration, but the low pulse cools the puddle down
to prevent burning through at the root of the joint. Pulsing reduces the heat input to the
base metal. This is particularly good for welding thin stainless steel sheet metal, which
distorts very easily without pulsed current. Another advantage of pulsed current is that it
is very good for welding in the vertical and overhead positions because good
penetration is obtainable with less heat input. Pulsing keeps the weld puddle from
getting too large to control because of the partial solidification that occurs during the low
current.
The number of pulses used can vary from about ten per second down to about one or
one-half per second. The length of time the high current is on and the length of time the
low current is on are variable, as well as the percentage of low current with respect to
the high current.
3.2.3 Alternating Current
Alternating current is a combination of both polarities that alternate in regular cycles. In
each cycle, the current starts at zero, builds up to a maximum value in one direction,
decays back to zero, builds up to a maximum value in the other direction, and decays
back to zero. The arc goes out during the zero portion of the cycle, so a high frequency
current in the welding circuit reignites the arc.
Using alternating current provides the advantages of both direct current electrode
positive (reverse polarity) without the current limitations, and direct current electrode
negative without the oxide cleaning problems. For this reason, welders generally use
alternating current for manual welding aluminum and magnesium.
However, in the alternating current circuit, there is a tendency for the current to become
unbalanced. The arc current flows more easily in one direction because it takes greater
energy to obtain electrons from the base metal than from the tungsten electrode. The
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-12
tungsten electrode emits electrons more easily because it becomes much hotter during
welding than the base metal does. The amplitude of the current in the cycle, when the
electrode is negative, is normally higher than it is during the cycle when the electrode is
positive. This tends to produce an unbalanced current. Operators can use either series
connected capacitors or insert a direct current voltage in the welding circuit to balance
the current. Balanced current is desirable for some applications like high-speed
mechanized welding, but it is not necessary for most manual welding applications.
Balanced current flow has three main advantages:
1. Better oxide-cleaning action
2. Better and smoother welding action
3. No reduction in the output rating of a conventional welding transformer
Disadvantages of a balanced current flow are the following:
1. It requires larger electrodes.
2. Wave balancing systems are more expensive.
3.2.4 High-Frequency Current
The high-frequency current is a separate, superimposed current used to maintain a pilot
arc and help start the arc. The pilot arc does not do any welding, but it is needed to start
the welding arc without touching the electrode to the work when using either direct or
When using alternating current, the high frequency current keeps the arc from going out
when the alternating current changes cycles, from positive to negative or negative to
positive.
When using direct current, the high frequency only helps to start the arc and may be
turned off after establishing the arc. Using a high frequency current is the best starting
method because touching the tip of the electrode to the work or starting on a piece of
carbon can contaminate the tungsten electrode.
When using this superimposed high frequency current with AC TIG, you need to take
certain precautions because the high frequency spark gap oscillators in the power
sources radiate power at frequencies that can interfere with commercial, police, and
aviation radio broadcasts. It can also interfere with television transmissions. Because of
this, the operation of high frequency for AC is subject to control by the Federal
Communication Commission in the United States, and most other countries have similar
regulations.
When installing a welding machine that uses high frequency stabilizers, you must pay
special attention to provide earth grounding and special shielding. Manufacturers
provide special installation instructions that also require all metal conductors in the area
of the machine to be earth grounded. These requirements help limit high frequency
radiation. If you follow these instructions carefully, you can post a certificate stating that
you reasonably expect the high frequency stabilizer to meet FCC regulations.

Constant current (cc) machines can produce AC or DC welding power; they can be
rotating (generators), static (transformer/rectifier), or three phase inverter machines.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-13
3.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding Machines

For shop use, an electric motor can power a generator welding machine, or an internal
combustion engine (gasoline or diesel) can do it for field use. You can adjust generator
welding machines intended for shielded metal arc welding to function for gas tungsten
arc welding if you add an inert gas and a high frequency attachment.
You can adapt engine-driven, either water- or air-cooled welding machines as well,
many of which also provide auxiliary power for emergency lighting, power tools, etc.
Generator welding machines can provide DC power, and in some cases both AC and
DC power to the arc, depending on the machine design.
You can also adapt alternator welding machines (also called rotating or revolving field
machines) for gas tungsten arc welding. These machines consist of an electric
generator made to produce AC power.
3.3.2 Transformer-Rectifier Welding
Machines
Transformer-rectifier welding machines are
used much more widely for gas tungsten arc
welding than motor-generator welding
machines. Transformer-rectifier machines
provide both AC and DC welding current to
the arc. A single phase transformer
producing alternating current is connected to
the rectifier, which then produces DC current
for the arc. The rectifier is an electrical
device which changes alternating current
into direct current.
Transformer-rectifier welding machines
operate on single phase input power (Figure
9-9), and because of this, an unbalance may
be created in the power supply lines, which
is objectionable to most power companies.
Figure 9-9 Welding machine.
However, this type of welding machine is the most versatile for TIG because you can
use it for welding a variety of base metals. A programmable type of transformer-rectifier
power source is often used for TIG welding; the welder can select either AC or DC
current for the application by simple means of a switch which can change the output
terminals to the transformer or to the rectifier.
The transformer-rectifier welding machines are available in different sizes and have
several advantages over rotating power sources:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lower operating costs

Lower maintenance costs
Quiet operation
Lower power consumption while idling
No rotating parts
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-14
3.3.3 Inverter Power Sources

A recently developed machine uses the inverter and different levels of programming.
These machines operate on three-phase input power. The three-phase input helps
overcome the line unbalance that occurs with the single-phase transformer-rectifier
machines. Inverters provide power down to .5 ampere with a very fast response time of
one millisecond and less than 1 % ripple. Different programming is available, depending
on the complexity of the job. The high frequency inverters are very quiet and provide
outstanding arc stability.
3.3.4 Transformer Welding Machines
Transformer welding machines are not used often for gas tungsten arc welding except
at home shops or small job shops where gas tungsten arc welding is used only
occasionally. Transformer welding machines produce AC power only and operate on
single-phase input power. Like generator welding machines intended for SMAW, you
can also adapt transformer welding machines for TIG by adding an inert gas and a high
frequency attachment.
The transformer welding machine takes power directly from the line, transforms it to the
power required for welding, and by means of various magnetic circuits, inductors, etc.,
provides the volt-ampere characteristics proper for welding. The main advantage of the
transformer is that it has the lowest initial investment cost and uses electric power
efficiently. However, movable parts tend to vibrate, wear, and become loose, which
creates undesirable noise.
3.3.5 Square Wave Power Source
To overcome the arc extinguishing-restriking problem, a square wave AC output power
source was developed. Either the conventional constant current type or the constant
voltage type of power source can use the
square wave output form. In either case, the
time for switching from positive to negative
or negative to positive current pulse is
approximately 50 to 150 microseconds; thus
the arc is difficult to restart and is unstable.
Power electronics can be used to vary the
positive and negative output of the machine.
The area above the zero point on the curve
(the direct current positive area) and the
area below the curve (the negative area) can
be equalized or balanced.
A power source developed specifically for
gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding
provides a square-wave output form but also
allows a balance or imbalance between the
straight polarity and reverse polarity halfcycles of each cycle.
Figure 9-10 Square wave

output: balanced and
unbalanced.
In welding aluminum, the electrode negative

(straight polarity half-cycle) gives maximum
penetration, whereas the electrode positive (reverse polarity half-cycle) provides for the
cleaning action. It is advantageous to provide the most straight polarity half-cycle, and
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-15
this is possible, as shown in Figure 9-10. This machine also has programming ability
and encloses a high-frequency oscillator plus gas and water valves.
3.4.0 Controls
TIG welding machines have some or all of the following controls to operate the welding:
1. On-off power switch.
2. Polarity selection switch for machines that produce DC power.
3. Welding current control a knob or tap switch on the front of the welding
machine that controls the amount of welding current delivered to the arc.
4. Foot pedal an optional piece of equipment for manual welding. It starts the
current flow, varies the current during welding, and reduces the current at the
end of the weld. This control also starts the high frequency current when high
frequency current is used.
5. High frequency control turns the high frequency current on and off, and
selects the type of high frequency current used. Continuous high frequency
current is used for AC welding where high frequency current is needed only for
arc starting with DC welding current. Also included is a knob to control the
amount of high frequency current.
6. Hot start a knob on some welding machines. When in use, this control causes
the machine to furnish momentarily a surge of current substantially above the
welding current to get the arc initiated. The knob can also set the amount of hot
start current required.
7. Pulsation controls. When pulsed current is desired, several controls are usually
needed.
8. Up-slope and down-slope controls optional controls that are timers. The upslope control allows the welding current to build up gradually at a set rate at the
beginning of the welding. The downslope control allows the welding
current to decay gradually at a set
rate at the end of the welding to
prevent crater cracking.
9. Shielding gas controls timers that
can be set to start the flow of
shielding gas before the welding
current starts and to maintain gas
shielding after the welding arc has
been broken. Both of these controls
are used to prevent oxidation of the
tungsten electrode and contamination
of the weld puddle when hot.
Several or all of these controls are used with
a programmable panel (Figure 9-11) and are
available in wide variety depending on the
programmer used.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-11 Programmer.
9-16
3.5.0 Welding Torches

Torches for TIG welding, designed and used only for this process, are available in a
variety of types and sizes. The torch
conducts the welding current to the arc and
the shielding gas to the arc area. It usually
includes various cables, hoses, and
adaptors for connecting the torch to the
power, gas, and cooling supplies. Manual
torches should also have a handle so the
welder can manipulate the arc. Figure 9-12
shows a manual gas tungsten arc welding
torch. Manual torches can weigh from as
little as three ounces (85 grams) to about
sixteen ounces (450 grams), and are rated
according to their maximum usable welding
current. These torches can utilize various
types and sizes of electrodes and nozzles
while the angle of the electrode to the
handle (the head angle) may vary from torch
to torch. The most common head angle is
Figure 9-12 Manual TIG torch.
120 degrees, but some torches use 90degree head angles and others have
adjustable heads.
There are two major types of welding torches used for TIG: air-cooled and water-cooled.
The air-cooled torches are cooled by the flow of the shielding gas (which means that
they really are gas-cooled). The only air cooling occurs from the heat radiating into the
atmosphere.
Water-cooled torches have water circulating through the torch, which accounts for most
of the cooling (Figure 9-13); the shielding gas does the rest. Air-cooled torches are
Figure 9-13 Cross-section view of water-cooled torch.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-17
usually small, lightweight, and less expensive than water-cooled torches, and with a
maximum welding current of 200 amperes, they are used normally for welding thin
metal. These torches are more versatile than water-cooled torches because no water is
needed, but they are for low duty cycle welding because the tungsten electrode in an
air-cooled torch becomes hotter than in a water-cooled torch, which can transfer
tungsten to the weld, thus causing inclusions.
Water-cooled torches can operate continuously up to about 200 amperes, with some
especially designed for welding currents up to 500 amperes. These torches are usually
heavier (water hose and connectors usually come with the torch) and more expensive
than the air-cooled types.
There are four types of nozzles or gas cups used for gas tungsten arc welding: ceramic,
metal, fused-quartz, and dual-shield nozzles. They provide shielding gas to the welding
electrode and metal. As a general rule the inside diameter of the gas nozzle should be
three times larger than the electrodes diameter.
Ceramic nozzles are the cheapest and most popular type, but they are brittle. Ceramic
nozzles are the best kind to use with high frequency current to prevent cross-firing to
the nozzle.
Metal nozzles can be either the slip-on type or the water-cooled type. The slip-on type is
limited to low current welding, whereas the water-cooled nozzles are usable with high
welding current.
Fused-quartz nozzles are transparent and some welders prefer them for increased
visibility, but the inside of the nozzle can be dulled by vapors when the electrode is
contaminated, which impairs the vision.
Dual-shield nozzles allow a small amount of helium or argon around the electrode to
shield the immediate weld puddle. Around the central part of the nozzle, an annular
grooved section sends an atmosphere of carbon dioxide or nitrogen to keep air from
contact with the central inert-gas shield. The industry rarely uses the dual-shield nozzle.
Inside the nozzle is the gas orifice. The gas orifice is a series of holes in the end of the
collet body around the electrode that supplies the shielding gas into the nozzle. This
gives a more even flow of shielding gas around the electrode (Figure 9-14).
Figure 9-14 Parts of a manual torch.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-18
Orbital welding heads are designed

specifically to produce high quality welds in
critical welding applications (Figure 9-15).
Because companies related to the aircraft,
pharmaceutical, semiconductor, food
processing, and related industries require
superior weld quality in terms of bead shape,
integrity, and cleanliness, these advanced
systems incorporate computer technology to
control the variables in a weld.
Torch oscillation speed and width are
independently adjustable and automatically
synchronized to allow precise positioning of
filler wire entry into the weld puddle, and
compact wire feeders are controlled
electronically for accuracy and repeatability.
3.6.0 Gas Shielding System
Figure 9-15 Tube-to-tube welding

heads.
Single cylinders, portable or stationary

manifold systems, or pipes connected to bulk
storage torches may supply the shielding
gas. The most widely used form of gas flow
control is the combination regulator and
flowmeter (Figure 9-16). Flowmeters must be
appropriate for the various shielding gases
because they must be calibrated for a
specific gas. Use only the regulators and
flowmeters designed for a specific gas.
There is a fundamental difference between
the regulators used for oxy-fuel welding and
those used for TIG/MIG welding. While both
have a gauge that provides a tank/cylinder
pressure and a second gauge, with oxy-fuel
welding, the second gauge displays pressure
as the working unit, and with TIG/MIG, the
second gauge displays flow and the working
Figure 9-16 Regulator and
unit. The working pressure on the oxy-fuel
flowmeter.
regulator is in pounds per square inch (psi),
while the regulator for TIG/MIG is in cubic feet per hour (cfh) or liters per minute (lpm).
See Figure 9-16.
The flowmeter consists of a plastic or glass tube that contains a loosely fitting ball. As
the gas flows up the tube, it passes around the ball and lifts it up: the more gas that
moves up the tube, the higher the ball lifts.
The shielding gas regulator has a constant outlet pressure to the flowmeter of about 50
psig. This is important because the flowmeter scales are accurate only if the gas
entering them is at that approximate pressure. If you use higher inlet pressures, the gas
flow rate will be higher than the actual reading. The reverse is true if the inlet pressure is
lower than 50 psig; therefore, it is important to use accurately adjusted regulators. With
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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an accurate flowmeter, these regulators can deliver inert gas flows up to 60 cfh; read
the scale by aligning the top of the ball with the cfh increment lines.
To obtain an accurate reading, you must mount the meter in a vertical position. Any
slant will create an off-center gas flow and result in an inaccurate reading. As already
mentioned, you need to use different flowmeters for different gases.
The flow of gas necessary for good TIG welding depends primarily on the thickness of
the material, but there are other factors as well, including welding current, size of
nozzle, joint design, speed of welding, and a draft-free area in the location of the
welding. This last factor can affect gas coverage and usage considerably
Plastic hoses bring the shielding gas to the welding torch because helium will diffuse
through the walls of rubber or rubber-fabric hoses. To standardize the hose system,
these same plastic hoses are used for argon also. They may connect straight to the
torch, or go through the power source or the inert gas attachment to the torch.

The welding cables and connectors connect the power source to the torch and to the
work, essentially the same as those used for SMAW. The cables are normally made of
copper or aluminum and consist of hundreds of fine wires enclosed in an insulated
casing of natural or synthetic rubber. The cable connecting the work to the power
source is the work lead, which typically connects to the work by pincher, clamps, bolt, or
special connection. The cable connecting the torch to the power source is the electrode
lead, and it is part of the torch assembly.
The size of the welding cable used depends on the output capacity of the welding
machine and the distance between the welding machine and the work. Cable sizes
range from the smallest at AWG NO. 8 to AWG No. 4/0 with amperage ratings of 75
amperes and upward. Table 9-1 shows recommended cable sizes for use with different
welding currents and cable lengths.
Table 9-1 Suggested copper welding cable sized for gas tungsten arc welding.
Weld
Length of cable circuit in feet cable size A.W.G.
Weld
Current
60
100
150
200
300
400
Manual
100
1/0
(Low
Duty
Cycle)
150
2/0
3/0
200
1/0
3/0
4/0
250
1/0
2/0
300
2/0
3/0
350
1/0
1/0
3/0
4/0
400
1/0
1/0
3/0
450
2/0
2/0
4/0
500
2/0
2/0
4/0
Type
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-20
3.8.0 Other Equipment

TIG is a very versatile process, and because of its versatility, there is a need for multiple
types of torches, wire feeders, water circulators, and motion devices. The following
presents some of the most common devices.
3.8.1 Filler Wire Feeders
When you use semiautomatic, machine, and automatic welding, and a filler metal is
necessary, you need a filler wire feeder. For manual welding, you feed the filler metal
by hand. You can feed filler metal into the pool either preheated (hot) or at room
temperature (cold).
A cold wire feeding system consists of a wire drive mechanism, a speed control, and a
wire guide attachment that directs the wire into the molten weld pool. The wire drive
consists of a motor and gear train, which power a set of drive rolls to push the filler wire.
A constant speed governor, either electronic or mechanical, functions as the wire feed
speed control, and a flexible conduit connected to the drive mechanism usually guides
the filler wire to the weld puddle. Often, the wire guide attaches to the torch, and it
maintains the angle of approach to the weld puddle. For heavy duty applications, the
wire guide is water-cooled.
Filler wires used for this application range from 1/32 inch (0.8 mm) to 3/32 inch (2.4
mm) in diameter. Generally, cold wire feeds into the leading edge of the weld puddle.
The equipment for a hot wire system is similar to that for cold wire, except it electrically
preheats the wire with an alternating current from a constant voltage to the desired
temperature before it reaches the weld pool. In many cases, a shielding gas protects
the filler wire from oxidation.
The TIG hot wire method will give a high deposition rate comparable to using MIG.
Sometimes this method is used to weld carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels,
copper alloys, and nickel alloys. Feed hot wire into the trailing edge of the weld puddle,
but do not use hot wire for aluminum, aluminum alloys, and copper; they require very
high heating currents which cause uneven
melting and arc blow.
3.8.2 Water Circulators
When you use a water-cooled torch, you
must have a continuous water supply via a
water circulator or directly from a hose
connection to a water tap. Hoses, which
may or may not go through a valve in the
welding machine, carry the water to the
welding torch. Figure 9-17 shows a water
circulator.
3.8.3 Motion Devices
Machine welding and automatic welding use
motion devices to move the welding head,
workpiece, or torch depending on the type
and size of the work and the preference of
the user.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-17 Water circulator.
9-21
Often, motor-driven carriages run on tracks or directly on the workpiece. Carriages are
useful for straight line contour, vertical, or horizontal welding. Side beam carriages are
supported on the vertical face of a flat track, and they can be used for straight line
welding.
You can use welding head manipulators for
longitudinal welds and, in conjunction with a
rotary weld positioner, for circumferential
welds. These welding head manipulators
come in many boom sizes and can be used
also for semiautomatic welding with
mounted welding heads.
Oscillators are optional equipment used to
oscillate the torch for surfacing, vertical-up
welding, and other welding operations that
require a wide bead. Oscillators can be
either mechanical or electromagnetic
devices.
Orbital heads are compact, rugged, and
clamp on a pipe or tube (Figure 9-18). To
weld the smallest to the largest tubes, you
Figure 9-18 Orbital welding head
will need a family of heads. These heads
designed for low clearances.
will rotate the torch around the pipe,
continuously carrying the tungsten electrode. Multiple adjustments and computer control
allow for precise positioning

3.
What is the most important factor in selecting power supply?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Availability and type of power available

Type of shielding gas to be used
Type and thickness of the metal to be welded
Skill level of the welder
Welding cables are most commonly made of which material?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Stainless steel
Copper
Bronze
Silver alloy
4.0.0 EQUIPMENT SETUP, ADJUSTMENT, and SHUTDOWN

A basic knowledge of equipment setup, adjustment, and shutdown is necessary to
make effective and efficient welds. This section will give you the basics of setup and
electrode preparation. Always refer to the manufacturers safety precautions and proper
tip preparation. Also, always wear your safety glasses when you are in the welding
area.
Attach the remote control to the remote control outlet on the power source.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-22
Check torch cables and connect them to the power source.

Select the appropriate electrode for the job.
Ceriated tungstens (orange band) and lanthanated tungstens (black band) are the
recommended alternatives to thoriated
tungstens for DCEN applications if they are
available. Use pure or zirconiated tungstens
for AC welding with conventional sine wave
or conventional square wave power sources.
4.2.0 Preparing the Electrode Tip

Taper the electrodes for DCEN welding to
direct and control the arc. The taper angle of
the electrode is the included angle. For most
applications, a 30 taper about 2 1/2 to 3
electrode diameters long works well (Figure
9-19).
Round off pure and zirconiated electrodes
for AC welding with conventional square
wave power sources to withstand the heat
generate during the electrode positive
portion of the AC cycle.
Figure 9-19 Preparing the tip.

The rounded tip should not exceed the
diameter of the electrode. Otherwise, the
arc may wander around the surface,
making it hard to control (Figure 9-20).
You can use any of the alloyed tungstens
for AC welding with inverters because you
can adjust the positive portion of the AC
cycle to provide just enough amperage for
cleaning without overheating the tip of the
electrode.
Match the collet and collet body to the
electrode diameter.
Check the nozzle to make sure it is the
proper size and is in good condition.
Figure 9-20 Rounded tip for

conventional square wave.
The nozzle should be a minimum of 3 times

the diameter of the electrode.
Replace nozzles that are chipped, cracked,

or badly worn. Damaged or dirty nozzles can alter the gas flow pattern and cause
defects or discontinuities in the weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-23
4.3.0 Assembling the Torch

Thread the collet body into the torch head.
Insert the collet into the collet body.
Install the nozzle.
Insert the electrode so the tip extends about
1/2 inch beyond the nozzle.
Screw the cap into the back of the torch
head and tighten it lightly so the electrode
will move with finger pressure.
Adjust the electrode stickout and tighten the
cap to secure the electrode in place.
Place the torch on its hanger so it will not arc
when you turn the power switch on. Do not
lay it across the welding table.
Refer to Figure 9-21 for assembly.
Figure 9-21 Torch assembly.
4.4.0 Setting Up the Shielding Gas System

Chain the cylinder in place and remove the cap.
Stand away from the valve port. Open and close the valve quickly to blow out any dirt
before attaching the regulator.
Install the regulator and flow meter assembly.
Attach the gas hose to the flow meter.
Attach the other end of the hose to the connection on the power source.
Open the cylinder valve slowly until pressure registers on the regulator; then open the
valve all the way.
Turn the power source on and tap the foot pedal to start the flow of gas.
Adjust the flow meter to approximately 15 to 20 cubic feet per hour (cfh) for argon.
Set the post flow time on the power source (1 second for every 10 amps).
Test for leaks by closing the cylinder valve. If the regulator pressure drops, check the
hose and the connections at the power source, flow meter, and cylinder for leaks.
4.5.0 Setting Up the Welding Parameters

Set the amperage control to the maximum setting required for the job.
Set the high-frequency switch to start (automatic) for DC welding, or to continuous for
conventional square wave AC.
Adjust the high frequency intensity control.
Run a few test welds on scrap material to fine tune the settings.
4.6.0 System Shutdown and Clean Up

Shut the system down when the job is completed. Close the valve on the gas cylinder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-24
Tap the foot pedal to bleed off the shielding gas.

Close the valve on the flow meter.
Turn off the power source.
Clean up your work area.
As a safety precaution, turn the power switches on the wire feeder and the power
source to the off position before checking electrical connections.
Check all electrical connections to make sure they are tight, and check cables for cracks
and exposed wire.
5.0.0 ELECTRODES, SHIELDING GAS, and FILLER METAL

The electrodes used for this process are non-consumable, so a tungsten electrode is
needed as well as a filler rod if any filler metal is to be added. The shielding gas is an
important consumable of gas tungsten arc welding because its main purpose is to shield
the electrode and molten weld puddle from the atmosphere. Filler metal may or may not
be added, depending on the specific welding application.
5.1.0 Electrodes
TIG uses a non-consumable or nearly non-consumable electrode made of tungsten or
tungsten alloys that melt at 6170 degrees Fahrenheit (3410 degrees Celsius), which is
the highest melting point of all metals. It is virtually impossible to vaporize a tungsten
electrode during welding, provided you use the electrode within the current-carrying
capacity range for its specific type and diameter, with sufficient inert shielding gas.
Tungsten retains its hardness, even at red heat.
There are several types of electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding. These are made of
pure tungsten or alloyed with thoria, zirconia, ceria, lanthana, or a combination of oxides
(Table 9-2). Welding electrodes are classified by chemical composition and are
identifiable by colored markings in the form of bands, dots, etc. on the surface of the
electrode. The AWS classification uses letters to distinguish differences in the
electrodes. The first two letters of a tungsten electrode are E for electrode and W for
tungsten the next letter represents the material the electrode is made of.
Tungsten electrodes usually come in lengths of 3 to 24 inches (76-610 mm) in
diameters from .01 to 1/4 inch (.25 to 6.4 mm). Table 9-3 shows the types of tungsten
electrodes used for welding different metals. Table 9-4 shows the welding current
ranges for tungsten electrodes.
Generally, you will use pure tungsten electrodes (green marking) on the less critical
applications with alternating current; they have a relatively low current-carrying capacity
and a low contamination resistance, but they give good arc stability.
The tungsten electrodes alloyed with 1% (yellow marking) or 2% (red marking) thoria
have several advantages over pure tungsten electrodes. These electrodes have higher
current-carrying capacities, longer life, higher electron emissivity, and greater
contamination resistance. Thoriated tungsten electrodes also give easier arc starting
and a more stable arc.
Ceriated tungsten electrodes (orange marking) contain cerium oxide and have a
reduced rate of vaporization or burn-off, as compared with pure tungsten electrodes.
The EWLa (black marking) electrodes contain lanthanum oxide and are very similar to
the ceriated tungsten electrodes. EWZr (brown marking) electrodes contain a small
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-25
amount of zirconium oxide. Their welding characteristics generally fall between those of
pure and thoriated tungsten, but they have a higher resistance to contamination. The
EWG (gray marking) electrodes contain an unspecified addition of oxides (rare earth or
others) which affect the characteristics of the arc.
Table 9-2 Chemical composition requirements for electrodes (AWS A5.12).

Weight Percent
Other
Oxides
or
Elements
Total
AWS
Classification
UNS
Numberb
W Min.
(difference)c
EWP
R07900
99.5
EWCe-2
R07932
97.3
EWLa-1
R07941
98.3
EWTh-1
R07911
98.3
.8-1.2
.5
EWTh-2
R07912
97.3
1.7-2.2
.5
EWZr-1
EWGd
CeO2
La2O3
ThO2
.5
1.8-2.2
.5
.9-1.2
.5
99.1
R07920
ZrO2
94.5
.15-.4
.5
.5
Notes
a.The electrode shall be analyzed for the specific oxides for which values are shown in
this table. If the presence of other elements or oxides is indicated, the amount of
those elements or oxides shall be determined to ensure that their total does not
exceed the limit specified for Other Oxides or Elements, Total in the last column of
the table
b. SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys
c. Tungsten content shall be determined by calculating the measures content of all
specified oxides and elements and subtracting the total form a 100%.
d. Classification EWG must contain some oxide or element additive and the
manufacturer must identify the type and nominal content of the oxide or element
additive.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-26
Table 9-3 Types of tungsten electrodes and shielding gasses.

Type of Metal
Aluminum
Thickness
All Thick Only

Thin Only
Type of Current
Electrode
Shielding Gas
AC
Pure, Zirconium
Argon, Argon-helium
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon-helium, Argon
DCEP
Thoriated, Zirconium
Argon
Copper +
All
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon, Argon-helium
Copper Alloys
Thin Only
AC
Pure, Zirconium
Argon
Magnesium
All
AC
Pure, Zirconium
Argon
Alloys
Thin Only
DCEP
Zirconium Thoriated
Argon
All
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon
All
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon, Argon-helium
Stainless Steel
All
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon, Argon-helium
Titanium
All
DCEN
Thoriated
Argon
Nickel +
Nickel Alloys
Plain Carbon
+Low Alloy
Steels
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-27
Table 9-4 Typical current ranges for tungsten electrodes. (AWS A5.12).
Electrode
Diameter
in.
mm
DCEN
(DCSP)
DCEP
(DCRP)
Alternating Current
Unbalanced Wave
Alternating Current
Balanced Wave
EWX-X
EWX-X
b
EWP
EWX-X
EWP
EWX-X
.010
.30
Up to 15
na
Up to 15
Up to 15
Up to 15
Up to 15
.020
.50
5-20
Na
5-15
5-20
10-20
5-20
.040
1.00
15-80
Na
10-660
15-80
20-30
20-60
.060
1.60
70-150
10-20
50-100
70-150
30-80
60-120
.093
2.40
150-250
15-30
100-160
140-235
60-130
100-180
.125
3.20
250-400
25-40
150-200
225-325
100-180
160-250
.156
4.00
400-500
40-55
200-275
300-400
160-240
200-320
.187
5.00
500-750
55-80
250-350
400-500
190-300
290-390
.250
6.40
750-1000
80-125
325-450
500-630
250-400
340-525
Notes
Notes:
a. All are values based on the use of argon gas. Other current values may be used
depending on the shielding gas, type of equipment, and application.
b. na = not applicable
5.2.0 Shielding Gases

Argon and helium or mixtures of the two gases are the most widely used shielding
gases for gas tungsten arc welding. The characteristics most desirable for shielding
purposes are chemical inertness and an ability to produce smooth arc action at high
current densities. Argon and helium are both inert, which means that they do not form
compounds with other elements. Inert shielding gas is used because it will protect the
tungsten electrode as well as the molten weld metal from contamination. Special
applications may call for the addition of hydrogen and nitrogen as well. In addition to
showing the types of tungsten electrodes used for welding different metals, Table 9-3
shows the type of shielding gas recommended when welding different metals.
Gas purity can have a considerable effect on welding. Metals such as carbon steel,
stainless steel, copper, and aluminum will usually tolerate very small amounts of
impurities. For the best results, the purity rating should be 99.99+%. Titanium and
zirconium have a very low tolerance to impurities, and you should use only the very
purest shielding gas.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-28
5.2.1 Argon
Argon is a heavy gas obtained from the atmosphere by the liquefaction of air, and is
available as a compressed gas or a liquid, depending on the volume of use. It is
obtained at much lower prices in the bulk liquid form compared to the compressed gas
form, and it is the most widely used type of shielding gas for gas tungsten arc welding.
Argon has several advantages over helium:
1. Quieter and smoother arc action.
2. Easier arc starting.
3. Lower arc voltage for current settings and arc lengths. This is good on thin
metals.
4. Good cleaning action, which is preferred for the welding of aluminum and
magnesium
5. Lower flow rates are required for good shielding. Argon is heavier than air.
6. Lower cost and more availability.
7. Better resistance to cross-drafts.
8. Better for welding dissimilar metals.
9. Better weld puddle control in the overhead and vertical positions.
5.2.2 Helium
Helium is a light gas obtained by separation from natural gas. It is available as a liquid
but used more often as compressed gas in cylinders. Since helium is lighter than air, it
leaves the welding area quicker and therefore requires higher flow rates. Another
disadvantage is that it is more expensive and is less available than argon. Helium does
have several advantages over argon shielding gas:
1. Gives a smaller heat affected zone.
2. Produces higher arc voltages for given current settings and arc lengths. This is
good on thicker metals and metals with high conductivity.
3. Is better for welding at higher speeds.
4. Gives better coverage in vertical and overhead positions.
5. Provides deeper penetration because of more heat input.
6. Tends to flatten out the root pass of the weld bead when used as a backing gas.
5.2.3 Argon-Helium Mixtures
The argon-helium mixtures provide the better control of argon and the deeper
penetration of helium. Common mixtures of these gases by volume are 75% helium25% argon, or 80% helium-20% argon. A wide variety of mixtures is available,
particularly for their wide usage in automatic welding.
5.2.4 Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures
Welders use mixtures of argon and hydrogen when welding stainless steel, Inconel,
Monel, and when porosity is a problem; in some cases, no other shielding gas can
prevent porosity.
Argon-hydrogen mixtures increase the welding heat, help control the weld bead profile,
and give the weld puddle better wetting action and a more uniform weld bead. This gas
mixture is not completely inert.
Do not use argon-hydrogen mixtures for welding plain carbon or low alloy steels, but
you can use it for stainless steel with the hydrogen percentage up to 15%. A typical
argon hydrogen mixture is 95% argon and 5% hydrogen.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-29
5.2.5 Nitrogen
You can use nitrogen as a shielding gas to obtain higher voltage and produce higher
current, but it is rarely done. The efficiency of heat transfer is higher than for either
helium or argon, which makes nitrogen good for welding copper and copper alloys.
However, nitrogen will reduce arc stability and contaminate the electrodes because it is
not an inert gas. If you use thoriated electrodes, there is negligible contamination by the
nitrogen.
5.3.0 Filler Metals

Since the TIG process can weld a wide variety of metals, it generates a need for various
filler metals. Table 9-5 lists the American Welding Society specifications covering the
different filler metals used for gas tungsten arc welding. The selection of the proper filler
metal is primarily dependent on the chemical composition of the base metal; filler metals
are often similar to the base metal, although not necessarily identical.
Manufacturers produce filler metals with closer control on chemistry, purity, and quality
than for base metals. The choice of a filler metal for a given application depends on the
suitability for the intended operation, the cost, and the metallurgical compatibility. The
required tensile strength, impact toughness, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, and weld appearance of a weldment are also important
considerations. Deoxidizers added to the filler metals can give better weld soundness
as well.
Table 9-5 American Welding Society filler metal specifications that cover the
different metals welded by the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Metals
AWS Filler Metal Specification

Number
Copper and Copper Alloys
A5.7
Stainless Steel
A5.9
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
A5.10
Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes
A5.13
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
A5.14
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
A5.16
Carbon Steels
A5.18
Magnesium Alloys
A5.19
Composite Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes
A5.21
Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys
A5.24
Copper and Copper Alloy Gas Welding Rods
A5.27
Low Alloy Steels
A5.28
Consumable Inserts
A5.30
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-30
The American Welding Society devised the classification system for filler metal used
with gas tungsten arc welding. In this system, designations for filler metal rods consist of
the letters ER (for electrode or rod) and an alloy number in most cases. The difference
between an electrode and a rod is that an electrode carries welding current and the
metal transfers across the arc, but a filler rod is added directly to the weld puddle
without electricity running through it.
Because gas tungsten arc welding filler rods are generally chosen based on chemical
composition, they are also classified according to their chemical composition. This is not
true of the specification for carbon and low alloy steel welding rods, which are classified
according to mechanical properties and chemical compositions.
An example of a classification is an ER4043 aluminum welding rod. The ER indicates
that the wire is usable as either an electrode or a filler wire, and the 4043 indicates the
chemical composition as shown in Table 9-6.
The classification of other non-ferrous metals and stainless steels are similar; Table 9-7
shows manganese classifications, Table 9-8 the copper and copper alloys, Table 9-9
the stainless steels, and Table 9-10 the nickel and nickel alloys.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-31
Table 9-6 Aluminum filler metal classifications (AWS A5.10).

Weight Percentage
a,b
Other Elements
AWS
Classification
UNS
c
Number
Si
Fe
ERII00
A91100
RII00
ERI188g
R1188g
A91100
A91188
A91188
d
0.06
0.06
d
0.06
0.06
ER2319h
A92319
0.2
0.3
R2319h
A92319
0.2
0.3
ER4009
A94009
4.5-5.5
0.2
R4009
ER4010
R4010
A94009
A94010
A94010
4.5-5.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
Cu
.050.20
.050.20
0.005
0.005
5.86.8
5.86.8
1.01.5
1.01.5
0.2
0.2
R4011k
ER4043
R4043
A94011
A94043
A'I4043
0.2
0.8
0.8
ER4047
A94047
R4047
A94047
ER4145
A94145
R4145
R4643
R4643
A94145
A94643
A94643
6.5-7.5
4.5-6.0
4.5-6.0
11.013.0
11.013.0
9.310.7
9.310.7
3.6-4.6
3.6-4.6
ER5183
A95183
R5183
Mn
Mg
Cr
Ni
0.05
Ti
0.1
Each
Total
AI
0.05e
0.15
99.0 min
0.05e
0.01e
0.01e
0.15
99.0 min
f
99.88 min
f
99.88 min
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
f
f
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.1
0.02
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.100.20
0.100.20
0.1
0.45-0.6
0.1
0.2
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.45-0.6
0.30-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.45-0.7
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.040.20
0.2
0.2
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
0.8
0.3
0.15
0.1
0.2
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.8
0.15
0.1
0.2
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
n.15
0.15
0.15
0.2
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.3
3.34.7
3.34.7
0.1
0.1
0.15
0.100.30
0.10-0.30
0.15
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.15
0.15
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.25
0.15
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
A95183
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.25
0.15
Remainder
A95356
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
R5356
A95356
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
ER5554
A95554
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
R5554
A95554
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
ER5556
A95556
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
R5556
A95556
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
ER56S4
A95654
0.05
0.01
3.1-3.9
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
R5654
A95654
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
A02060
0.1
0.15
0.01
0.200.50
3.1-3.9
R206.0j
0.150.35
0.05
0.15
Remainder
R-C355.0
R-A356.0
R-357.0
A33550
AI3560
A03570
4.5-5.S
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
0.2
0.2
0.15
0.05
4.25.0
1.01.5
0.2
0.05
0.15
0.060.20
0.060.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.15
0.050.15
0.150.30
0.05e
ER5356
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.501.0
0.501.0
0.OS0.20
0.050.20
0.501.0
0.501.0
0.501.0
0.501.0
0.1
0.1
0.03
0.40-0.6
0.25-0.45
0.45-0.6
0.1
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
R-A357.0k
A13570
6.5-7.5
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.400.7
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.040.20
0.05
0.15
Remainder
0.8
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.200.40
0.200.40
Zn
4.3-5.2
4.3-5.2
4.5-5.5
4.5-5.5
2.43.0
2.4-3.0
4.7-5.5
4.7-5.5
0.050.25
0.050.25
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.150.35
0.150.35
0.1
0.1
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.05
0.1
Notes:
a. The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other
elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that they do not
exceed the limits specified for "Other Elements".
b. Single values are maximum, except where otherwise specified.
c. SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys,
d. Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.95 percent.
e. Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008 percent.
f. The aluminum content for unalloyed aluminum is the difference between 100.00 percent and the Slim of all other metallic elements
present in amounts of 0.010 percent or more each, expressed' to the second decimal before determining the sum.
g. Vanadium content shall be 0.05 percent maximum. Gallium content shall be 0.03 percent maximum.
h. Vanadium content shall be 0.05-0.15 percent. Zirconium content shall be 0.10-0.25 percent.
i. Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.45 percent.
j. Tin content shall not exceed 0.05 percent.
k. Beryllium content shall be 0.040,07 percent.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-32
Table 9-7 Magnesium filler metal classifications (AWS A5.19).

Weight Percentage a,b
Other Elements
AWS
Classification
ER AZ61A
R AZ61A
UNS
Numberc
M111611
Mg
Remainder
Al
5.8
to
7.2
Be
0.0002
to
0.0008
Mn
0.15
to
0.5
Zn
0.4
to
1.5
ER AZ92A
R AZ92A
M11922
Remainder
8.3
to
9.7
0.0002
to
0.0008
0.15
to
0.5
ER AZ101A
R AZ101A
M11101
Remainder
9.5
to
11
0.0002
to
0.0008
0.15
to
0.5
ER EZ33A
R EZ33A
M12331
Remainder
0.0008
Rare
Earth
Cu
0.05
Fe
0.005
Ni
0.005
Si
0.05
Total
0.3
1.7
to
2.3
0.05
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.3
0.75
to
1.25
0.05
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.3
2
to
3.1
Zr
0.45
to
1
2.5
to
4
0.3
Notes:
a. The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other
elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that they do not
exceed the limits specified for "Other Elements, Total".
SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
Table 9-8 Copper filler metal classification (AWS A5.7).

Composition, weight percentagea,b,c
AWS
UNS
d
Common
Name
Cu
Ni
Total
Including
Including
other
Classification
Number
ERCu
C18980
Copper
98 min
Ag
ERCuSi-A
C6S600
Silicon bronze
Remainder
ERCuSn-A
C51800
(copper-silicon)
Phosphor
bronze
ERCuNi'
C71580
Copper-nickel
Zn
Sn
Mn
0.5
1.5
Fe
Si
0.5
ERCuA1-A2
ERCuA1-A3
ERCuNiA1
ERCuMnN1A1
C61000
C61800
Aluminum
bronze
C62400
AlumInum
bronze
C63280
Nickelaluminum
C63380
bronze
Manganesenickel
aluminum
bronze
NAVEDTRA 14250A
A1
Pb
0.01
0.02
0.5
0.01
0.02
0.5
0.01
0.02
0.5
2.8
Remainder
0.1
6
Remainder
Ti
elements
0.35
1
0.4
0.25
0.75
ERCuA1-A1
P
0.15
(copper-tin)
AlumInum
bronze
Co
0.5
29
0.02
0.02
32
0.2
0.5
to
0.5
Remainder
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.02
0.5
0.02
0.5
0.02
0.5
8.5
Remainder
0.02
1.5
0.1
8.5
11.0
Remainder
0.1
0.1
10
4.5
Remainder
Remainder
0.1
0.15
0.6
3.5
11
14
11.5
0.1
0.1
8.5
5.5
9.5
1.5
8.5
0.02
0.5
0.02
0.5
9-33
Table 9-9 Chemical compositions of bare stainless steel filler wire and rods
(AWS A5.9).
Composition, Wt% a,b
AWS
Classification
UNS
Number
Cr
Ni
Mo
Mn
Si
Cu
Element
Amount
ER209
S20980
0.05
20.5-24.0
9.5-12.0
1.5-3.0
4.0-7.0
0.9
.03
.03
.10-.30
.75
0.10-0.30
ER218
S21880
0.1
16.0-18.0
8.0-9.0
0.75
7.0-9.0
3.5-4.5
.03
.03
.08-.18
.75
ER219
S521980
0.05
19.0-21.5
5.5-7.0
0.75
8.0-10.0
.03
.03
.10-.30
.75
ER240
S24080
0.05
17.0-19.0
4.0-6.0
0.75
10.5-13.5
.03
.03
.10-.30
.75
ER307
S30780
.04-.14
19.5-22.0
8.0-10.7
0.5-1.5
3.3-4.75
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308
S30880
0.08
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308H
S30880
.04-.08
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308L
S30883
0.03
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308Mo
S30882
0.08
IS.0-21.0
9.0-12.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308LMo
S30886
0.04
IS.0-21.0
9.0-12.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-25
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER308Si
S30881
0.08
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER308LSi
S30888
0.03
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.S
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER309
S30980
0.12
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.75
1.0-25
.30-.65
0.G3
.03
.75
ER309L
S30983
0.03
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.75
1.0-25
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER309Mo
S30982
0.12
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER309LMo
S30986
0.03
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-25
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER309Si
S30981
0.12
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER309LSi
S30988
0.03
23.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER310
S31080
.08-.15
25.0-28.0
20.0-22.5
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER312
S31380
0.15
28.0-32.0
8.0-10.5
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER316
S31680
0.08
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER316H
S31680
.04-.08
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER316L
S31683
0.03
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-25
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER316Si
S31681
0.08
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER316LSi
S31688
0.03
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-25
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
ER317
S31780
0.08
18.5-20.5
13.0-15.0
3.0-4.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER317L
S31783
0.03
18.5-20.5
13.0-15.0
3.0-4.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER318
S31980
0.08
18.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
Cb'
8XC min/1.0 max
ER320
N08021
0.07
19.0-21.0
32.0-36.0
2.0-3.0
25
0.6
.03
.03
3.0-4.0
Cb'
ER320LR
N08022
0.025
19.0-21.0
32.0-36.0
2.0-3.0
1.5-2.0
0.15
.02
.02
3.0-4.0
Cb'
8XC min/1.0 max

8XC min/0.40
max
ER321
S32180
0.08
18.5-20.5
9.0-10.5
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
Ti
9XC min/1.0 max
ER330
N08331
.18-.25
15.0-17.0
34.0-37.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
BR347
S34780
0.08
19.0-21.5
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
Cb'
ER347Si
S34788
0.08
19.0-21.5
9.0-11.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
.65-1.00
.03
.03
.75
Cb'
ER383
Noso28
0.025
26.5-28.5
30.0-33.0
3.2-4.2
1.0-25
0.5
.02
.03
.70-1.5
ER385
N08904
0.025
19.5-21.5
24.0-26.0
4.2-5.2
1.0-25
0.5
.02
.03
1.2-2.0
ER409
S40900
0.08
10.5-13.5
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.8
.03
.03
.75
Ti
ER409Cb
S40940
0.08
10.5-13.5
0.6
0.5
0.8
.04
.03
.75
Cb'
10XC min/1.0
max
10XC min/0.75
max
ER410
S41080
0.12
11.5-13.5
0.6
0.75
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
.75
ER410NiMo
S41086
0.06
11.0-12.5
4.0-5.0
0.4-0.7
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
.75
ER420
S42080
.25-.40
12.0-14.0
0.6
0.75
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
.75
10XC min/1.0
max
10XC min/1.0
max
ER430
S43080
0.1
15.5-17.0
0.6
0.75
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
ER446LMo
S44687
0.015
25.0-27.5
.75-1.50
0.4
0.4
.02
.02
.75
ER502'
SS0280
0.1
4.6-6.0
0.6
.45-0.65
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
.75
ER505'
S50480
0.1
0.5
0.8-1.2
0.6
0.5
.03
.03
.75
ER630
S17480
0.05
8.0-10.5
16.016.75
4.5-5.0
0.75
0.25-0.75
0.75
.03
.03
3.25-4.00
Cb'
0.15-0.30
ER19-10H
S30480
.04-.08
18.5-20.0
9.0-11.0
0.25
1.0-2.0
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
Cb'
0.05
Ti
0.05
Co
16.0-21.0
2.0-3.5
0.015
ER16-8-2
S16880
0.1
14.5-16.5
7.5-9.5
1.0-2.0
1.0-2.0
.30-.65
.03
.03
.75
ER2209
S39209
0.03
21.5-23.5
7.5-9.5
2.5-3.5
0.50-2.0
0.9
.03
.03
.08-.20
.75
ER2553
S39553
0.04
24.0-27.0
4.5-6.5
2.9-3.9
1.5
.04
.03
.10-.25
1.5-2.5
ER3556
R305S6
.05-.15
21.0-23.0
19.0-22.5
2.5-4.0
0.50-2.00
.20-.80
.04
.02
.10-.30
Notes:
a. Analysis shaIl be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If the presence of
other elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to
ensure that their total, excluding iron, does not exceed 0.50 percent.
b. Single values shown are maximum percentages.
In the designator for composite, stranded, and strip electrodes, the "R" shall be deleted. A designator "C" shall
be used for composite and stranded electrodes and a designator ''Q" shall be used for strip electrodes. For
example, ERXXX designates a solid wire, and EQXXX designates a strip electrode of the same general
analysis, and the same UNS number. However, ECXXX designates a composite metal
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Cb
0.3
Ta
0.30-1.25
A1
0.10-0.50
Zr
0.001-.10
La
0.005-.10
0.02
9-34
Table 9-10 Chemical compositions of filler wire and rods used for welding
nickel and nickel alloys (AWS A5.14).
Weight percent
AWS
Classification
ERNi-1
UNS
Number
N02061
C
0.15
Mn
1.0
Fe
1.0
P
0.03
S
0.015
Si
0.75
Cu
0.25
Nid
93.0
min
ERNieu-7
N04060
0.15
4.0
2.5
0.02
0.015
1.25
Rem
ERNier-1
N060X2
0.10
3.0
(un
0.015
0.50
0.50
ERNICrFe-5
N06062
0.0K
2.5
to
3.5
1.0
62.0
to
69
67.0
min
0.03
0.015
0.35
0.50
70.0
min
ERNICrFc-6
N07092
00K
0.03
0.015
0.35
'0.50
67.0
mIn
ERNiFcCr-1
N08065
0.05
2.0
to
2.7
1.0
6.0
to
10
80
22.0
min.
003
0.03
0.50
ERNiFeCr-2g
N07715
0.05
0.35
Rem
0.015
0.015
0.35
1.50
to
3
0.30
ERNiMo-1
N1000I
0.05
1.0
0.025
0.03
1.0
0.50
2.5
ERNiMo-2
N10003
1.0
0.015
0.02
1.0
0.50
Rem
0.20
ERNiMo-3
N10004
0.04
to
0.08
0.12
4.0
to
7.0
5.0
35.0
to
46
50.0
to
55.0
Rem
0.04
0.03
1.0
0.50
Rem
2.5
ERNiMo-7
NI0665
0.02
1.0
4.0
to
7
2.0
0.04
0.03
0.10
0.50
Rem
1.0
ERNiCrMo-1
N06007
0.05
0.Q3
1.0
2.5
0.04
0.03
1.0
Rem
ERNiCrMo-3
N06625
0.05
to
0.15
0.10
1.5
to
2.5
0.50
Rem
N06002
0.50
I5.0
to
21.0
17.0
to
20.0
5.0
0.04
ERNiCrMo-2
1.0
to
2.0
1.0
0.02
0.015
0.50
0.50
58.0
min
0.50
to
2.5
ERNiCrMo-4
N10276
0.02
1.0
0.04
0.Q3
0.05
0.50
Rem
2.5
ERNiCrMo-7
N06455
0.015
1.0
4.0
to
7
3.0
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.50
Rem
2.0
ERNiCrMo-8
N06975
0.03
1.0
Rem
0.03
0.03
1.0
ERNiCrMo-9
N06955
0.015
1.0
0.04
0.03
1.0
47.0
to
52
Rem
5.0
ERNiCrMo-10
N06022
0.015
0.50
0.02
0.010
0.08
Rem
2.5
ERNiCrMo-1I
N06030
0.03
1.5
0.04
0.02
0.80
1.0
to
2.4
Rem
5.0
ERNiCrCoMo1
I8.0
to
21
2.0
to
6
13.0
to
17.0
0.7
to
1.2
1.5
to
2.5
0.50
N06617
0.05
to
0.15
1.0
3.0
0.03
0.DI5
1.0
0.50
Rem
10.0
to
15
1.0
Co
A1
1.5
1.25
Ti
2.0
to
3.5
1.5
to
3
0.75
0.20
0.20
to
0.80
2.5
to
3.5
0.60
to
1.2
0.65
to
1.15
Cr
Cb
plus
Ta
0.40
0:70
0.70
to
1.5
0.80
to
1.5
0.60
0.50
I8.0
to
22
14.0
to
17
14.0
to
17
19.5
to
23.5
17.0
to
21.0
1.0
2.0
to
3.0f
1.5
to
3f
4.75
to
5.50
6.0
to
8
4.0
to
6
1.0
0.40
Mo
Other
Elements
Total
0.50
21.0
to
23.5
20.5
to
23
20.0
to
23
14.5
to
16.5
14.0
to
18
23.0
to
26
21.0
to
23.5
20.0
to
22.5
28.0
to
31.5
20.0
to
24.0
1.75
to
2.5
3.15
to
4.15
0.50
0.30
to
1.5
0.50
0.50
0.50
2.5
to
3.5
2.80
to
3.30
26.0
to
30.0
15.0
to
18
23.0
to
26
26.0
to
30
5.5
to
7.5
8.0
to
10
8.0
to
10
15.0
to
17
14.0
to
18
5.0
to
7
6.0
to
8
12.5
to
14.5
4.0
to
6
0.50
0.50
0.20
to
0.40
0.50
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.60
1.0
0.50
1.0
0.50
1.0
0.50
0.20
to
1
0.50
3.0
to
4.5
0.50
0.50
0.35
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.35
1.5
0.50
2.5
to4.5
0.50
1.5
to
4
0.50
8.0
to
10
0.50
Notes:
a. The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. In the course of this work. if the presence of
other elements is indicated. the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limit specified for
"Other Elements. Total" in the last column of the table.
c. SAEIASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
d. Includes incidental cobalt.
e. Cobalt-D.12 maximum, when specified.
f.
Tantalum-D.30 maximum, when specified.
g. Boron is 0.006 percent maximum.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-35
5.3.2 Sizing
Filler metals come either in straight cut lengths that are 36 inches (914mm) long for
manual welding or in continuous spooled wire for mechanized welding. The diameter of
the filler wire ranges from about .020 inches (.50mm) for delicate or fine work, to about
1/4 inch (6.4mm) for high current welding and surfacing.
5.4.0 Selection of Filler Metal

The type of base metal and the specific mechanical and chemical properties desired are
the major factors in determining the choice of a filler metal. You must be able to identify
the base metal to select the proper filler metal. If you do not know the base metals
composition, you need to test it based on appearance and weight with magnetic checks,
chisel tests, flame tests, fracture tests, spark tests, and chemistry tests.
The selection of the proper filler metal for specific job applications is quite involved, but
you should base it on the following factors:
1. Base metal strength properties This is done by choosing a filler metal to match
the tensile strength of the base metal. This is usually most important with steel.
2. Base metal composition The chemical composition of the base metal must be
known. Matching the chemical composition is not as important for mild steel as it
is for stainless steels and non-ferrous metals. Closely matching the filler metal to
the base metal is needed when corrosion resistance and color match are
important considerations.
3. Thickness and shape of base metal weldments Thick sections or complex
shapes may require maximum ductility to avoid weld cracking. Filler metal types
that give best ductility should be used.
4. Service conditions and/or specifications When weldments are subjected to
severe service conditions, such as low temperatures, high temperatures, or
shock loading, a filler metal that closely matches the base metal composition,
ductility, and impact resistance properties should be used.
Topic 7 Welding Metallurgy will provide more exact recommendations for choosing
filler metals.
5.5.0 Conformances
Filler metals must conform to written specifications for many applications of gas
tungsten arc welding. The three major code-making organizations that issue filler metal
specifications are the American Welding Society (AWS), the American Society for
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and the military. The ASME recognizes the AWS
specifications or makes its own specifications. The filler wire must meet particular
requirements in order to conform to filler metal specifications.

5.
What should be the purity rating of the shielding gas?

A.
B.
C.
D.
96.99%
97.99%
98.99%
99.99%
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-36
6.
(True or False) SAE devised the filler metal classifications.

A.
B.
True
False

Gas tungsten arc welding is widely used because of its versatility. When weld purity is
important, this process welds stainless steel, low alloy steel, maraging (mahr-ey-jing)
steel, nickel, cobalt, titanium, aluminum, copper, magnesium, and most other metals in
all positions and produces clean weld deposits. The clean weld deposits TIG produces
usually avoids the need of grinding and finishing, and all methods are usable: manual,
semiautomatic, mechanized, and fully automatic.
6.1.0 Industries
Welding pipe or nuclear power components are typical examples of the wide variety of
TIG applications. This process can also weld thin metals and small objects such as
transistor cases, instrument diaphragms, and other delicate parts.
Manual TIG is appropriate for
welding pipe and tubing in all
positions. The excellent control of
heat input gives maximum
penetration while preventing meltthrough on the root pass. Welders
use TIG in both the manual and
automatic methods to weld
industrial piping made of various
metals and thicknesses, from 1/32
inch (.8 mm) and up (Figure 9-22).
The maximum thickness welded
depends on the equipment
available and the type of metal. In
some critical welds with metal
thicknesses greater than 1/4-3/8
inch (6.4-9.5 mm), the root pass
of the pipe is deposited by TIG
and then completed with SMAW,
GMAW, or FCAW. Sometimes,
pipe welders will use consumable
inserts in critical service
Figure 9-22 Industrial pipe welding.
applications. These inserts reduce
porosity when alloyed with
deoxidizers, improve the contour of the underside of the weld, and minimize cracking in
the weld. In thin pipe wall (depending on the base metal), complete fusion is obtainable
without using filler metal, but of course filler metals are used with thicker sections to fill
the joint.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-37
Thus, the different ways of depositing the first layer on a pipe or tube are the following:
1. Ends abutted and fused.
2. Ends abutted or slightly separated with filler metal added to the arc area.
3. Ends abutted against a filler ring and then completely fused.
If deep penetration with controlled heat input is necessary, then pulsed current may be
used.
Automatic circumferential or orbital TIG is another option to weld tube and pipe. The
programmed procedure can produce a quantity of identical welds with a high degree of
quality and efficiency. Industries with high quality control requirements and those that
demand accessibility to the joint use this method extensively.
Power piping, air piping, refrigeration piping, chemical industry process piping, and
nuclear power piping are some of the different industries that apply the gas tungsten arc
welding process for welding piping and tubing. Vacuum jacketed piping and pressure
piping are a couple cases where critical welding is required.
6.1.2 Nuclear Power Facilities
The construction and repair of nuclear power facilities requires critical welding. . Many
nuclear applications use both the manual and automatic methods because of their
precise control of the welding.
Gas tungsten arc welding performs the welding for end closure caps and plugs to fuel
rods, and the airtight sealing of the end closures on fuel rods.
This process is also a primary welding method for rod type fuel elements. It is used to
close a backfilling hole that was used to pressure the fuel rods after welding the end
closures.
6.1.3 Ships
TIG applies also to the shipbuilding industry because it uses different materials like
aluminum, stainless steel, and molybdenum.
On hydrofoils, which are primarily made of aluminum, light gauge material and root
passes of heavier sections are welded by this process, with GMAW usually completing
the weld on the heavier sections. Stainless steel hydrofoils and struts are virtually all
welded by the TIG process. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanks have a stainless steel
liner inside the vessel that is completely TIG welded.
6.1.4 Aerospace
The gas tungsten arc welding process is the major welding process used in the
aerospace industry. This industry includes the welding of aircraft, spacecraft, and
launch vehicles. Some of the materials welded include aluminum, titanium, low alloy
steel, maraging steel, magnesium, nickel, stainless steel, and super alloys in both the
manual and automatic methods.
In the aircraft industry, examples of the many different welded parts and assemblies
include the fuselage, wing and tail assemblies, landing wheels, engine parts, engine
motor cases, and conventional aircraft assemblies such as ducts, fittings, accumulators,
check valves, exhaust mufflers, and fairing and cowling components.
Launch vehicles and spacecraft are other major applications of the TIG process. Most
aluminum tank fabricators use TIG for the critical pressure vessel butt welds. Titanium
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-38
alloys used in the liquid propellant tanks, high pressure gas storage tanks, and solid
rocket motor cases are almost exclusively TIG welded.
From landing gears and re-entry capsules, to large diameter rocket booster cases made
of high strength, high carbon, low alloy steel, with thicknesses ranging 0.04-2.0 inches
(1.0-5.1 mm), all are welded by this process.
Maraging steels used to make solid rocket motor chambers are fabricated reliably using
TIG, but additional sufficient inert gas shielding must protect the face and root of the
weld from oxidation. Often, manufacturers accomplish this by welding within inert gas
chambers or by using a backing gas to protect the root of the joint and a trailing gas to
protect the cooling weld metal behind the torch.
6.1.5 Transportation
The automotive and railroad
industries only use TIG to a small
extent, mainly for welding nonferrous metals, for maintenance,
and for small components.
Fabrication of aluminum
radiators 3/32-1/8 inch (2.4-3.2
mm) thick is one application
these industries (Figure 9-23).
In the railroad industry, several of
the interior components made of
aluminum, Monel, stainless steel,
and copper are sometimes
welded by this process, and
there are some maintenance and
repair of passenger trains with
TIG.
6.1.6 Pressure Vessels,
Boilers, and Heat
Exchangers
Figure 9-23 TIG on aluminum radiator.
Gas tungsten arc welding has wide applications in the pipe and tube industry for
welding pressure vessels, boilers, and heat exchangers. This industry uses it for full
fusion welding from one side without the use of permanent backing rings, and on girth
butt welds with a smooth internal contour. By choosing the correct filler metal and
welding conditions, you can obtain adequate mechanical strength and corrosion
resistance for a particular service. Virtually all tube-to-tube sheet welding of heat
exchangers is done by the automatic method.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-39

TIG can provide maintenance
and repair by both the manual
and automatic methods. Several
industries use this process
because its versatility and
weldability permit quality welding
for various applications.
The TIG process repairs cast
aluminum engine blocks and
heads. The area of a defect is
puddle melted, scraped out with a
steel rod, and finally filled. This
process also repairs stainless
valves and copper heat-sealing
dies for heat exchangers.
Repairing the part instead of
buying a new one saves money
and time.
There are many other possible
applications for gas tungsten arc
welding in maintenance and
repair.
Figure 9-24 Repair of a roll bar.
6.1.8 Miscellaneous
There are numerous general applications for TIG throughout industry.
The TIG process welds all the
following:
stainless aeration parts for

pollution control
equipment
thin steel brackets on lift
trucks
low alloy steel stop rings
to the accumulator on
shock absorbers
small-sized pressure
sensing cells
stainless steel jackets
around the coil of
superconducting magnets
stainless steel adapter
bushings to stainless steel
bulbs for self- actuated
thermostatic regulators
aluminum frame for
elevating platforms
hospital equipment
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-25 TIG welding of a brace.

9-40
mixers
vats
tanks
freezers
coolers
cold rooms made from stainless steel
Welders often use TIG for a wide variety of applications where the parts are made out of
non-ferrous metals, and there are other applications too numerous to discuss in this
course.
6.2.0 Arc Spot Welding

Obtained through the melting and fusion of the metal joint, gas tungsten arc spot
welding is a method used for making small localized fusion welds from one side of a lap
joint. Welding thick metals tends to cause depressions and surface cracking in the
center of the weld, so gas
tungsten arc spot welding is
limited to welding metal about 16
gauge (1 .5 mm) thick or less.
Operators may or may not add
filler metal depending on the
metal thickness and size of the
weld puddle. The equipment
used is similar to that used for
TIG except that TIG spot welding
uses a timing device and a
specially designed torch and
nozzle (Figure 9-26).
Primarily used on mild steel, low
alloy steel, stainless steel, and
aluminum, this method of spot
welding can replace resistance
spot welding and riveting for
many applications, including
garage doors, radar cabins,
electrical fittings, cable sheaths,
and domestic hardware.
Figure 9-26 Gas tungsten arc spot

welding torch.
The advantages of this process

are the high production rates and low costs obtained; the cost of the equipment is low
compared to resistance welding equipment. In addition, when the equipment for gas
tungsten arc spot welding uses the proper settings, visual inspection is more reliable
than when resistance spot welding is done.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-41

7.
What industry uses TIG almost exclusively?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Transportation
Aerospace
Ships
Nuclear power facilities
What is the maximum metal thickness limitation on TIG spot welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10 gauge
14 gauge
16 gauge
20 gauge

Knowing the basics of welding metallurgy will provide a firm foundation for
understanding the chemical and physical changes that occur on metal when using the
TIG process.

The properties of the weld are items such as the chemical composition, the mechanical
strength and ductility, and the microstructure. These items will determine the quality of
the weld. The types of materials used affect the chemical properties. The mechanical
properties and microstructure of the weld are determined by the heat input of welding as
well as the chemical composition of the materials.
The chemical and physical properties such as the chemical composition, melting point,
and thermal conductivity have a great influence on the weldability. These three items
have an influence on the amount of preheating and postheating used, as well as the
welding parameters, because preheating and postheating are used to prevent the area
from becoming brittle and weak.
In the welding of steel, the carbon and other alloy content influence the hardness and
hardenability of the weld metal, which in turn influences the amount of preheat needed.
The two terms, hardness and hardenability, are not the same. The maximum hardness
of a steel is the resistance to indentation. Hardenability is a measure of how easily a
martensite structure forms when the steel is quenched.
Martensite is the phase or metallurgical structure in steel where the maximum hardness
of the steel can be obtained. Steels with low hardenability must have very high cooling
rates after welding to form martensite. Steels with high hardenability will form martensite
even when they are slow-cooled in air. The hardenability will determine to what extent a
steel will harden during welding. The carbon equivalent formula is one of the best
methods of determining the weldability of steels. This value is determined by the
amounts of some of the alloying elements used. There are several different formulas
used. One of these is:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-42
Steels with lower carbon equivalents generally are readily weldable and require fewer
precautions such as the use of preheat and postheat.
Steels with higher carbon equivalents are usually more difficult to weld. In the welding of
many of the steels, matching the chemical composition of the filler metal to the base
metal is not as important as matching the mechanical properties. Often, filler metal with
a lower carbon content than the base metal is used because the weld metal absorbs
carbon from the base metal during solidification. The carbon content is kept low to
minimize the tendency toward weld cracking. Alloys are used in the filler metal to
maintain weld strength. In the welding of stainless steels and non-ferrous metals, the
chemical composition of the weld is often the most important property. The chemical
composition of the weld must match the composition of the base metal when corrosion
resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity, and appearance are major
considerations.
Preheating helps reduce the cooling rate of the weld to prevent cracking. The amount of
preheat needed depends on the type of metal being welded, the metal thickness, and
the amount of joint restraint. In steels, those with higher carbon equivalents generally
need more preheating than those with lower carbon equivalents. For the non-ferrous
metals, this will often depend on the melting points and thermal conductivity of the
metal. Table 9-11 shows typical preheat values for various metals welded by this
process.
Another major factor that also determines the amount of preheat needed is the
thickness of the base metal. Thicker base metals usually need higher preheat
temperatures than thinner base metals because of the larger heat sinks that thicker
metals provide. Thick metal draws the heat away from the welding zone quicker
because there is a large mass of metal to absorb the heat. It would increase the cooling
rate of the weld if the same preheat temperature were used on thick base metals as is
used on thinner base metals.
The third major factor for determining the amount of preheating needed is the amount of
joint restraint. Joint restraint is the resistance of a joint configuration to moving or
relieving the stresses due to welding during the heating and cooling of the weld zone.
Where there is high resistance to moving or high joint restraint, large amounts of
internal stress build up, and higher preheat temperatures are needed as the amount of
joint restraint increases. Slower cooling rates reduce the amount of internal stress that
build up as the weld cools.
The melting point of the base metal is a major consideration in determining the
weldability of a metal. Metals with very low melting points are difficult to weld because
the intense heat of the welding arc will melt them too quickly to join them easily. These
metals must be brazed because welding is not practical.
Another property that affects the weldability is the thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity is the rate at which heat is conducted by the metal, and it determines the
rate at which heat will leave the welding area. Metals that have a high thermal
conductivity often require higher preheats and welding currents to avoid cracking.
Metals that have very low thermal conductivity may require no preheat and lower
welding currents to prevent overheating an area, which can cause distortion, warpage,
and changes in mechanical properties.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-43
Table 9-11 Preheats for various metals.

Type of Steel
Preheat
Low-Carbon Steel
Medium-Carbon Steel
400-500F (205-260C)
High-Carbon Steel
500-600F (260-315C)

Room Temperature
500F (260C)

200-300F (93-150C)
600-800F (315-425C)
900-1100F (480-595C)
400-600F (205-315C)
Up to 750F (400C)

Room Temperature
400-650F (205-345C)
150-300F (66-150C)
Room Temperature
150-500F (66-260C)
150-300F (66-150C)
Cast Irons
700-900F (370-480C)
Copper
500-800F (260-425C)
Nickel
200-300F (93-150C)
Aluminum
Note:
Room Temperature 300F (150C)
The actual preheat needed may depend on several other factors such as the thickness of the base metal,
the amount of joint restraint, and whether or not low-hydrogen types of electrodes are used. This chart is
intended as general information; the specifications of the job should be checked for the specific preheat
temperature used.

measures of the strength of the material, the next two are a measure of the ductility, and
the last is a measure of the impact toughness. These properties are important in gas
tungsten arc welding, especially for welding steel and the non-ferrous alloys that have
been developed to give maximum strength, ductility, and toughness.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-44
The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and reduction of area are all
measured from a .505 in. (12.B mm)
before and a tensile bar after testing. The
yield strength of the metal is the stress at
which the material is pulled beyond the point
where it will return to its original length. The
tensile strength is the maximum load that
can be carried by the metal. This is also
measured in psi (MPa). Elongation is a
measure of ductility that is also measured on
the tensile bar. Two points are marked on
the bar 2 in. (51 mm) apart before testing.
After testing, the distance between the two
points is measured again and the percent of
testing bars.
cross section of the testing bar is .505 sq. in (104 sq. mm).
During the testing the diameter of the bar reduces as it elongates. When the bar finally
breaks, the diameter of the bar at the
breaking point is measured, which is then
used to determine the area. The percent
reduction of this cross-sectional area is
called the reduction of area.
metal is the ability of a metal to absorb
mechanical energy by deforming before
breaking. The Charpy V-notch test is the
most commonly used method of making
impact toughness tests. Figure 9-28 shows
some typical Charpy V-notch test bars.
These bars are usually 10 mm square and
have v-shaped notches ground or machined
in them. They are put in a machine where
they are struck by a hammer attached to the
end of a pendulum. The energy that it takes
to break these bars is known as the impact
strength and it is measured in foot-pounds
(Joules).

bars.
There are three basic microstructural areas within a weldment. These are the weld
metal, the heat affected zone, and the base metal. The weld metal is the area that was
molten during welding. This is bounded by the fusion line which is the maximum limit of
melting. The heat affected zone is the area where the heat from welding had an effect
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-45
on the microstructure of the base metal. The

limit of visible heat affect is the outer limit of
this area. The base metal zone is the area
that was not affected by the welding. Figure
9-29 shows a cross section of a weld
showing the different areas.
The extent of change of the microstructure is
dependent on four factors:
1. The maximum temperature that the
weld metal reached.
2. The time that the weld spent at that
temperature.
3. The chemical composition of the base
metal.
4. The cooling rate of the weld.
Figure 9-29 Cross section of a
weld.
The weld metal zone, which is the area that

is melted, generally has the coarsest grain
structure of the three areas. Generally, a
fairly fine grain size is produced in most

metals on cooling, but in some metals,
especially refractory metals, rapid grain
growth in the weld metal can become a
problem.
Large grain size is undesirable because it
gives the weld poor toughness and poor
cracking resistance. The solidification of the
weld metal starts at the edge of the weld
puddle next to the base metal. The grains
that form at the edge, called dendrites, grow
toward the molten center of the weld. Figure
9-30 shows the solidification pattern of a
weld. These dendrites give the weld metal its
characteristic columnar grain structure. The
grains that form in the weld zone are similar
to the grains that form in castings.
Figure 9-30 Solidification

pattern of a weld.
Deoxidizers and scavengers are often added
to filler metal to help refine the grain size in
the weld. The greater the heat input to the
weld and the longer that it is held at high temperatures, the larger the grain size. A fast
cooling rate will produce a smaller grain size than a slower cooling rate. Preheating will
give larger grain sizes, but is often necessary to prevent the formation of a hard, brittle
microstructure.
The heat affected zone is the area where changes occur in the microstructure of the
base metal; the area that is closest to the weld metal usually undergoes grain growth.
Other parts of the heat affected zone will go through grain refinement, while still other
areas may be annealed and considerably softened. Because of the changes due to the
heat input, areas of the heat affected zone can become embrittled and become the
source of cracking. A large heat input during welding will cause a larger heat affected
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-46
zone, which is often not desirable, so the welding parameters used can help influence
the size of the heat affected zone.
7.2.0 Weldable Metals

TIG is used to weld most metals and their alloys. Some of the most common metals
welded by this process are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, mild steel, low alloy
steel, titanium, zirconium, and the refractory metals. Lead and zinc are difficult to weld
because of their low melting points and tendency to contaminate the tungsten electrode,
but TIG is widely used for welding lead.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is one of the most widely used processes for
welding aluminum and its alloys. The major alloying elements used in aluminum are
copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, and zinc. Table 9-12 shows how aluminum
alloys are classified according to their alloy content.
Aluminum alloys are also classified into heat treatable and non-heat treatable
categories. Alloys of the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX series are heat treatable. Alloys of the
1 XXX, 3XXX, 4XXX, and 5XXX series are non-heat treatable, so they derive their
strength from working.
Table 9-12 Aluminum Alloy Classifications.
Aluminum Classification
Major Alloying Element
1XXX
Commercially pure
2XXX
Copper
3XXX
Manganese
4XXX
Silicon
5XXX
Magnesium
6XXX
Silicon + Magnesium
7XXX
Zinc
8XXX
Other
Generally, you would use TIG to weld the thinner materials, with manual welding done
on thicknesses ranging from .030 inch (1 mm) to 3/8 inch (9.5 mm), and automatic
welding performed on metal ranging in thickness from .01 0 inch (.25 mm) to 1 inch
(25.4 mm). You can use either alternating current or direct current welding power, but
alternating current is the most popular for almost all manual and automatic welding
applications.
Direct current electrode positive is used only for some very thin metal applications.
Direct current electrode negative is used sometimes for high current automatic welding
applications.
Pure or zirconium tungsten electrodes are the most commonly used types for aluminum.
The thoriated tungsten electrodes have a tendency to spit and cause inclusions when
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-47
used with alternating current, and are not very popular for welding aluminum. Argon
shielding gas is normally used, but argon-helium mixtures are used sometimes to give
deeper penetration and allow faster travel speeds. When direct current electrode
negative is used, mixtures of argon and helium are preferred.
Depending upon the joint and the application, you may or may not use a filler metal;
often, thin metal is welded without a filler metal. The filler metal used for welding
aluminum is generally of the non-heat treatable type. Consequently, when welding
some of the higher strength heat treatable alloys, the weld deposit will be weaker than
the base metal.
Choosing the type of filler metal to use for welding a specific aluminum alloy is based on
ease of welding, corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, elevated temperature service,
and color match with the base metal after welding. You should not use aluminum filler
metal with magnesium contents greater than 3% at service temperatures greater than
1500 F because they become sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. Table 9-13 shows
a filler metal selection chart based on the specific properties desired. Table 9-14 shows
a filler metal selection chart for welding different aluminums together.
The oxide layer on the surface of the aluminum is what makes aluminum more difficult
to weld than many other metals. This oxide layer has a very high melting point
compared to the melting temperature of the aluminum itself. Direct current electrode
positive gives the welding arc an oxide-cleaning action which breaks the oxide layer so
that welding can take place. This type of current can be used only at very low current
levels because the heat buildup on the tungsten electrode can cause it to melt. Direct
current electrode negative can be used at high current levels, but it has difficulty
removing the oxide layer. For these reasons, alternating current is the most popular for
the welding of aluminum.
During the electrode positive portion of the cycle, the oxide layer is broken down, and
during the electrode negative portion of the cycle, penetration is obtained. Alternating
current prevents the electrode from overheating and permits the use of enough welding
current to give good penetration. Remove the oxide chemically or mechanically before
welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-48
Table 9-13 Aluminum Filler Metal Selection Based on Properties.

Property Desired
Type of
base metal
Strength Ductility
Color match after

anodizing
Corrosion
resistance
Least cracking
tendency
1100
4043
1100
1100
1100
4043
2219
2319
2319
2319
2319
2319
3003
4043
1100
1100
1100
4043
5052
5356
5654
5356
5554
5356
5083
5183
5356
5183
5193
5356
5086
5356
5356
5356
5356
5356
5454
5356
5554
5554
5554
5356
5456
5556
5356
5556
5556
5356
6061
5356
5356
5654
4043
4043
6063
5356
5356
5356
4043
4043
7005
5039
5356
5036
5039
5356
7039
5039
5356
5039
5039
5356
A preheat is used on aluminum only when the temperature of the parts is below 15 F (10 C), or when a large mass of metal is being welded, which will draw the heat away
very quickly. Aluminum has high thermal conductivity, so heat is drawn away from the
welding area. Because aluminum has a relatively low melting point and a high thermal
conductivity, overheating can be a problem, especially on thin metal, so preheating is
seldom used. The maximum preheat normally used on aluminum is 300 F (150 C). It
is usually preferable to increase the voltage and current levels to obtain adequate heat
input rather than use preheating. However, a preheat of 200-300 F (93-15 C) is used
often when using alternating current on metal thicknesses greater than 3/16 inch (4.8
mm). Some alloys such as 5083, 5086, and 5456 should not be preheated to between
200 and 300 F (95-150 C) because their resistance to stress corrosion cracking will be
reduced due to high magnesium contents.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-49
Table 9-14 Aluminum filler metal selection chart.

511.0
Base Metal
1060,1070,1080,135
0
224.0
C355.0
A444.0
535.0
712.0
6070
6005,
6061
6063,
6061
6151,
6201
6351,
6951
ER4145
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043ab
ER4043ab
1100,3003, A1c 3003

2014, 2036
2219
ER4145
ER4145e
ER2319a
ER4145
ER4145'
ER4145e
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043
ER4043
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043f
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043f
ER4043f
ER5356cd
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5183d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5556d
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER4043b.
1
ER4043bf
ER5356cJ
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER53561
ER5356cf
ER5356d
ER4043bf
g
ER4043bf
g
ER4043bf
g
201.0
206.0
3004, A1c 3004

5005, 5050
5052, 5652i
5083
5086
5154, 5254i
5454
5456
319.0,
333.0
354.0,
355.0
356.0,
A356.0
357.0,
357.0
413.0,
443.0
ER4043b
512.0
514.0
7004,
7005
7039,
710.0
513.0
6005, 6061, 6063
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043bJg
ER5356f
ER5356cJ
6101, 6151, 6201
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043bJg
ER5356f
ER5356cJ
6351, 6951
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043bJg
ER5356f
ER5356cJ
6009, 6010, 6070

7004, 7005, 7039
710.0, 712.0
511.0, 512.0, 513.0
514.0, 535.0
356.0, A3560, 357.0
357.0, 413.0
443.0
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043
ER5356'
ER5356'
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER4043
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER4145
ER4145
ER4145
319.0, 333.0
ER4145e
354.0, 355.0
ER4145e
C355.0
ER4145e
ER2319a
h
ER4145bc
ER4145bc
ER4145bc
ER4145bc
h
ER4145bc
h
ER4145bc
h
ER4043abg
ER4043bJ
ER4043bJ
ER4043f
ER4043f
ER4043bh
ER4043bh
ER4043bh
201.0, 206.0, 224.0
Base Metal
1060, 1070, 1080,
1350
1100, 3003,
A1c.3003
2014, 2036
2219
3004, A1c.3004
5005, 5050
5052, 5652'
5083
5086
5154, 5254'
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
5154
5254i
5086
5083
ER5356cd
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356cd
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER4043
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER53561
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5654fi
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5183d
5052
5652'
ER4043b
d
ER4043b
d
ER4043b
ER5356cJ
ER5356cd
ER5654cf
6009
6010
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043ab
g
ER4043ab
g
ER4043ab
g
ER4043ab
g
5456
ER5356c
d
ER5356c
d
5454
ER4043a
b
ER4043a
b
ER4043b
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5183d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5556d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5554cf
5005
5050
3004
A1c.3004
2219
2014
2036
1100
3003
A1c.3003
ER1100bc
ER4043bd
ER4145bc
ER4145
ER1100bc
ER1100bc
ER4145
ER4043a
b
ER5356cf
ER5356cJ
ER4043bd
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4145e
ER4145
ER4145e
ER1100bc
ER4043ab
ER5356cf
ER2319a
1060
1070
1080
1350
ER1188bch
j
Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water, exposure to specific chemicals. or a sustained high temperature {over 150F (66C)) may limit the choice of
filler metals. Filler metals ER5183, ER5356, ER5556, and ER5654 are not recommended for sustained elevated temperature service,
Recommendations in this table apply to gas shielded arc welding processes. For oxy-fuel gas welding, only ER 1188, ERll00, ER4043, ER4047, and ER4145 filler
metals are ordinarily used.
Where no filler metal is listed. the base metal combination is not recommended for welding.
ER4145 may be used for some applications.
ER4047 may be used for some applications.
ER4043 may be used for some applications,
ER5183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used.
ER2319 may be used for some applications. It can supply high strength when the weldment is postweld solution heat treated and aged.
ER5183, ER5356, ER5554, ER5556, and ER5654 may be used. In some cases, they provide; (1) improved color match after anodizing treatment, (2) highest weld
ductility, and (3) higher weld strength. ER5554 is suitable for sustained elevated temperature service.
ER4643 will provide high strength in 1/2 in. (12 mm) and thicker groove welds in 6XXX base alloys when postweld solution heat treated and aged.
h.
Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used. The following wrought filler metals possess the same chemical composition limits as cast filler
alloys: ER4009 and R4009 as R-C355.0; ER40JO and R4010 as R-A356.0; and R40J I as R-A357.0.
i.
Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are used for hydrogen peroxide service. ER5654 filler metal is used for welding both alloys for service temperatures below 150"F
(66"C).
j.
jERll00 may be used for some applications
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-50

Gas tungsten arc welding is well suited for welding copper and copper alloys because of
the intense arc generated by this process. This is advantageous because copper has
very high thermal conductivity and the heat is conducted away from the weld zone quite
rapidly. An intense arc is important in completing the fusion with minimum heating of the
surrounding base metal.
The main alloying elements used in copper are zinc (brasses), phosphorous (phosphor
bronzes), aluminum (aluminum bronzes), beryllium (beryllium coppers), nickel (nickel
silvers), silicon (silicon bronzes), tin and zinc (tin brasses), and nickel and zinc (nickel
silvers). All are TIG weldable, but some are easier to weld than others.
The most weldable are the deoxidized coppers, the silicon bronzes, and the copper
nickels. The most difficult alloys to weld are those with the highest zinc content, which
have a high cracking tendency, and electrolytic tough pitch copper, which causes
problems with porosity. Table 9-15 shows the relative ease of welding copper and
copper alloys.
TIG welding copper and copper alloys is usually done with direct current electrode
negative because of the high current capacity. Exceptions to this include welding
beryllium coppers and aluminum bronzes, where you should use alternating current to
prevent the buildup of oxides. You must take care when welding beryllium coppers; the
fumes given off are dangerous to your health, so you need to wear a gas mask.
Thoriated or zirconium tungsten electrodes are recommended with the 2% thoriated
type being the most popular for welding copper and copper alloys. Generally, argon
shielding gas is used on the thinner sections while helium and mixtures of argon and
helium are used more commonly on the thicker sections. Preheating is not necessary
on the thinner sections, but frequently it is required on sections thicker than 1/8 inch (3.2
mm) so the heat does not leave the weld area too quickly. A temperature of 500-800 F
(260-4250 C) is typical for preheating copper and copper alloys.
Gas tungsten arc welding is primarily used for welding metal thicknesses up to 1/8 inch
(3.2 mm) and for repairing welding or castings. Welding currents used for copper are
50-75% higher than for aluminum because of the high thermal conductivity of copper.
Filler metal is frequently eliminated for welding thinner material, but for thicknesses
greater than 1/8 inch (3.2 mm), filler metal is usually used. About inch (12.7 mm) is
the maximum practical thickness for TIG welding copper, above this thickness, you
should use MIG.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-51
Table 9-15 Weldability ratings of coppers and copper alloys (1=excellent,

2=good, 3=fair)
Type
Weldability rating
Oxygen free copper
Electrolytic tough pitch copper
Deoxidized copper
Beryllium copper
Low-zinc brass
High-zinc brass
Tin brasses
Nickel silvers
Phosphor bronzes
Aluminum bronzes
Silicon bronzes
Copper nickels
When filler metal is used, it is usually selected so the chemical composition of the filler
rod closely matches the base metal. This is often necessary to obtain a strong weld joint
in some of the copper alloys.
However, a filler metal with a different chemical composition than the base metal may
be selected when welding some of the weaker alloys to give the weld joint added
strength. The best choice of filler metal depends primarily on the type of copper alloy
the base metal is, with consideration for the metals application as well.
7.2.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
TIG is the most popular process for welding magnesium and magnesium alloys. The
major alloying elements used with magnesium are aluminum, zinc, and thorium. Most
magnesium alloys are weldable with this process, but the weldability will vary with the
alloy. Table 9-16 shows the main alloying elements used and the relative weldability of
the alloys. The rating is based mainly on the susceptibility to cracking. Aluminum
content up to about 10% helps the weldability because it promotes grain size
refinement, and zinc content above about 1% will increase the tendency towards hot
cracking. Alloys that have a high zinc content are very susceptible to cracking and have
poorer weldability. Thorium alloys generally have excellent weldability.
Magnesium forms an oxide similar to aluminum oxide, which gives these two metals
similar welding characteristics. Alternating current is used for most magnesium and
magnesium alloy welding applications because of its good oxide cleaning action, which
allows higher welding speeds. Direct current electrode positive is often used for welding
metal thicknesses from less than 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) up to 3/8 inch (4.8 mm). Above this
thickness, gas metal arc welding is often used.
Inert gases such as argon, argon-helium mixtures, and helium are required for shielding
because magnesium will react chemically with an active gas. Preheating is often used
on thin sections and on highly restrained joints to prevent weld cracking. Thicker
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-52
sections generally do not require preheating unless there is a high degree of joint
restraint. All of the different types of tungsten electrodes are used, especially the pure
and zirconium tungsten electrodes.
Filler metal for the gas tungsten arc welding of magnesium and magnesium alloys
generally is one of four different types. Filler metals with lower melting points and wider
freezing ranges than the base metal are often used to avoid cracking. Table 9-17 also
shows a filler metal selection chart. The type of filler metal used is governed by the
chemical composition of the base metal.
Table 9-16 Magnesium alloy classification, weldability and filler selection
(1=excellent, 2=good, 3=fair, 4 =poor).
Magnesium Major Alloying
Alloy
Elements
Wrought Alloys
AZ10A
Aluminum Zinc
AZ31B
Aluminum Zinc
AZ31C
Aluminum Zinc
AZ61A
Aluminum Zinc
AZ80A
Aluminum Zinc
HK31A
Thorium Zirconium
HM21A
Thorium Manganese
HM31A
Thorium Manganese
Weldability Filler
Rating
Metal
LA141A
M1A
ZE10A
ZK21A
ZK60A
Cast Alloys
2
1
1
2
4
Lithium Aluminum
Manganese
Zinc Rare Earths
Zinc Zirconium
Zinc Zirconium
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
LA141A
EZ33A
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A
EZ33A
AM100A
Aluminum
Manganese
AZ63A
Aluminum Zinc
AZ81A
Aluminum Zinc
AZ91C
AZ92A
Aluminum Zinc
Aluminum Zinc
Rare Earths
Zirconium
Rare Earths Zinc
Thorium Zirconium
Thorium Zinc
Zirconium
Silver Rare Earths
Zinc Rare Earths
Zinc Thorium
Zinc Zirconium
Zinc Zirconium
2
2
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ101A
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
3
4
4
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EK41A
EZ33A
HK31A
HZ32A
K1A
QE22A
ZE41A
ZH62A
ZK51A
ZK61A
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-53
Table 9-17 Magnesium filler metal selection chart.

AM100A
Base
Metal
AM100A
AZ10A
AZ10A
AZ31B
AZ63A
Base Metal
AZ80A
AZ81A
AZ91C
AZ92A
EK41A
EZ33A
HK31A
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
c
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
ab
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ92A
Filler Metal
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ31B
AZ31C
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ63A
AZ80A
AZ92A
AZ81A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ91C
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
EK41A
EZ33A
HK31A
HM21A
HM31A
HZ32A
K1A
LA141A
M1A
MG1
QE22A
ZE10A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
ZE41A
ZK21A
d
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
ZH62A
ZK51A
ZK60A
ZK61A
AZ61A
AZ31C
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ92A
c
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
c
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ92A
c
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
ZK21A
ZH62A
ZK51A
ZK60A
ZK61A
c
c
c
c
c
AZ101A
AZ92A
AZ92A
Base Metal
Base
Metal
HM21A
HM31A
HZ32A
K1A
LA141A
M1A
MG1
QE22A
ZE10A
ZE41A
ZK21A
ZH62A
ZK51A
ZK60A
ZK61A
HM21A
HM31A
HZ32A
K1A
1A141A
M1A
MG1
QE22A
ZE10A
ZE41A
Filler Metalab
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
d
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
d
d
AZ61A
c
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
AZ92A
EZ33A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
d
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
EZ33A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ92A
c
EZ33A
Notes:
a.
When more than one filler metal is given, they are listed in order of preference.
b.
The letter prefix (ER or R), designating usability of the filler metal, has been deleted, to reduce clutter in the table.
c.
Welding not recommended.
d.
No data available.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-54

Gas tungsten arc welding is one of the major processes used for welding nickel and
nickel alloys. The major alloying elements used in nickel are iron, chromium, copper,
molybdenum, and silicon. The classification system for nickel and nickel alloys is shown
in Table 9-18. TIG is used for welding both the solid solution strengthened alloys and
the precipitation-hardenable alloys, but it is especially the preferred method for
precipitation-hardenable alloys because of the difficult of transferring hardening
elements across the arc in the other welding processes. Many of the cast alloys,
especially ones with high silicon contents, are more difficult to weld.
Table 9-18 Classifications of nickel and nickel alloys.
Series
Alloy group
200
Nickel, solid solution
300
Nickel, precipitation-hardenable
400
Nickel-copper, solid solution (Monel)
500
Nickel-copper, precipitation-hardenable (Monel)
600
Nickel-chromium, solid solution (Inconel)
700
Nickel chromium, precipitation-hardenable (Inconel)
800
Nickel-iron-chromium solid solution (Incoloy)
900
Nickel-iron-chromium, precipitation-hardenable (Incoloy)
One of the most important factors in welding nickel and nickel alloys is the cleanliness
of the base metal. These metals are susceptible to embrittlement caused by sulfur,
phosphorous, and lead. Therefore, the surface of the metal to be welded should be
cleaned of any grease, oil, paint, dirt, and processing chemicals. Another welding
characteristic of nickel is that the weld puddle is not very fluid; therefore, it is more
difficult to get complete fusion.
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is usually recommended for both manual and
mechanized welding, with argon, argon-helium mixtures, and helium for shielding.
Generally, helium is better for welding if you will not be adding a filler metal. When
porosity is a problem for single pass welding of nickels, you should use argon-hydrogen
mixtures.
All of the different types of tungsten electrodes are used, but the alloyed tungsten
electrodes are the most common.
A filler metal is usually used when welding nickel and nickel alloys. The filler metals
used for welding of these metals are generally similar in composition to the base metal
being welded. The filler metals are alloyed to resist hot cracking and porosity in the weld
metal.
7.2.5 Steels
TIG can weld steel, but because the process is relatively slow and expensive, it is not
as popular for welding the plain carbon and alloy steels as it is for welding stainless
steel and the non-ferrous metals. Its best usage is for critical applications and for
stainless steel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-55
7.2.5.1 Plain Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Functionally, you can use the gas tungsten arc welding process to weld all of the
different kinds of steel that can be welded by the other arc welding processes, such as
mild, low alloy, heat treatable, and chromium-molybdenum steels. The major alloying
elements in these steels are carbon, manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, and
molybdenum. The weldability of the steel depends largely on the carbon content. The
higher the carbon content of the steel, the more susceptible to cracking it becomes and
the need for preheating and postheating increases.
Low carbon steels have carbon contents up to .14%; mild steels have carbon contents
ranging from .15 to .29%. These are generally the easiest to weld and usually do not
require preheat and postheat.
Alloy steels with carbon contents greater than .20% generally require preheating and
postheating due to the increased alloy content.
Medium carbon steels have carbon contents ranging from .30% to .59%, and high
carbon steels have carbon contents ranging from .60% to 1.00%. Many of the very high
carbon steels are not welded, except for repair work, because they are very susceptible
to cold cracking.
Generally, TIG is more sensitive to sulfur, phosphorous, and oxygen in the steel
because there are forms to help remove these elements from the weld puddle. Silicon in
the base metal and filler metal helps the weld puddle to wet out better at the edges, and
it improves the bead shape.
An extremely low silicon content in the base metal will make welding difficult, so a filler
metal is required to provide the silicon for the weld bead. Conversely, an excessively
high amount of silicon in the base metal can promote cracking.
Direct current electrode negative is the most commonly used type of welding current,
but sometimes alternating current is used for welding thin sheets.
All of the different types of shielding gases used for TIG may be used for welding steel.
Argon is the most common with argon-hydrogen mixtures used when you need better
weld puddle wetting and bead shape. The thoriated tungsten electrodes are the most
popular for welding steel.
You should select the filler metal for the low carbon and low alloy steels by matching the
tensile strength of the filler metal to that of the base metal. For welding heat treatable
and chromium-molybdenum steels, base your selection by approximately matching the
chemical composition to achieve similar hardenability, corrosion, and/or heat resistant
properties.
7.2.5.2 Cast Iron
You can make sound welds using the TIG welding process in three principal grades of
cast iron: gray, white, and malleable , but you must always preheat cast-iron parts before
welding. Preheat gray cast iron to a temperature ranging between 500F to 1250F; the
required temperature depends on the size and shape of the workpiece.
In either TIG or MIG welding, you should allow the workpiece to cool slowly after
welding. You can accomplish this by covering the workpiece in a bed of lime or ashes.
This slow cooling prevents cracking and residual stresses.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-56

Free machining steels are steels that have additions of sulfur, phosphorous, selenium,
or lead in them to make them easier to machine. Except for the high sulfur, lead, or
phosphorous, these steels have chemical compositions similar to mild, low alloy, and
stainless steels. The addition of these elements makes these steels nearly unweldable
because lead, phosphorous, and sulfur have melting points much lower than the melting
point of the steel. As the weld solidifies, these elements remain liquid much longer than
the steel so they coat the grain boundaries, which cause hot cracking in the weld. Hot
cracking is cracking that occurs before the weld has had a chance to cool. Because of
this hot cracking problem, free machining steels cannot be welded easily. If you must
weld free machining steel, high manganese filler metal and low base metal dilution will
help give the best results possible.
7.2.5.4 Stainless Steels
Most types of stainless steels can be TIG welded. The types that are very difficult to
weld are types such as 303, 416, 416 Se, 430 F, and 430 FSe, which have high sulfur
and selenium contents, and Type 440, which has a high carbon content.
Chromium is the major alloying element that distinguishes stainless steels from the
other types of steel. . Steels with chromium contents greater than 11% are considered
stainless steels. The high chromium content gives these steels very good corrosion and
oxidation resistance. The three major groups of stainless steels that are welded are the
austenitic, martensitic and ferritic types.
The austenitic types of stainless steels are generally the easiest to weld. In addition to
the high chromium content of about 16-26%, these types have high nickel contents
ranging from 6-22%. These steels are designated by the AISI as the 300 series. The
200 series, which have high manganese contents to replace some of the nickel, are
also austenitic. Nickel and manganese are strong austenite formers and maintain an
austenitic structure at all temperatures. This structure gives these steels good
toughness and ductility but also makes them non-hardenable.
A major problem when welding these types of steels is carbide precipitation or
sensitization, which occurs only in the austenitic structure. This occurs when the
temperature of the steel is between approximately 1000-1600 F (540-870 C) and can
greatly reduce the corrosion resistance. There are several methods for preventing this
problem:
1. A fast cooling rate after welding through this temperature range. This is a major
reason why preheating is usually not used and why these steels require a
relatively low maximum interpass temperature on multiple pass welds.
2. The use of extra low carbon base and filler metal (.03% carbon max). Examples
are 304L and 316L.
3. The use of a stabilized alloy containing columbium, tantalum (tan-tl-uh m) or
titanium. Examples are 347 and 321.
4. The use of a solution heat treatment to redissolve the carbides after welding.
Martensitic stainless steels are not as easy to weld as the austenitic stainless steels.
These stainless steels have approximately 11-18% chromium, which is the major
alloying element, and are designated by the AISI as the 400 series. Some examples are
403,410, 420 and 440. These types of stainless steel are heat treatable because they
generally contain higher carbon contents and a martensitic structure. Stainless steels
with higher carbon contents are more susceptible to cracking and some, such as Type
440, have carbon contents so high that they are often considered unweldable.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-57
A stainless steel with a carbon content greater than .10% will often need preheating,
usually in the range of 400-600 F (205-315C) to avoid cracking. For steels containing
carbon contents greater than .20%, a postweld heat treatment such as annealing is
often required to improve the toughness of the weld produced.
Ferritic stainless steels are also more difficult to weld than austenitic stainless steels
because they produce welds having lower toughness than the base metal. These
stainless steels form a ferritic grain structure and are also designated by the AISI as the
400 series. Some examples are types 405, 430, 442 and 446. These types are
generally less corrosion resistant than austenitic stainless steel. To avoid a brittle
structure in the weld, preheating and postheating are often required. Typical preheat
temperatures range from 300-500 F (150-260 C). Annealing is often used after heat
treatment welding to increase the toughness of the weld.
TIG is especially well suited for welding stainless steel because the filler metal does not
cross the arc and therefore change the composition. The process provides an inert
atmosphere and leaves no slag to react with the base metal. Lower current levels may
be desirable for welding stainless steel compared to welding mild steel because of the
higher thermal expansion, lower thermal conductivity, and generally lower melting points
of stainless steel. The lower thermal conductivity and higher thermal expansion cause
more distortion and warpage for a given heat input.
Use direct current electrode negative (DCEN) for most applications, and the most widely
used tungsten electrode is the 2% thoriated type, with argon, argon-helium mixtures,
and helium shielding gases. Argon is the preferred shielding gas, but argon-hydrogen
mixtures are sometimes used to improve the bead shape and the wetting.
The filler metal for welding stainless steel is generally chosen to match the chemical
composition of the base metal. For the 200 series austenitic stainless steels, a 300
series austenitic filler metal is usually used, due to lack of an available 200 series filler
metal. This weld joint will generally be weaker than the surrounding base metal.
The Type 410 and 420 electrodes are the only martensitic stainless steel types
recognized by the AWS. This limitation is often the reason why austenitic stainless steel
filler metal is often used when welding martensitic stainless steel. Austenitic filler metal
provides a weld with lower strength but higher toughness and eliminates the need for
preheating and postheating. For welding ferritic stainless steels, both ferritic and
austenitic filler metal may be used. Ferritic filler metal is used when higher strength and
an annealing postheat are required. Austenitic filler metal is used when higher ductility
is required. Table 9-19 shows filler metal selection for stainless steels.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-58
Table 9-19 Filler metal selection for welding stainless steel.

AISI
Type
No.
201
202
301
302
3028
304
304l
305
308
309
309S
310
310S
314
316
316L
317
321
330
347
C%
Mn%
Si%
Cr%
Ni%
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.08 max
0.03 max
0.12 max
0.08 max
0.20 max
0.08 max
0.25 max
0.08 max
0.25 max
0.08 max
0.03 max
0.08 max
0.08 max
0.35 max
0.08 max
5.5-7.5
7.5-10.0
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00-3.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50-3.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.50
1.00
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
17.00-19.00
18.00-20.00
18.00-20.00
17.00-19.00
19.00-21.00
22.00-24.00
22.00-24.00
24.00-26.00
24.00-26.00
23.00-26.00
16.00-18.00
16.00-1S.00
18.00-20.00
17.00-19.00
13.00-17.00
17.00-19.00
3.50-5.50
4.00-6.00
6.00-8.00
8.00-10.00
8.00-10.00
8.00-12.00
8.00-12.00
10.00-13.00
10.00-12.00
12.00-15.00
12.00-15.00
19.00-22.00
19.00-22.00
19.00-22.00
10.00-14.00
10.00-14.00
11.00-15.00
9.00-12.00
33.00-37.00
9.00-13.00
348
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
18.00-19.00
9.00-13.00
403
410
414
420
431
501
502
405
430
442
446
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
Over 0.15
0.20 max
Over 0.10
0.10 max
0.08 max
0.12 max
0.20 max
0.20 max
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
11.50-13.00
11.50-13.50
11.50-13.50
12.00-14.00
15.00-17.00
4.00-6.00
4.00-6.00
11.50-14.50
14.00-18.00
1S.00-23.00
23.00-27.00
1.25-2.50
1.25-2.50
-
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Filler
Other
Elements
N 0.25 max
N 0.25 max
Mo 2.00-3.00
Mo 2.00-3.00
Mo 3.00-4.00
Ti 5 x C min
Cb + Ta
10 x C min
Cb + Ta 10 C
min. Ta 0.10
Mo 0.40-0.65
Mo 0.40-0.65
AI 0.10-0.30
N2 0.25 max
Metal
Selection
308
308
308
308
308
308
308L
308 310
308
309
309
310
310
310 312
316
316L
317
347
330
347
347 348
410 309 310
410 309 310
410 309 310
410 420
430 309 310
502
502
410 309 310
430 309 310
309 310
309 310
9-59
7.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

You can TIG weld titanium and many of the titanium alloys. The major alloying elements
contained in titanium alloys are aluminum, tin, zirconium, vanadium, and molybdenum.
There are four basic groups of this metal:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Unalloyed titanium
Alpha alloys
Alpha-beta alloys
Beta alloys
The unalloyed titanium and alpha alloys are all weldable. The weakly beta-stabilized
alpha-beta alloys are weldable, but the strongly beta-stabilized alpha-beta alloys are
embrittled by welding. Most beta alloys can be welded, but proper heat treatment must
be used to prevent the welds from becoming brittle.
In general, titanium requires the same welding techniques used for welding stainless
steel with two exceptions: titanium requires greater cleanliness and an auxiliary
shielding gas. The molten weld puddle reacts with most materials, and contamination
from the atmosphere or from material on the surface of the metal can cause
embrittlement in the weld zone and a loss of corrosion resistance. The surface of the
metal to be welded must be cleaned thoroughly to avoid these problems. Argon or
helium shielding gases are almost exclusively used for welding titanium. The only other
shielding gas used is an argon-helium mixture. Welding titanium requires a shielding
gas on the backside of the root pass. For out of chamber welding, a trailing shielding
gas is used behind the torch to protect the hot metal until it cools below about 600F
(315 C), but in many cases, welding is done in an inert gas-filled chamber.
Thoriated tungsten electrodes are the best types for welding these metals with the 2%
thoriated type being the most widely used with direct current electrode negative.
Preheating is used rarely except when removing moisture from the surface of the metal.
For welding thicknesses greater than .10 in. (2.5 mm), filler metal is required, usually of
the same chemical composition as the base metal. However, to improve the joint
ductility, you can use a filler metal with a lower yield point than the base metal.
7.2.7 Other Metals
You can also use TIG to weld the reactive and refractory metals. Reactive metals
include zirconium and beryllium. Refractory metals are metals such as tungsten,
molybdenum, columbium, and tantalum. The weldability of zirconium is similar to that of
titanium. Because this metal, when hot, is highly reactive with the atmosphere, welding
must be protected by adequate shielding and is frequently done in vacuum chambers
using direct current electrode negative and an argon or helium shielding gas.
Occasionally, beryllium is welded using TIG, but welders must closely control the heat
input to prevent very large grains from being formed and to avoid cracking caused by its
inherent low ductility. In addition, beryllium is very toxic, and you must take strict safety
measures such as wearing special safety clothes and gas masks to prevent contact with
the fumes. Usually, alternating current with an argon shielding gas is used, and a low
heat input is essential when welding beryllium.
TIG is used commonly to weld tungsten and molybdenum. In the welding f these metals,
good cleaning is necessary. Usually, welding is performed using direct current electrode
negative, often in a vacuum chamber, with required preheating.
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Columbium and tantalum have good weldability, and TIG is the most popular process
for welding these metals with direct current electrode negative, often in a vacuum
chamber. A vacuum chamber is recommended for welding tantalum, but columbium can
be welded without one.

10.
What term is used for the grains that form on the edge of a weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Deoxidizers
Dendrites
Slag
Dross
Why is preheating used when welding titanium?

A.
B.
C.
D.
To increase base metal temperature.

To remove moisture from the base metal.
To soften the base metal.
To increase the hardenability of the base metal.
8.0.0 WELD JOINT

DESIGN
The weld joint design used for
gas tungsten arc welding is
determined by the design of the
weldment, metallurgical
considerations, and codes or
specifications. Good joint
designs are those that provide
accessibility and economy during
construction to help reduce the
cost and generally raise the
quality of the weld joint.
A weld joint consists of a specific
weld made in a specific joint. A
joint is defined as being the
junction of members that are to
be joined or have been joined.
Figure 9-31 shows the five basic
Figure 9-31 Five basic weld joints.
joint types. Different types of
welds can join each of the
different joint types. In Figure 9-32, the most common types of welds are shown. The
type of weld made is governed by the joint configuration. Figure 9-33 lists the
nomenclature used for groove and fillet welds.
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Several factors influence the joint design to be used:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Metal composition
Strength required
Welding position
Metal thickness
Joint accessibility

The purpose of any joint design is to produce a sound weld deposit with the desired
properties as economically as possible. The edge and joint preparation are important
because they will affect both the quality and the cost of welding. The exactness of the
joint and edge preparation is dependent on the method of welding. Manual welding
applications can tolerate greater irregularities in joint fitup than machine and automatic
applications.
Of the five basic types of joints, the butt and T are the most commonly used. Since TIG
is often used on thinner material, proper fitup can eliminate the need for filler metal
when welding square groove butt joints.
Lap joints have the advantage of not requiring much preparation other than squaring the
edges and making sure the metal is in close contact. Lap joints in thinner metals do not
always require filler metal, nor do edge joints, which are used often on thin material. For
example, on tubing, the end of the tubes are often flared or flanged so that the edges
may be melted and provide the filler metal for the weld (Figure 9-34). Corner joints use
edge preparations similar to those used for T-joints and usually require a filler metal.
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Figure 9-34 Edge joint without use of filler metal.
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8.1.0 Types of Metal

Due to the variety of base metals and their individual characteristics such as surface
tension, fluidity, melting temperature, etc., joint designs should be developed to use
optimum welding conditions.
For a given joint design, the type of metal influences the maximum base metal thickness
that can be sensibly welded. The maximum thickness for a full penetration squaregroove butt joint is about 5/16 inch (7.9 mm) in stainless steel, and about 3/16 inch (4.8
mm) in aluminum and magnesium. The differences are in the current used; you weld
stainless steel using direct current electrode negative, which gives better penetration
than the alternating current used on aluminum and magnesium.
In aluminum, the weld puddle will become larger and form quicker, making it more
difficult for the welder to control. This is due to the higher thermal conductivity, the
wider, shallower bead produced by alternating current, and the narrower melting
temperature range of aluminum. For example, on 1/4-inch (6.4 mm) thick metal, a Vgroove would be used in aluminum while a square-groove would allow full penetration in
stainless steel. This difference between the metals will also affect the size of the root
face used. In general, larger root faces can be used in mild, low alloy and stainless steel
than can be used in aluminum and magnesium because of the difference in the
penetration capability.
In nickel and high nickel alloys, the weld puddle is very sluggish when molten. The
puddle does not spread or wet out very well, so you must place the filler metal at the
proper location in the joint. As a result, to permit enough space for manipulation, you
need to use larger root openings for nickel than the root openings you would use in
carbon and low alloy steels.
8.2.0 Strength
The strength required of a weld joint is a major factor governing weld joint design. Weld
joints may be either full or partial penetration, depending on the strength required of the
joint. Full or complete penetrating welds are those that have weld metal through the full
cross section of the joint; partial penetrating welds are those that have an unfused area
in the joint. Welds subject to cyclic, impact, or dynamic loading require complete
penetration welds. This is even more important for applications that require low
temperature service.
Partial penetration welds may be adequate for joints where loading is static only, and
they are easier to prepare and require less filler metal than full penetration joints.
The amount of penetration obtained will be affected by the root opening and root face
used. A root opening is used to allow good access to the root of the joint and is usually
used in full penetrating weld joints. A root opening is usually not used in partial
penetration weld joints because access to the root is not necessary and parts are easier
to fit together without a root opening. The size of the root face is also affected. A larger
root face is used for partial penetration welds than for complete penetration welds
because less penetration is required.
8.3.0 Position
TIG can be used in all welding positions. The welding position selected often affects the
shape of the joint. A diagram of the welding position capabilities is shown in Figure 935. Good quality welding in flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead positions depends on
the skill of the welder.
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positions are designated by the numbers 1
for flat, 2 for horizontal, 3 for vertical, and 4
for overhead. F designations are used for
fillet welds, and G designations are used for
groove welds. The 5G and 6G positions are
used in pipe welding.
The groove angle is often varied for different
positions. Wider groove angles are often
used when welding in the vertical and
horizontal positions. Some groove joints
welded in the horizontal position have
unsymmetrical groove angles. Usually the
lower groove face is horizontal or nearly
horizontal and the upper groove face is
raised accordingly (Figure 9-36).
8.4.0 Thickness
Figure 9-36 V-groove joint in

the horizontal position.
The thickness of the base metal has a large

influence on the type of groove that gives the best weld joint possible. The thickness of
the base metal welded by this process is not limited, but gas tungsten arc welding is
particularly well adapted for welding thin metal. Thicknesses down to .005 inch (.1 mm)
can be welded.
The TIG process, because of its relatively low deposition rate, does generally not weld
thick metal sections. GMAW is used on many of the thicker applications, especially on
the non-ferrous metals.
The most common groove preparations used on butt joints are the square-, V-, J-, U-,
bevel-, and combination-grooves. The square-, J-, bevel-, and combination-groove
configurations are also used for T-joints; these preparations are used to make it
possible to get full or adequate penetration.
Square-groove welds are the most commonly used weld joints for TIG because most
applications of this process are on thin metal. The square-groove joint design is the
easiest to prepare and requires the least addition of filler metal, and in many cases, filler
metal is not used at all. Thicknesses up to 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) or 5/16 inch (7.9 mm) can
be welded with full penetration, depending on the type of metal. Many square-groove
joints are welded in one pass. A backing strip may be used so that the root can be
opened to ensure adequate penetration.
V-grooves for groove welds on butt joints and bevel-grooves for T-joints are commonly
used for thicker metal up to about inch (12.7 mm), but these joints are more difficult to
prepare, which increases the cost of preparation, and filler metal must be used for Vgrooves and bevel-grooves. The included angle for a V-groove is usually up to 90
degrees, the wider angles providing better accessibility to the root. Root faces usually
range from 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) to inch (6.4 mm) depending on the thickness and type
of metal.
U- and J-grooves are generally used in metal thicknesses over inch (12.7 mm) to
reduce the filler metal required for thicker sections. These joint configurations are also
the most difficult and expensive to prepare, but greatly add to the ease of depositing the
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root pass. When possible in thick sections, the fill passes in this type of joint are
deposited by the higher deposition welding processes.
8.5.0 Accessibility
A major consideration in TIG welding joint design is the provision for proper
accessibility. Since TIG typically applies to thinner metals, often welds can be made
from either one side or both sides of the joint. On thicker metals, when both sides of the
joint are accessible, double-grooves are usually made. Double-grooves have less area
to fill than single-grooves, therefore requiring less filler metal and developing less
distortion with proper weld bead sequencing. When double-grooves are used, the roots
of the welds are usually near the center of the base metal.
Welding from both sides of a square-groove usually ensures complete penetration, and
on thicker metal is better than complete penetration welding from one side. Also,
smaller root openings may be used, which will require less filler metal.
When the joints are accessible only from one side, you can use backing strips and
consumable inserts for wider root openings to provide better accessibility to the root of
the joint.
Often, on thick metal accessible from only one side, V-, U-, and J-grooves are used,
although U- and J-grooves are preferred because they provide better accessibility to the
root of the joint and require less filler metal than V-grooves. However, U- and J-grooves
are more difficult to prepare, thus increasing time and costs.
8.6.0 Consumable Inserts

Consumable inserts are widely used in welding tube and pipe, and have an effect on
joint design. They are used when the joint is accessible from only one side and a
uniform, high quality root pass is required. Consumable inserts also provide full
penetration to the root of the weld as long as enough heat is available to melt the insert
to the root of the joint.
Consumable inserts can help line up the joint during the fitup procedure. For best
results, joints with consumable inserts should be precisely prepared and closely fitted,
but often they are used when there is joint misalignment.
Consumable inserts also serve as a type of backing. Inserts usually require the use of a
different joint design, depending on the type used. Consumable inserts are available in
various shapes and sizes (Figure 9-37).
When an insert is used, the dimensions of the joint must be compatible with the
particular insert, and an insert may require the use of a different size root face and root
opening than a normal joint. On square-groove joints, wider root openings are often
used so the insert will fit.
An example of this is shown in Figure 9-38, where a V-groove weld joint of the same
type and thickness is shown with and without a consumable insert. In this case, a
smaller root face and root opening are used with a consumable insert because the
insert reduces the danger of melt-through.
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Figure 9-37 Consumable inserts.
Figure 9-38 A V-groove joint with and

without a consumable insert.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-68

The weld joint designs shown in the rest of the chapter are those typically used for TIG.
Thickness limitations on the weld joints are approximate numbers and vary, depending
on the type of base metal. While the thickness limits are generally smaller than what
can be used for steels and silicon bronze, they may be slightly large for aluminum and
magnesium applications.
These joint designs are generally for thinner material. Thick material is not included
because it is rarely TIG welded. Several joint designs used with consumable inserts are
included. Figures 9-39 through 9-47 show the "Standard Welding Symbols" of the
American Welding Society. Some of these are shown in the weld joint designs.
AWS welding symbols are the shorthand of welding. They enable the engineer and
draftsman to convey complete welding instructions to the welder on blueprints and
drawings.
Using welding symbols promotes standardization and a common understanding of
design intent. It also eliminates unnecessary details on drawings and mistakes caused
by lack of information or misunderstanding.
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8.8.0 Welding Positions

As it is with other welding processes, in TIG welding the proper positions of the welding
torch and weldment are important. The position of the torch and filler metal (if used) in
relation to the plate is called the work and travel angle. Work and travel angles are
shown in Figure 9-48. If the parts are equal in thickness, the work angle should normally
be on the center line of the joint; however, if the pieces are unequal in thickness, the
torch should angle toward the thicker piece.
Figure 9-48 Travel angle and work angle for TIG.

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The travel angle refers to the angle in which welding takes place. This angle should be
between 5 and 25 degrees. The travel angle may be either a push angle or a drag
angle, depending on the position of the torch.
When the torch is angled ahead of the weld,
it is known as pulling (dragging) the weld or
backhand welding. When the torch is angled
behind (over) the weld, it is referred to as
pushing the metal or forehand welding
(Figure 9-49).
The pulling or drag technique is for heavygauge metals, and thus not as applicable to
TIG. Usually the drag technique produces
greater penetration than the pushing
technique. Also, since the welder can see
the weld crater more easily, better quality
welds can consistently be made. Typically,
TIG uses the pushing technique for lightgauge metals. Welds made with this
technique are less penetrating and wider
because the welding speed is faster.
Figure 9-49 Pulling and

For the best results, you should position the
pushing travel angle techniques.
weldment in the flat position. This position
improves the molten metal flow and bead contour, and gives better shielding gas
protection.
After you have learned to weld in the flat position, you should be able to use your
acquired skill and knowledge to weld out of position. These positions include horizontal,
vertical-up, vertical-down, and overhead welds. The only difference in welding out of
position from the flat position is a 10-percent reduction in amperage.
If you must weld a heavier thickness of metal with the TIG welding process, you should
use the multi-pass technique (buildup sequence discussed in Chapter 3). This is
accomplished by overlapping single small beads or making larger beads, using the
weaving technique. Various multipass welding sequences are shown in Figure 9-50.
The numbers refer to the sequences in which you make the passes.
Figure 9-50 Multi-pass welding.

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As presented earlier with gas tungsten arc welding, the maximum thickness for a full
penetration square-groove butt joint is about 5/16 inch (7.9 mm) in stainless steel, and
about 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) in aluminum and magnesium. The following sections on
welding positions will include greater thicknesses in the examples, which will have more
application for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW or stick), gas metal arc welding (MIG
or MAG), and flux core arc welding (FCAW), each with greater deposition rates.
However, the topics are included in this chapter on gas tungsten arc welding (TIG) as
well, because often a precision root pass with TIG may be the best process before
applying one of the alternate, higher deposition processes.
Welding can be done in any position, but it is much simpler when done in the flat
position. In this position, the work is less tiring, welding speed is faster, the molten
puddle is not as likely to run, and better penetration can be achieved. Whenever
possible, try to position the work so you can weld in the flat position. In the flat position,
the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
Butt joints After you strike the arc, hold the torch at a 90-degree angle to the
workpiece surface, and with small circular motions, as shown in Figure 9-51, form a
molten puddle. After you form the molten puddle, hold the torch at a 75-degree angle to
the work surface and move it slowly and steadily along the joint at a speed that
produces a bead of uniform width. Move the torch slowly enough to keep the puddle
bright and fluid. No oscillating or other movement of the torch is necessary except the
steady forward movement.
When you must use a filler metal, form the molten puddle as described previously.
When the puddle becomes bright and fluid, you should move the arc to the rear of the
puddle and add the filler metal by quickly touching the rod to the front edge of the
puddle. Hold the rod at about a 15-degree angle from the work. Because the electrode
is pointing toward the filler metal or pushing it, it is known as the push angle. Remove
the filler rod and bring the arc back to the front edge of the puddle. When the puddle
becomes bright and fluid again, you should repeat the steps as described before. Figure
9-52 shows the correct procedures for adding filler metal. Continue this sequence until
the weld joint has been completed. The width and height of the weld bead are
determined by the speed of travel, by the movement of the torch, and by the amount of
filler metal added.
In welding practice, it is again stressed that good TIG welding depends on following this
definite procedure form the molten pool and then feed filler rod intermittently to the
leading edge of the pool as you move the torch forward. DO NOT feed the filler rod into
the arc. You should practice making single-pass butt welds until you can produce
satisfactory welds.
rotate the section you are welding to the appropriate position. Techniques that are
useful in making butt joints in the flat position, with and without the use of backing strips,
are described below.
in about the same plane. Several forms of butt joints are shown in Figure 9-51.
Plates up to 1/8 inch thick can be welded in one pass with no special edge preparation.
Plates from 1/8 to 3/16 inch thick also can be welded with no special edge preparation
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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by welding on both sides of the joint. Tack welds should be used to keep the plates
aligned for welding. The torch motion is the same as that used in making a bead weld.

In welding 1/4-inch plate or heavier, you should prepare the edges of the plates by
beveling or by J-, U-, or V-grooving, whichever is the most applicable. You should use
single or double bevels or grooves when the specifications and/or the plate thickness
require it. The first bead is deposited to seal the space between the two plates and to
weld the root of the joint. This bead or layer of weld metal must be thoroughly cleaned
to remove all slag and dirt before the second layer of metal is deposited.
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Figure 9-52 Butt welds with multi-pass beads.
9-81
In making multi-pass welds, the

second, third, and fourth layers of
weld metal are made with a weaving
motion of the torch (Figure 9-52).
Clean each layer of metal before
laying additional beads. You may use
one of the weaving motions shown in
Figure 9-53, depending upon the type
of joint.
In the weaving motion, oscillate or
move the torch uniformly from side to
side, with a slight hesitation at the end
of each oscillation. Incline the torch 5
welding as in bead welding. When the
weaving motion is not done properly,
Figure 9-53 Weave motions.
undercutting can occur at the joint (Figure 954). Excessive welding speed also can cause
undercutting and poor fusion at the edges of
the
Butt joints with backing strips Welding
3/16-inch plate or thicker requires backing
strips to ensure complete fusion in the weld
root pass and to provide better control of the
arc and the weld metal. Prepare the edges of
the plates in the same manner as required for

butt joint welds.

butt joints.
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welding without backing strips. For

plates up to 3/8 inch thick, the backing
strips should be approximately 1 inch
wide and 3/16 inch thick. For plates
more than 1/2 inch thick, the backing
strips should be 1 1/2 inches wide and
1/4 inch thick. Tack-weld the backing
strip to the base of the joint (Figure 955). The backing strip acts as a
cushion for the root pass. Complete
the joint by welding additional layers of
metal. After you complete the joint,
you may wash off or cut the backing
strip away with a cutting torch. When
specified, place a seal bead along the
root of the joint.
9-82
Bear in mind that many times it will not always be possible to use a backing strip;
therefore, the welder must be able to run the root pass and get good penetration without
the formation of icicles.
You will discover that it is impossible to weld all pieces in the flat position. Often the
work must be done in the horizontal position. The horizontal position has two basic
forms, depending upon whether it is used with a groove weld or a fillet weld. In a groove
weld, the axis of the weld lies in a relative horizontal plane and the face of the weld is in
a vertical plane (Figure 9-56). In a fillet weld, the welding is performed on the upper side

weld.

weld.
of a relatively horizontal surface and

against an approximately vertical plane
(Figure 9-57).
An inexperienced welder usually finds the
horizontal position of arc welding difficult, at
least until he has developed a fair degree of
skill in applying the proper technique. The
primary difficulty is that in this position you
have no shoulder of previously deposited
weld metal to hold the molten metal.
When welding in the horizontal position,
start the arc on the edge of the joint. Then
hold the torch at a work angle of 15
degrees and a push angle of 15 degrees.
After you establish the puddle, dip the rod
into the front edge of the puddle on the high
side as you move the torch along the joint
Figure 9-58 Horizontal welding
(Figure 9-58). Maintain an arc length as
angles.
close as possible to the diameter of the
electrode. Correct arc length coupled with the correct speed of travel helps prevent
undercutting and permits complete penetration.
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Joint Type
Horizontal-position welding can be used on most types of joints. The most common
types of joints it is used on are tee joints, lap joints, and butt joints.
may be tack-welded to the surface of the horizontal plate (Figure 9-59).


A fillet weld is used in making the tee joint, and a short arc is necessary to provide good
fusion at the root and along the legs of the weld (Figure 9-60, View A). Hold the torch at
an angle of 45 degrees to the two plate surfaces (Figure 9-60, View B) with an incline of
approximately 15 degrees in the direction
of welding.
When practical, weld light plates with a
fillet weld in one pass with little or no
weaving of the torch. Welding of heavier
plates may require two or more passes in
which the second pass or layer is made
with a semicircular weaving motion
(Figure 9-61). To ensure good fusion and
to prevent undercutting, you should make
a slight pause at the end of each weave
or oscillation.
For fillet-welded tee joints on 1/2-inch
plate or heavier, deposit stringer beads in
the sequence shown in Figure 9-62.
multi-pass fillet weld.
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Chain-intermittent or staggered-intermittent fillet welds are used on long tee joints

(Figure 9-63). Fillet welds of these types are for joints where high weld strength is not
required; however, the short welds are arranged so the finished joint is equal in strength
to that of a joint that has a fillet weld along the entire length of one side. Intermittent
welds also have the advantage of reduced warpage and distortion.


welds.
Lap joints When you make a lap joint, two overlapping plates are tack-welded in
place (Figure 9-64), and a fillet weld is deposited along the joint.
tee joints. You should hold the torch so it forms an angle of about 30 degrees from the
vertical and is inclined 15 degrees in the direction of welding. The position of the torch in
Figure 9-64 Tack welding a lap

joint.
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9-85
relation to the plates is shown in Figure 9-65. The weaving motion is the same as that
used for tee joints, except that the pause at the edge of the top plate is long enough to
ensure good fusion without undercut. Lap joints on 1/2-inch plate or heavier are made
by depositing a sequence of stringer beads (Figure 9-65),
In making lap joints on plates of different thickness, you should hold the torch so that it
forms an angle of between 20 and 30 degrees from the vertical (Figure 9-66). Be careful
not to overheat or undercut the thinner plate edge.


joint.
positioned on the top. The plate that is not beveled is on the bottom, and the flat edge of
this plate provides a shelf for the molten metal so that it does not run out of the joint
(Figure 9-67). Often both edges are beveled to form a 60-degree included angle. When
this type of joint is used, more skill is
required because you do not have the
retaining shelf to hold the molten puddle.
The number of passes required for a joint
depends on the diameter of the torch and the
thickness of the metal. When multiple
passes are required, place the first bead
deep in the root of the joint (Figure 9-68).
The torch should be inclined about 5
degrees downward. Clean and remove all
slag before applying each following bead.
The second bead should be placed with the
torch held about 10 degrees upward. For the
third pass, hold the torch 10 to 15 degrees
downward from the horizontal. Use a slight
weaving motion and ensure that each bead
penetrates the base metal.
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A vertical weld is a weld that is applied to a
vertical surface or one that is inclined 45
degrees or less (Figure 9-69). Erecting
structures such as buildings, pontoons,
tanks, and pipelines require welding in this
position. Welding on a vertical surface is
much more difficult than welding in the flat or
horizontal position due to the force of gravity.
Gravity pulls the molten metal down.
When welding thin material with the TIG
welding process, you should weld from the
top, moving downward. This helps you
produce an adequate weld without burning
through the metal. Filler material is not
normally needed for welding downward.
On heavier materials, you should weld from
the bottom, upwards. This enables you to
achieve adequate penetration. When welding
upward, you normally need to use a filler rod.
Figure 9-69 Vertical weld plate

positions.
Current Settings and Torch Movement

In vertical arc welding, the current settings should be less than those used for the same
torch in the flat position. Another difference is that the current used for welding upward
on a vertical plate is slightly higher than the current used for welding downward on the
same plate.
To produce good welds, you must maintain the proper angle between the torch and the
base metal. In welding upward, you should hold the torch at 90 degrees to the vertical
(Figure 9-70, View A). When weaving is necessary, oscillate the torch as shown in
Figure 9-70, View B.
In vertical down welding, incline the outer end of the torch downward about 15 degrees
from the horizontal while keeping the arc pointing upward toward the deposited molten
metal (Figure 9-70, View C). When vertical down welding requires a weave bead, you
should oscillate the torch as shown in Figure 9-70, View D.
Vertical welding is used on most types of joints. The types of joints you will most often
use it on are tee joints, lap joints, and butt joints.
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Figure 9-70 Bead welds in the vertical position.

Hold the torch at 90 degrees to the plates or not more than 15 degrees off the horizontal
for proper molten metal control when making fillet welds in either tee or lap joints in the
vertical position. Keep the arc short to obtain good fusion and penetration.
weld upward. Move the torch in a triangular weaving motion as shown in Figure 9-71,
View A. A slight pause in the weave, at the points indicated, improves the sidewall
When the weld metal overheats, you should quickly shift the torch away from the crater
without breaking the arc, as shown in Figure 9-71, View B. This permits the molten
metal to solidify without running downward. Return the torch immediately to the crater of
the weld in order to maintain the desired size of the weld.
When more than one pass is necessary to make a tee weld, you may use either of the
weaving motions shown in Figure 9-71, Views C and D. A slight pause at the end of the
weave will ensure fusion without undercutting the edges of the plates.
Lap joints To make welds on lap joints in the vertical position, you should move the
torch in a triangular weaving motion as shown in Figure 9-71, View E. Use the same
procedure as outlined above for the tee joint, except direct the torch more toward the
vertical plate marked G. Hold the arc short, and pause slightly at the surface of plate G.
Try not to undercut the plates or allow the molten metal to overlap at the edges of the
weave.
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9-88

Lap joints on heavier plate may require more than one bead. If so, clean the initial bead
thoroughly and place all subsequent beads as shown in Figure 9-71, View F. The
precautions to ensure good fusion and
uniform weld deposits that were previously
outlined for tee joints also apply to lap joints.
you should hold a short arc and carefully
control its motion.
Butt joints on beveled plates 1/4 inch thick
can be welded in one pass by using a
triangular weave motion, as shown in Figure
9-72, View A.
Welds made on 1/2-inch plate or heavier
should be done in several passes, as shown
in Figure 9-72, View B. Deposit the last pass
with a semicircular weaving motion with a
slight whip-up and pause of the torch at the
edge of the bead. This produces a good
NAVEDTRA 14250A

9-89
cover pass with no undercutting. Welds made on plates with a backup strip should be
done in the same manner.
contend with the force of gravity, but the majority of the time you also have to assume
Current Settings and Torch Movement
When TIG welding in the overhead position, you should lower the welding current by 5
to 10 percent of what normally is used for flat welding. This reduced welding current
enables you to maintain better control of the welding puddle. Conversely, you need a
higher flow of shielding gas. Hold the torch and the rod as you do for flat welding. You
should try to maintain a small weld puddle to avoid the effects of gravity. Most
inexperienced welders find overhead welding awkward; therefore, try to get in as
comfortable and relaxed a position as possible when welding. This helps you to
maintain steady, even torch and filler rod manipulation.
WARNING
Because of the possibility of falling molten metal, use a protective garment with a tight
fitting collar that buttons or zips up to the neck. Roll down your sleeves and wear a cap
and appropriate shoes.
Type of Welds
Techniques used in making bead
in the overhead position are
discussed in the following
paragraphs.
the work angle of the torch is 90
degrees to the base metal (Figure
9-73, View A). The travel angle
should be 9 to 15 degrees in the
direction of welding (Figure 9-73,
View B).
Weave beads can be made by
using the motion shown in Figure
9-73, View C. A rather rapid
motion is necessary at the end of
each semicircular weave to
control the molten metal deposit.
Avoid excessive weaving
because this can cause
overheating of the weld deposit
NAVEDTRA 14250A

9-90
and the formation of a large,

uncontrollable pool.
for overhead butt-welding in the
same manner as required for the
flat position. The best results are
obtained when backing strips are
used; however, you must
remember that you will not
always be able to use a backing
strip. When you bevel the plates
with a featheredge and do not
use a backing strip, the weld will
repeatedly burn through unless
the operator takes extreme care.
For overhead butt-welding, bead
welds are preferred over weave
placing the next pass. The torch
position and the order of
deposition of the weld beads
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-74 Multi-pass butt joint in the

overhead position.
Figure 9-75 Fillet welds in the overhead position.
9-91
Views B and C. Make the first pass with the torch held at 90 degrees to the plate, as
shown in Figure 9-74, View A. When you use a torch that is too large, you cannot hold a
short arc in the root area. This results in insufficient root penetration and inferior joints.
maintain a short arc and refrain from weaving of the torch. Hold the torch at
torch quickly away from the crater and ahead of the weld to lengthen the arc and allow
the metal to solidify. Immediately return the torch to the crater and continue welding.
Figure 9-75, View A. The root pass is a string bead made with no weaving motion of the
torch. Tilt the torch about 15 degrees in the direction of welding, as shown in Figure 975, View C, and with a slight circular motion make the second, third, and fourth pass.
This motion of the torch permits greater control and better distribution of the weld metal.
Remove all slag and oxides from the surface of each pass by chipping or wire brushing
before applying additional beads to the joint.
has reduced flow restrictions compared to mechanical connections, and the overall
installation costs are less. The most popular method for welding pipe is the shielded
metal arc process; however, gas shielded arc methods have made big inroads as a
result of new advances in welding technology.
Pipe welding has become recognized as a profession in itself. Even though many of the
skills are comparable to other
types of welding, pipe welders
develop skills that are unique only
to pipe welding. Because of the
hazardous materials that most
pipelines carry, pipe welders are
required to pass specific tests
before they can be certified
In the following paragraphs, pipewelding positions, pipe welding
procedures, definitions, and
related information are discussed.
You may recall from Figure 9-35
that there are four positions used
in pipe welding. They are known
as the horizontal rolled position
(1G), the horizontal fixed position
(5G), the pipe inclined fixed (6G),
and the vertical position (2G).
Remember, these terms refer to
the position of the pipe and not to
the weld
NAVEDTRA 14250A

joints.
9-92
Pipe Welding Procedures

Welds that you cannot make in a single pass should be made in interlocked multiple
layers, with at least one layer for each 1/8 inch of pipe thickness. Deposit each layer
with a weaving or oscillating motion. To prevent entrapping slag in the weld metal, you
should clean each layer thoroughly before depositing the next layer.
between pipes and between
pipes and welded fittings. They
are also used for butt welding of
flanges and welding stubs. In
making a butt joint, place two
pieces of pipe end to end, align
them, and then weld them (Figure
9-76).
When the wall thickness of the
pipe is 3/4 inch or less, you can
use either the single V or single U
type of butt joint; however, when
the wall thickness is more than
3/4 inch, only the single U type
should be used.
Fillet welds are used for welding
slip-on and threaded flanges to
pipe. Depending on the flange
and type of service, fillet welds
may be required on both sides of
the flange or in combination with
a bevel weld (Figure 9-77). Fillet
welds are also used in welding screw or socket couplings to pipe, using a single fillet
weld (Figure 9-76). Sometimes flanges require alignment. Figure 9-78 shows one type
of flange square and its use in vertical and
horizontal alignment.
Another form of fillet weld used in pipefitting
is a seal weld. A seal weld is used primarily
to obtain tightness and prevent leakage.
Seal welds should not be considered as
adding strength to the joint.
Joint Preparation and Fitup
You must carefully prepare pipe joints for
welding if you want good results. Clean the
weld edges or surfaces of all loose scale,
slag, rust, paint, oil, and other foreign matter.
Ensure that the joint surfaces are smooth
and uniform. Remove the slag from flamecut edges; however, it is not necessary to
remove the temper color.
When you prepare joints for welding,
remember that bevels must be cut
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9-93
accurately. Bevels can be made by machining, grinding, or using a gas cutting torch. In
fieldwork, the welding operator usually must make the bevel cuts with a gas torch.
When you are beveling, cut away as little metal as possible to allow for complete fusion
and penetration. Proper beveling reduces the amount of filler metal required, which in
turn reduces time and expense. In addition, it also means less strain in the weld and a
better job of design and welding.
operation. The maximum alignment
tolerance is 20 percent of the pipe thickness.
To ensure proper initial alignment, you
should use clamps or jigs as holding
devices. A piece of angle iron makes a good
jig for a small-diameter pipe (Figure 9-79),
while a section of channel or I-beam is more
suitable for larger diameter pipe.
Tack Welding
When welding material solidly, you may use
tack welds to hold it in place temporarily.
Tack welding is one of the most important
steps in pipe welding or any other type of
welding. The number of tack welds required
depends upon the diameter of the pipe. For
1/2-inch pipe, you need two tacks; place
them directly opposite each other. As a rule,
four tacks are adequate for standard size of
pipe. The size of a tack weld is determined by the wall thickness of the pipe. Be sure
that a tack weld is not more than twice the pipe thickness in length or two thirds of the
pipe thickness in depth. Tack welds should be the same quality as the final weld.
Ensure that the tack welds have good fusion and are thoroughly cleaned before
proceeding with the weld.
Spacers
backing rings, and they serve a number of purposes, for example, they provide a means
for maintaining the specified root opening, provide a convenient location for tack welds,
and aid in the pipe alignment. In addition, spacers can prevent weld spatter and the
formation of slag or icicles inside the pipe.
Weather Conditions
Do not assign a welder to a job under any of the following conditions listed below unless
the welder and the work area are properly protected:
At temperatures between 0F and 32F, heat the weld area within 3 inches of the joint
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-94

12.
How many basic types of pipe weld joints are there?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
4
5
6
8
In addition to tack welds, what is also used for proper pipe alignment?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Spacers
Back strips
Another welder
Flat, smooth surface to place the work piece on

Welding procedure variables control the welding process and the quality of the welds
that are produced. The selection of the welding variables is done after the base metal,
filler metal, and joint design are selected. The selection of the filler metal and joint
design have been discussed in previous chapters.
A proper selection of welding variables will make the welding easier for the welder,
increasing the chance of producing the weld properties required. The three major types
of welding variables are the fixed or
preselected, the primary adjustable, and the
secondary adjustable.
The fixed or preselected variables are set
before the actual welding takes place. These
are items such as the electrode type and
size, the type of current, the type of shielding
gas, and the electrode taper angle. These
variables cannot be easily changed once the
welding starts.
The primary adjustable variables are used to
control the welding process after the fixed
variables have been selected. They control
the formation of the weld bead by affecting
the bead width and height, joint penetration,
arc stability, and weld soundness (Figure 980). The primary adjustable variables for gas
tungsten arc welding are the welding current,
arc length, and travel speed.
Figure 9-80 Bead height,

width, and penetration.
The secondary adjustable variables are used

to control the welding process. These are usually more difficult to measure and their
effects may not be as obvious. In TIG welding, secondary adjustable variables are
things such as the work and travel angles of the electrode and the electrode extension.
The different variables affect the characteristics of the weld including the joint
penetration of the weld, the bead height and width, and the deposition rate. The joint
penetration is the distance the weld metal extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-95
weld reinforcement. The bead height is the height of the weld metal above the surface
of the base metal. The bead width is the width of the weld bead. The deposition rate is
the weight of material deposited in a unit of time.
The welding variables presented in this section focus on joint penetration, bead shape,
and the effect they have on the other welding variables. The deposition rate is a lesser
issue with TIG. It will vary widely because the filler metal does not cross the arc and is
not as dependent on variables such as the type and amount of welding current used,
and of course there is no deposition rate when you do not use a filler metal.

With gas tungsten arc welding, fixed variables include the type, size, and taper of the
electrode, and the types of welding current and shielding gas.
9.1.1 Type of Electrode
The type of tungsten electrode used in gas tungsten arc welding depends on the type of
metal and the specific application. Refer to Table 9-3 for the correct type of electrode to
weld various base metals.
For less critical applications, you should use the pure tungsten electrodes rather than
the thoriated or zirconium tungsten electrodes. Pure tungsten electrodes have a lower
current carrying capacity and a lower resistance to contamination, and tend to leave
more tungsten inclusions in the weld metal. However, pure tungsten electrodes are
widely used for AC welding of aluminum and magnesium because they do not
disintegrate as fast with alternating current, and are the least expensive.
The thoriated tungsten electrodes are more expensive but are preferred for many
applications because of the higher current carrying capacity, longer life, easier starting,
more stable arc, and greater resistance to contamination.
Zirconium tungsten electrodes generally have properties that fall somewhere in the
middle. Zirconium electrodes often give the best characteristics with alternating current
and are used to give x-ray quality welds in aluminum and magnesium.
The size of the electrode used will depend on the intended welding current range. Refer
again to an earlier table, Table 9-4, which shows the current ranges for various types
and sizes of tungsten electrodes. This is not the only determining factor though. For all
types of tungsten electrodes, in addition to the electrode diameter, the current-carrying
capacity is affected by the electrode extension, type of electrode holder, type of
shielding gas, and type of welding current.
Larger electrodes will allow you to use higher welding currents. For a given welding
current setting, you will need to use a larger electrode when using direct current
electrode positive because of the high heat buildup that occurs in the electrode. Also,
for a given size of electrode, direct current electrode negative will be able to carry the
largest amount of current. Although larger electrodes are generally used for welding
thicker metal, very small electrodes may be used for welding very thin sheet metal.
9.1.3 Type of Welding Current
The type of welding current used depends primarily on the type of metal to be welded,
the current levels required, and the availability of a machine that produces that type of
welding current. Figure 9-81 describes some of the characteristics of different polarity
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-96
electrodes; also, refer once again to Table 9-3 for the type of recommended current for
different base metals.
Direct current electrode positive is often used for welding thin aluminum and
magnesium parts. It is popular for these applications because the cathodic cleaning
action created at the surface of the workpiece removes the refractory oxide surface that
inhibits wetting of the weldment. DCEP also provides shallow penetration and has a low
current-carrying capacity because of the high amount of heat that builds up on the
electrode. Since this heat buildup can cause electrode melting, using DCEP is limited to
welding thin materials at low current levels.
Direct current electrode negative is used to obtain deep penetrating welds and is the
most common type of current used for welding metals other than aluminum and
magnesium. For aluminum and magnesium, alternating current with a superimposed
high frequency current is most commonly used. This type of current provides good
oxide cleaning when the electrode is positive and good penetration when the electrode
is negative. Overall, alternating current gives moderate penetration and is the second
choice of current type on most other metals.
Figure 9-81 Characteristics of current types for gas tungsten arc welding.
9.1.4 Type of Shielding Gas
Shielding gas is directed by the torch to the arc and weld pool to protect the electrode
and the molten weld metal from atmospheric contamination. The inert shielding gas
used will affect the penetration of the weld, the heat input, and the cost of the welding
operation.
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9-97
Argon is the most common type of shielding gas used in TIG and can be used for most
applications. Argon will give less penetration and heat input than helium but is less
expensive to use because it requires lower flow rates, produces the least spatter, and
costs less. It provides a smoother, quieter, arc action, better cross-draft resistance, and
an easier starting arc. Argon is used exclusively on thin metals because the high heat
input of helium causes melt-through.
Helium gives a hotter arc and more heat input into the base metal, which produces
deeper penetration and allows faster travel speeds. It is used especially for welding
thick sections, for metals with high heat conductivity, and for high-speed mechanized
applications.
Mixtures of argon are used to obtain a balance between the characteristics of these two
gases. Using helium instead of argon allows you to use lower welding currents and
produces higher arc voltages for a given arc length.
9.1.5 Electrode Taper Angle
Electrode taper angle is the angle ground on the end of the tungsten electrode (Figure
9-82). This variable applies only to thoriated tungsten electrodes. These are ground to a
tip to give better arc starting with high frequency ignition and a more stable arc. The
grinding wheel should be reserved for grinding only tungsten to eliminate possible
contamination of the tungsten tip with foreign matter during the grinding operation.
When grinding thoriated electrodes, you should use exhaust hoods to remove the
grinding dust from the work area.
You can taper thoriated tungsten
electrodes because of their
higher current-carrying capacity.
The most common taper angle is
approximately 22. This means
that the electrode is tapered
about 2 1/2 electrode diameters.
The degree of taper also affects
the bead shape and penetration.
Increasing the taper angle tends
to reduce the bead width and
increase the weld penetration.
The disadvantage of the smaller
taper angles is that they tend to
wear away quicker, especially on
starts where the tip of the
electrode is touched to the work.
To reduce the erosion and the
number of times you will need to
regrind the electrode, you should
use a larger taper angle because
it does not wear away as quickly.
Figure 9-82 Electrode taper angle.
Regardless of the electrode tip

geometry selected, it is important that you use a consistent taper angle once a welding
procedure is established. Changes in the electrode angle can significantly influence the
weld bead shape and size. Therefore, the electrode tip configuration is a variable that
you need to study during the welding procedure development.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-98

As with any other type of welding, the TIG welding procedure consists of certain
variables that you must understand and follow. Many of the variables have been
discussed. This section applies some of these variables to the actual welding
procedure.
Once you have chosen the fixed or preselected variables, the amount of welding current
you use will have the greatest effect on the characteristics of the weld bead. A knob or
handle on the front of the welding machine, or a foot pedal rheostat controls the welding
current. On some automatic applications, weld programmers may control the weld
current.
All of the following help determine the welding current:
type of electrode
size of the electrode
type of welding current
position
joint design
metal thickness
current range of the machine
The welding current is the best variable for controlling the depth of penetration and the
volume of weld metal.
As the other factors remain constant, when you increase the welding current, the
penetration and size of the weld bead increases. An excessive weld current can
produce undercutting, excessive penetration, and an irregular weld deposit.
While the other factors remain constant, lowering the welding current will reduce the
penetration and size of the weld bead. An extremely low weld current can cause piling
up of the weld metal, poor penetration, and overlapping at the edges of the weld bead.
Figure 9-83 shows the effects of different welding currents and speeds.
Figure 9-83 Effects of different primary variables.
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9.2.2 Travel Speed

The travel speed is the rate that the arc travels along the workpiece. For a given
welding current and voltage, the travel speed determines the amount of heat that is
delivered for a given length of weld. Changes in the travel speed have a strong effect on
the shape of the weld bead and the amount of penetration. In manual TIG welding, the
welder controls the rate that the arc travels along the work. In mechanized and
automatic welding operations, the travel speed is controlled by the equipment.
While the other variables remain constant, increasing the travel speed will reduce the
size of the weld bead and decrease the amount of penetration. Conversly, decreasing
the travel speed will increase the size of the weld bead and increase the penetration.
If the welding current and travel speed are increased or decreased proportionally
together, the weld will maintain the same penetration and width.
An excessive travel speed will produce a weld bead that is too small, has poor
penetration, and is irregular in shape. A travel speed that is too slow will give a weld
bead with excessive penetration, size, and piling up of the weld metal when filler metal
is added.
The welding or arc voltage is dependent on the shielding gas and the distance between
the tip of the electrode and the work. In the case of manual TIG welding, the welder
controls the distance from the tip of the electrode to the adjacent surface of the weld
pool, called arc length.
In mechanized and automatic welding, the arc length is pre-set by the distance from the
electrode tip to the work. In automatic welding, arc voltage controllers may be used to
move the electrode tip up and down to maintain the desired arc length. The arc voltage
controller compares the measured and desired arc voltages to determine which
direction and at what speed the welding electrode should be moved. This determination,
expressed as a voltage error signal, is amplified to drive motors in a slide that supports
the torch. The changing voltage that results from the motion of the welding electrode is
detected and the cycle repeats to maintain the desired arc voltage.
The shielding gas has an effect on the arc voltage. Helium will give higher arc voltages
for a given arc length than argon, which accounts for the greater penetrating ability of
helium.
The arc length has a direct effect on the welding voltage. Increasing the arc length will
increase the arc voltage, and decreasing the arc length will decrease the arc voltage. A
welding voltage that is too high indicates that the arc is too long. An excessive arc
length will produce an irregular welding bead with poor penetration. When the arc length
is extremely long, the shielding gas may not provide enough protection, which could
cause porosity and a discolored weld bead. Figure 9-83 also shows the effect of an
excessive arc length. Too short an arc can also cause problems. It increases the danger
of electrode contamination because the welder is more likely to dip the end of the
electrode in the weld puddle. Another problem is a higher heat buildup on the tungsten
electrode and the torch nozzle because they are closer to the weld puddle. This reduces
the service life of the electrode.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-100

Before starting the arc, you should form a
ball on the end of the electrode for AC
welding. To do this, simply set the current to
DCRP and strike an arc for a moment on a
piece of carbon or a piece of copper. The
ball diameter should be only slightly larger
than the original diameter of the tungsten
electrode.
When starting the arc with an AC highfrequency current, you do not have to bring
the electrode into contact with the workpiece.
To strike the arc, you must hold the torch in
a horizontal position about 2 inches above
the work surface, as shown in Figure 9-84.
Then rapidly swing the electrode end of the
torch down to within 1/8 of an inch of the
work surface. The high-frequency arc will
then jump the gap between the electrode
and the plate, establishing the arc. Figure 985 shows the torch position at the time the
arc strikes.
Figure 9-84 Torch position for

the starting swing to strike the
arc.
If you are using a DC machine, hold the torch

in the same position, but touch the plate to
start the arc. When the arc is struck,
withdraw the electrode so it is about 1/8 of an
inch above the plate.
To stop the arc, quickly swing the electrode
back to the horizontal position. If the machine
has a foot pedal, gradually decrease the
current before stopping the arc.

Secondary variables for TIG include the
travel and work angles of the electrode, and
electrode extension.
9.3.1 Angles of the Electrode
Figure 9-85 Torch position at

the end of the swing.
The angular position of the electrode in

relation to the work may have an effect on the quality of the weld deposit. The position
of the electrode may determine the ease at which you can add the filler metal (if used),
the quality of the weld bead, and the uniformity of the bead.
The electrode angles are called the travel angle and the work angle. The travel angle of
the electrode is the angle between the joint and the electrode in the longitudinal plane.
The work angle is the angle between the electrode and the perpendicular plane to the
direction of travel. These are shown in Figure 9-86. The welder manually controls the
electrode angles, and the angles used may vary slightly from welder to welder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-101
An incorrect work angle can cause undercutting and an inadequate weld bead. An
example of this is in the case of making a fillet weld. If the welder favors or directs the
arc more toward one plate, undercutting or lack of fusion may result on the other plate,
and the bead may have an irregular shape. The travel angle used will have an effect on
the penetration and the bead height. Increasing the travel angle in the direction of
welding will generally build up the height of the bead. Increasing the travel angle in the
opposite direction of welding will decrease the amount of penetration and give a wider
bead.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-102
9.3.2 Electrode Extension

The distance that the tip of the electrode extends beyond the end of the gas nozzle is
known as the electrode extension. Usually, the amount of extension is equal to one or
two electrode diameters, as shown in Figure 9-87. There are cases where the electrode
extension used will be greater or less.
The longer the electrode extension, the greater the chance of contamination by striking
the base metal or the filler rod to the tip of the electrode, or by inadequate gas
coverage.
Alternatively, the farther the electrode tip is
withdrawn into the gas nozzle, the less
current the electrode will be able to
withstand because some of the heat is
reflected back to the electrode from the gas
nozzle. Often, longer electrode extensions
are used on fillet welds so the electrode may
approach the root of the joint and the arc will
be visible to the welder.
In some cases, the end of the electrode is
withdrawn into the gas nozzle, making it very
difficuIt to contaminate the electrode. This
hinders visibility and requires a high degree
of welder skill. For welds requiring a very
short arc length, a longer than normal
extension is used so the welder has better
Figure 9-87 Electrode
vision. Longer electrode extensions require
extension.
higher gas flow rates and will not cool as
efficiently. The electrode extension should
not be longer than absolutely necessary because of the added gas flow rates needed
and the added danger of electrode contamination.

The welding procedure schedules in this section give typical welding conditions that can
be used to obtain high quality welds under normal welding conditions. The gas tungsten
arc welding process can use a wide variety of operating conditions for welding various
base metals. The schedules presented here provide only a few examples of the many
different welding procedures that can be used. The tables given here are not the only
conditions that could be used because factors such as weld appearances, welder skill,
method of application, and the specific application often require variations from the
schedules.
For example, when automatic gas tungsten arc welding is used, the travel speeds are
often higher than if the welding was performed manually. As the particular requirements
of the application become known, the settings may be adjusted to obtain the optimum
welding conditions. Qualifying tests or trials should be made in the shop or field prior to
actual use.
When adjusting or changing the variables for welding, the effect of the variables on
each other must be considered. In order to obtain a stable arc and good overall welding
conditions, one variable cannot usually be changed very much without adjusting or
changing the other variables.
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9-103
The following schedules are based on welding specific metals and their alloys such as
aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, and titanium as well as steel. The tables have
the type of weld, base metal thickness, number of passes, tungsten electrode size, gas
nozzle size, filler rod size, gas flow rate, welding current, and travel speed as the
variables that can be changed. The arc voltage is not included because the arc length
will vary depending on the welder. Gas tungsten arc welding is done using constant
current types of power sources, which allow the welding voltage to vary, while keeping
the welding current at approximately the same level. In automatic gas tungsten arc
welding, the voltage is easily measured because the machine can hold a constant arc
length.
The tables presented in this chapter are the conditions for manual TIG welding. The
main emphasis of these schedules is on the welding conditions used for welding thin
materials, especially for non-ferrous metals. The type of current, shielding gas, and
tungsten electrode used are those recommended for welding these different metals, and
will not be considered as variables here.
Because of the wide variety of applications TIG welding is capable of performing, the
procedure schedules presented here are not a complete guide to the procedures for
TIG. They are not the only conditions that may be used to obtain a specific weld. You
should make qualifying tests under actual conditions before using this process or these
schedules for production welding. Figures 9-88 through 9-93 are representative of some
of the configurations you will encounter when welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 9-88 Square groove welds.

Table 9-20 Square groove welds in various types of base metal.
Metal
Number Tungsten
Nozzle
Filler
Gas Flow Welding
Travel
Thickness
of
Size
Size
Size
ft.3/hr.
Current
Speed
in/min(mm/s)
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
in (mm)
in (mm)
(I/min.)
Amps
AC, Argon Shield, Pure or Zirconium Tungsten Electrode
3/64 (1.2)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
19 (9.0)
20-60
12 (5.1)
1/16(1.6)
1
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4)
19 (9.0)
40-90
10 (4.2)
3/32 (2.4)
1
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4)
19 (9.0)
50-110
10 (4.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5
) 1/8 (3.2)
20 (9.4)
100-150
10 (4.2)
Copper and Copper Alloys (Except Silicon Bronze)
DCEN, Argon Shield for Thicknesses less than 3/16 (4.8) Helium for all others,
Thoriated Tungsten
1/16 (1.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
18 (8.5)
100-150
12 (5.1)
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4)
18 (8.5)
150-230
10 (4.2)
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
36 (17)
175-250
10 (4.2)
Silicon Bronze
DCEN, Argon Shield, Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1/16(1.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
15 (7.1)
60-125
12 (5.1)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
20 (9.4)
80-150
12 (5.1)
3/16 (4.8)
1
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4)
20 (9.4)
100-195
10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
25 (11.8) 150-225
10 (4.2)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-105
Metal
Number Tungsten
Nozzle
Filler
Thickness
of
Size
Size
Size
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
in (mm)
in (mm)
Magnesium Alloys
20 ga (.9)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
16 ga (1.5)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
14ga(1.9)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
12 ga (2.7)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
11 ga (3.0)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
DCEN, Argon Shield, Thoriated Tungsten electrode
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
None
16 ga (1.5)
1
3/32 (2.4)
1/2 (12.7)
1/16(1.6)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
3/32 (2.4)
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
20 ga (.9)
1
1/16 (1.6)
14 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
18 ga (1.2)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
16ga(1.5)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16(1.6)
14 ga (1.9)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
3/32 (2.4)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
1/4 (6.4)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
Stainless Steel
1/16 (1.6)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
3/32 (2.4)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/16 (1.6)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
3/16 (4.8)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
Titanium
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16(1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
None
16 ga (1.5)
1
1/16(1.6)
5/8 (15.9)
None
3/32 (2.4)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/16 (1.6)
1/8 (3/2)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/16 (1.6)
3/16 (4.8)
2
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Gas Flow
ft.3/hr.
(I/min.)
Welding
Current
Amps
Travel
Speed
in/min(mm/s)
15 (7.1)
15 (7.1)
15 (7.1)
15 (7.1)
25 (11.8)
25-40
35-70
40-75
50-100
65-125
15 (6.3)
15 (6.3)
13 (5.5)
13 (5.5)
13 (5.5)
15 (7.1)
18 (8.5)
25 (11.8)
30 (14.2)
8-10
40-70
75-140
100-175
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
11 (4.7)
8 (3.4)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
12 (5.7)
15(7.1)
18 (8.5)
15-35
20-45
25-55
35-65
35-70
35-80
45-100
65-140
85-175
13 (5.5)
13 (5.5)
12 (5.1)
12 (5.1)
12 (5.1)
12 (5.1)
11 (4.7)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
12 (5.7)
12 (5.7)
12 (5.7)
15 (7.1)
35-60
45-85
55-100
65-130
12(5.1)
12 (5.1)
12 (5.1)
10 (4.2)
18 (8.5)
18 (8.5)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
20-35
45-85
60-90
80-125
90-140
6 (2.5)
6 (2.5)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
9-106
Figure 9-89 V-groove welds.
Table 9-21 V-groove welds in various types of base metal.

Metal
Number Tungsten
Nozzle
Filler
Thickness
of
Size
Size
Size
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
in (mm)
in (mm)
AC Argon Shield Pure or Zirconium Tungsten Electrode
3/16 (4.8)
2
5/32 (4.0)
7/16(11.1)
5/32 (4.0)
1/4 (6.4)
2
5/32 (4.0)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
3/8 (9.5)
2
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
3 3/16
1/2 (12.7)
2
(4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
DC EN Helium Shield Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
2
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
2
1/4 (6.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/4 (6.4)
Silicon Bronze
DC EN Argon Shield Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
3/8 (9.5)
3
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
4
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
3/4(19.1)
9
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
3/16 (4.8)
Magnesium Alloys
AC Argon Shield Pure or Zirconium Tungsten Electrode
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
5/32 (4.0)
3/8 (9.5)
2
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
2
3 1/4 (6.4)
5/8 (15.9)
3/16(4.8)
3/4 (19.1)
3
1/4 (6.4)
3/4 (19.1)
3/16 (4.8)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Gas Flow
ft.3/hr.
(I/min.)
Welding
Current
Amps
Travel
Speed
in/min(mm/s)
25 (11.8)
30 (14.2)
30 (14.2)
160-180
200-220
240-300
11 (4.7)
9 (3.8)
8 (3.4)
35 (16.5)
300-350
8 (3.4)
36 (17.0)
45 (21.2)
45 (21.2)
220-275
275-325
370-500
7 (3.0)
7 (3.0)
6 (2.5)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
295-355
245-295
295-355
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
30 (14.2)
35 (16.5)
40 (18.9)
95-115
110-130
135-165
280-320
340-380
24 (10.2)
20 (8.5)
18 (7.6)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
9-107
Stainless Steel
DC EN Argon Shield Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
3/16 (4.8)
3 3/16
3/8 (9.5)
2
(4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3
3/16 (4.8)
112 (12.7)
1/4 (6.4)
Titanium
DCEN Argon Shield Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/4(19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
3
1/8 (3.2)
3/4(19.1)
3/32 (4.0)
18 (8.5)
175-250
10 (4.2)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
250-350
250-350
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
30 (14.2)
35 (16.5)
40 (18.9)
135-200
140-210
160-250
8 (3.4)
6 (2.5)
6 (2.5)
Figure 9-90 Fillet welds.

Table 9-22 Fillet welds in various types of base metals.
Metal
Number Tungsten
Nozzle
Filler
Thickness
of
Size
Size
Size
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
in (mm)
in (mm)
1/16(1.6)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
3/32 (2.4)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
3/16 (4.8)
1
5/32 (4.0)
7/16 (11.1)
5/32 (4.0)
1/4 (6.4)
1
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
3/8 (9.5)
2
3/16 (4.8)
112 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Gas Flow
ft.3/hr.
(I/min.)
Welding
Current
Amps
Travel
Speed
in/min(mm/s)
15 (7.1)
16 (7.6)
19 (9.0)
25 (11.8)
30 (14.2)
35 (16.5)
35 (16.5)
50-90
60-115
70-140
110-200
130-250
175-310
250-350
9 (3.8)
9 (3.8)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
9-108

DCEN, Argon Shield for Thickness < 3/16 , All others Helium, Thoriated Tungsten Electrode
1/16 (1.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
18 (8.5)
90-155
10 (4.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
18 (8.5)
150-245
8 (3.4)
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
36 (17.0)
175-255
8 (3.4)
1/4 (6.4)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
36 (17.0)
200-285
7 (3.0)
3/8 (9.5)
2
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
36 (17.0)
220-350
6 (2.5)
1/2 (12.7)
3
3/16 (4.8)
5/8 (15.9)
1/4 (6.4)
45 (21.2)
300-500
6 (2.5)
Silicon Bronze
1/16 (1.6)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
15 (7.1)
75-120
10 (4.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
15 (7.1)
95-150
10 (4.2)
3/16 (4.8)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
20 (9.4)
125-220
10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
25 (11.8)
140-275
8 (3.4)
3/8 (9.5)
3
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
25 (11.8)
200-285
8 (3.4)
1/2 (12.7)
7
5/32 (4.0)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
25 (11.8)
240-300
8 (3.4)
3/4(19.1)
14
5/32 (4.0)
3/8 (9.5)
3/16 (4.8)
25 (11.8)
275-350
8 (3.4)
1 (25.4)
20
3/16 (4.8)
7/16(11.1)
1/4 (6.4)
25 (11.8)
300-365
8 (3.4)
Magnesium Alloys
20 ga (.9)
1
1/16(1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
3/32 (2.4)
15 (7.1)
25-45
20 (8.5)
16 ga (1.5)
1
1/16 (1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
3/32 (2.4)
15 (7.1)
35-60
20 (8.5)
14 ga (1.9)
1
3/32 (2.4)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
15 (7.1)
50-80
17 (7.2)
12 ga (2.7)
1
3/32 (2.4)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
20 (9.4)
75-100
17 (7.2)
11 ga (3.0)
1
3/32 (2.4)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
20 (9.4)
95-120
17 (7.2)
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
None
15 (7.1)
8-10
8 (3.4)
16 ga (1.5)
1
3/32 (2.4)
1/2 (12.7)
1/16(1.6)
18 (8.5)
25-45
8 (3.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
3/32 (2.4)
25 (11.8)
90-175
11 (4.7)
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
30 (14.2)
100-175
8 (3.4)
Carbon and Low Alloy Steel
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
10 (4.7)
15-20
13 (5.5)
20 ga (.9)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
10 (4.7)
25-50
15 (6.3)
18 ga (1.2)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
10 (4.7)
35-70
15 (6.3)
16 ga (1.5)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
10 ( 4.7)
50-80
15 (6.3)
14 ga (1.9)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16(1.6)
10( 4.7)
65-90
15 (6.3)
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/16 (7.2)
3/32 (2.4)
12(5.7)
75-120
11 (4.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
15 (7.1)
150-200
10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
18 (8.5)
160-250
10 (4.2)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-109
Stainless Steel
1/16 (1.6)
1
1/16(1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
3/32 (2.4)
1
1/16 (1.6)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1
1/16 (1.6)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
3/16 (4.8)
3/8 (9.5)
2-3
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
3
3/16 (4.8)
1/2 (12.7)
1/4 (6.4)
Titanium
24 ga (.6)
1
1/16(1.6)
3/8 (9.5)
None
16 ga (1.5)
1
1/16(1.6)
5/8 (15.9)
None
3/32 (2.4)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/16 (1.6)
1/8 (3/2)
1
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/16 (1.6)
3/16 (4.8)
2
3/32 (2.4)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
1/4 (6.4)
2
1/8 (3.2)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
3/8 (9.5)
2
1/8 (3.2)
3/4(19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
1/2 (12.7)
3
3/32 (2.4)
3/4 (19.1)
5/32 (4.0)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
10 (4.7)
15 (7.1)
18(8.5)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
45-75
65-85
75-125
100-175
125-225
175-300
200-325
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
8 (3.4)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
10 (4.2)
18 (8.5)
18 (8.5)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
25 (11.8)
30 (14.2)
35 (16.5)
40 (18.9)
20-35
45-85
60-90
80-125
90-140
125-175
175-225
225-300
6 (2.5)
6 (2.5)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
8 (3.4)
6 (2.5)
6 (2.5)
9-110
Figure 9-91 Pulsed current parameters.

Table 9-23 Pulsed current procedures for TIG.
STAINLESS STEEL
Metal
Thickness
Welding
%
Gage In Current Welding
(mm) Amps
Current
24 .025 (0.6)
35-45
20
18 .050 (1.2)
45-55
20
16 .062 (1.5)
55-70
20
3/32 (2.4)
65-85
20
1/8 (3.2)
75-95
20
NAVEDTRA 14250A
High
Pulse
Time
Seconds
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Low
Pulse
Time
Seconds
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
Argon Gas
Flow
ft3/hr
12
12
12
12
12
(I/min)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
Travel Speed
in/min
4
4
4
3
3
9-111
(mm/s)
(1.69)
(1.69)
(1.69)
(1.27)
(1.27)
Figure 9-92 Pulsed current parameters (cont.).

Table 9-24 Pulsed current for stainless steel.
STAINLESS STEEL-Unlimited Thickness
Joint Type
Welding
Current
Amps
%
Welding
Current
High
Pulse
Time
Seconds
Low
Pulse
Time
Seconds
V/Butt Joint
170-190
20
0.06
Consumable Insert
170-190
20
Open Root
170-190
Fill Pass
170-190
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Argon Gas Flow
Travel Speed
ft3/hr
(I/min)
in/min
(mm/s)
0.06
18
(8.5)
(1.27)
0.06
0.06
18
(8.5)
(1.27)
40
0.06
0.06
18
(8.5)
(1.27)
40
0.06
0.06
25
(11.8)
(1.27)
9-112
Figure 9-93 Gas tungsten arc spot welding - Flat and vertical position.
Table 9-25 Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding.
Metal Thickness
Top Piece
Welding
Condition
Amperes
Gage Inch (mm)

DCEN
Stainless Steel
24
.025 (0.64)
125
24
.025 (0.64)
110
24
.025 (0.64)
100
22
.0312 (0.79)
125
22
.0312 (0.79)
100
18
.05 (1.27)
140
16
.05 (1.27)
110
16
.062 (1.57)
170
16
.062 (1.57)
140
.062 (1.57)
115
.064 (1.62)
160
Low Alloy and Mild Steel
22
.0312 (0.79)
170
22
.0312 (0.79)
140
22
.0312 (0.79)
120
18
.05 (1.27)
170
18
.05 (1.27)
140
18
.05 (1.27)
135
16
.062 (1.57)
170
16
.062 (1.57)
155
Aluminum
.022 (.56)
.32
(.81)
.48 (1.22)
.064 (1.62)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
AC
175
175
150
175
175
200
150
250
Shielding
Gas Argon
Arc Time
Second
Note #2 ft3/hr (l/min)
250
1
1.25
1.5
1.5
1.75
1.5
2.5
3
3.25
5.25
2.25
10
10
10
10
10
12
12
12
12
12
12
(4.7)
(4.7)
(4.7)
(4.7)
(4.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
250
200
175
250
200
200
250
225
1.5
2
2.25
1.75
2
2.5
3
3.5
8
8
8
10
10
10
12
12
(3.8)
(3.8)
(3.8)
(4.7)
(4.7)
(4.7)
(5.7)
(5.7)
170
200
220
250
1.1
1.5
1.7
2.2
8
8
8
8
(3.8)
(3.8)
(3.8)
(3.8)
9-113

Several steps must be taken before making a weld with the gas tungsten arc welding
process. These include preparing the weld joint, preparing the electrode tip, fixturing the
weldment, setting the variables, and in some cases, preheating. The amount of preweld
preparation depends upon the size of the weld and weldment, the type of base metal,
the ease of fitup, the quality requirements, the governing code or specification, and the
welder.

There are different ways of preparing the edge of the joint for welding. For fillet or
square-groove welds, the joints are prepared simply by squaring the edges of the
members if the as-received edge is not suitable. In TIG welding, a large percentage of
the joints are prepared this way because this process is widely used for welding thin
materials.
The methods most often used for edge preparation are oxygen fuel cutting, plasma arc
cutting, shearing, machining, air carbon arc gouging, grinding, and chipping. When they
are available, with the exception of shearing, the thermal cutting methods such as oxyfuel cutting, plasma arc cutting, or air carbon arc cutting are faster than the mechanical
cutting methods.
Oxy-fuel cutting is used on carbon and low alloy steels, plasma arc cutting is used on
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and is best for applications where high production rates
are required, and air carbon arc cutting is used for most steels, including stainless
steels. However, do not use air carbon arc on stainless steels involving critical corrosion
applications because of the high carbon deposition. The surfaces cut by these thermal
methods often have to be ground lightly to remove the scale or contamination.
Common types of prepared joints are the V-, U-, J-, bevel-, and combination grooves.
The more complex types of bevels require longer joint preparation times, which makes
the joint preparation more expensive.
Next to the square edge preparation, the V-groove and single-bevel grooves are used
most often, and can be prepared easily by oxy-fuel cutting or plasma arc cutting. These
two methods leave a smooth surface if properly done. The edges of U- and J-grooves
can be prepared by using special oxy-fuel tips and techniques, air carbon arc cutting, or
by machining, which will produce a more uniform groove. These joint preparations are
not as common in TIG welding because they are joint preparations for thicker materials.
11.2.0 Cleaning the Work Metal

The welds made by TIG are very susceptible to contamination during the welding
process. The surface of the base metal must be free of grease, oil, paint, plating, dirt,
oxides, or any other foreign material. This is especially critical when welding aluminum
and non-ferrous metals. Usually, extremely dirty workpieces, except titanium, are
cleaned by using solvent cleaners followed by vapor degreasing, and simple degreasing
is used for cleaning metals that have oxide-free surfaces. Generally, acid pickling is
used for cleaning metals that have a light oxide coating, while heavier oxide coatings
are removed mechanically by grinding and abrasive blasting.
The type of required cleaning operation will vary depending on the metal. Aluminum has
a thick, refractory oxide coating which has a high electrical resistance. This coating is
removed by deoxidation with a hot alkaline cleaning solution, followed by rinsing in
distilled water. Carbon and low alloy steels may be cleaned chemically in a hydrochloric
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-114
acid solution. Nickel alloys and stainless steels may be cleaned by pickling, which
removes iron, sand blast residue, and other contaminants. Titanium and titanium alloys
may be cleaned in molten salt baths or by abrasive blasting. Chlorinated solvents used
for degreasing operations should not be used on titanium because they will cause
corrosion cracking. Chemical cleaning can be done by pickling with hydrofluoric acid.
You need to perform several tasks just before welding. One is to file the edges of the
joint smooth so no burrs are present; burrs can cause physical pain and be a place to
trap contaminants in a weld joint. Another is to wire brush the surfaces of the joint and
surrounding area. Use mild steel brushes for cleaning mild and low alloy steel, and use
stainless steel wire brushes for stainless steel, aluminum, and other non-ferrous metals.
Following this procedure will help you avoid contaminating the stainless steel and noncarbon metals with a mild steel brush. You should do the welding as soon as possible
after cleaning, especially on metals that form moderate or thick surface oxides such as
stainless steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Wire brushing does not completely remove
the oxide, but it reduces its thickness and makes the metals easier to weld. Wear gloves
while cleaning to prevent oil or dirt from your fingers from getting on the joint surfaces,
which can also cause contamination.
Contaminates on the workpiece can lead to arc instability and result in welds that
contain pores, cracks, or inclusions.
11.3.0 Electrode Tip Preparation

The shape of the tungsten electrode tip is an important process variable in gas tungsten
arc welding. The type of electrode tip preparation depends on the type of tungsten
electrode; it may have a pointed, hemispherical, or balled profile. A pointed electrode tip
is best for welding in restricted areas such as narrow joints, and it permits a high current
density to be maintained. Pointed
electrode tips are used on
thoriated electrodes, while the
hemispherical and balled tips are
used for zirconium and pure
tungsten electrodes.
The pure and zirconium types of
electrodes form a hemispherical
or balled tip and are used mainly
for welding with alternating
current. These two types of
electrode tip preparations are
shown in Figure 9-94. You
produce a hemispherical
electrode tip by starting an arc
between the electrode and a
piece of scrap metal or copper
and maintaining it at a moderate
current level until a hemispherical
ball is formed on the end of the
electrode.
You produce a balled tip the same
way, except you use higher
current levels. As you increase
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-94 Hemispherical and balled tip.
9-115
the current beyond the point where a hemispherical tip exists, the ball will increase in
size proportionately. The diameter of the balled end should not exceed one and one-half
times the electrode diameter because the excessive current will consume the electrode
too quickly. The surface of the hemispherical and balled tips should always be perfectly
clean, shiny, and highly reflective.
The pointed type of tip preparation is used on 1% and 2% thoriated tungsten electrodes,
which are generally used for DCEN welding. Unless the thoriated electrodes are used
for welding with AC, they are normally ground to a sharp point (Figure 9-95). The length
of the ground surface of the electrode should be about two or three times the size of the
electrode diameter.
To produce optimum arc stability, grind the tungsten electrodes with the axis of the
electrode perpendicular to the axis of the
grinding wheel or along the length of the
electrode and not across the diameter. This
will produce a more stable arc. Slightly blunt
the tip of the electrode before welding; when
higher current levels are used, the tip of the
electrode will melt back a bit and give a
slightly wider tip. Reserve a grinding wheel
for grinding tungsten only to eliminate
possible contamination of the tungsten tip,
Figure 9-95 Point tip
and use exhaust hoods when grinding
preparation.
thoriated electrodes to remove the grinding
dust from the work area.
Thoriated and zirconium electrodes will maintain a pointed edge preparation over a wide
current range, but pure tungsten electrodes will change their tip profile according to the
amount of current they are carrying. The surface of a pointed electrode should be kept
clean at all times, but it will not be shiny.
11.4.0 Fixturing, Positioning, and Weld Backing

Fixturing can affect the shape, size and uniformity of a weld bead. Fixtures are devices
used to hold the parts in proper relation to each other until welded. When fixturing is not
used, it usually indicates that the resulting weld distortion can either be tolerated or
corrected by straightening operations. The following are primary functions of fixturing:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Locate parts precisely within the assembly.

Maintain alignment during welding.
Minimize distortion in the weldment.
Control heat buildup.
Increase welding efficiency.
When you use a welding fixture, you can assemble and hold the components securely
in place while you position the weldment and perform the weld. The need to use these
devices depends on the specific application; they are used more often when large
numbers of the same parts are produced. When you can use fixtures, your production
time for the weldments can be reduced significantly. They are also good for applications
where you must hold close tolerances.
Positioners are used to move the workpiece into a position so welding can be done
more conveniently, which affects the appearance and quality of the weld bead.
Sometimes you need a positioner simply to make the weld joint more accessible. The
main objective of positioning is to put the joint in the flat or other more favorable
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-116
position, which increases your efficiency because you can use higher welding speeds.
This also allows you to use larger diameter wires with globular and high current spray
transfer. These modes of metal transfer will produce the highest deposition rates. Flat
position welding usually increases the quality of the weld because it makes the welding
easier.
Weld backings are commonly used in TIG to provide support for the weld metal and to
control the heat input. Copper, stainless steel, and consumable insert rings are the
three most common methods. Copper is the most popular method of weld backing
because it does not fuse to thin metals. It also provides a fast cooling rate; the high heat
conductivity of copper makes this a good method of controlling the heat input. Stainless
steel is good backing material for argon shielded TIG welding. Often, consumable
inserts are used as weld backing for welding the root pass in pipe welding. They fit into
place and are available in plain carbon steel, alloy steel, and stainless steel, as well as
in copper and nickel alloys.
11.5.0 Preheating
Preheating is sometimes required, but this depends on the type of metal being welded,
the base metal thickness, and the amount of joint restraint. These factors were
discussed in the section on Welding Metallurgy. The specific amount of preheat needed
for a given application is often obtained from the welding procedure.
The preheat temperature of the metal should be carefully controlled. There are several
good methods of performing this: furnace heating, electric induction coils, and electric
resistance heating blankets. On thin materials, hot air blasts or radiant lamps may be
used; with these methods, temperature indicators are attached to the parts being
preheated.
Oxy-fuel torches are another method of preheating. This method gives a more localized
heating than the previously mentioned methods. When you use oxy-fuel torches, you
need to avoid localized overheating and keep deposits of incomplete combustion
products from collecting on the surface of the parts to be welded. There are several
methods of measuring the temperature of preheat such as colored crayons, pellets, and
hand-held temperature indicators. The crayons and pellets melt at a specific
predetermined temperature; the handheld temperature indicators give meter readings,
digital readings, or recorder readings, depending on the type of temperature indicator.

14.
Which is NOT a major type of welding variable?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
Fixed
Primary adjustable
Secondary fixed
On a pointed tip electrode, what should the length of the ground surface be?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Half the diameter of the electrode

Two to three times the diameter of the electrode
Four to five times the diameter of the electrode
Half the length of the electrode
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-117
12.0.0 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES and PROBLEMS

TIG, like the other processes, can have welding procedure problems resulting in weld
defects. Some defects are caused by problems with the materials, including the use of
improper base metal, filler metal, or shielding gas. Other welding problems may not be
foreseeable, such as arc blow and electrode contamination, and may require immediate
corrective action. A poor welding technique and an improper choice of welding
parameters are other causes of welding defects.
Discontinuities that can occur when using TIG welding are tungsten inclusions, porosity,
wormhole porosity, undercutting, incomplete fusion, melt-through, arc strikes, and
craters. Problems with the welding technique or procedure weaken the weld and can
cause cracking. The base metal and filler metal must be clean to avoid many of these
problems. Other problems that can occur and reduce the quality of the weld are arc
blow, lack of shielding gas, and drafts or air currents.
TIG welding does not have many problems with slag inclusions because a shielding
gas, instead of a slag layer, protects the weld puddle. However, some filler metals,
particularly those used for mild steel, will sometimes leave a small amount of slag,
which may cause slag inclusions if it is not cleaned properly. However, this is rarely a
problem. Welding spatter rarely occurs because the tungsten is a non-consumable
electrode and the filler metal is added directly to the weld puddle, not transferred across
the arc.

12.1.1 Tungsten Inclusions
Tungsten inclusions are chunks or particles
from the elctrode which are found in the
weld metal (Figure 9-96).
These inclusions are the result of problems
in the welding procedure such as the
following:
1. Exceeding the maximum current for
a given electrode size or type.
Figure 9-96 Inclusions.
2. Letting the tip of the electrode make
contact with the molten weld puddle.
3. Letting the filler metal come in contact with the hot tip of the electrode.
4. Using an excessive electrode extension.
5. Inadequate gas shielding or excessive wind drafts which result in oxidation.
6. Using improper shielding gases such as argonoxygen or argon-CO2 mixtures,
which are used for gas metal arc welding.
This problem can be corrected by the following:
1. Reducing the current.
2. Maintaining a distance between the tungsten electrode and weld puddle and the
tungsten electrode and filler metal.
3. Reducing the electrode extension.
4. Increasing gas flow or shielding arc from wind drafts.
5. Using inert gas only.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-118
12.1.2 Oxide Inclusions

Oxide inclusions are particles of surface
oxides which have not melted and mixed
into the weld metal (Figure 9-97). These
inclusions occur when welding those metals
that have surface oxides with very high
melting points. This problem is mainly
associated with welding aluminum and
magnesium, but some problems will also
occur when welding stainless steel. Oxide
Figure 9-97 Oxide inclusion.
inclusions weaken the weld and can serve
as initiation points for cracking. The best
method of preventing this problem is to wire brush the joint and weld area and clean the
area thoroughly before welding.
12.1.3 Porosity
Porosity is the presence of gas pockets in the weld metal that may be scattered in small
clusters or along the entire length of the weld (Figure 9-98). The voids left in the weld
cause it to be weakened. One or more of the
following cause porosity:
1. Inadequate shielding gas flow.
2. Excessive welding current.
3. Rust, grease, oil, moisture, or dirt on
the surface of the base metal or filler
metal, including moisture trapped in
aluminum oxide.
4. Impurities in the base metal, such as
Figure 9-98 Porosity.
sulfur and phosphorus.
5. An excessive travel speed, which
causes freezing of the weld puddle before gases can escape.
6. Contaminated or wet shielding gas.
Porosity can be prevented or corrected by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Increasing the shielding gas flow.

Lowering the welding current.
Cleaning the surface of the base metal.
Changing to a different base metal with a different composition.
Lowering the travel speed.
Replacing the shielding gas.
12.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping

Porosity)
Wormhole porosity is the name given to
elongated gas pockets and is usually
caused by sulfur in the steel or moisture on
the surface of the base metal that becomes
trapped in the weld joint (Figure 9-99).
Wormhole porosity can seriously reduce the
strength of the weld. The best methods of
preventing this are to clean the surfaces of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 9-99 Wormhole porosity.

9-119
the joint and preheat to remove moisture. If sulfur in the steel is the problem, a more
weldable grade of steel should be selected.
12.1.5 Undercutting
Undercutting is a groove melted in the base metal next to the toe or root of a weld that
is not filled by the weld metal (Figure 9-100). This is particularly a problem with fillet
welds. Undercutting causes a weaker joint at the toe of the weld, which may result in
cracking.
It is caused by one or more of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Excessive welding current.

Arc voltage too high.
Excessive travel speed
Not enough filler metal added.
Excessive weaving speed.
On vertical and horizontal welds,

undercutting may also be caused by
incorrect electrode angles. This
discontinuity can be prevented by the
following:
Figure 9-100 Undercutting.
1. Reducing the welding current.

2. Holding a short arc length.
3. Using a travel speed slow enough so the weld metal can completely fill all of the
melted out areas of the base metal.
4. Using more filler metal.
5. Pausing at each side of the weld bead when a weaving technique is used.
12.1.6 Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion occurs when the weld
metal is not completely fused to the base
metal (Figure 9-101). This can occur
between the weld metal and the base metal
or between passes in a multi-pass weld.
Incomplete fusion between the weld metal
and the base metal is usually due to
inadequate penetration. Causes of this
include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 9-101 Incomplete fusion.

Excessive travel speed.
Welding current too low.
Poor joint preparation.
Letting the weld metal get ahead of the arc.
Incomplete fusion can be prevented by the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Reducing the travel speed.

Increasing the welding current.
Preparing the joint better.
Using proper electrode angles.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-120
12.1.7 Overlapping
Overlapping is the protrusion of the weld metal over the edge or toe of the weld bead
(Figure 9-102). This defect can cause an area of incomplete fusion, which creates a
notch and can lead to crack initiation. Although TIG is primarily for welding thin metals, if
this occurs, you can grind off the excess weld metal after welding. Overlapping is
produced by one or more of the following:
1. Too slow a travel speed which
permits the weld puddle to get ahead
of the electrode.
2. Arc welding current that is too low.
3. Addition of too much filler metal.
4. Incorrect electrode angle that allows
the force of the arc to push the
molten weld metal over unfused
sections of the base metal.
Overlapping can be prevented or corrected
by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Figure 9-102 Overlapping.
Using a higher travel speed.

Using a higher welding current.
Reducing the amount of filler metal added
Using the correct electrode angles.
Grinding off the excess weld metal
12.1.8 Melt-through
Melt-through occurs when the arc melts through the bottom of the weld and creates
holes (Figure 9-103). This can be caused by
one or more of the following:
2. Travel speed that is too slow.
3. Root opening that is too wide or a
root face that is too small.
2. Increasing the travel speed.
Figure 9-103 Melt-through.
3. Reducing the width of the root
opening, using a slight weaving
motion, or increasing the electrode extension.
12.1.9 Arc Strikes
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-121
12.1.10 Craters
Weld craters are depressions on the weld surface at the point where the arc was broken
(Figure 9-104). These are caused by the solidification of the metal after the arc has
been broken. The weld crater often cracks and can serve as an origin for linear cracking
back into the weld metal or into the base metal. These craters can usually be removed
by chipping or grinding and the depression can be filled in with a small deposit of filler
metal.
For TIG welding, there are two common
methods of preventing craters. The first is to
reverse the travel of the electrode a little
way back into the weld bead from the end of
the weld bead, before breaking the arc. A
second method is to use a foot rheostat to
control the welding current. This is done by
gradually reducing the welding current at the
end of the weld, which gradually reduces
Figure 9-104 Weld crater.
the size of the molten weld puddle. For
machine and automatic applications, a slope control on the machine will automatically
reduce the welding current at the end of the weld, which will also gradually reduce the
size of the molten weld puddle.
12.2.0 Cracking
An improper welding procedure, welder technique, or materials can cause weldment
cracking. All types of cracking can be classified as either hot or cold cracking. These
cracks are transverse or longitudinal to the weld. Transverse cracks are perpendicular
to the axis of the weld where longitudinal shrinkage strains acting on excessively hard
and brittle weld metal. Longitudinal cracks are often caused by high joint restraint and
high cooling rates. Although TIG is primarily for thin metals, preheating may be
necessary to help reduce these problems.
Hot cracking occurs at elevated temperatures and generally happens just after the weld
metal starts to solidify. This type of cracking is often caused by excessive sulfur,
phosphorous, and lead contents in the steel base metal. In non-ferrous metals, it is
often caused by sulfur or zinc. It can also be caused by an improper method of breaking
the arc or in a root pass when the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is small
compared to the mass of the base metal.
Hot cracking often occurs in deep penetrating welds and can continue through
successive layers if it is not repaired. Hot cracking may be prevented or minimized by
the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Preheating to reduce shrinkage stresses in the weld.

Using clean or uncontaminated shielding gas.
Increasing the cross-sectional area of the weld bead.
Changing the contour of the weld bead.
Using base metal with very low contents of those elements that tend to cause hot
cracking.
Crater cracks are shallow hot cracks that are caused by improperly breaking the arc.
Crater cracks may be prevented the same way that craters are, by reversing the travel
of the electrode back into the weld bead a little way, gradually reducing the welding
current at the end of the weld, or by stopping the travel before breaking the arc.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-122
excessive joint restraint, and rapid cooling. Preheating and using a dry high purity
shielding gas help reduce this problem.
Centerline cracks are cold cracks that often
occur in single pass concave fillet welds. A
centerline crack is a longitudinal crack that
runs down the center of the weld (Figure 9105).
This problem may be caused by one or more
of the following:
1. Weld bead that is too small for the
thickness of the base metal.
2. Poor fitup.
3. High joint restraint.
4. Extension of a crater crack.
Figure 9-105 Centerline crack.
The best methods of preventing centerline cracks are the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Increasing the bead size.

Decreasing the width of the root opening.
Preheating.
Preventing weld craters.
Base metal and underbead cracks are cold cracks that form in the heat affected zone of
the base metal. Underbead cracks occur underneath the weld bead (Figure 9-106).
Base metal cracks are those cracks that
originate in the heat affected zone of the
weld. These types of cracking are caused by
excessive joint restraint, entrapped
hydrogen, and a brittle microstructure. A
brittle microstructure is caused by rapid
cooling or excessive heat input. Underbead
and base metal cracking can be reduced or
eliminated by using preheat.
Figure 9-106 Underbead cracks.
Other problems that can occur with TIG and

reduce the quality of the weld are arc blow, loss of shielding gas coverage, and
electrode contamination.
12.3.1 Arc Blow
The electric current that flows through the electrode, workpiece, and work cable sets up
magnetic fields in a circular path perpendicular to the direction of the current. When the
magnetic fields around the arc are unbalanced, it tends to bend away from the greatest
concentration of the magnetic field. This deflection of the arc is called arc blow.
Deflection is usually in the direction of travel or opposite to it, but it sometimes occurs to
the side. Arc blow can result in an irregular weld bead and incomplete fusion.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-123
Direct current is highly susceptible to arc blow, especially when welding is being done in
corners and near the ends of joints. Arc blow occurs with direct current because the
induced magnetic field is in one direction.
Alternating current is rarely subject to arc blow because the magnetic field is building
and collapsing continuously due to the reversing current. The problem also occurs when
welding complex structures and massive structures with high currents and poor fitup.
Forward arc blow is encountered when welding away from the ground connection or at
the beginning of the weld joint. Backward arc blow occurs toward the grounding
connection, into a corner, or toward the end of a welding joint. Several corrective
methods that can be used to correct the arc blow problem are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Changing to alternating current.

Welding toward an existing weld or tack weld.
Reducing the welding current and making the arc length as short as possible.
Placing the work connection as far as possible from the weld, at the end of the
weld, or at the start of the weld, and welding toward the heavy tack weld.
5. Wrapping the work lead cable around the workpiece so that the magnetic field
caused by the current in the work cable will neutralize the magnetic field causing
the arc blow.
12.3.2 Inadequate Shielding
Many defects that occur in TIG welding are caused by an inadequate flow or blockage
of shielding gas to the welding area.
An inadequate gas supply can cause oxidation of both the tungsten electrode and the
weld puddle, as well as porosity in the weld bead. This can be detected easily because
the arc will change color, the weld bead will be discolored, and the arc will become
unstable and difficult to control. The most common causes of this problem are the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Blockage of gas flow in the torch or hoses.

Leak in the gas system.
Very high travel speed.
Improper flow rate.
Wind or drafts.
Arc length or stickout too long.
There are several ways this problem can be corrected or prevented. Check the torch
and hoses before welding to make sure the shielding gas can flow freely and is not
leaking. A very high travel speed may leave the weld puddle, or a portion of it, exposed
to the atmosphere. This may be corrected, in some cases, by inclining the torch in the
direction of travel, using a nozzle that directs shielding gas back over the heated area,
or by increasing the gas flow rate. Increasing the gas flow rate will increase the expense
of the welding.
When welding some of the reactive metals, you may have to use an inert atmosphere
chamber or trailing nozzles. An improper flow rate may occasionally be a problem. For
example, when using argon and welding in the overhead position, you may have to use
higher gas flow rates to provide adequate shielding. This is because argon is heavier
than air and it will fall away from the weld area.
When winds or air drafts are present, you may take several corrective steps. Setting up
screens around the operation is the best method of solving this problem. Increasing the
gas flow rate is another method but, again, this will increase the cost of welding. An
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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excessive arc length or stickout will also create a problem in providing adequate
shielding because the distance between the end of the nozzle and the molten weld
puddle is very long. This can be corrected by shortening the arc length or stickout.
12.3.3 Electrode Contamination
Contamination of the tungsten electrode can
cause discontinuities in the weld as well as a
hard to control arc and loss of several
minutes of welding time to clean the
electrode. The electrode can become
contaminated by several means, such as
contact of the weld puddle with the electrode,
contact of the electrode with the filler metal,
inadequate shielding gas flow, or post
welding gas flow time that is too short. Figure
9-107 shows the effects of different causes of
electrode contamination.
When the electrode becomes contaminated
by contact with the filler or weld metal, it
produces a wild and unstable arc. When a
lack of shielding gas is the cause of the
contamination, it greatly reduces the life of
the electrode.

contamination.
There are two major methods of correcting

this problem. The first is to break off the contaminated section and then prepare the
clean section for welding. This is usually done by using a pair of pliers or by putting the
contaminated section over the end of a workbench and breaking it off by striking it with
a hammer. The second method is to hold the arc on a section of copper or other metal
until the electrode has been cleared of contaminating metal through its vaporization.
The first method is more commonly used when the electrode is very contaminated.

Several operations may be required after welding, such as cleaning, inspecting,
repairing or straightening the welds, and postheating. These operations may or may not
be part of the procedure, and those performed will depend on the governing code or
specification, type of metal, and the quality of the weld deposit.
13.1.0 Cleaning
One of the major advantages of gas tungsten arc welding is that it produces a very
smooth, clean weld bead with very little or no spatter, so there is no slag to be chipped
off the weld bead. Because of this, postweld cleaning may be omitted and only wire
brushing or buffing may be required to remove the discoloration around the weld bead.

Inspection and testing the weld to determine the quality of the weld joint is done after
cleaning. There are many different methods of inspection and testing which were
covered in previous chapters. The uses of these methods wiII often depend on the code
or specification that covered the welding. Testing of a weldment may be done
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Nondestructive testing is used to locate defects in the weld and base metal. Of the
many different nondestructive testing methods, some of the most widely used methods
magnetic particle, and liquid penetrant inspection are used to locate surface defects,
whereas ultrasonic and radiographic inspections are used to locate internal defects.
Destructive testing is used to determine the mechanical properties of the weld, such as

Repairing the weld is sometimes necessary when defects are found during inspection.
When a defect is found, it can be gouged, ground, chipped, or machined out depending
on the type of material being welded.
For steels, grinding and air carbon arc gouging are commonly used. It is not used on the
non-ferrous metals because it causes contamination in the form of carbon deposits.
For the stainless steels and the non-ferrous metals, chipping is a common method for
removing defects. Air carbon arc gouging is preferred for many applications because it
is usually the quickest method. Grinding is popular for removing surface defects and
shallow lying defects. Once you have removed the defects, you can reweld the low
areas created by the grinding and gouging using gas metal arc welding or some other
welding process. You should then reinspect the welds to make sure the defects have
been properly repaired.
13.4.0 Postheating
Postheating is the heat treatment applied to the weld or weldment after welding.
Postheating is often required after the weld has been completed, but this depends upon
the type of metal being welded, the specific application, and the governing code or
specifications. Many of the low carbon steels and non-ferrous metals are rarely
postheated.
Various types of postheating are used to obtain specific properties. Some of the most
commonly used postheats are annealing stress relieving, normalizing, and quenching
and tempering. Stress relieving is the most widely used heat treatment after welding.
Postheating is accomplished by most of the same methods used for preheating, such as
furnaces, induction coils, and electric resistance heating blankets. One method used for
stress relieving that does not involve the reheating of the weldments is called vibratory
stress relief. This method vibrates the weldment during or after welding to relieve the
residual stresses during or after solidification.
softening. This process is widely used on metals that become very hard and brittle
because of welding. There are several different kinds, and when used on ferrous metals
it is called full annealing. Annealing is the heating up of a material to cause
recrystallization of the grain structure which causes softening. Full annealing is a
softening process in which a ferrous alloy is heated to a temperature above the
transformation range and is slowly cooled to a temperature below this range. This
process is usually done in a furnace to provide a controlled cooling rate.
Normalizing is a heat treatment that is applied only to ferrous metals. Normalizing
occurs when the metal is heated to a temperature above the transformation range and
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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is cooled in still air to a temperature below this range. The main difference between
normalizing and annealing is that a normalized weldment is cooled in still air, which
produces a quicker cooling rate than an annealed weldment which is slowly cooled in a
furnace. A normalizing heat treatment will refine the metal grain size and yield a tougher
weld, whereas an annealing heat treatment will result in a softer weld.
Stress relieving is the uniform heating of a weldment to a high enough temperature
(below the critical range) to relieve most of the residual stresses due to welding. This is
followed by uniform cooling. This operation is performed on the ferrous metals and
some of the non-ferrous metals. This process also reduces warpage during machining
that may occur with a high residual stress buildup. Stress relieving is performed on nonferrous metal when stress buildup is a problem; however, in the case of aluminum
alloys, for example, this heat treatment also will reduce the mechanical properties of the
base metal. In the case of magnesium alloyed with aluminum, stress relieving is
performed to avoid problems with stress corrosion.
On parts and metals that are likely to crack due to the internal stress created by
welding, the parts should be put into stress relief immediately after welding without
being allowed to cool to room temperature. The terms normalizing and annealing are
misnomers for this heat treatment.
Quenching and tempering is another postweld heat treatment that is commonly used
where the metal is heated up and then quenched to form a hard and brittle metallurgical
structure. The weldment is then tempered by reheating to a particular temperature
dependent on the degree of ductility, strength, toughness, and hardness desired.
Tempering reduces the hardness of the part as it increases the strength, toughness,
and ductility of the weld.

15.
Why is spatter rarely a problem when using the TIG process?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Low current is used.

Shielding gases are used.
A non-consumable electrode is used.
The speed of travel is too fast.
What is the annealing process used for?

A.
B.
C.
D.
To harden the weldment

To stop discoloration
To dissipates weld heat
To induce softening of the base metal

Gas tungsten arc welding requires a high degree of welder skill to produce good quality
welds. This process requires the use of two hands when filler metal is added. A welder
that is skilled in this process will generally have less trouble learning to weld with the
other arc welding processes.
The exact content of a training program will vary depending on the specific application
of the process. The program should be flexible enough so that it can be adapted to
changing needs and applications. The complexity of the parts to be welded, the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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governing codes and specifications, and the type of metal to be welded all need to be
taken into consideration.
A pipe welding course would take more training than a course on welding of plate. A
course concerning the welding of stainless steel might cover the use of pulsed current
and a different type of tungsten electrode preparation than a course covering the
welding of aluminum. The welding characteristics of the metals would also be different.
14.1.0 Basic Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

The basic gas tungsten arc welding training program is used to teach the students the
basic skills necessary for using the process to weld plate. Such a course would provide
training on how to strike the arc, run weld beads, and make good quality fillet and
groove welds. It would also include the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, and
aluminum. Because of this, the course shown in the sample outline below has been split
into three sections covering each of the three metals. The proper cleaning techniques
are also covered for the three metals.
The training obtained by the student should give him or her enough skill to perform a job
welding plate material. This course should also provide the background skill and
knowledge required to take a course on gas tungsten arc welding of pipe and tubing.
The following outline is for a course approximately seventy hours long.
COURSE INTRODUCTION
1. Lecture/Discussion -"Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding"
2. Lecture/Discussion -"The Safety and Health of Welders"
3. Lecture/Discussion -"Preparation for Welding Starting, Equipment Adjustment,
and Shutdown"
14.1.1 Mild Steel
This part of the course covers welding fillet and square groove welds in the flat,
horizontal, and vertical positions on mild steel using direct current. This includes
techniques used with and without filler metal.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Stringer Bead, Flat Position, without and with Filler Metal

Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position, without and with Filler Metal
Lecture/Discussion -"Weld Properties and Weld Quality, Mild Steel"
Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position, without and with Filler Metal
Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal and Vertical Position, with Filler Metal
Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position with Filler Metal
Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Guided Bend Test
Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position, with Filler Metal
14.1.2 Stainless Steel

This part of the course covers the welding of stainless steel and the use of pulsed direct
current. Groove and fillet welds are made in the flat, horizontal, and vertical positions
with and without the use of pulsed current and filler metal.
1. Lecture/Discussion -"Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Using Pulsed
Current
2. Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position, with Filler Metal, without and with
Pulsation
3. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position, without and with Filler Metal
4. Lecture/Discussion -"Weld Properties and Qualities, Stainless Steel"
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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5.
6.
7.
8.
Filler Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position, without and with Filler Metal
Visual Inspection Test, Stainless Steel
Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal and Vertical Position Up, with Filler Metal
Stringer Bead, Flat Position, with Filler Metal
14.1.3 Aluminum
The last part of the course covers welding of fillet and square-groove welds in the flat,
horizontal, and vertical positions on aluminum using alternating current.
1. Lecture/Discussion -"Equipment Adjustments and Their Effects on the Welding
Arc Electrode, Current Amperage Chart"
2. Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position, with Filler Metal
3. Lecture/Discussion. "Weld Properties and Qualities, Aluminum"
4. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position, with Filler Metal
5. Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position, with Filler Metal
6. Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal and Vertical Position Up, with Filler Metal
7. Visual Inspection Test, Aluminum
8. Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Position Up, with Filler Metal
9. Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position. with Filler Metal
14.2.0 Gas Tungsten Arc Pipe Welding

The training program for gas tungsten arc welding of tubing and pipe is used to teach
students basic skills and provides additional training to students who previously learned
to weld plate material. This course covers the welding of mild steel, small diameter pipe,
tube, and larger diameter pipe. It is divided into two sections.
The first part of the course includes the welding of 3-inch mild steel pipe. All passes are
welded using gas tungsten arc welding. Also included in this section of the course is the
welding of 4-inch diameter, Schedule 10 tubing, which is welded in one pass.
The second part of the course covers the welding of 8-inch diameter, mild steel pipe.
Since gas tungsten arc welding is only used for welding the root and hot passes on the
large diameter pipe, the course includes filling out the remainder of the joint with
shielded metal arc welding. The student should be skilled in shielded metal arc pipe
welding before taking this portion of the training program. The following outline is for a
course that is approximately 210 hours in length.
14.2.1 Course Introduction
1. Lecture/Discussion -"Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Pipe"
2. Lecture/Discussion -"Safety and Health of Welders"
3. Lecture/Discussion -"Preparation for Welding"
14.2.2 Small Diameter Piping and Tubing
This part of the course covers the welding of 3-inch diameter, Schedule 40 piping in the
2G and 5G positions, and 4-inch diameter tubing in the 2G, 5G, and 6G positions. This
portion of the course is approximately 70 hours in length.
1. Set-up, Tack Welding of Pipe
2. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G), with Filler Metal,
3-inch Pipe
3. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G) with Filler
Metal, 3-inch Pipe
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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4. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G) and Horizontal
Fixed Position (2G) and Horizontal Fixed Position (5 G). Visual and Guided Bend
Tests, 3-inch Pipe
5. Single-V-Groove Weld, 45 Degrees Inclined Position (6G)
6. Lecture/Discussion -"Pipe Weld Quality"
7. Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Degrees Inclined Position (6G), 4-inch
Tubing
14.2.3 8-lnch Diameter Pipe
This part of the course covers the welding of 8-inch diameter, Schedule 40, mild steel
piping in the 2G, 5G, and 6G positions. The root and hot passes are welded using gas
tungsten arc welding. A section on the use of pulsed current is also included.
The fill and cover passes are welded using shielded metal arc welding and E7018
electrodes. This part of the course also includes the use of consumable inserts put in
the root of the joint, and the welding of stainless steel pipe. This portion of the course is
approximately 140 hours in length.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint, Rolled Flat Position (1G)

Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G)
Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G)
Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G) and Vertical Fixed
Position (2G) Visual and Guided Bend Tests
5. Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint, 45 Degrees Inclined Position (6G) Visual Test
6. Lecture/Discussion -''Variations of the GTAW Process for Pipe"
7. Single-V-Groove, Butt Weld, 45 Degrees Inclined Position, Using Pulsed Current
8. Lecture/Discussion -"Stainless Steel Pipe Welding
9. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Degrees Inclined Position (6G) Stainless
Steel Pipe
10. Lecture/Discussion -"Joint Designs for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding"
11. Tack Weld, Butt Joint (with consumable insert) Vertical Fixed Position (2G)
12. Single-V-Groove, Butt Joint (with consumable insert) 45 Degrees Inclined
Position

the welder must become certified under the code that applies. Many different codes are
in use today and it is extremely important that the specific code is referred to when
taking qualification tests.
In general, the following types of work are covered by codes: pressure vessels and
piping, bridges, public buildings, storage tanks and containers that will hold flammable
or explosive materials, cross-country pipelines, aircraft, ordnance material, ships and
boats, and nuclear power facilities.
code will not necessarily qualify a welder to work under a different code. In most cases,
certification for one employer will not allow the welder to work for another employer.
Also, if the welder uses a different process or if the welding procedure is altered
drastically, recertification is required. In most codes, if the welder is continually
employed, welding recertification is not required, providing the work performed meets
the quality requirements. An exception is the military aircraft code, which requires
requalification every six months.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-130
Responsible manufacturers or contractors may give qualification tests. On pressure

vessel work, the welding procedure must also be qualified, and this must be done
before the welders can be qualified. Under other codes, this is not necessary.
To become qualified, the welder must make specified welds using the required process,
base metal, thickness, electrode type, position, and joint design. Test specimens must
be made according to standardized sizes and under the observation of a qualified
person. In most government specifications, a government inspector must witness the
making of weld specimens. Specimens must be properly identified and prepared for
testing.
The most common test is the guided bend test. However, in some cases, x-ray
examinations, fracture tests, or other tests are used. Satisfactory completion of test
specimens, providing that they meet acceptability standards, will qualify the welder for
specific types of welding. The welding that will be allowed depends on the particular
code. In general, the code indicates the range of thicknesses that may be welded, the
positions that may be used, and the alloys which may be welded.
Welder qualification is a highly technical subject and cannot be fully covered here. You
should obtain and study the actual code prior to taking any tests. Some frequently used
codes for welder qualification are the following:
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX
AWS Structural Welding Code D1
Military Specifications and Standards

safety program and take adequate safety precautions to protect welders. Every welder
should be made aware of safety precautions and procedures. Employees who fail to
follow adequate safety precautions can cause physical injury to themselves and others
as well as damage to property. Failure to take safety precautions can result in physical
discomfort and loss of property, time, and money.
Welding is a safe occupation when safety rules and common sense are followed. A set
of safety rules that should be followed is presented in the American National Standard
Z49.1, "Safety in Welding and Cutting," published by the American Welding Society.
There are a number of hazards associated with gas metal arc welding. These do not
necessarily result in serious injuries; they can also be of a minor nature which can
cause discomforts that irritate and reduce the efficiency of the welders. These hazards
are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Electrical shock
Arc radiation
Air contamination
Compressed gases
Fire and explosion
Other hazards related to other projects

Several precautions should be taken to prevent an electrical shock hazard. First, make
sure that the arc welding equipment is properly installed, grounded, and in good working
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-131
condition. Maintain and install the electrical equipment in accordance with the National
Electrical Code and any state and local codes that apply. Operate equipment within
NEMA Standards usual operating conditions for proper safety and equipment life.
Connect the case or frame of the power supply to an adequate electrical ground such
as an approved building ground, cold water pipe, or ground rod. Welding cables with
frayed or cracked insulation and faulty or badly worn connections can cause electrical
short circuits and shocks. An improperly insulated welding cable is both an electrical
shock hazard and a fire hazard.
Keep the welding area dry and free of any standing water. When it is necessary to weld
in a damp or wet area, wear rubber boots and stand on a dry, insulated platform.

The gas tungsten arc emits invisible ultraviolet and infrared rays. Skin exposed to the
arc for a short time can suffer serious ultraviolet and infrared burns that are essentially
the same as sunburn, but the burn caused by welding can take place in a much shorter
time and can be very painful. Prolonged and repeated exposure to ultraviolet rays may
cause skin cancer in some skin types. You should always wear protective clothing
suitable for the welding to be done.
Since there is no spatter in this process, general precautions include wearing long
sleeve shirts or cloth lab coats to protect your arms, shoulders, chest, and stomach from
the arc radiation. Wear leather gloves, but wear lighter ones than those worn for
shielded metal arc welding. Wear cloth gloves for light duty work.
Your eyes must be protected from the radiation emitted by the welding arc. Arc burn can
result if your eyes are not protected. Arc burn to the eye is similar to sunburn to the skin
and it is extremely painful for about 24 to 48 hours. Usually, arc burn does not
permanently injure the eyes but it can cause intense pain. There are several
commercial solutions available to soothe the skin and eyes during the period of
suffering.
Infrared arc rays can cause fatigue of the retina of the eye. Ultraviolet radiation is the
only known cause of cataracts at this time. Impaired vision can be the result.
Gas tungsten arc welding produces a brighter arc than shielded metal arc welding
because there is no smoke and it is often used on bright and shiny metals such as
aluminum and stainless steel. Protect your eyes and face with a head shield that has a
window with a filter lens set in it. Helmets with large windows are popular for welding
with this process. Head shields are generally made of fiberglass or pressed fiber
material and are lightweight. The filter lens is made of a dark glass capable of absorbing
infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, and most visible light coming from the arc.
The lens shade used varies for different welders, different metals, and different current
levels, but it should be dark enough so that you can view the arc without discomfort but
not so dark that you cannot see the arc and puddle clearly. A number 12 filter lens is
recommended for use in gas tungsten arc welding because of its brighter arc, but the
projects variables may dictate a darker lens. Table 9-26 shows the different lenses
commonly recommended for use in GTAW. The higher the lens numbers the darker the
lens. A clear glass should be put on the outside of the welding lens to protect it from
spatter and breakage. Welding should never be done with a broken filter lens or with
cracks in the head shield.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-132
Table 9-26 Recommended filter lens shades used in gas tungsten arc welding
(ANSI/AWS Z49.1).
Lens Shade Number
1/16 (1.6), 3/32 (2.4), 1/8 (3.2), 5/32 (4.0)
10
3/16 (4.8), 7/32 (5.6), 1/4 (6.4)
12
5/16 (7.9), 3/8 (9.5)
14

Welding fumes are generated by the arc. The welding area should be adequately
ventilated because the vaporized metals are potentially hazardous for the welder. When
welding is done in confined areas, adequate mechanical ventilation or protection for the
welder is required. This may be furnished by the use of a gas mask or on a special
helmet. A second person should stand just outside the confined area to lend assistance
to the welder if necessary.
Another method to use is a mechanical exhaust system to remove the welding fumes.
The argon or helium shielding gas may displace the air that the welder needs for
breathing. Welding should never be done near degreasing and other similar operations.
When they are exposed to an arc, the fumes from chlorinated cleaning solvents form a
very toxic gas, called phosgene, so welding should never be done near cleaning
chemicals. In addition, a mechanical exhaust should be used when welding metals such
as lead, copper, beryllium, cadmium, zinc, brass, bronze, chromium, cobalt,
manganese, nickel, and vanadium.
When grinding tungsten electrodes, which are mildly radioactive, it is advisable to use a
dust collector on the grinder to prevent inhalation of the dust.
15.4.0 Compressed Gasses

The shielding gases used for TIG, typically argon and helium, are compressed and
stored in cylinders. Only use compressed gases for their intended purpose. Cylinders
containing oxygen should be stored separately from cylinders containing fuel gases.
Cylinders in use or in stores or cargo should be securely fastened to prevent their
shifting or falling under any weather conditions. The welder should open the valve of the
cylinder slowly and stand away from the face of the regulator when doing this. The
welding arc should never be struck on a compressed gas cylinder. When not in use, gas
cylinders should be stored with their caps on; caps should also be on when the
cylinders are moved. If the valve should get knocked off, the cylinder acts like a missile
because of the escaping gas and can cause injury and damage. When compressed gas
cylinders are empty, the valve should be closed and they should be marked empty. This
is done by marking the letters "MT" or "EMPTY" on the cylinder.
Move cylinders by tilting and rolling them on their bottom edges. Avoid dragging and
sliding cylinders. When cylinders are transported by vehicle, secure them in position.
Cylinders should not be dropped, struck, or permitted to strike each other violently.
Discontinue the use of any cylinder before the pressure falls to zero. In particular, do not
use oxygen cylinders in welding or cutting operations after the pressure falls below
approximately 25 psi.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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precautions are not taken. The TIG process may produce sparks which can start a fire
or explosion in the welding area if it is not kept free of flammable, volatile, or explosive
materials. Welding should never be done near degreasing and other similar operations.
Although TIG welding does not produce spatter and long sleeve shirts or cloth lab coats
are used sometimes for skin protection, welders should wear leather clothing to protect
from burns; the leather is fireproof. Fires can also be started by an electrical short or by
overheated, worn cables. In case of a fire that is started by a flammable liquid or an
electrical fire, use a CO2 or dry chemical type of fire extinguisher. Fire extinguishers
should be kept at handy spots around the shop, and the welders should make a mental
note of where they are located. Welders should not have disposable butane or propane
lighters when welding. Sparks or weld spatter hitting them can cause an explosion
which may cause injury.
Other precautions that have to do with explosions are also important. Do not weld on
containers that have held combustibles unless it is absolutely certain that there are no
fumes or residue left. Do not welding on sealed containers without providing vents and
taking special precautions. Never strike the welding arc on a compressed gas cylinder.
When the welding torch is set down or not in use, it should never be allowed to touch a
compressed gas cylinder.

Hazards can also be encountered during the weld cleaning process. Precautions must
be taken to protect your skin and eyes from hot slag particles. Wear safety glasses,
gloves, and heavy clothing during chipping and grinding operations. Set screens up if
there are other people in the area to protect them from arc burn.

1. Make sure your arc welding equipment is installed properly, grounded, and in
2. Always wear protective clothing suitable for the welding to be done.
3. Always wear proper eye protection when welding, grinding or cutting.
5. Handle all compressed gas cylinders with extreme care. Keep caps on when not
in use.
6. Make sure compressed gas cylinders are secured to the wall or other structural
supports.
7. When compressed gas cylinders are empty, close the valve and mark the
cylinder Empty or MT.
8. Do not weld in a confined space without extra special precautions.
9. Do not weld on containers that have held combustibles without taking extra
special precaution.
11. Use mechanical exhaust at the point of welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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15. When the welding gun is not in use, do not hang it on a compressed gas cylinder.
16. Follow guidelines and standards set forth by the American Welding Society, the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the American National Standards
Institute, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, the Compressed Gas
Association, and the Material Safety Data Sheets provided by U.S.
manufacturers.
Summary
This chapter introduced you to the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW or TIG) process,
from the types of power sources, controls, and welding torches to the types of training
and qualifications needed. It described the industries that use the TIG process and its
applications. Welding metallurgy, weld and joint design, and welding procedure
variables were also discussed. The chapter concluded with a description of possible
weld defects and how to identify them, and safety precautions used for the TIG process.
As always, refer to the manufacturers operator manuals for the specific setup and
safety procedures of the welding machine you will be using.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-135

1.
A tungsten electrode has what type of characteristic?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
What does Wolfgram mean?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
T
Tu
W
La
Which is NOT an advantage of TIG?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
constant current power source

constant voltage power source
variable current power source
solar powered
In the AWS classification for tungsten electrodes, what is the letter designation
for tungsten?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Its the last name of TIG inventor

Tungsten
Inert gas
Electrode
The TIG process uses a _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Non-consumable
Consumable
Self shielding
Flux cored
Ability to weld a variety of different metals

High deposition rates
Pinpoint precision
Very little post-weld cleaning
For AC welding with a conventional square wave power source, the High
Frequency should be set to what position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Continuous
Start (Automatic)
Off
Scan
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-136
7.
Gas tungsten arc welding uses all of these items except which item?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
As a general rule, what should the inside diameter of the gas nozzle be?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Does not interfere with welding.

Increases the arc length.
Results in poor quality welds.
Produces a more stable arc.
On conventional sine wave and conventional square wave power sources, why is
high frequency added to alternating current?
A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Ground to a point with the tip slightly blunted

Rounded
Similar to a match head
Ground to a point
What condition is caused by filler metal or base metal on the electrode?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
Ground to a point with the sharp tip slightly blunted

Rounded
Similar to a match head
Ground to a point
For DCEN welding, how should the electrode tip be shaped?

A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Three times the electrode diameter.

Five times the electrode diameter.
3/8 inch.
Two times the electrode diameter.
For AC welding with a conventional square wave power source, how should the
electrode tip be shaped?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Shielding gas to protect the weld from oxidation

A constant current welding machine
Non-consumable tungsten electrode
A constant voltage welding machine
Help maintain the arc.

Prevent distortion.
Provide cleaning action.
Start the weld puddle.
A good rule of thumb for setting post flow time is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
1 second for every 5 amps

NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-137
14.
What parameters are set when the power source is set to DC?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What type of electrode could you use with ac?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
40,000 psi maximum tensile strength

Weight in grams
Electrode welding position
What should be done with the torch when the torch is not in use?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
DCEN
DCEP
AC
Pulsed AC
In the AWS electrode classification ER4043, the 4043 means _____

A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
6 minutes out of every 60 minutes at rated output without overheating

6 minutes out of every 10 minutes at rated output without overheating
Continuously at 60% of rated output
Continuously at 40% of rated output
In TIG, what type of current produces the deepest weld penetration?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Nickel
Plain carbon
Copper alloy
Titanium
What does a 60% duty cycle mean with regard to power source operation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
HF to start
Amperage control to minimum.
Adjust the flowmeter to 5 cubic feet per hour.
Keep the HF intensity control constant.
Hang it out of the way.

Lay it on the welding table.
Lay it across your lap.
Point the electrode toward the workpiece.
The type of heat treatment where the weldment is held above the transformation
temperature and allowed to cool in still air is called _____
A.
B.
C.
D.
normalizing
tempering
annealing
stress relieving
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-138
21.
What is the type of heat treatment that reduces warpage?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
What is the type of heat treatment that produces the highest ductility in carbon
steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
45
60
90
120
Between 6% and 22% _______ by weight is contained in Austenitic stainless

steel.
A.
B.
C.
D.
27.
Continuous wave dc
Pulsed wave dc
Square wave ac
Fixed ac
What is the most common torch head angle for TIG welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
Submerged
Light industrial
Home use
Never
What power supply was developed to overcome the arc-extinguishing restriking problem?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Tempering
Annealing
Stress relieving
Quenching
When, if ever, is a transformer welding machine used for TIG welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Normalizing
Annealing
Stress relieving
Quenching
nickel
tantalum
cadmium
columbium
What is the major alloying element that distinguishes stainless steels from other
types of steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Martensite
Chromium
Columbium
Zinc
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-139
28.
Between what temperatures does carbide precipitation occur?

A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
The best way to prevent carbide precipitation is to use base metals and filler rods
with extremely low carbon content; what other elements also prevent carbide
precipitation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
150.
200.
250
300
What layer on the surface of aluminum makes it difficult to weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
.01
.10
.22
22
What is the maximum preheat temperature used on aluminum?

A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
Plain carbon steel wire brush that has not been used on other metals
Fine-bristled brass brush to prevent scarring the oxide coating
Stainless steel wire brush that has not been used on carbon steel
A new polypropylene brush
A stainless steel with a carbon content greater than ____% will often need
preheating?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
Columbium, titanium, or tantalum

Chromium, nickel, or cadmium
Martensite, ferrite, or pearlite
Silicon, oxides, or nitrides.
What type of bristle brush should you use when brushing stainless steel?
A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
180F and 395 (82C and 202C).

400F and 750F (204C and 400C).
1000F and 1600F (539C and 870C).
1700F and 2100F (927C and 1150C).
Oxide
Zinc Dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Smelting residue
What type of current is the pulsed current method of welding commonly used
with?
A.
B.
C.
D.
AC
DC
Square wave
Inverter
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-140
35.
What is the maximum welding current of an air cooled torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
Why is pulsed current useful for welding stainless steel?

A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
Around the nozzle

After the insulator
Behind the nozzle
In the nozzle
Orbital welding head torch oscillation speed and width are _____ adjusted?
A.
B.
C.
D.
41.
Ceramic
Metal
Fused quartz
Dual shielded
Where is the gas orifice located on a TIG torch?

A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
2
3
4
5
What is the popular type of nozzle used?

A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
It does not overheat the metal as much as continuous current.

It melts the chromium and nickel better than continuous current.
The joint does not require careful cleaning when using pulsed current.
Less amperage is needed to create a fuller weld.
How many types of nozzles are available for TIG welding torches?
A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
100 amps
200 amps
300 amps
500 amps
automatically
intermittently
independently
manually
What is the most common type of gas flow control?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Computer
Flowmeter and regulator
Flowmeter only
Regulator only
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-141
42.
What is the constant outlet pressure from the regulator to the flowmeter?
A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
A welding cable AWG no. 8 has what maximum amperage rating?

A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
Columdium
Beryllium
Zirconium
Titanium
What does the number 3 refer to when describing welding positions?

A.
B.
C.
D.
48.
Gamma alloys
Beta alloys
Alpha alloys
Unalloyed titanium
What is a refractory metal?

A.
B.
C.
D.
47.
Austenitic
Ferritic
Martensitic
Duplex
What is not a basic group of titanium and titanium alloys?

A.
B.
C.
D.
46.
25
50
75
100
What group of stainless steels is included in the 200 and 300 series?
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
50 psig
60 psig
70 psig
80 psig
Flat
Vertical
Horizontal
Overhead
What is the purpose of using helium on thick sections of base metal?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Produces a hotter arc with deeper penetration and faster travel speeds.
Provides better coverage than argon.
Is more cost effective than argon.
Is easier to use than argon.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-142
49.
Which of the following characteristics help determine welding current?

A.
B.
C.
D.
50.
Working cable size

Area of the metal
Electrode tip size
Thickness of the base metal
What lens shade number is recommended for 1/16 diameter electrodes

A.
B.
C.
D.
10
11
12
14
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-143

Alloy
A compound of one or more metals or other elements.

For example, brass is the alloy of copper and zinc.
American Wire Gauge

(AWG)

solid, non-ferrous, electrically conducting wire.
Annular
Having the form of a ring as a carpenters nail has a

series of concentric grooves to improve holding power.
Austenitic

Autogenous
In metallurgy, a term meaning self-fused, without the

addition of solder or the application of an adhesive.
Ferritic

Ferrous

Inverter

Malleable
Capable of great deformation without breaking when

Maraging
A blending of two words (martensitic and aging),iron

alloys which are known for possessing superior strength
and toughness without losing malleability. These steels
are a special class of low carbon ultra-high strength
steels, which derive their strength not from carbon, but
from precipitation of inter-metallic compounds.
Martensitic

carbon tool steels.
Nodular
Occurring in the form of small rounded or irregular

shapes.
Non-ferrous

NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-144
Tanalum
NAVEDTRA 14250A
A gray, hard, rare, metallic element occurring in

columbite and tantalite, and usually associated with
niobium; used because of its resistance to corrosion by
most acids, for chemical, dental, and surgical
instruments and apparatus.
9-145

Appleton, WI.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-146

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
9-147
Chapter 10
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Topics
1.0.0
2.0.0
3.0.0
4.0.0
Installation, Setup, and Maintenance of Equipment
5.0.0
Shielding Gas and Electrodes
6.0.0
7.0.0
Welding Metallurgy
8.0.0
9.0.0
10.0.0
11.0.0
12.0.0
13.0.0
Postweld Procedures
14.0.0
15.0.0
Welding Safety
Overview
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes as metal inert
gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is an electric arc welding process
where the heat for welding is produced by an arc between a continuously fed,
consumable filler metal electrode and the work. The shielding of the molten weld pool
and the arc is obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
This chapter is designed to give you a basic understanding of the GMAW process and
equipment, along with the key variables that affect the quality of welds, such as
electrode extension, travel speed, welding position, amperage, arc length, and electrode
angles. We will also cover core competencies such as setting up welding equipment,
preparing weld materials, fitting up weld materials, starting an arc, welding pipes and
plates, and repairing welds. And lastly, you will get an understanding of the safety
precautions for GMAW and an awareness of the importance of safety in welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-1
Although this chapter is very comprehensive, always refer to the manufacturers

manuals for specific operating and maintenance instructions.
Objectives
1. Describe the process of gas metal arc welding.
2. Describe the principles of operation used for gas metal arc welding.
3. Describe the equipment associated with gas metal arc welding.
4. Describe the processes for installation, setup, and maintenance of equipment for
gas metal arc welding.
5. State the shielding gas and electrodes for gas metal arc welding.
6. Identify the welding applications for gas metal arc welding.
7. Describe the welding metallurgy of gas metal arc welding.
8. Identify weld and joint designs used for gas metal arc welding.
9. Describe the welding procedure variables associated with gas metal arc welding.
10. Identify welding procedure schedules used for gas metal arc welding.
11. Describe preweld preparations for gas metal arc welding.
12. Identify defects and problems associated with gas metal arc welding.
13. Describe postweld procedures for gas metal arc welding.
14. State t he w elder t raining and q ualifications associated w ith g as metal ar c
welding.
15. Describe the welding safety associated with gas metal arc welding.
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-2

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-3

question again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-4

Versatile and widely used, the gas metal arc welding process can be used to weld both
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and all thicknesses above thin gage sheet metal. It is
the major process used for welding relatively thick sections in the nonferrous metals.
The arc and weld pool are clearly visible to the welder. This process sometimes leaves
a thin, partial slag covering on the surface of the weld bead, which must be removed.
The equipment is generally easy to use because the welder only needs to connect a
work lead and the welding gun to the point of welding. The filler metal does transfer
across the arc, so there is some weld spatter created (Figure 10-1).
Efforts were made in the 1920s
to shield the atmosphere from
the electric arc to improve the
properties of welds. The advent
of the coated electrode
eliminated interest in gas
shielded processes at that time.
As a matter of fact, coated
electrodes utilized the gas
produced by the disintegration of
the coatings and were thus
actually gas shielded welds. The
gas tungsten arc welding
process, or TIG as it is
commonly called, was introduced
in the late 1930s and was the
forerunner of the current gas
shielded processes. It was slow,
however, and this led to the
development of the gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) process in the
late 1940s. In this process, the
Figure 10-1 Gas metal arc welding.
tungsten electrode was replaced
by an electrode filler wire which was continuously fed through the center of a torch and
surrounded by an inert gas blanket to prohibit atmospheric contamination. The secret of
this process was the small diameter electrode wire and the system for automatically
maintaining the correct arc length. This process immediately became popular and was
used to weld most non-ferrous metals. Research found also that the process could be
utilized for welding mild and low alloy steels, but the cost of the inert shielding gas did
not allow the MIG process to compete with manual coated electrodes for most
applications.
Further welding technology development discovered that the predominant gas evolved
from a covered electrode coating was carbon dioxide. This quickly led to the use of
carbon dioxide as a shielding gas for use with the gas metal arc welding process when
welding on mild and low alloy steel. Early efforts were not too successful, but continuing
research did develop the CO2 welding process. A major problem encountered with CO2
was porosity caused by low quality gas that contained too much moisture. Because of
this, only high purity, welding grade CO2 could be used.
The CO2 process became very popular during the 1950s, especially fully automatic
installations in the automotive industry. High deposition rates and fast travel speeds
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-5
were characteristic of the process. It was limited, however, in that it could be used only
in the flat position and for making horizontal fillet welds. In addition, the process was so
fast that manual travel was difficult, and spatter was sometimes a problem. The
shortcomings of the CO2 process led to further developments.
One development was the improvement of the electrical characteristics of the power
sources used for CO2 welding. This involved the addition of reactance in motor
generators to the secondary welding circuit. In this way the short-circuiting currents
were limited and the spatter was considerably reduced.
Another area of investigation was the utilization of smaller electrode wires. In utilizing
smaller electrode wires, the total heat input into the arc was reduced. However, the
current density carried by the electrode wire was greatly increased. The reduced heat
input provided a small concentrated arc and a small weld pool. The high current density
of the arc provided a very forceful and directional arc which could be controlled and
directed. This quickly led to the all position welding process variation known as Microwire which had a short-circuiting type of metal transfer. Originally the gas used to shield
micro-wire was 100% CO2 gas, and this is still the shielding gas predominantly used.
However, to soften the arc, argon gas was introduced into the CO2 and a popular
mixture of 75% argon and 25% CO2 gas is employed for certain applications.
A third development was with different shielding gases which led to "spray arc" welding.
This mode employed larger diameter electrode wires and mixtures of argon and small
percentages of oxygen for welding steels. This mode produced a smooth weld bead and
a directional arc that was easy for the welder to control.

Gas metal arc welding is widely used in the semiautomatic, mechanized, and automatic
modes. Manual welding cannot be done by this process. The most popular method of
applying this process is semi-automatically where the welder guides the gun along the
joint and adjusts the welding parameters. The wire feeder continuously feeds the filler
wire electrode, and the power source maintains the arc length.
The second most popular method of applying this process is automatically where the
machinery controls the welding parameters, arc length, joint guidance, and wire feed.
The process is only under the observation of the operator.
The mechanized method of welding has only limited popularity. Mechanized welding is
where the machine controls the arc length, wire feed, and joint guidance. The operator
adjusts the welding parameters.

The gas metal-arc welding process (GMAW) has revolutionized arc welding. In this
process, a consumable electrode (in the form of wire) is fed from a spool through the
torch (welding gun) at a preset controlled speed. As the wire passes through the contact
tube of the gun, it picks up the welding current. The consumable wire electrode serves
two functions: it maintains the arc and provides filler metal to the joint. The method of
delivery of the filler metal allows GMAW welding to be basically a one-handed operation
which does not require the same degree of skill as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
The gas metal arc welding process has many advantages over most of the other arc
welding processes. These advantages make the process particularly well suited to high
production and automated welding applications. Gas metal arc welding has been the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-6
process choice for robotic applications. Some of the advantages to gas metal arc
welding are the following:
1. It is the only consumable electrode process that can be used to weld most all
commercial metals and alloys, ferrous and non-ferrous.
2. A relatively small amount of spatter is produced.
3. The filler metal is fed continuously, so very little time is spent on changing
electrodes.
4. It can be used easily in all positions.
5. The arc and weld pool are clearly visible.
6. Little or no slag is produced, resulting in minimal postweld cleaning.
7. A relatively small diameter electrode is used, which gives high current densities.
8. A high percentage of the filler metal is deposited in the weld.
9. Travel speeds and deposition rates are significantly higher than those obtained
with shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding.
10. Lightweight power sources can be hand carried to the job site.
11. When spray transfer is used, deeper penetration is possible than with shielded
metal arc welding, which may permit the use of smaller size fillet welds for
equivalent strengths.
Some limitations of the process are the following:
1. The equipment is more complex, more costly, and less portable than that for
shielded metal arc welding.
2. The arc requires protection from wind drafts, which can blow the stream of
shielding gas away from the arc.
3. The larger welding gun must be close to the work to ensure proper shielding, and
it s less adaptable to welding in difficult to reach areas than shielded metal arc
welding.
4. Relatively high levels of radiated heat and arc intensity can result in operator
resistance to the process.

The gas metal arc welding process uses the heat of an electric arc produced between a
bare electrode and the part to be welded. The electric arc is produced by electric current
passing through an ionized gas. The gas atoms and molecules are broken up and
ionized by losing electrons and leaving a positive charge. The positive gas ions then
flow from the positive pole to the negative pole, and the electrons flow from the negative
pole to the positive pole. About 95% of the heat is carried by the electrons, and the rest
is carried by the positive ions. The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal
and the electrode. The molten weld metal, heated weld zone, and the electrode are
shielded from the atmosphere by a shielding gas supplied through the welding gun. The
molten electrode filler metal transfers across the arc and into the weld puddle. This
process produces an arc with more intense heat than most of the arc welding
processes.
The arc is struck by starting the wire feed, which causes the electrode wire to touch the
workpiece and initiate the arc. Normally, arc travel along the work is not started until a
weld puddle is formed. The gun then moves along the weld joint manually or
mechanically so that the adjoining edges are joined. The weld metal solidifies behind
the arc in the joint and completes the welding process.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-7
2.1.0 Arc Systems

The gas metal arc welding process may be
operated on both constant voltage and
constant current power sources. Any welding
power source can be classified by its voltampere characteristics as either a constant
voltage (also called constant potential) or
constant current (also called variable voltage)
type although there are some machines that
can produce both characteristics. Constant
voltage power sources are preferred for a
majority of gas metal arc welding
applications.
In the constant voltage arc system, the
voltage delivered to the arc is maintained at a
relatively constant level, which gives a flat or
nearly flat volt-ampere curve (Figure 10-2).
This type of power source is widely used for
the processes that require a continuously fed
Figure 10-2 Volt-amp curve.
bare wire electrode. In this system, the arc
length is controlled by setting the voltage level on the power source, and the welding
current is controlled by setting the wire feed speed.
Most machines have a fixed slope that is built in for a certain type of gas metal arc
welding. Some constant voltage welding machines are equipped with a slope control
that is used to change the slope of the volt-ampere curve. Figure 10-3 shows different
slopes obtained from one power source. The slope has the effect of limiting the amount
of short-circuiting current that the power supply can deliver. This is the current available
from the power source on the short circuit between the electrode wire and the work.
A slope control is not required but is best
when welding with small diameter wire and
low current levels. The short-circuit current
determines the amount of pinch force
available on the electrode. The pinch forces
cause the molten electrode tip to neck down
so that the droplet will separate from the
solid electrode. The flatter the slope of the
volt-ampere curve, the higher the shortcircuit current and the pinch force. The
steeper the slope the lower the short circuit
current and pinch force. The pinch force is
important because it affects the way the
droplet detaches from the tip of the electrode
wire, which also affects the arc stability in
short-circuiting transfer. When a high shortcircuit and pinch force are caused by a flat
Figure 10-3 Volt-amp slopes.
slope, excessive spatter is created. When a
very low short circuit current and pinch force
are caused by a steep slope, the electrode wire tends to freeze in the weld puddle or
pile upon the work piece. When the proper amount of short-circuit current is used, very
little spatter with a smooth electrode tip is created.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-8
The inductance of the power supply also has an effect on the arc stability. When loads
on the power supply change, the output current will fluctuate, taking time to find its new
level. The rate of current change is determined by the inductance of the power supply.
The rate of the welding current buildup and pinch force buildup increases with the
current, which is also affected by the inductance in the circuit. Increasing the inductance
will reduce the rate of current rise and the pinch force. (In short-circuiting welding,
increasing the inductance will increase the arc time between short-circuit and decrease
the frequency of short-circuiting, thereby reducing the amount of spatter). Increased arc
time or inductance produces a flatter and smoother weld bead as well as a more fluid
weld puddle. Too much inductance will cause more difficult arc starting.
The constant current (CC) arc system
provides a nearly constant welding current to
the arc, which gives a drooping volt-ampere
characteristic (Figure 10-4). This arc system
is used with the shielded metal arc welding
and gas tungsten arc welding processes.
The welding current is set by a dial on the
machine, and the welding voltage is
controlled by the arc length held by the
welder. This system is necessary for manual
welding because the welder cannot hold a
constant arc length, which causes only small
variations in the welding current. When gas
metal arc welding is done with a constant
current system, a special voltage sensing
wire feeder is used to maintain a constant
arc length.
Figure 10-4 CC volt-amp curve.
For any power source, the voltage drop
across the welding arc is directly dependent
on the arc length. An increase in the arc length results in a corresponding increase in
the arc voltage, and a decrease in the arc length results in a corresponding decrease in
the arc voltage. Another important relationship exists between the welding current and
the melt off rate of the electrode. With low current, the electrode melts off slower and
the metal is deposited slower. This relationship between welding current and wire feed
speed is definite, based on the wire size, shielding gas, and type of filler metal; a faster
wire feed speed will give a higher welding current.
In the constant voltage system, instead of regulating the wire to maintain a constant arc
length, the wire is fed into the arc at a fixed speed, and the power source is designed to
melt off the wire at the same speed. The self-regulating characteristic of a constant
voltage power source comes about by the ability of this type of power source to adjust
its welding current to maintain a fixed voltage across the arc.
With the constant current arc system with a voltage sensing wire feeder, the welder
would change the wire feed speed as the gun is moved toward or away from the weld
puddle. Since the welding current remains the same, the burn-off rate of the wire is
unable to compensate for the variations in the wire feed speed, which allows stubbing or
burning back of the wire into the contact tip to occur. To lessen this problem, a special
voltage sensing wire feeder is used which regulates the wire feed speed to maintain a
constant voltage across the arc.
The constant voltage system is preferred for most applications, particularly for small
diameter wire. With smaller diameter electrodes, the voltage sensing system is often not
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-9
able to react fast enough to feed at the required burn--off rate, resulting in a higher
instance of burnback into the contact tip of the gun.
Figure 10-5 shows a comparison of the volt-ampere curves for the two arc systems.
This shows that for these particular curves, when a normal arc length is used, the
current and voltage level is the same for both the constant current and constant voltage
systems. For a long arc length, there is a slight drop in the welding current for the
constant current machine and a large drop in the current for a constant voltage
machine. For constant voltage power
sources, the volt-ampere curve shows that
when the arc length shortens slightly, a
large increase in welding current occurs.
This results in an increased burn-off rate
which brings the arc length back to the
desired level. Under this system, changes in
the wire feed speed caused by the welder
are compensated for electrically by the
power source. The constant current system
is sometimes used, especially for welding
aluminum and magnesium because the
welder can vary the current slightly by
changing the arc length. This varies the
depth of penetration and the amount of heat
input. With aluminum and magnesium,
preheating the wire is not desirable.
Figure 10-5 Volt-amp curves.
The types of arcs obtainable and the

different modes of gas metal arc welding are determined by the type of metal transfer.
The four modes of welding are the short circuiting, globular, spray, and pulsed arc metal
transfer. Each mode has its own advantages and applications. The type of metal
transfer is determined by the welding current, shielding gas, and welding voltage.
2.2.1 Short Circuiting Transfer
At the beginning of the short-circuiting arc cycle, the end of the electrode wire melts into
a small globule which moves toward the weld puddle. When the tip of this globule
comes in contact with the workpiece, the arc is momentarily extinguished. When the
wire touches the workpiece, the current increases because a short circuit is created.
The current increases to the point that the molten globule is pinched off and the arc is
re-ignited (Figure 10-6). This cycle then repeats itself, occurring approximately 20 to
200 times a second depending on the current level and the power supply. The filler
metal is transferred to the weld puddle only during the period when the electrode is in
contact with the work. No filler metal is transferred across the arc.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-10
Figure 10-6 Short-circuiting transfer.

Short-circuiting transfer applies the lowest welding currents and voltages used with gas
metal arc welding, which produces low heat input. The type of shielding gas used has
very little effect on this type of transfer but most gas metal arc welding done in this
mode employs a CO2 shielding gas. This type of metal transfer produces a small, fastfreezing weld pool, usually with some small, fine spatter. Because of this, this mode is
well suited for joining thin sections of metal by welding in the vertical, horizontal, and
overhead positions, and for filling large root openings.
2.2.2 Globular Transfer
The globular transfer cycle starts when a droplet forms on the end of the electrode wire.
The molten droplet grows in size until it is larger than the diameter of the electrode. The
droplet then detaches from the end of the electrode and transfers across the arc due to
the force of gravity. Globular transfer is shown in Figure 10-7.
Globular transfer occurs at relatively low
operating currents and voltages but higher
than those used to obtain short-circuiting
transfer. It can occur with all types of
shielding gases, but with gases other than
CO2 it generally occurs at current and
voltage levels toward the bottom of the
operating range. With CO2 shielding gas,
globular transfer will take place at most
operating current and voltage levels.
Because of the large droplet size and the
dependence on gravity to transfer the filler
metal, this mode of gas metal arc welding is
not suitable for many out-of-position welding
applications, especially overhead welding
where the droplets tend to fall into the nozzle
of the welding gun. Globular transfer is also
characterized by a less stable arc and higher
Figure 10-7 Globular transfer.
amounts of spatter. The arc is less stable
because it will shift around and move to the part of the droplet that is closest to the weld
puddle, (electric current will always try to take the shortest path). The arc will wave
around on the end of the droplet, creating more spatter.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-11
2.2.3 Spray Transfer

The spray transfer cycle begins when the end of the electrode tapers down to a point.
Small droplets are formed and electromagnetically pinched off at the tapered point of
the electrode tip. The droplets are smaller than the diameter of the electrode and detach
much more rapidly than in globular transfer. The rate of transfer can vary from less than
one hundred times a second up to several
hundred times a second. The arc is also
more directional than in the globular mode.
Spray transfer is shown in Figure 10-8.
Spray transfer is generally associated with
the higher amperage and voltage levels and
occurs with argon or argon-rich shielding
gases. The spray transfer mode is best
adapted for welding thick sections because
of the higher welding currents. Spray
transfer produces a very stable arc that is
well adapted for out-of-position as well as
flat position welding. When welding out-ofposition, operators need to consider how the
high voltage and current levels used may
produce a weld puddle that is difficult to
control. This mode also produces the least
amount of spatter.
Figure 10-8 Spray transfer.
2.2.4 Pulsed Current Transfer

To overcome the work thickness and welding position limitations of spray transfer,
specially designed power supplies have been developed. These machines produce
controlled wave forms and frequencies that "pulse" the welding current at regularly
spaced intervals. They provide two levels of current: one a constant, low background
current which sustains the arc without providing enough energy to cause drops to form
on the wire tip; the other is a superimposed pulsing current with amplitude greater than
the transition current necessary for spray transfer. During this pulse, one or more drops
are formed and transferred. The frequency and amplitude of the pulses control the
energy level of the arc, and therefore the rate at which the wire melts. By reducing the
average arc energy and the wire-melting rate, pulsing makes the desirable features of
spray transfer available for joining sheet metals and welding thick metals in all positions.

1.
What shielding gas is predominantly used for GMAW?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
O2
NO2
CO2
He
Which is NOT a mode of GMAW metal transfer?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Pulsed
Spherical
Globular
Spray
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-12

The basic design of a GMAW system is shown in Figure 10-9 and includes four principal
components:
1. Power source.
2. Wire drive and accessories (drive rolls, guide tubes, reel stand, etc.).
3. GMAW gun and cable assembly designed to deliver the shielding gas and the
electrode to the arc.
4. Shielding gas apparatus and accessories.
Figure 10-9 Equipment for gas metal arc welding.
3.1.0 Power Sources

the proper current and voltage to maintain a welding arc. Many power sources operate
on 200, 230, 460, or 575 volt input electric power. The power sources operate on singlephase or three-phase input power with a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz.
The duty cycle of a power source is defined as the ratio of arc time to total time. Most
power sources used for gas metal arc welding have a duty cycle of 100%, which
indicates that they can be used to weld continuously. Some machines used for this
process have duty cycles of 60%, which means that they can be used to weld six of
every ten minutes. In general, these lower duty cycle machines are the constant current
type that are used in plants where the same machines are also used for shielded metal
arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding. Some of the smaller constant voltage
welding machines have a 60% duty cycle.
Most gas metal arc welding is done using steady direct current. Steady direct current
can be connected in one of two ways: electrode positive (reverse polarity DCEP) and
electrode negative (straight polarity DCEN). The electrically charged particles flow
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-13
between the tip of the electrode and the work (Figure 10-10). The electrode positive
connection is used for almost all welding applications of this process. It gives better
penetration than electrode negative and can be used to weld all metals. Electrode
negative is sometimes used when a minimum amount of penetration is desired.
Pulsed direct current is used for applications where good penetration and reduced heat
input are required. Pulsed current occurs when the welding current is operated at one
level for a set period of time, switches to another level for a time, and then repeats the
cycle (Figure 10-11). The pulsing action can be provided from one power source or
combining the outputs of two power sources working at two current levels. The welding
current varies from as low as 20 amps at 18 volts up to as high as 750 amps at 50 volts,
and the frequency of pulsing can be varied. When using pulsed current, welding thinner
sections is more practical than when using steady direct current in the spray transfer
mode, because there is less heat input, which reduces the amount of distortion.
Figure 10-10 Particle flow for

DCEP and DCEN.
Figure 10-11 Pulsed current

terminology.

Many types of direct current power sources
may be used for gas metal arc welding,
including engine-driven generators (rotating)
and transformer-rectifiers (static). Inverters
are included in the static category.
3.1.3.1 Generator Welding Machines
A generator welding machine can be
powered by an electric motor for shop use or
by an internal combustion engine (gas or
diesel) for field use. Engine-driven welders
can have either water- or air-cooled engines,
and many of them provide auxiliary power
as well (Figure 10-12).
Many of the engine-driven generators used
for gas metal arc welding in the field are
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-12 Engine-driven

power source.
10-14
combination constant current-constant voltage types. These are popular for applications
such as pipe welding so that both shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding
can be done using the same power source. The motor-driven generator welding
machines are becoming less popular and are being replaced by transformer-rectifier
welding machines. Motor-driven generators produce a very stable arc, but they are
noisier and more expensive, consume more power, and require more maintenance than
transformer-rectifier machines.
3.1.3.2 Transformer-Rectifier Welding
Machines
The more popular welding machines used
for gas metal arc welding are the
transformer-rectifiers. A method of supplying
direct current to the arc other than the use of
a rotating generator is by adding a rectifier
to a basic transformer circuit. A rectifier is an
electrical device which changes alternating
current into direct current. These machines
are more efficient electrically than motorgenerator welding machines, they respond
faster when arc conditions change, and they
provide quieter operation. There are two
basic types of transformer-rectifier welding
machines: those that operate on singlephase input power and those that operate
on three-phase input power (Figure 10-13).
Figure 10-13 Three-phase

constant voltage.
The single-phase transformer-rectifier

machines provide DC current to the arc and a constant current volt-ampere
characteristic. These machines are not as popular as three-phase transformer-rectifier
welding machines for gas metal arc welding. When using a constant current power
source, a special variable speed or voltage sensing wire feeder must be used to keep
the current level uniform.
Machines used for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding can be
adapted for use with gas metal arc welding. A limitation of the single-phase system is
that the power required by the single-phase input power may create an unbalance of the
power supply lines, which is objectionable to most power companies. Another limitation
is that short-circuiting metal transfer cannot be used with this type of power source.
These machines normally have a duty cycle of 60%.
One of the most widely used types of power sources for this process is the three-phase
transformer rectifier. These machines produce DC current for the arc and most have a
constant voltage volt-ampere characteristic. When using these machines, a constant
speed wire feeder is normally employed. This type of wire feeder maintains a constant
wire feed speed with slight changes in welding current. The three-phase input power
gives these machines a more stable arc than single-phase input power, and avoids the
line unbalance that occurs with the single-phase machines. Many of these machines
also use solid-state controls for the welding. A solid-state machine will produce the
flattest volt-ampere curve of the different constant voltage power sources.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-15
3.1.3.3 Inverter Power Sources

The inverter machine is different from a
transformer-rectifier. The inverter will rectify
60 Hz alternating line current, utilize a
chopper circuit to produce a high frequency
alternating current, reduce that voltage with
an AC transformer, and finally rectify that to
obtain the required direct current output.
Changing that alternating current frequency
to a much higher frequency allows a greatly
reduced size of transformer and reduced
transformer losses as well (Figure 10-14).
Inverter circuits control the output power
using the principle of time ratio control
(TRC). The solid-state devices
(semiconductors) in an inverter act as
switches; they are either switched "on" and
conducting, or they are switched "off" and
blocking. This operation of switching "on"
Figure 10-14 Inverter power
and "off" is sometimes referred to as switch
source.
mode operation. TRC is the regulation of the
"on" and "off" time of the switches to control the output. Faster response times are
generally associated with the higher switching and control frequencies, resulting in more
stable arcs and superior arc performance. However, other variables, such as length of
weld cables, must be considered since they may affect the power supply performances.
3.2.0 Controls
The controls for this process are located on the front of the welding machine, on the
welding gun, and on the wire feeder or a control box.
The welding machine controls for a constant voltage machine are an on-off switch, a
voltage control, and sometimes a switch to select the polarity of direct current. The
voltage control can be a single knob, or it can have a top switch for setting the voltage
range and a fine voltage control knob. Other controls are sometimes present such as a
switch for selecting CC (constant current) or CV (constant voltage) output on
combination machines or a switch for a remote control. On the constant current welding
machines there is an on-off switch, a current level control knob, and sometimes a knob
or switch for selecting the polarity of direct current.
The trigger or switch on the welding gun is a remote control that is used by the welder in
semiautomatic welding to stop and start the welding current, wire feed, and shielding
gas flow.
For semiautomatic welding, a wire feed speed control is normally part of the wire feeder
assembly or close by. The wire feed speed sets the welding current level on a constant
voltage machine. For machine or automatic welding, a separate control box is often
used to control the wire feed speed. On the wire feeder control box, there may also be
switches to turn the control on and off and gradually feed the wire up and down.
Other controls for this process are used for special applications, especially when using
a programmable power source. A couple of examples are items such as timers for spot
welding and pulsation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-16
3.3.0 Wire Feeders

The electrode feed unit (wire feeder) provides the power for driving the electrode
through the cable and gun and to the work (Figure 10-15). There are several different
electrode feed units available, but the best type of system depends on the application.
Most of the electrode feed units used for gas metal arc welding are the constant speed
type which are used with constant voltage power sources. This means that the wire feed
speed is set before welding. The wire feed speed controls the amount of welding
current.
Figure 10-15 Wire feed assembly.

Variable speed or voltage sensing wire feeders are used with constant current power
sources. With a variable speed wire feeder, a voltage sensing circuit is used to maintain
the desired arc length by varying the wire feed speed. Variations in the arc length
increase or decrease the wire feed speed. The wire-feed speed is measured in inches
per minute (ipm). For a specific amperage setting, a high wire-feed speed results in a
short arc, whereas a low speed produces a long arc. Therefore, you would use higher
speeds for overhead welding than for flat-position welding.
An electrode feed unit consists of an electric motor connected to a gearbox with drive
rolls in it. Systems may have two or four feed rolls in the gearbox. In a four roll system,
the lower two rolls drive the wire and have a circumferential "V" groove in them,
depending on the type and size of wire being fed. Figure 10-16 shows several of the
most common drive rolls and their uses.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-17
Figure 10-16 Common types of drive rolls and their uses.

Wire feed systems may be of the push, pull,
or push-pull types depending on the type
and size of the electrode wire and the
distance between the welding gun and the
coil or spool of electrode wire. The push
type is the wire feeding system most
commonly used for steels. It consists of the
wire being pulled from the wire feeder by
the drive rolls and then being pushed into
the flexible conduit and through the gun.
The length of the conduit can be up to
about 12 ft. (3.7m) for steel wire and 6 ft.
(1.8m) for aluminum wire.
A typical push wire feeder is shown in
Figure 10-17. This solid-state wire feeder
has the wire feeder control box and the wire
reel support mounted with the wire feed
motor and gear box.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-17 Solid-state control

wire feeder and wire support.
10-18
Pull type wire feeders have the drive rolls

attached to the welding gun. This type of
system works best for feeding wires up to
about .045 in. (1.1mm) in diameter with a
hand-held welding gun. Most machine and
automatic welding stations also use this type
of system.
The push-pull system is particularly well
suited for use with low strength wires such
as aluminum and when driving wires long
distances. This system can use synchronous
drive motors to feed the electrode wire,
which makes it good for soft wires and long
distances. The wire feeding system shown in
Figure 10-18 uses the standard feeder as
the drive motor (push) and the gun as a
slave motor (pull).
3.4.0 Welding Guns
Figure 10-18 Standard push-pull

wire feeding system.
A typical GMAW gun is shown in Figure 10-19. The welding gun transmits the welding
current to the electrode. Because the wire is fed continuously, a sliding electrical contact
is used. The welding current is passed to the electrode through a copper base alloy
contact tube. The contact tubes have various hole sizes, depending on the diameter of
the electrode wire. The gun also has a gas supply connection and a nozzle to direct the
shielding gas around the arc and weld puddle. To prevent overheating of the welding
gun, cooling is required to remove the heat generated. Shielding gas or water circulating
in the gun, or both are used for cooling. An electrical switch is used to start and stop the
electrode feeding, welding current, and shielding gas flow. This is located on the gun in
semiautomatic welding and separately on machine welding heads.
Figure 10-19 Cross-sectional view of a welding gun.

3.4.1 Semiautomatic Guns
The hand-held semiautomatic guns usually have a curved neck, which makes them
flexible, and a curved handle that adds comfort and balance. The gun is attached to the
service lines which include the power cable, water hose, gas hose, and wire conduit or
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-19
liner. The guns have metal nozzles, which have orifice diameters from 3/8 to 7/8 in. (1022 mm), depending on the welding requirements, to direct the shielding gas to the arc
and weld puddle.
Welding guns are either air-cooled or water-cooled. The choice between the guns is
based on the type of shielding gas, amount of welding current, voltage, joint design, and
the shop practice. A water-cooled gun is similar to an air-cooled gun except that ducts
have been added that permit the cooling water to circulate around the contact tube and
nozzle. Water-cooled guns provide more
efficient cooling of the gun.
Air-cooled guns are employed for applications
where water is not readily available. These
are actually cooled by the shielding gas. The
guns are available for service up to 600
amperes used intermittently with a CO2
shielding gas. These guns are usually limited
to 50% of the CO2 rating with argon or helium.
CO2 cools the welding gun, where argon or
helium do not. Water-cooling permits the gun
to operate continuously at the rated capacity
with lower heat buildup. Water-cooled guns
are generally used for applications requiring
between 200 and 750 amperes. Air-cooled
guns of the same capacity as water-cooled
guns are heavier but they are easier to
manipulate in confined spaces or for out-ofposition applications because there are fewer
cables.
There are three general types of guns
available. The one shown in Figure 10-20 has
the electrode wire fed through a flexible
conduit from a remote wire feeder. The
conduit is generally 10 to 15 feet due to the
wire feeding limitations of a push type wire
feeding system. Figure 10-21 shows the
second type of welding gun, which has a selfcontained wire feeding mechanism and
electrode wire supply. This wire supply is in
the form of a 1 lb. (.45 kg) spool. This gun
employs a pull type wire feed system and is
particularly good for feeding aluminum and
other softer electrode wires which tend to jam
in long conduits. The third type of gun has a
wire feed motor on the gun, and the wire is
fed through a conduit from a remote wire feed
supply. This system has a pull type wire
feeder and can use longer length conduits.
Figure 10-20 Semi-automatic.
Figure 10-21 Spool gun.
3.4.2 Machine Welding Guns

The machine welding guns use the same basic design principles and features as the
semiautomatic welding guns. These guns have capacities up to 1200 amperes and are
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-20
generally water-cooled because of the higher

amperages and duty cycles required. The
gun is mounted directly below the wire
feeder. Large diameter wires up to 1/4 in.
(6.4 mm) are often used. Figure 10-22 shows
a GMAW control panel for a machine
welding gun system.
3.5.0 Shielding Gas Equipment

The shielding gas system used in gas metal
arc welding consists of a gas supply source,
a gas regulator, a flowmeter, control valves,
and supply hoses to the welding gun.
The shielding gases are supplied in liquid
form when they are in storage tanks with
vaporizers or in a gas form in high-pressure
Figure 10-22 Control panel.
cylinders. An exception to this is carbon
dioxide. When put in high-pressure cylinders,
it exists in both the liquid and gas forms. The bulk storage tank system is used when
there are large numbers of welding stations using the same type of shielding gas in
large quantities. For applications where there are large numbers of welding stations but
relatively low gas usage, a manifold system is often used. This consists of several highpressure cylinders connected to a manifold which then feeds a single line to the welding
stations. Individual high-pressure cylinders are used when the amount of gas usage is
low, when there are few welding stations, or when portability is required.
You should use the same type of regulator and flowmeter for gas metal-arc welding that
you use for gas tungsten-arc welding. The gas flow rates vary, depending on the types
and thicknesses of the material and the joint design. At times it is necessary to connect
two or more gas cylinders (manifold)
together to maintain higher gas flow.
For most welding conditions, the gas flow
rate is approximately 35 cubic feet per hour
(cfh). This flow rate may be increased or
decreased, depending upon the particular
welding application. Final adjustments
usually are made on a trial-and-error basis.
The proper amount of gas shielding results
in a rapid crackling or sizzling arc sound.
Inadequate gas shielding produces a
popping arc sound and results in weld
discoloration, porosity, and spatter.
Regulators and flowmeters are designated
for use with specific shielding gases and
should be used only with the gas for which
they were designed (Figure 10-23).
Figure 10-23 Regulator and

flowmeter.
The hoses are normally connected to

solenoid valves on the wire feeder to turn
the gas flow on and off with the welding current. A hose is used to connect the
flowmeter to the welding gun. The hose is often part of the welding gun assembly.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-21

Welding cables, normally made of copper or aluminum, and connectors connect the
power source to the electrode holder and to the work. They consist of hundreds of wires
enclosed in an insulated casing of natural or synthetic rubber. The cable that connects
the power source to the welding gun is called the electrode lead. In semiautomatic
welding, this cable is often part of the cable assembly, which also includes the shielding
gas hose and the conduit through which the electrode wire is fed. For machine or
automatic welding, the electrode lead is normally separate. The cable that connects the
work to the power source is called the work lead; it is usually connected to the work by a
pincer clamp or a bolt.
Table 10-1 Recommended cable sizes for different currents and cable lengths.
Weld
Length of Cable Circuit in Feet Cable Size AWG.
Weld
Current
60
100
150
200
300
400
Manual
100
1/0
(Low Duty
Cycle)
150
2/0
3/0
200
1/0
3/0
4/0
250
1/0
2/0
300
2/0
3/0
350
1/0
1/0
3/0
4/0
400
1/0
1/0
3/0
450
2/0
2/0
4/0
500
2/0
2/0
4/0
Automatic
400
4/0
4/0
(High
Duty
Cycle)
800
4/0 (2)
4/0 (2)
1200
4/0 (3)
4/0 (3)
Type
Three factors determine the size of welding cable to use: the duty cycle of the machine,
its amperage rating, and the distance between the work and the machine. If either
amperage or distance increases, the cable size also must increase. Cable sizes range
from the smallest at AWG No.8 to AWG No. 4/0 with amperage ratings of 75 amperes
and upward. Table 10-1 shows recommended cable sizes for use with different welding
currents and cable lengths. A cable too small, or too long, for the current load will
become too hot to handle during welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-22

A good ground clamp is essential to
producing quality welds. Without proper
grounding, the circuit voltage fails to
produce enough heat for proper welding,
and there is the possibility of damage to the
welding machine and cables. Three basic
methods are used to ground a work lead.
You can fasten the ground cable to the
workbench with a C-clamp, attach a springloaded clamp directly onto the workpiece, or
bolt or tack-weld the end of the ground cable
to the welding bench or workpiece. For a
workbench, the third way creates a
permanent common ground.
When a water-cooled gun is used, a water
supply must be included in the system. This
can be supplied by a water circulator or directly from a hose connection to a water tap.
The water is carried to the welding torch through hoses that may or may not go through
a valve in the welding machine. A water circulator is shown in Figure 10-24.
Motion devices are used for machine and automatic welding. These motion devices can
be used to move the welding head, workpiece, or gun depending on the type and size of
the work and the preference of the user.
Motor driven carriages that run on tracks or directly on the workpiece are commonly
used. Carriages can be used for straight line contour, vertical, or horizontal welding.
Side beam carriages, supported on the vertical face of a flat track, can be used for
straight line welding.
Welding head manipulators may be used for longitudinal welds and, in conjunction with
a rotary weld positioner, for circumferential welds. These welding head manipulators
come in many boom sizes and can also be used for semiautomatic welding with
mounted welding heads.
Oscillators are optional equipment used to oscillate the gun for surfacing, vertical-up
welding, and other welding operations that require a wide bead. Oscillator devices can
be either mechanical or electromagnetic.
3.7.3 Accessories
Accessory equipment used for gas metal arc welding consists of items used for cleaning
the weld bead and cutting the electrode wire. In many cases cleaning is not required,
but when slag is created by the welding, a chipping hammer or grinder is used to
remove it. Wire brushes and grinders are sometimes used for cleaning the weld bead,
and wire cutters and pliers are used to cut the end of the electrode wire between stops
and starts.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-23

3.
What type of current is predominantly used for GMAW?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Alternating
Direct
Negative
Positive
Of what material are welding cables most commonly made?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Stainless steel
Copper
Bronze
Silver alloy
4.0.0 INSTALLATION, SETUP, and MAINTENANCE of

EQUIPMENT
Learning to arc weld requires you to possess many skills. Among these skills are the
abilities to set up, operate, and maintain your welding equipment.
In most factory environments, the work is brought to the welder. In the Seabees, the
majority of the time the opposite is true. You will be called to the field for welding on
buildings, earthmoving equipment, well drilling pipe, ship to shore fuel lines, pontoon
causeways, and the list goes on. To accomplish these tasks, you have to become
familiar with your equipment and be able to maintain it in the field. It would be
impossible to give detailed maintenance information here because of the many different
types of equipment found in the field; therefore, only the highlights will be covered.
You should become familiar with the welding machine that you will be using. Study the
manufacturers literature and check with your senior petty officer or chief on the items
that you do not understand. Machine setup involves selecting current type, polarity, and
current settings. The current selection depends on the size and type of electrode used,
position of the weld, and the properties of the base metal.
Cable size and connections are determined by the distance required to reach the work,
the size of the machine, and the amperage needed for the weld.
Operator maintenance depends on the type of welding machine used. Transformers
and rectifiers require little maintenance compared to engine-driven welding machines.
Transformer welders require only to be kept dry and to be given a minimal amount of
cleaning. Internal maintenance should be done only by electricians due to the
possibilities of electrical shock. Engine-driven machines require daily maintenance. In
most places you will be required to fill out and turn in a daily inspection form called a
hard card before starting the engine. This form is a list of items, such as oil level, water
level, visible leaks, and other things, that affect the operation of the machine.
After all of these items have been checked, you are now ready to start welding.
Listed below are some additional welding rules that should be followed.
Clear the welding area of all debris and clutter.

Do not use gloves or clothing that contains oil or grease.
Check that all wiring and cables are installed properly.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-24
Ensure that the machine is grounded and dry.

Follow all manufacturers directions on operating the welding machine.
Have on hand a protective screen to protect others in the welding area from flash
burns.
Always keep fire-fighting equipment on hand.
Clean rust, scale, paint, and dirt from the joints that are to be welded.
4.1.0 Power Source Connections

As a safety precaution, turn the power switches on the wire feeder and the power
source to the off position before checking electrical connections. Also, always wear your
safety glasses when you are in the welding area.
Check all electrical connections to make sure they are tight, and check cables for cracks
and exposed wire.
On power sources that are set up for
electrode positive (reverse polarity), the
positive terminal that supplies welding
voltage and amperage is connected to the
wire feeder.
The gun trigger takes its power from a
connection on the wire feeder.
The work lead is connected to the negative
terminal; it should be attached to the work or
to the welding table.
4.2.0 Gun Cable Assembly

To remove the gun cable assembly:
disconnect the gun trigger lead, loosen the
retaining knob on the wire feeder, and pull
the gun cable out of the wire feeder with a
twisting motion.
Check the O-rings for damage (Figure 1025).
Figure 10-25 O-ring inspection.
Check the gun to make sure it is in good

condition.
Clean the nozzle.
Use a nozzle cleaner or a pair of needle
nose pliers to remove spatter from the
nozzle. A dirty or damaged nozzle may
interrupt the flow of shielding gas, causing
porosity.
Inspect the contact tube and gas diffuser
(Figure 10-26).
Clean spatter from the contact tube with a
pair of needle nose pliers.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-26 Contact tube and

gas diffuser inspection. 10-25
NOTE: Replace the contact tube if the opening is worn into an oval shape.
Check the gas diffuser for blockage, and clean it if necessary.
Clean the liner.
Remove the contact tube and outlet guide.

Stretch the cable straight.
Blow shop air through the liner.
NOTE:
You should clean the liner each time you change wire to prevent dirt buildup.
You should replace the liner if it is kinked or shows signs of excessive wear, such as an
enlarged or oval opening. Install a new liner according to manufacturers specification.
Insert the liner into the gun cable slowly to avoid kinking it.
4.3.0 Wire Installation

Remove the contact tube.
Open the feed roll assembly (Figure 10-27).
Remove the spool retaining ring.
Slide the spool onto the spool hub so the
wire feeds from bottom.
Replace the spool retaining ring.
Keep hand pressure on the wire to prevent
the spool from uncoiling as you feed the wire
through the inlet guide, across the bottom
wire feed roller, and into the outlet guide.
Close the feed roll assembly.
Test tension by pressing the jog button
until the wire feeds through the gas diffuser.
Replace the contact tube and nozzle.
Clip the wire to a 1/4 to 3/8 in. stick-out.
Figure 10-27 Wire installation.
The correct amount of electrode extension

or wire stick-out is important because it influences the welding current of the power
source. Since the power source is self-regulating, the current output is automatically
decreased when the wire stick-out increases. Conversely, when the stick-out
decreases, the power source is forced to furnish more current. Too little stick-out
causes the wire to fuse to the nozzle tip, which decreases the tip life.
For most GMAW, the wire stick-out should measure from 3/8 to 3/4 inch. For smaller
(micro) wires, the stick-out should be between 1/4 and 3/8 inch.
NOTE: Make sure the drive rolls and contact tube are matched to the diameter of the
wire.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-26
4.4.0 Gas Cylinder Installation

Transport a cylinder on the proper cart, chain
it in place, and remove the cap.
To clear dirt from the valve opening, open
and quickly close the cylinder valve.
Install the pressure regulator and flow meter
assembly.
When installing 100% CO2, insert a nonmetallic washer inside the regulator
connection so the regulator does not frost
(Figure 10-28). To prevent freezing for flow
rates greater than 25 cubic feet per hour
(cfh), use a line heater or manifold system.
Attach the gas hose to the flowmeter and
wire feeder.
Open the valve slowly until pressure
registers on the regulator, then open the
valve completely to seat it in the fully open
position.
Figure 10-28 Installation of

pressure regulator.
Press the purge button and adjust the flow meter to the correct flow rate.
4.5.0 Amperage and Voltage Settings

Set amperage and voltage to the middle of the range specified in the welding
procedure.
Fine tune the settings by performing a series of test welds.
4.6.0 Equipment Shutdown and Clean Up

Completely close the valve on the gas cylinder or gas manifold.
Press the purge button to bleed gas from the line.
Close the flowmeter finger tight.
Power down the wire feeder and power source.
Clean up the work area.
4.7.0 Burn Back

Burn back occurs when the molten tip of the electrode fuses to the end of the contact
tube.
If burn back occurs, check the following:
Voltage. If the voltage is too high in relation to the amperage, the electrode melts faster
than the wire feeder can deliver wire to the puddle.
Drive roll tension. The drive rolls could be too loose, causing the wire to slip.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-27
Liner and contact tube. A damaged liner or restricted contact tube may also cause burn
back.
4.8.0 Bird Nests

Bird nests occur when the wire is impeded
somewhere between the wire feeder and
the work, causing the wire to pile up
between the drive rolls and the outlet guide
(Figure 10-29).
The most common cause of bird nests is
having too much drive roll tension
combined with a dirty or damaged liner, a
restricted contact tube, or burnback.
To clear a bird nest:
Clip the wire behind the inlet and outlet
guides, and remove the tangle of wire.
Remove the gun cable assembly, nozzle,
and contact tube.
Figure 10-29 Bird nest.
Extract the wire from the back of the gun

cable.
Rethread the wire.
Replace the contact tube and nozzle.
5.0.0 SHIELDING GAS and ELECTRODES

The shielding gas is an important consumable of gas metal arc welding; its main
purpose is to shield the arc and the molten weld puddle from the atmosphere. The
electrodes used for this process are also consumable and provide the filler metal to the
weld. The chemical composition of the electrode wire in combination with the shielding
gas will determine the weld metal composition and mechanical properties of the weld.
5.1.0 Shielding Gases

Air in the weld zone is displaced by a shielding gas in order to prevent contamination of
the molten weld puddle. This contamination is caused mainly by nitrogen, oxygen, and
water vapor present in the atmosphere.
As an example, nitrogen in solidified steel reduces the ductility and impact strength of
the weld and can cause cracking. In large amounts, nitrogen can also cause weld
porosity.
Excess oxygen in steel combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). This gas
can be trapped in the metal, causing porosity. In addition, excess oxygen can combine
with other elements in steel and form compounds that produce inclusions in the weld
metal.
When hydrogen, present in water vapor and oil, combines with either iron or aluminum,
porosity will result, and underbead weld metal cracking may occur.
To avoid these problems associated with contamination of the weld puddle, three main
gases are used for shielding: argon, helium, and carbon dioxide. In addition, small
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-28
amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen have proven beneficial for some
applications. Of these gases, only argon and helium are inert gases.
Both inert and active gases may be used for gas metal arc welding. When welding the
non-ferrous metals, inert shielding gases are used because they do not react with the
metals. The inert gases used in gas metal arc welding are argon, helium, and argonhelium mixtures.
Active or inert gases may be employed when welding the ferrous metals. Active gases
such as carbon dioxide, mixtures of carbon dioxide, or oxygen-bearing shielding gases
are not chemically inert and can form compounds with the metals.
Compensation for the oxidizing tendencies of other gases is made by special wire
electrode formulations. Argon, helium, and carbon dioxide can be used alone, in
combinations, or mixed with others to provide defect-free welds in a variety of weld
applications and weld processes.
The basic properties of shielding gases that affect the performance of the welding
process include the following:
1. Thermal properties at elevated temperatures
2. Chemical reaction of the gas with the various elements in the base plate and
welding wire
3. Effect of each gas on the mode of metal transfer
The thermal conductivity of the gas at arc temperatures influences the arc voltage as
well as the thermal energy delivered to the weld. As thermal conductivity increases,
greater welding voltage is necessary to sustain the arc. For example, the thermal
conductivity of helium and CO2 is much higher than that of argon; because of this, they
deliver more heat to the weld. Therefore, helium and CO2 require more welding voltage
and power to maintain a stable arc. The compatibility of each gas with the wire and
base metal determines the suitability of the various gas combinations.
Carbon dioxide and most oxygen-bearing shielding gases should not be used for
welding aluminum, as aluminum oxide will form. However, CO2 and O2 are useful at
times and even essential when MIG welding steels. They promote arc stability and good
fusion between the weld puddle and base material. Oxygen is a great deal more
oxidizing than CO2. Consequently, oxygen additions to argon are generally less than 12
percent by volume, whereas 100 percent CO2 can be used for GMAW mild steels. Steel
wires must contain strong deoxidizing elements to suppress porosity when used with
oxidizing gases, particularly mixtures with high percentages of CO2 or O2 and especially
100 percent CO2.
Shielding gases also determine the mode of metal transfer and the depth to which the
workpiece is melted (depth of penetration). Table 10-2 summarizes recommended
shielding gases for various materials and metal transfer types. Spray transfer is not
obtained when the gas is rich in CO2. For example, mixtures containing more than
about 20 percent CO2 do not exhibit true spray transfer. Rather, mixtures up to 30
percent CO2 can have a spray-like shape to the arc at high current level but are
unable to maintain the arc stability of lower CO2 mixtures. Spatter levels will also tend to
increase when mixtures are rich in CO2.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-29
Table 10-2 Use of different shielding gases for gas metal arc welding.
Type of Gas
Typical Mixtures
Primary Uses
Argon
Non-ferrous metals
Helium
Aluminum, magnesium, and

copper alloys
Carbon dioxide
Mild and low alloy steel
Argon-helium
20-80%
Aluminum, magnesium,
copper and nickel alloys
Argon-oxygen
1-2% O2
Stainless steel
3-5% O2
Mild and low alloy steels
Argon-carbon dioxide
20-50% CO2
Mild and low alloy steels
Helium-argon-carbon dioxide
90%He-7 1/2%Ar-2 1/2%CO2
Stainless steel
60-70%He-25-35%Ar-5%CO2
Low alloy steels
Nitrogen
Copper alloys
Several factors are usually considered in determining the type of shielding gas to be
used, including the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Type of metal to be welded

Arc characteristics and type of metal transfer
Speed of welding
Tendency to cause undercutting
Penetration, width, and shape of the weld bead
Availability
Cost of the gas
Mechanical property requirements
5.1.1 Argon
Argon shielding gas is chemically inert and used primarily on the non-ferrous metals.
This gas is obtained from the atmosphere by the liquification of air. Argon may be
supplied as a compressed gas or a liquid, depending on the volume of use.
Argon shielding gas promotes spray type metal transfer at most current levels. Because
argon is a heavier gas than helium, lower flow rates are used because the gas does not
leave the welding area as fast as it does with helium. Another advantage of argon is that
it gives better resistance to drafts. For any given arc length and welding current, the arc
voltage is less when using argon than when using helium or carbon dioxide. This means
that there is less arc energy, which makes argon preferable for welding thin metal and
for metals with poor thermal conductivity.
Argon is less expensive than helium and has greater availability. It also gives easier arc
starting, quieter and smoother arc action, and good cleaning action.
5.1.2 Helium
Helium shielding gas is chemically inert and is used primarily on aluminum, magnesium,
and copper alloys. Helium is a light gas obtained by separation from natural gas. It may
be distributed as a liquid but it is more often used as compressed gas in cylinders.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-30
Helium shielding gas is lighter than air and because of this, high gas flow rates must be
used to maintain adequate shielding. Typically, the gas flow rate is 2 to 3 times of that
used for argon when welding in the flat position. Helium is often preferred in the
overhead position because the gas floats up and maintains good shielding, while argon
tends to float down. Globular metal transfer is usually obtained with helium, but spray
transfer may be obtained at the highest current levels. Because of this, more spatter
and a poorer weld bead appearance will be produced, as compared to argon. For any
given arc length and current level, helium will produce a hotter arc, which makes helium
good for welding thick metal and metals like copper, aluminum, and magnesium, which
have a high thermal conductivity. Helium generally gives wider weld beads and better
penetration than argon.
5.1.3 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is manufactured from fuel gases given off by the burning of natural gas,
fuel oil, or coke. It is also obtained as a by-product of calcination operation in lime kilns,
from the manufacturing of ammonia, and from the fermentation of alcohol. The carbon
dioxide given off by manufacturing ammonia and the fermenting alcohol is almost 100%
pure. Carbon dioxide is made available to the user in either cylinder or bulk containers
with the cylinder being more common. With the bulk system, carbon dioxide is usually
drawn off as a liquid and heated to the gas state before going to the welding torch. The
bulk system is normally used only when supplying a large number of welding stations.
In the cylinder, the carbon dioxide is in both a liquid and a vapor form, with the liquid
carbon dioxide occupying approximately two thirds of the space in the cylinder. By
weight, this is approximately 90% of the content of the cylinder. Above the liquid it exists
as a vapor gas. As carbon dioxide vapor is drawn from the cylinder, it is replaced with
carbon dioxide that vaporizes from the liquid in the cylinder, and therefore the overall
pressure will be indicated by the pressure gage.
When the pressure in the cylinder has dropped to 200 psi (1.4 MPa), the cylinder should
be replaced with a new cylinder. A positive pressure should always be left in the
cylinder in order to prevent moisture and other contaminants from backing up into the
cylinder. The normal discharge rate of the CO2 cylinder is from about 4 to 35 cubic feet
per hour (1.9 to 17 liters per minute). However, a maximum discharge rate of 25 cfh (12
l/min) is recommended when using a single
cylinder for welding.
As the vapor pressure drops from the
cylinder pressure to discharge pressure
through the CO2 regulator, it absorbs a
great deal of heat. If flow rates are set too
high, this absorption of heat can lead to
freezing of the regulator and flow meter,
which interrupts the gas shielding. When
flow rates higher than 25 cfh (12 l/min) are
required, normal practice is to manifold two
CO2 cylinders in parallel or to place a heater
between the bottle and gas regulator,
pressure regulator, and flowmeter. Figure
10-30 shows a manifold system used for
connecting several cylinders together.
Excessive flow rates can also result in
drawing liquid from the cylinder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-30 Manifold system for

carbon dioxide.
10-31
Carbon dioxide has become widely used for welding mild and low alloy steels. Most
active gases cannot be used as shielding, but carbon dioxide offers several advantages
for use in welding steel:
1. Better joint penetration
2. Higher welding speeds
3. Lower welding costs (the major advantage)
Carbon dioxide produces short-circuiting transfer at low current levels and globular
transfer at the higher current levels. Because carbon dioxide is an oxidizing gas, most
electrode wires available for welding steel contain deoxidizers to prevent porosity in the
weld. The surface of the weld bead is usually slightly oxidized even when there is no
porosity.
The major disadvantage of carbon dioxide is that it produces a harsh arc and higher
amounts of spatter. A short arc length is usually desirable to keep the amount of spatter
to a minimum. Another problem with carbon dioxide is that it adds some carbon to the
weld deposit. This does not affect mild steels, but it tends to reduce the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel and reduce the ductility and toughness of the weld deposit
in some of the low alloy steels.
5.1.4 Argon-Helium Mixtures
Regardless of the percentage, argon-helium mixtures are used for non-ferrous materials
such as aluminum, copper, nickel alloys, and reactive metals. These gases used in
various combinations increase the voltage and heat of GTAW and GMAW arcs while
maintaining the favorable characteristics of argon. Generally, the heavier the material
the higher the percentage of helium you would use. Small percentages of helium, as low
as 10%, will affect the arc and the mechanical properties of the weld. As helium
percentages increase, the arc voltage, spatter, and penetration will increase while
minimizing porosity. A pure helium gas will broaden the penetration and bead, but depth
of penetration could suffer. However, arc stability also increases. The argon percentage
must be at least 20% when mixed with helium to produce and maintain a stable spray
arc.
Argon-25% He (HE-25) This little used mixture is sometimes recommended for
welding aluminum where an increase in penetration is sought and bead appearance is
of primary importance.
Argon-75% He (HE-75) This commonly used mixture is widely employed for
mechanized welding of aluminum greater than one inch thick in the flat position. HE-75
also increases the heat input and reduces porosity of welds in -and 1/-in. thick
conductivity copper.
Argon-90% He (HE-90) This mixture is used for welding copper over in. thick and
aluminum over 3 in. thick. It has an increased heat input, which improves weld
coalescence and provides good X-ray quality. It is also used for short circuiting transfer
with high nickel filler metals.
5.1.5 Argon-Oxygen Mixtures
Argon-oxygen gas mixtures usually contain 1%, 2% or 5% oxygen. The small amount of
oxygen in the gas causes the gas to become slightly oxidizing, so the filler metal used
must contain deoxidizers to help remove oxygen from the weld puddle and prevent
porosity. Pure argon does not always provide the best arc characteristics when welding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-32
ferrous metals. In pure argon shielding, the filler metal has a tendency not to flow out to
the fusion line.
The addition of small amounts of O2 to argon greatly stabilizes the weld arc, increases
the filler metal droplet rate, lowers the spray arc transition current, and improves wetting
and bead shape. The weld puddle is more fluid and stays molten longer, allowing the
metal to flow out towards the toe of the weld. This reduces undercutting and helps
flatten the weld bead. Occasionally, small oxygen additions are used on non-ferrous
applications. For example, it has been reported by NASA that .1% oxygen has been
useful for arc stabilization when welding very clean aluminum plate.
Argon-1% O2 This mixture is primarily used for spray transfer on stainless steels. One
percent oxygen is usually sufficient to stabilize the arc, improve the droplet rate, provide
coalescence, and improve appearance.
Argon-2% O2 This mixture is used for spray arc welding on carbon steels, low alloy
steels and stainless steels. It provides additional wetting action over the 1% O2 mixture.
Mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of welds made in the 1 and 2% O2
additions are equivalent.
Argon-5% O2 This mixture provides a more fluid but controllable weld pool. It is the
most commonly used argon-oxygen mixture for general carbon steel welding. The
additional oxygen also permits higher travel speeds.
Argon-8-12% O2 Originally popularized in Germany, this mixture has recently
surfaced in the U.S. in both the 8% and 12% types. The main application is single pass
welds, but some multi-pass applications have been reported. The higher oxidizing
potential of these gases must be taken into consideration with respect to the wire alloy
chemistry. In some instances a higher alloyed wire will be necessary to compensate for
the reactive nature of the shielding gas. The higher puddle fluidity and lower spray arc
transition current of these mixtures could have some advantage on some weld
applications.
Argon-12-25% O2 Mixtures with very high O2 levels have been used on a limited
basis, but the benefits of 25% O2 versus 12% O2 are debatable. Extreme puddle fluidity
is characteristic of this gas. A heavy slag/scale layer over the bead surface can be
expected, which is difficult to remove. With care and a deoxidizing filler metal, sound
welds can be made at the 25% O2 level with little or no porosity. Removal of the
slag/scale before subsequent weld passes is recommended to ensure the best weld
integrity.
5.1.6 Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures
The argon-carbon dioxide mixtures are mainly used on carbon and low alloy steels with
limited application on stainless steels. The argon additions to CO2 decrease the spatter
levels usually experienced with pure CO2 mixtures. Small CO2 additions to argon
produce the same spray arc characteristics as small O2 additions. The difference lies
mostly in the higher spray arc transition currents of argon-CO2 mixtures. In GMAW
welding with CO2 additions, a slightly higher current level must be reached in order to
establish and maintain stable spray transfer of metal across the arc. Oxygen additions
reduce the spray transfer transition current. Above approximately 20% CO2, spray
transfer becomes unstable, and random short circuiting and globular transfer occur.
Argon-3-10% CO2 These mixtures are used for spray arc and short circuiting transfer
on a variety of carbon steel thicknesses. Because the mixtures can successfully utilize
both arc modes, this gas has gained much popularity as a versatile mixture. A 5%
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-33
mixture is very commonly used for pulsed GMAW of heavy section low alloy steels
being welding out-of-position. The welds are generally less oxidizing than those with 98
Ar-2% O2. Improved penetration is achieved with less porosity when using CO2
additions as opposed to O2 additions. In the case of bead wetting, it requires about
twice as much CO2 to achieve the same wetting action as identical amounts of O2. From
5 to 10% CO2 the arc column becomes very stiff and defined. The strong arc forces that
develop give these mixtures more tolerance to mill scale and a very controllable puddle.
Argon-11-20% CO2 This mixture range has been used for various narrow gap, out-ofposition sheet metal and high speed GMAW applications. Most applications are on
carbon and low alloy steels. By mixing the CO2 within this range, maximum productivity
on thin gauge materials can be achieved. This is done by minimizing burn through
potential while at the same time maximizing deposition rates and travel speeds. The
lower CO2 percentages also improve deposition efficiency by lowering spatter loss.
Argon-21-25% CO2 Used almost exclusively with short circuiting transfer on mild steel,
it was originally formulated to maximize the short circuit frequency on .030- and .035- in.
diameter solid wires, but through the years it has become the de facto standard for most
diameter solid wire welding and has been commonly used with flux cored wires. This
mixture also operates well in high current applications on heavy materials and can
achieve good arc stability, puddle control, and bead appearance as well as high
productivity.
Argon-50% CO2 This mixture is used where high heat input and deep penetration are
needed. Recommended material thicknesses are above 11/8 in., and welds can be
made out-of-position. This mixture is very popular for pipe welding using the short
circuiting transfer. Good wetting and bead shape without excessive puddle fluidity are
the main advantages for the pipe welding application. Welding on thin gauge materials
has more of a tendency to burn through, which can limit the overall versatility of this
gas. In welding at high current levels, the metal transfer is more like welding in pure
CO2 than previous mixtures, but some reduction in spatter loss can be realized due to
the argon addition.
Argon-75% CO2 A 75% CO2 mixture is sometimes used on heavy wall pipe and is the
optimum in good side-wall fusion and deep penetration. The argon constituent aids in
arc stabilization and reduced spatter.
5.1.7 Helium-Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures
Three-part shielding gas blends continue to be popular for carbon steel, stainless steel,
and, in restricted cases, nickel alloys. For short-circuiting transfer on carbon steel, the
addition of 40% helium to argon and CO2 as a third component to the shielding gas
blend provides a broader penetration profile.
Helium provides greater thermal conductivity for short-circuiting transfer applications on
carbon steel and stainless steel base materials. The broader penetration profile and
increased sidewall fusion reduces the tendency for incomplete fusion.
For stainless steel applications, three-part mixes are quite common. Helium additions of
55% to 90% are added to argon and 2.5% CO2 for short-circuiting transfer. They are
favored for reducing spatter, improving puddle fluidity, and providing a flatter weld bead
shape.
Common Ternary (tur-nuh-ree) Gas Shielding Blends
90% Helium + 7.5% Argon + 2.5% CO2 This is the most popular of the shortcircuiting blends for stainless steel applications. The high thermal conductivity of helium
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-34
provides a flat bead shape and excellent fusion. This blend has also been adapted for
use in pulsed spray transfer applications, but it is limited to stainless or nickel base
materials greater than .062in. (1.6 mm) thick. It is associated with high travel speeds
on stainless steel applications.
55% Helium + 42.5% Argon + 2.5% CO2 Although less popular than the 90% helium
mix discussed above, this blend features a cooler arc for pulsed spray transfer. It also
lends itself very well to the short-circuiting mode of metal transfer for stainless and
nickel alloy applications. The lower helium concentration permits its use with axial spray
transfer.
38% Helium + 65% Argon + 7% CO2 This tertiary blend is for use with shortcircuiting transfer on mild and low alloy steel applications. It can also be used on pipe
for open root welding. The high thermal conductivity broadens the penetration profile
and reduces the tendency to cold lap.
5.1.8 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is occasionally used as a shielding gas when welding copper and copper
alloys. Nitrogen has characteristics similar to helium because it gives better penetration
than argon and tends to promote globular metal transfer. Nitrogen is used where the
availability of helium is limited, such as in Europe. It can be mixed with argon for
welding aluminum alloys.
5.2.0 Shielding Gas Flow Rate

The shielding gas flow rate should be high enough to maintain adequate shielding for
the arc and weld puddle but should not be so high that it causes turbulence in the weld
puddle. The gas flow rate is primarily dependent on the type of shielding gas, position of
welding, and amount of electrode extension or stick-out. Higher flow rates are required
for helium than for carbon dioxide and argon. These are often twice those used for
carbon dioxide and argon because helium is a very light gas that floats away from the
weld puddle quicker than the heavier carbon dioxide and argon gases.
In welding in the overhead position, slightly higher flow rates are often used with the
heavier shielding gases because they tend to fall away from the weld puddle. The last
item that affects the gas flow rate is the amount of electrode extension used. For a long
electrode extension, higher gas flow rates are required to provide adequate shielding
because of the greater distance between the tip of the nozzle and the weld puddle.
5.3.0 Electrodes
One of the most important factors to consider in GMAW welding is the correct filler wire
selection. The electrode used in gas metal arc welding is bare, solid, consumable wire.
In many cases, the electrode wires are chosen to match the chemical composition of
the base metal as closely as possible. In some cases, electrodes with a somewhat
different chemical composition will be used to obtain maximum mechanical properties or
better weldability. Almost all electrodes used for gas metal arc welding of steels have
deoxidizing or other scavenging elements added to minimize the amount of porosity and
improve the mechanical properties. The use of electrode wires with the right amount of
deoxidizers is most important when using oxygen- or carbon dioxide-bearing shielding
gases.
The filler wire, in combination with the shielding gas, will produce the deposit chemistry
that determines the resulting physical and mechanical properties of the weld. Five major
factors influence the choice of filler wire for GMAW welding:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-35
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Base plate chemical composition

Base plate mechanical properties
Shielding gas employed
Type of service or applicable specification requirements
Type of weld joint design
However, long experience in the welding industry has generated American Welding
Society Standards to greatly simplify the selection. Wires have been developed and
manufactured that consistently produce the best results with specific plate materials.
Although there is no industry-wide specification, most wires conform to an AWS
standard (Table 10-3).
Table 10-3 AWS filler metal specifications for gas metal arc welding.
AWS Specification
Metal
A5.7
Copper and copper alloys
A5.9
Stainless steel
A5.10
Aluminum and aluminum alloys
A5.14
Nickel and nickel alloys
A5.16
Titanium and titanium alloys
A5.18
Carbon steel
A5.19
Magnesium alloys
A5.24
Zirconium and zirconium alloys
A5.28
Low alloy steel
The classification system for bare, solid wire electrodes used throughout industry in the
United States was devised by the American Welding Society. Because of the wide
variety of metals that can be welded by this process, there are numerous classifications
and many are the same as those used to classify filler rods for gas tungsten arc
welding.
Most classifications of GMAW electrodes are based on the chemical composition of the
weld deposit. A major exception to this is the classification of electrodes used for
welding steel, which are classified by both the chemical composition of the wire and
mechanical properties produced in the weld.
A typical steel classification is ER70S-6.
1. The E indicates the filler wire is an electrode that may be used for gas metal arc
welding. The R indicates it may also be used as a filler rod for gas tungsten arc
or plasma arc welding.
2. The next two (or three) digits indicate the nominal tensile strength of the filler
wire.
3. The letter to the right of the digits indicates the type of filler metal. An S stands
for a solid wire and a C stands for a metal-cored wire which consists of a metal
powder core in a metal sheath.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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4. The digit or letters and digit in the suffix indicate the special chemical
composition of the filler metal and the other mechanical properties required.
For example, an ER90S-B3 classification indicates that the filler metal may be used as
an electrode or a filler rod, produces a weld metal tensile strength of 90,000 psi (620
MPa), is a solid electrode wire, and produces a weld deposit with specific chemical
compositions and mechanical properties. These are shown in Tables 10-4 and 10-5,
taken from the AWS Filler Metal Specifications A5.18 and A5.28 respectively.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-37
Table 10-4 Chemical composition of bare solid electrodes and deposited

weld metal for composite cored electrodes for carbon and low alloy steels
(AWS A5.18, A5.28.
C
Mn
Si
S
CARBON STEELS
ER70S-2
.07
.90-1.40
.40-.70
.025
ER70S-3
.06-15
.90-1.40
.45-.70
ER70S-4
.07-.15
1.00-1.50
ER70S-5
.07-.19
ER70S-6
Cu
Other
.035
.50
Ti Zr AI
.025
.035
.50
.65-.85
.025
.035
.50
.90-1.40
.30-.60
.025
.035
.50
.07-15
1.40-1.85
.80-1.15
.025
.035
.50
ER70S-7
ER70S-G
.07-.15
1.50-2.00
.50-.80
.025
.035
No Chemical Requirements
CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM STEELS
ER80S-B2
.07-.12
.40-.70
.40-.70
.025
.025
.20
1.2-1.5
.40-.65
.35
ER80S-B2L
.05
.40-.70
.40-.70
.025
.025
.20
1.2-1.5
.40-.65
.35
ER90S-B3
.07-.12
.40-.70
.40-.70
.025
.025
.20
2.3-2.7
.90-1.20
.35
ER90S-B3L
.05
.40-.70
.40-.70
.025
.025
.20
2.3-2.7
.90-1.20
.35
E80C-B2L
.05
.40-1.00
.25-.60
.025
.030
.20
1.00.. 1.5
.40-.65
.35
E80C-B2
.07-.12
.40-1.00
.25-.60
.025
.030
.20
1.0-1.50
.40-.65
.35
E90C-B3L
.05
.40-1.00
.25-.60
.025
.030
.20
2.0-2.5
.90-1.20
.35
E90C-B3
.07-.12
.40-1.00
.25-.60
.025
2.0-2.5
.90-1.20
.35
ER80S-Ni1
ER80S-Ni2
.12
.12
1.25
1.25
.40-.80
.40-.80
.030
.20
NICKEL STEELS
.025
.025
.80-l.10
025
.025
2.00-2.75
.15
.15
.35
.35
ER80S-Ni3
E80C-Ni1
.12
.12
1.25
1.25
.40-.80
.60
.025
.025
.025
.030
3.00-3.75
.80-1.10
E80C-Ni2
.12
1.25
.60
.025
.030
2.00-2.75
.35
E80C-Ni3
.12
1.25
.60
.025
.030
3.00-3.75
MANGANESE-MOLYBDENUM STEELS
.35
ER80S-D2
.07-.12
1.60-2.10
.50-.80
.025
.025
.15
OTHER LOW ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODES
ER100S-1
.08
1.25-1.80
.20-.50
.010
.010
1.40-2.10
ER100S-2
.12
1.25-1.80
.20-.60
.010
.010
.80-l.25
ERll0S-1
ER120S-1
ERXXS-G
EXXC-G
.09
.10
1.40-1.80
.20-.55
.010
1.40-1.80
.25-.60
.010
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1.90-2.60
2.00-2.80
Ni
Cr
Mo
AI
.50
.65
.35
.35
.40-.60
.50
.30
.25-.55
V Ti Zr AI
.30
.20-.55
.25
.35.65
.50
.60
.25-.55
.30-.65
.25
.25
V Ti Zr AI
V Ti Zr AI
V Ti Zr AI
10-38
Table 10-5 Tension and impact test of weld metal deposits of carbon steel electrodes.
AWS
Classification
ER70S-2
ER70S-3
ER70S-4
ER70S-5
ER70S-6
ER70S-7
ER70S-G
E70C-3X
E70C-6X
E70C-G(X)
E70C-GS(X)
Tension Test Requirements (As Welded)

Tensile
Yield
Strength
Strength
(minimum)
(minimum)
Shielding
Gas
psi
Mpa
psi
Mpa
Elongation
Percent
(minimum)
CO2
70,000
480
58,000
400
22
d
75-80% Ar/balance
CO2
d
d
70,000
480
58,000
400
22
70,000
480
58,000
400
22
70,000
70,000
480
480
58,000 400
Not Specified
22
Not Specified
a. The final X shown in the classification represents. "C or "M" which corresponds to the
shielding gas with which the electrode is classified. The use of "C designates 100% CO2,
shielding; "M" designates 7580% Ar/balance CO2. For E70C-GQ and E70C-GS. The final
"C" or "M" may be omitted.
b. Yield strength at 0.2% offset and elongation in 2 in. (51 mm) gage length.
c. CO2 = carbon dioxide shielding gas. The use of CO2 for classification purposes shall not be
construed to preclude the use of Ar/CO2 or Ar/O2 shielding gas mixtures. A filler metal
tested with gas blends such as Ar/O2 or Ar/CO2 may result in weld metal having higher
strength and lower elongation.
d. Shielding gas shall be as agreed to between purchaser and supplier.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-39
Impact test requirements (as welded)

AWS
Average Impact Strength
Classification
(minimum)
ER70-2
20 ft lbf at -20F(27J@-29C)
ER70-3
20 ft lbf at 0F(27J@-18C)
ER70-4
Not Required
ER70-5
Not Required
ER70-6
20 ft lbf at -20F(27J@-29C)
ER70-7
20 ft lbf at -20F(27J@-29C)
ER70S-G
As agreed between supplier and purchaser
ER70S-G(X)
As agreed between supplier and purchaser
E70C-3X
20 ft lbf at 0F(27J@-18C)
E70C-6X
20 ft lbf at -20F(27J@-29C)
E70C-GS(X)
Not Required
a. Both the highest and lowest of the five test values obtained shall be disregarded in computing the impact strength. Two of the
remaining three values shall equal or exceed 20 ft-lbf; one of the three remaining values may be lower than 20 ft-Ibl but not
lower than 15 ft-lbf. The average of the three shall not be less than the 20 ft-Ibf specified.
b. For classifications with the "N" (nuclear) designation, three additional specimens shall be tested at room temperature. Two of
the three shall equal or exceed. 75 ft-lbf (102J), and the third shall not be lower than 70 ft-lbf (95J). Average of the three values
shall equal or exceed 75 ft Ibf (102J).
Filler metals for other base metals are classified according to the chemical compositions
of the weld metal produced. Some examples are the stainless steel classifications
shown in Table 10-6, the aluminum classifications shown in Table 10-7, the copper
classifications shown in Table 10-8, the magnesium classifications shown in Table 10-9,
and the nickel classifications shown in Table 10-10.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-40
Table 10-6 Chemical composition of bare stainless steel welding electrodes

and rods (AWS A5.9).
Composition, Wt%a,b
AWS
Other Elements
UNS
cd
Classification
Number
ER209
ER218
ER219
ER240
S20980
S21880
S21980
S24080
ER307
ER308
S30780
S30880
ER308H
ER308L
ER308Mo
ER308LMo
ER308Si
ER308LSi
ER309
ER309L
ER309Mo
ER309LMo
ER309Si
ER309LSi
S30880
S30883
S30882
S30886
S30881
S30888
S30980
S30983
S30982
S30986
S30981
S30988
ER310
ER312
ERJ16
S31080
S31380
S31680
ER316H
ER316L
ER316Si
ER316LSi
ERJ17
ER317L
ER318
ERJ20
ER320LR
ER321
S31680
S31683
S31681
S31688
S31780
S31783
S31980
N08021
N08022
S32180
ER330
ER347
ER347Si
N0S331
S34780
S34788
ER383
ER385
ER409
ER409Cb
ER410
ER410NiM0
N08028
N08904
S40900
S40940
S41080
S41086
ER420
ER430
ER446LM0
ER502h
ER505h
S42080
S43080
S44687
S50280
S50480
ER630
S17480
ER19-10H
S30480
ER16-8-2
ER2209
ER2553
S16880
S39209
S39553
ERJ556
RJ0556
C
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.040.14
0.08
0.040.08
0.03
0.08
0.04
0.08
0.03
0.12
0.03
0.12
0.03
0.12
0.03
0.080.15
0.15
0.08
0.040.08
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.025
0.08
0.180.25
0.08
0.08
Cr
20.5-24.0
16.0-18.0
19.0-21.5
17.0-19.0
Ni
9.5-12.0
8.0-9.0
5.5-7.0
4.0-6.0
Mo
1.5-3.0
0.75
0.75
0.75
Mn
4.0-7.0
7.0-9.0
8.0-10.0
10.5-13.5
Si
0.90
3.5-4.5
1.00
1.00
P
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
S
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
N
0.10-0.30
0.08-0.18
0.10-0.30
0.10-0.30
19.5-22.0
19.5-22.0
8.0-10.7
9.0-11.0
0.5-1.5
0.75
3.3-4.75
1.0-2.5
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.75
19.5-22.0
19.5-22.0
18.0-21.0
18.0-21.0
19.5-22.0
19.5-22.0
23.0-25.0
23.0-25.0
23.0-25.0
23.0-25.0
23.0-25.0
23.0-25.0
9.0-11.0
9.0-11.0
9.0-12.0
9.0-12.0
9.0-11.0
9.0-11.0
12.0-14.0
12.0-14.0
12.0-14.0
12.0-14.0
12.0-14.0
12.0-14.0
0.50
0.75
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
0.75
0.75
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.65-1.00
0.65-1.00
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.65-1.00
0.65-1.00
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
25.0-28.0
28.0-32.0
18.0-20.0
20.0-22.5
8.0-10.5
11.0-14.0
0.75
0.75
2.0-3.0
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-().65
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.75
0.75
18.0-20.0
18.0-20.0
18.0-20.0
18.0-20.0
18.5-20.5
18.5-20.5
18.0-20.0
19.0-21.0
19.0-21.0
18.5-20.5
11.0-14.0
11.0-14.0
11.0-14.0
11.0-14.0
13.0-15.0
13.0-15.0
11.0-14.0
32.0-36.0
32.0-36.0
9.0-10.5
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
3.0-4.0
3.0-4.0
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
2.0-3.0
0.75
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
2.5
1.5-2.0
1.0-2.5
0.30-().65
0.30-0.65
0.65-1.00
0.65-1.00
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.60
0.15
0.30-0.65
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.015
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
3.0-4.0
3.0-4.0
0.75
15.0-17.0
19.0-21.5
19.0-21.5
34.0-37.0
9.0-11.0
9.0-11.0
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
0.30-0.65
0.30-0.65
0.65-1.00
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.025
0.025
0.08
0.08
0.12
0.06
0.250.40
0.10
0.015
0.10
0.10
26.5-28.5
19.5-21.5
10.5-13.5
10.5-13.5
11.5-13.5
11.0-12.5
30.0-33.0
24.0-26.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
4.0-5.0
3.2-4.2
4.2-5.2
0.50
0.50
0.75
0.4-0.7
1.0-2.5
1.0-2.5
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.50
0.50
0.8
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.701.5
1.2-2.0
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
12.0-14.0
15.5-17.0
25.0-27.5
4.6-6.0
8.0-10.5
0.6
0.6
f
0.6
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.75-1.50
0.45-0.65
0.8-1.2
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.040.08
16.0-16.75
4.5-5.0
0.75
0.25-0.75
0.75
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.75
f
0.75
0.75
3.254.00
18.5-20.0
9.0-11.0
0.25
1.0-2.0
0.30-0.65
0.03
0.03
0.75
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.050.15
14.5-16.5
21.5-23.5
24.0-27.0
7.5-9.5
7.5-9.5
4.5-6.5
1.0-2.0
2.5-3.5
2.9-3.9
1.0-2.0
0.50-2.0
1.5
0.30-0.65
0.90
1.0
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.08-0.20
0.10-0.25
21.0-23.0
19.0-22.5
2.5-4.0
0.50-2.00
0.20-0.80
0.04
0.015
0.10-0.30
0.015
Cu
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
Element
V
Amount
0.10-0.30
Cbg
Cbg
Cbg
Ti
8xC min/1.0 max

8xC min/1.0 max
8xC min/0.40 max
9xC min/1.0 max
Cbg
Cbg
10xC min/1.0 max

10xC min/1.0 max
Ti
Cbg
10xC min/1.0 max

10xC min/1.0 max
Cbg
0.15-0.30
Cbg
Ti
0.05
0.05
0.75
0.75
1.5-2.5
Co
16.0-21.0
W
2.0-3.5
Cb
0.30
Ta
0.30-1.25
AI
0.10-0.50
Zr
0.001-0.10
La
0.005-0.10
B
0.02
a. Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements
shall be determined to ensure that their total, excluding iron, does not exceed 0.50 percent.
b. Single values shown are maximum percentages.
c. In the designator for composite. stranded, and strip electrodes, the "R" shall be deleted. A designator "C" shall be used for composite and stranded electrodes and a designator "0" shall be
used for strip electrodes. For example, ERXXX designates a solid wire and EQXXX designates a strip electrode of the same general analysis, and the same UNS number. However, ECXXX
designates a composite metal cored or stranded electrode and may not have the same UNS number. Consult ASTM/SAE Uniform Numbering System for the proper UNS Number.
d. For special applications, electrodes and rods may be purchased with Iess than the specified silicon content.
e. ASTM/SAE Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
f. Nickel + copper equals 0.5 percent maximum.
g. Cb(Nb) may be reported as Cb(Nb) + Ta.
h. These classifications also will be included in the next revision of ANSI/AWS AS.2B, Specification for Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding. They will be deleted from
ANSl/ AWS AS.9 in the final revision following publication of the revised ANSl/AWS AS.2B document.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-41
Table 10-7 Chemical composition of bare aluminum and aluminum alloy

welding electrodes and rods (AWS A5.10).
Weight Percenta,b
AWS
Classification
UNS
Numberc
Si
Fe
ER1100
R1100
ER1188g
R1188g
A91100
A91100
A91188
A91188
d
d
0.06
0.06
d
d
0.06
0.06
Cu
0.050.20
05-0.20
0.005
0.005
ER2319h
A92319
0.20
0.30
5.8-6.8
R2319h
ER4009
R4009
ER4010
R4010
R4011k
ER4043
R4043
A92319
A94009
A94009
A94010
A94010
A94011
A94043
A94043
0.30
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.8
0.8
ER4047
A94047
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.30
3.3-4.7
3.3-4.7
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.15
0.10-0.30
0.10-0.30
0.40
0.10
0.50-1.0
4.3-5.2
R4047
ER4145
R4145
ER4643
R4643
A94047
A94145
A94145
A94643
A94643
0.20
4.5-5.5
4.5-5.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
4.5-6.0
4.5-6.0
11.013.0
11.013.0
9.3-10.7
9.3-10.7
3.6-4.6
3.6-4.6
ER5183
A95183
0.40
Mn
5.8-6.8
1.0-1.5
1.0-1.5
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.200.40
0.200.40
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.30
0.15
R5183
A95183
0.40
0.40
0.10
ER5356
A95356
0.25
0.40
0.10
R5356
A95356
0.25
0.4
0.1
0.50-1.0
0.050.20
0.050.20
ER5554
A95554
0.25
0.40
0.10
0.50-1.0
Mg
Ti
Each
0.01
0.01
0.05e
0.05e
0.01e
0.01e
0.15
0.15
0.01
0.01
0.10
0.10
0.03
0.03
99.0 minf
99.0 minf
99.88 minf
99.88 minf
0.02
0.10
0.10-0.20
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.02
0.45-0.6
0.45-0.6
0.30-0.45
0.30-0.45
0.45-0.7
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10-0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.04-0.20
0.20
0.20
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.05
0.05e
0.05e
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
0.10
0.20
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.05e
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
0.25
0.15
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.25
0.15
0.05
0.15
Remainder
0.10
0.06-0.20
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.1
0.06-0.20
0.05
0.15
Remainder
0.25
0.05-0.20
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.25
0.05-0.20
0.05
0.15
Remainder
0.25
0.05-0.20
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.25
0.05-0.20
0.05
0.15
Remainder
0.20
0.05-0.15
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.20
0.05-0.15
0.05e
0.15
Remainder
0.10
0.1
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.15-0.30
0.2
0.20
0.20
0.04-0.20
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
4.3-5.2
2.4-3.0
4.5-5.5
4.5-5.5
R5554
A95554
0.25
0.40
0.10
0.50-1.0
2.4-3.0
ER5556
A95556
0.25
0.40
0.10
0.50-1.0
4.7-5.5
R5556
A95556
0.25
0.40
0.10
0.50-1.0
4.7-5.5
ER5654
A95654
0.05
0.01
3.1-3.9
R5654
A95654
0.05
3.1-3.9
A02060
A33550
A13560
A03570
A13570
0.10
4.5-5.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
6.5-7.5
0.15
0.2
0.20
0.15
0.20
4.2-5.0
1.0-1.5
0.20
0.05
0.20
0.01
0.200.50
0.1
0.10
0.03
0.10
R-206.0
R-C355.0
R-A356.0
R-357.0
R-A357.0k
0.15-0.35
0.40-0.6
0.25-0.45
0.45-0.6
0.40-0.7
Cr
Ni
0.15
0.15
0.050.25
0.050.25
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.050.20
0.150.35
0.150.35
0.05
Zn
Other
Elements
Total
AI
a. The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of this
work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that they do not exceed the limits specified for "Other Elements".
b. Single values are maximum. except where otherwise specified.
c. SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
d. Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.95 percent.
e. Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008 percent.
f. The aluminum content for unalloyed aluminum is the difference between 100.00 percent and the sum of all other metallic elements present in amounts of
0.010 percent or more each, expressed to the second decimal before determining the sum.
g. Vanadium content shall be 0.05 percent maximum. Gallium content shall be 0.03 percent maximum.
h. Vanadium content shall be 0.05-0.15 percent. Zirconium content shall be 0.10-0.25 percent.
i. Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.45 percent.
j. Tin content shall not exceed 0.05 percent.
k. Beryllium content shall be 0.04-0.07 percent.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-42
Table 10-8 Chemical composition of copper and copper alloy bare

welding electrodes and rods (AWS A 5.7).
abc
Composition weight percent

Cu
Ni
Total
Including
Including
other
AWS
UNS
Classification
Numberd
Common
name
Ag
ERCu
CI8980
Copper
98.0 min
ERCuSi-A
C6S600
Silicon bronze
(coppersilicon)
Remainder
ERCuSn-A
C51800
Phosphor
bronze
Zn
1.0
C71S80
Copper-nickel
Mn
1.0
0.50
1.0
1.5
Fe
Si
Co
0.50
0.50
Al
Pb
0.15
0.01
0.02
0.50
0.01
0.02
0.50
0.01
0.02
0.5
2.8-
Ti
elements
4.0
Remainder
(copper-tin)
ERCuNie
Sn
4.0-
0.10-
6.0
0.35
1.00
Remainder
0.40-
0.25
0.75
29.0-
0.02
0.02
32.0
0.20
0.50
to
0.50
ERCuAl-Al
C61000
Remainder
0.20
0.50
0.10
6.0-
0.02
0.50
0.02
0.50
0.02
0.50
0.02
0.50
0.02
0.50
8.5
ERCuAl-A2
C61800
Aluminum
bronze
Remainder
0.02
1.5
0.10
8.511.0
ERCuAl-A3
C62400
Remainder
0.10
2.0-
0.10
10.0-
4.5
ERCuNiAl
C63280
Nickelaluminum
C63380
Manganesenickel
Remainder
0.10
bronze
ERCuMnNiAl
Remainder
aluminum
bronze
0.15
0.60-
3.0-
3.50
5.0
11.0-
2.0-
14.0
4.0
11.5
0.10
0.10
4.0-
8.50
5.50
9.50
1.5-
7.0-
3.0
8.5
a. Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. However. the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of routine analysis, further analysis shall be made to
determine that the total of these other elements is not present in excess of the: limits specified for 'Total other elements' in the last column in this table.
b. Single values shown are maximum, unless otherwise noted.
c. Classifications RBCuZn-A, RCuZn-B, RCuZn-C, and RBCuZn-D now are included in A5.27-78, Specification/or Copper and Copper Alloy Gas Welding Rods.
d. ASTM-SAE Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
e. Sulfur shall be 0.01 percent maximum for the ERCuNi classification.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-43
Table 10-9 Chemical compositions of magnesium alloy bare welding

electrodes and rods (AWS A5.19).
Weight Percentab
AWS
Other
Classi-
UNS
Rare
fication
Number'
Mg
Al
Be
Mn
Zn
ERAZ61A
M11611
Remainder
5.8
0.0002
0.15
0.40
to
to
to
to
RAZ61A
ERAZ92A
M11922
Remainder
RAZ92A
ERAZ101A
M11101
Remainder
RAZ101A
EREZ33A
M12331
REZ33A
Remainder
7.2
0.0008
0.5
1.5
8.3
0.0002
0.15
1.7
to
to
to
to
9.7
0.0008
0.5
2.3
9.5
0.0002
0.15
0.75
to
to
to
to
10.5
0.0008
0.5
1.25
0.0008
Zr
Earth
2.0
0.45
2.5
to
to
to
3.1
1.0
4.0
Elements
Cu
Fe
Ni
Si
Total
0.05
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.30
0.05
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.30
0.05
0.005
0.005
0.05
0.30
0.30
a. The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is
indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limits
specified for I<Other Elements, Total".
b. Single values are maximum.
c. SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-44
Table 10-10 Chemical compositions of nickel and nickel alloy bare welding
electrodes and rods (AWS A5.14).
Weight percentab
AWS
Classification
ERNi-1
UNS
Numberc
N02061
C
0.15
Mn
1.0
Fe
1.0
P
0.01
S
0.015
Si
0.75
Cu
0.25
Nid
93.0
min
ERNiCu-7
N04060
0.15
4.0
2.5
0.02
0.015
1.25
Rem
ERNiCr-3
N06082
0.10
3.0
0.03
0.015
0.50
0.50
ERNiCrFe-5
N06062
0.08
2.5
to
3.5
1.0
62.0
to
69.0
67.0
min
0.03
0.015
0.35
0.50
70.0
min
ERNiCrFe-6
N07092
0.08
0.03
0.015
0.35
0.50
67.0
min
ERNiFeCr-1
N08065
0.05
2.0
to
2.7
1.0
6.0
to
10.0
8.0
22.0
min.
0.03
0.03
0.50
ERNiFeCr-2g
N07718
0.08
0.35
Rem
0.015
0.015
0.35
1.50
to
3.0
0.30
ERNiMo-1
N10001
0.08
1.0
0.025
0.03
1.0
0.50
2.5
ERNiMo-2
N10003
1.0
0.015
0.02
1.0
0.50
Rem
0.20
ERNiMo-3
N10004
0.04
to
0.08
0.12
4.0
to
7.0
5.0
38.0
to
46.0
50.0
to
55.0
Rem
0.04
0.03
1.0
0.50
Rem
2.5
ERNiMo-7
N10665
0.02
1.0
4.0
to
7.0
2.0
0.04
0.03
0.10
0.50
Rem
1.0
ERNiCrMo-1
N06007
0.05
0.03
1.0
2.5
0.04
0.03
1.0
Rem
0.50
to
2.5
ERNiCrMo-3
N06625
0.05
to
0.15
0.10
1.5
to
2.5
0.50
Rem
N06002
18.0
to
21.0
17.0
to
20.0
5.0
0.04
ERNiCrMo-2
1.0
to
2.0
1.0
0.02
0.015
0.50
0.50
58.0
min
ERNiCrMo-4
N10276
0.02
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.08
0.50
Rem
2.5
ERNiCrMo-7
N06455
0.015
1.0
4.0
to
7.0
3.0
0.04
0.03
0.08
0.50
Rem
2.0
ERNiCrMo-8
N06975
0.03
1.0
Rem
0.03
0.03
1.0
ERNiCrMo-9
N06985
0.015
1.0
18.0
to
21.0
0
0.04
0.03
1.0
0.7
to
1.20
1.5
to
2.5
47.0
to
52.0
Rem
1.0
0.50
Co
Al
1.5
1.25
Ti
2.0
to
3.5
1.5
to
3.0
0.75
0.20
0.20
to
0.80
2.5
to
3.5
0.60
to
1.2
0.65
to
1.15
Other
Elements
Total
0.50
0.40
0.70
0.70
to
1.50
Mo
0.50
18.0
to
22.0
14.0
to
17.0
14.0
to
17.0
19.5
to
23.5
17.0
to
21.0
1.0
2.0
to
3.0f
1.5
to
3.0f
21.0
to
23.5
20.5
to
23.0
20.0
to
23.0
14.5
to
16.5
14.0
to
18.0
23.0
to
26.0
21.0
to
23.5
0.50
0.50
0.50
4.75
to
5.50
6.0
to
8.0
4.0
to
6.0
1.0
0.40
5.0
Cr
Cb
plus
Ta
1.75
to
2.50
3.15
to
4.15
0.50
2.5
to
3.5
2.80
to
3.30
26.0
to
30.0
15.0
to
18.0
23.0
to
26.0
26.0
to
30.0
5.5
to
7.5
8.0
to
10.0
8.0
to
10.0
15.0
to
17.0
14.0
to
18.0
5.0
to
7.0
6.0
to
8.0
0.50
0.50
0.20
to
0.40
0.50
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.60
1.0
0_50
1.0
0.50
1.0
0.50
0.20
to
1.0
0.50
0.50
0.35
3.0
to
4.5
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.5
0.50
a.) The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table.
In the course of this work, if the presence of other elements is indicated, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed
the limit specified for "Other Elements, Total" in the last column of the table.
b) Single values are maximum, except where otherwise specified.
c) SAE/ASTM Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys.
d) Includes incidental cobalt.
e) Cobalt0.12 maximum. when specified.
f) Tantalum--0.30 maximum. when specified.
g) Boron is 0.006 percent maximum.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-45
5.3.2 Sizing
The electrodes used for gas metal arc welding are generally small in diameter when
compared to the other arc welding processes. Wire diameters ranging from .030 to 1/16
in. (.8-1.6mm) are the used most widely. Wire diameters as small as .020 in. (.5mm)
and up to 1/8 in. (3.2mm) are sometimes used. The electrodes are provided in a long,
continuous strand of wire which is normally packaged in a coil or spool. Spools of wire
normally range in weight from 2 to 60 Ibs. (.9-27 kg) and coils normally weigh 60 Ibs.
(27 kg).
The electrodes melting rates normally range from about 100 to 600 in./min. (40-255
mm/s) due to the small electrode wire sizes and the relatively high welding current
levels used. Because of the small size of the electrode wire, which gives it a high
surface to volume ratio, cleanliness of the wire is very important. Drawing compounds,
rust, oil, or other foreign matter on the surface of the electrode wire tends to be in high
proportion relative to the amount of metal present, and these items can cause weld
metal defects such as porosity and cracking.
5.4.0 Electrode Selection

The type of metal being welded and the specific chemical and mechanical properties
desired are the major factors in determining the choice of a filler metal. Identification of
the base metal is absolutely required to select the proper filler metal. If the type of base
metal is not known, tests can be made based on appearance, weight, magnetic check,
chisel tests, flame tests, fracture tests, spark tests, and chemistry tests.
The selection of the proper filler metal for a specific job application is quite involved but
can be based on the following factors:
1. Base Metal Strength Properties - This is done by choosing a filler metal to match
the tensile or yield strength of the base metal. This is usually the most important
factor with low carbon and low alloy steels, as well as with some aluminum and
magnesium welding applications.
2. Base Metal Chemical Compositions - The chemical composition of the base
metal should be known. Closely matching the filler metal composition to the base
metal composition is needed when corrosion resistance, color match, creep
resistance, and electrical or thermal conductivity are important considerations.
The filler metal for non-ferrous metals, stainless steels, and many alloy steels are
chosen by matching the chemical compositions.
3. Thickness and Shape of Base Metal Weldments - The workpiece may include
thick sections or complex shapes, which may require maximum ductility to
prevent weld cracking. Filler metal that gives the best ductility should be used.
4. Service Conditions and/or Specifications - When weldments are subjected to
severe service conditions such as low temperatures, high temperatures, or
shock, a filler metal that closely matches the base metal composition, ductility,
and impact resistance properties should be used.
5.5.0 Conformances and Approvals

The electrodes used for gas metal arc welding must conform to the specifications or be
approved by code-making organizations for many applications of the process. Some of
the code-making organizations that issue specifications or approvals are the American
Welding Society (AWS), American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American
Bureau of Shipping (ABS), Federal Bureau of Roads, U.S. Coast Guard, and the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-46
Military. The American Welding Society (AWS) provides specifications for bare solid
wire electrodes. The electrodes manufactured must meet specific requirements in order
to conform to a specific electrode classification. Many code-making organizations such
as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American Petroleum
Institute (API) recognize and use the AWS specifications. Some of the code-making
organizations such as the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) and the Military must
directly approve the electrodes before they can be used for welding on a project that is
covered by that code. These organizations send inspectors to witness the welding and
testing and to approve the classification of the solid wire electrodes.
To conform to the AWS specifications for low carbon and low alloy filler metals, the
electrodes must produce a weld deposit that meets specific mechanical and chemical
requirements. For the non-ferrous and stainless steel filler metal, the electrodes must
produce a weld deposit with a specific chemical composition. The requirements will vary
depending on the class of the electrode.

5.
Which inert gas is primarily used on non-ferrous metals?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Argon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
(True or False) One of the most important factors to consider in GMAW welding
is the correct filler wire selection.
A.
B.
True
False

Gas metal arc welding is very adaptable to many different applications. It provides the
ability to weld thick metals and allows you to take your welding machine to remote
locations. As you will see GMAW has become a very accepted method of welding in all
industries.
6.1.0 Industries
Gas metal arc welding is becoming more popular for many different welding
applications. When this process is used semi-automatically, higher deposition and
production rates can be obtained than with the manual arc welding processes. This
process is also versatile because it can be used to weld ferrous and most non-ferrous
metals in all positions. It is often the only welding process practical for welding thick sections in non-ferrous metals. Gas metal arc welding lends itself easily to machine and
automatic welding which are often used for producing consistent, high quality welds at
the fastest travel speeds possible. This process is used extensively in the automotive
industry where high production rates are required, but it is also used in the field because
the equipment is relatively light and portable compared to the other continuous
electrode wire processes. For this reason, gas metal arc welding is widely used in field
welding of cross-country transmission pipelines and for many construction and
maintenance applications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-47
6.1.1 Pressure Vessels

Gas metal arc welding is one of the more commonly used processes for welding on
pressure vessels. It is used in the manufacture of plain carbon, low alloy, and stainless
steel vessels as well as non-ferrous vessels. Low heat input is important on pressure
vessels. Multi-layer welds are generally built up in relatively thin layers which produce
better ductility and impact resistance than larger welds. Gas metal arc welding has
several advantages because it produces small weld beads at much faster travel speeds
than shielded metal arc welding. It also has some advantages over submerged arc
welding because it can be used in all positions and the arc is not hidden beneath a flux
layer. The short-circuiting and pulsed arc modes are used for out-of-position welding to
reduce the heat input. Figure 10-31 shows gas metal arc welding being used to weld a
large mild steel vessel for an industrial refrigeration system. This process is often used
for welding all passes, but sometimes it is used for welding the root passes only (Figure
10-32). Submerged arc welding is then employed for making the fill and cover passes.
Figure 10-31 GMAW pressure

vessel welding.
Figure 10-32 GMAW root pass

weld.

Gas metal arc welding also has application in the industrial piping industry. This process
is widely used for welding of carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, and nickel
piping. The main advantage over shielded metal arc welding is the higher deposition
rates obtained. Small diameter electrode wires are the most popular, and the shortcircuiting mode of metal transfer is widely employed. Tack welds must be carefully
prepared because inadequate penetration can occur if proper variables and techniques
are not used. For critical applications, skilled welders and close attention to details are
required to produce complete fusion, especially on heavy parts. Thin weld layers should
be avoided for this type of welding. Carbon dioxide and argon-carbon dioxide gas
mixtures are used as shielding on carbon steel pipe. Open root joints in the pipe are
welded in the vertical-down position when the pipe is horizontal. The rest of the weld
passes may be welded either vertical up or vertical down. Gas metal arc welding is
widely used for welding the fill and cover passes over a gas tungsten arc welded root
pass because higher deposition rates are obtained as compared to gas tungsten arc
welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-48
6.1.3 Transmission Pipelines

Gas metal arc welding is widely used in the cross-country transmission pipeline welding
industry. Most gas metal arc pipe welding is done in the field using gasoline or diesel
engine driven generator-welding machines. Small diameter electrode wires are
commonly employed because there is much
out-of-position welding. Almost all pipes for
transmission pipelines are made of carbon
steel, so carbon dioxide and argon-carbon
dioxide mixtures are the most popular.
Gas metal arc welding is employed using
various procedures. When the process is
used, most joints are welded completely with
gas metal arc welding. However, some root
passes are welded with shielded metal arc
welding and then the joint is filled out with
gas metal arc welding. A less common
procedure is to use gas metal arc welding
for the root pass and shielded metal arc
welding for the fill and cover passes. Figure
10-33 shows a root pass being welded in a
48 in. (1.2 mm) diameter natural gas
pipeline.
Figure 10-33 GMAW root pass

of small diameter pipe.
Because the welding is being done in the

field, the wind can often deflect the flow of
shielding gas away from the arc. This can be prevented by setting up wind shields. An
automatic welding system is sometimes employed to improve the consistency and
deposition rate of the process. This equipment is normally used with special tracks that
clamp on the pipe, but the equipment must be portable enough to handle in the field.
When an automatic welding system is used, pipe fitup must be more precise.
6.1.4 Nuclear Power Facilities
Gas metal arc welding is employed but has
a limited applicability in the nuclear power
plants and components area. It is primarily
used for welding components that are not
directly part of the reactor. In the nuclear
power industry, the quality of the weld
deposit is the most important factor for
selecting the process. Figure 10-34 shows
gas metal arc welding being used to weld a
portion of a nuclear plenum, which is part of
a nuclear filtration system. The plenum is
fabricated from low carbon steel ranging in
thickness from 1/16-1 in. (1.6 -12.7 mm)
and is being welded using .035 in. (.9 mm)
diameter low carbon steel electrodes.
Nuclear filtration systems are made of
carbon or stainless steel. Other items such
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-34 GMAW of a

nuclear plenum.
10-49
as piping fittings, vessels, and liquid metal pumps are also common applications.
6.1.5 Structures
The construction industry includes buildings,
bridges, and other related structures. Gas
metal arc welding is popular for many
applications because it can be used in the
field and it produces higher deposition rates
than shielded metal arc welding. The
development of wire feeding systems that
can feed the electrode wire greater
distances have helped increase the
versatility of the process. The field welding
applications employ gasoline or diesel
engine driven generator-welding machines.
The full range of electrode wire diameters is
used because of the wide variety of joint
designs and metal thicknesses welded.
GMAW is the most popular process for
welding aluminum and other non-ferrous
Figure 10-35 GMAW of a
structures. Wind shields are often employed
structural beam.
for field welding to prevent the loss of
shielding gas. Figure 10-35 shows a shop
welding application where brackets are being welded on a steel structural beam. GMAW
is also widely used for many multiple pass joints because of the higher deposition rates
obtained.
6.1.6 Ships
Most of the arc welding processes are used in the shipyards, and GMAW has become
widespread because of its versatility. Most ships are made of carbon steel, but nonferrous ships are welded also. Gas metal arc welding is popular because it yields higher
deposition rates than shielded metal arc
welding and lends itself better to welding in
all positions than the other continuous wire
processes.
In shipbuilding, deposition rate is the most
important consideration, and because of the
vast amount of welding done on a ship,
GMAW is the best process for welding nonferrous metal ships and components.
Other items commonly welded are piping in
the ship, non-structural components, and
components that require out-of-position
welding. Wire feeding systems that allow the
welder to move greater distances from the
source of the electrode wire are widely
used. Figure 10-36 shows an example of
GMAW flat position welding. Portable wire
feeders are often used so welders can move
from one location to another more easily.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-36 GMAW vertical

weld.
10-50
Using .045-in. (1.1 mm) diameter electrode wire, these welds can be produced at three
times the rate of shielded metal arc welding. This is a great advantage because a large
percentage of the welds made in a ship are vertical fillet welds. In ship members where
distortion is a problem, this process is used to get the best deposition rates with the
lowest heat input.
6.1.7 Railroads
Gas metal arc welding is used for welding engines and cars in the railroad industry. Rail
cars are fabricated from carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. Machine,
semiautomatic, and automatic welding are all commonly employed. GMAW and
resistance welding are almost exclusively used in the manufacture of aluminum railroad
cars. This process is often employed for welding in positions other than flat and for all
parts of the engines and cars. Sheet metal covers for cabs, hoods, sides, and roofs are
extensively welded. Because rimmed steel is widely used, filler metals of the ER70S-3
and ER70S-6 are employed; they have high amounts of deoxidizers in them to
compensate for the rimmed condition of the steel sheet metal. It is used for many sheet
metal welding applications because of the fast travel speeds, which help minimize
distortion problems. This process can be used for almost all components of the engines
and cars, but the primary applications of the process are on thin materials and nonferrous metals, or in locations where the higher deposition rate processes, such as flux
cored and submerged arc welding, cannot be used.
6.1.8 Automotive
In the automobile and truck manufacturing industries, both semi-automatic and
automatic gas metal arc welding are widely used. It is the major process used in this
industry because of the fast travel speeds obtained. Many of these applications are on
items such as frames, axle housings, wheels, and body components. This process is
used to weld low carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels, as well as many aluminum
parts. This process is popular for welding thin sheet metal in the short-circuiting mode
because it lessens the heat input and prevents burn through. The high speeds produced
by this process make it very good because of the high production rates required. All
thicknesses of metal are welded.
Fully automatic welding operations are used
for many applications that had formerly
been done using shielded metal arc welding
and submerged arc welding. Gas metal arc
welding has become very popular for
automatic welding because it is one of the
least difficult processes to fully automate.
Figure 10-37 shows a subframe being
welded. In this application, the part is being
rotated automatically, but the welder is
providing joint guidance. Carbon dioxide
shielding gas and a .035 in. (.9 mm)
diameter electrode are being used. Gas
metal arc welding is the only arc welding
process being used to weld aluminum
automobile body components, truck cabs,
and van bodies. Figure 10-38 shows the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-37 Automotive

welding.
10-51
welding of an aluminum truck transmission cross-member.

Gas metal arc spot welding has many
applications in the automotive and truck
industries for welding the thinner metal
gages of carbon steels, stainless steels, and
aluminum. This process has several
advantages in this industry because
accessibility to the weld joint only has to be
from one side, whereas resistance spot
welding must have accessibility to both sides
of the joint. This process is preferred
because the spot welds produced have a
consistent high quality and the process
requires a minimum of operator skill.
Typically, semi-automatic equipment is
adapted for this process.
6.1.9 Aerospace
GMAW is also used in the aerospace
industry for many applications. It is generally
employed for welding heavier sections of
steel and aluminum, but it is not as widely
used as gas tungsten arc welding in this
industry. Gas metal arc welding allows faster
travel speeds to be used, which helps
minimize weld distortion and the size of the
heat affected zone. Machine or automatic
welding has many applications in the
manufacture of in-flight refueling tanks for jet
aircraft and aluminum fuel tanks for rocket
motor fuel. The use of semi-automatic
welding has generally been limited to less
critical aircraft components. An exception to
this is shown in Figure 10-39 where the
ribbing for an aileron is being welded with a
small diameter electrode wire. Gas metal arc
welding is used because it can weld thin
metal in all positions at high production rates.
Figure 10-38 Aluminum

welding.
Figure 10-39 Welding an

aileron.
Farm equipment manufacturers are major

users of gas metal arc welding. It is used in the manufacture of tractors, combines,
plows, tobacco harvesters, grain silos, and many other items. Other heavy equipment
manufactured includes mining equipment, earthmoving equipment, and many other
products. These types of equipment are generally made of mild and low carbon steels.
High deposition rates are desired, so large diameter electrode wires are employed when
possible. Because of this, spray and globular transfer welding are used for much of the
flat position welding, but GMAW is also widely employed for producing welds in out-of
position joints.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-52
6.2.0 Variations of the Process

Of the numerous variations of the GMAW process, two of the most notable are arc spot
welding and narrow gap welding.
6.2.1 Arc Spot Welding
The gas metal arc spot welding process is used for making small localized fusion welds
by penetrating through one sheet and into the other. The differences between this
process and normal gas metal arc welding are that there is no movement of the welding
gun and the welding takes place for only a few seconds or less. The equipment for arc
spot welding usually consists of a special gun nozzle and arc timer added to a standard
semi-automatic welding setup. Gas metal arc spot welding is commonly applied to mild
steel, stainless steel, and aluminum, but can be used on all the metals welded by gas
metal arc welding. On steel, CO2 shielding is used to get the best penetration.
The advantages of this process over resistance spot welding are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The gun is light and portable and can be taken to the weldment.
Spot welding can be done in all positions more easily.
Spot welds can be made when there is accessibility only to one side of the joint.
Spot-weld production is faster for many applications.
Joint fitup is not as critical.
The major disadvantage of this process is that the consistency of weld strength or size
is not as good as with resistance spot welding.
The weld is made by placing the welding gun on the joint. Pulling the trigger initiates the
shielding gas and after a pre-flow interval, starts the arc and the wire feed. When the
pre-set weld time is finished, the arc and wire feed are stopped, followed by the gas
flow. The longer the weld time, the greater the penetration obtained and the higher the
weld reinforcement becomes. The rest of the welding variables affect the spot weld size
and shape the same way they affect a normal weld. Vertical and overhead arc spot
welds can be made in metal up to .05-in. (1 .3 mm) thick. For other than flat position
welding, the short-circuiting mode of transfer must be used.
Many different weld joint types are made including lap, corner, and plug. The best
results are obtained when the arc side member is equal to or thinner than the other.
When the top plate is thicker than the bottom one, a plug weld should be made.
Incomplete fusion is a common defect with this type of weld. A copper backing bar is
used to prevent excessive penetration through the bottom of the weld. Another
advantage of gas metal arc spot welding over resistance spot welding is that the
strength can be determined from a visual examination of the weld nugget size, whereas
a resistance spot weld would have to be tested to determine the strength.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-53
6.2.2 Narrow Gap Welding

Narrow gap welding is another
variation of the GMAW process in
which square-groove or V-groove
joints with small groove angles
are used in thick metal sections.
Root openings normally range
from to 3/8 in. (6.4-9.5 mm).
Narrow gap welding is generally
done on ferrous metals, with the
use of specially designed welding
guns (Figure 10-40), but some
narrow gap welding has been
done on aluminum. Two small
electrode wires are normally
used in tandem with the wire
being fed through 1 or 2 contact
tubes. Each of the electrodes is
fed so that the weld bead is
directed toward each groove
face. The special welding guns
have water-cooled contact tubes
and nozzles that provide
Figure 10-40 Narrow gap weld.
shielding gas from the surface of
the plate. Spray transfer is the
most commonly used mode of
the process, but pulsed current transfer is sometimes employed. High travel speeds are
used, resulting in a low heat input and small weld puddles with narrow heat affected
zones. This low heat input produces weld puddles which are easy to control in out-of
position welding. Welds are normally made from one side of the plate.
The major problem encountered in narrow gap welding is incomplete fusion because of
the low heat input in thick metal, but careful placement of the electrode wires and
removing slag islands between passes to prevent slag inclusions can avoid any
problems.
When used for welding metal thicknesses over 2 in. (51 mm), narrow gap welding is
competitive with the other automatic arc welding processes. This type of welding has
several advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Welding costs are lower because less filler metal is required.

Lower residual stresses and less distortion are produced.
Better welded joint properties are obtained.
The main disadvantages are the following:
It is more prone to defects.
Defects are more difficult to remove.
Fitup of the joint must be more precise.
Placement of the welding gun must be more precise.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-54

7.
What development has improved the field versatility of GMAW by increasing the
distance between the gun and the welding machine?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Stiffer welding electrodes

Portability
Lighter welding guns
Water cooling systems
What is the major disadvantage of gas metal arc spot welding compared to
resistance spot welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Weld size
Weld strength
Amount of spatter
Directionality of the weld

Knowing the basics of welding metallurgy will provide a firm foundation for
understanding the chemical and physical changes that occur on metal when using the
GMAW process.

A weld has the following properties:
Mechanical strength and ductility
Microstructure
These items will determine the quality of the weld. The chemical properties are affected
by the types of materials used. The mechanical properties and microstructure of the
weld are determined by the heat input of welding as well as by the chemical
composition of the materials.
7.1.1 Chemical and Physical Properties
The chemical and physical properties such as the chemical composition, melting point,
and thermal conductivity have a great influence on the weldability of a metal. These
three items influence the amount of preheating and postheating used, as well as the
welding parameters. Preheating and postheating are used to prevent the weld and
adjacent area from becoming brittle and weak.
In welding a metal, the chemical composition of the base metal and filler metal will affect
corrosion and oxidation resistance, creep resistance, high and low temperature
strength, and the mechanical properties and the microstructure. For welding stainless
steels and non-ferrous metals, the chemical composition of the weld is often the most
important property. When corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity, and
appearance are major considerations, the chemical composition of the weld must match
the composition of the base metal.
Preheating reduces the cooling rate of the weld to prevent cracking. The amount of
preheat needed depends on the type of metal being welded, the metal thickness, and
the amount of joint restraint. In steels, those with higher carbon contents need more
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-55
preheating than those with lower carbon equivalents. For the non-ferrous metals, the
amount of preheat will often depend on the melting points and thermal conductivity of
the metal. Table 10-11 shows typical preheat values for different metals welded by
GMAW.
Another major factor that determines the amount of preheat needed is the thickness of
the base metal. Thicker base metals usually need higher preheat temperatures than
thinner base metals because of the larger heat sinks that thicker metals provide. Thick
metal draws the heat away from the welding zone quicker because there is a large
mass of metal to absorb the heat. This would increase the cooling rate of the weld if the
same preheat temperature was used as is used on thinner base metals.
The third major factor for determining the amount of preheating needed is the amount of
internal stresses build up and higher preheat temperatures are needed as the amount of
joint restraint increases. Slower cooling rates reduce the amount of internal stresses
that build up as the weld cools.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-56
Table 10-11 Typical Recommended Preheats for Various Metals.

Type of Metal
Preheat
Low-Carbon Steel
Medium-Carbon Steel
400-500F (205-260C)
High-Carbon Steel
500-600F (260-315C)

-Less than -inch (6.4 mm) thick
Room Temperature
-More than -inch (6.4 mm) thick
500F (260C)

200-300F (93-150C)
600-800F (315-425C)
900-1100F (480-595C)
400-600F (205-315C)
Up to 750F (400C)

Room Temperature
400-650F (205-345C)
150-300F (66-150C)
Room Temperature
300-500F (66-260C)
400-600F (66-150C)
Cast Irons
700-900F (370-480C)
Copper
500-800F (260-425C)
Nickel
200-300F (93-150C)
Aluminum
Note: The actual preheat needed may depend on several other factors such as the thickness of the base
metal, the amount of joint restraint, and whether or not low-hydrogen types of electrodes are used. This
chart is intended as general information; the specifications of the job should be checked for the specific
preheat temperature used.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-57
The melting point of the base metal is a major consideration in determining the
weldability of a metal. Metals with very low melting points are difficult to weld because
the intense heat of the welding arc will melt them too quickly to join them easily. These
metals must be brazed because welding is not practical.
Another property that affects the weldability is the thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity is the rate at which heat is conducted by the metal, and it determines the
rate at which heat will leave the welding area. Metals that have a high thermal
conductivity often require higher preheats and welding currents to avoid cracking.
Metals that have very low thermal conductivity may require no preheat and lower
welding currents to prevent overheating an area, which can cause distortion, warpage,
and changes in mechanical properties.
The most important mechanical properties in the weld are the following:
tensile strength
yield strength
elongation
reduction of area
impact strength
The first two are measures of the strength of the material, the next two are a measure of
the ductility, and the last is a measure of the impact toughness. These properties are
often important in GMAW, especially for welding steel and the non-ferrous alloys that
have been developed to give maximum strength, ductility, and toughness.
The toughness and ductility of the heat
affected zone produced by this process are
sometimes slightly less than those produced
by many of the other welding processes.
This is caused because of the relatively
quick cooling rates commonly associated
with gas metal arc welding, which produce a
more brittle heat affected zone. Quicker
cooling rates occur because of the fast
travel speeds used and the use of shielding
gas, which does not slow the cooling rate as
well as a slag layer. One advantage of the
quicker cooling rate is that distortion is less
of a problem.
The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
measured from a .505-in. (12.B mm)
testing bars.
before and after testing. The yield strength
of the metal is the stress at which the material is pulled beyond the point where it will
return to its original length.
The tensile strength is the maximum load that can be carried by the metal. This is also
measured in psi (MPa). Elongation is a measure of ductility that is also measured on the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-58
tensile bar. Two points are marked on the bar 2 in. (51 mm) apart before testing. After
testing, the distance between the two points is measured again and the percent of
cross section of the testing bar is .505 sq. in
(104 sq. mm). During the testing the
diameter of the bar reduces as it elongates.
When the bar finally breaks, the diameter of
the bar at the breaking point is measured,
which is then used to determine the area.
The percent reduction of this cross-sectional
area is called the reduction of area.
bars.
some typical Charpy V-notch test bars.
These bars are usually 10 mm square and
have V-notches ground or machined in them. They are put in a machine where they are
struck by a hammer attached to the end of a pendulum. The energy that it takes to
break these bars is known as the impact strength and it is measured in foot-pounds
(Joules).
There are three basic microstructural areas within a weldment: the weld metal, the heat
affected zone, and the base metal. The weld
metal is the area that was molten during
welding. This is bounded by the fusion line,
which is the maximum limit of melting. The
heat affected zone is the area where the
heat from welding had an effect on the
microstructure of the base metal. The limit of
visible heat affect is the outer limit of this
area. The base metal zone is the area that
was not affected by the welding. Figure 1043 shows a cross section of a weld
indicating the different areas.
The extent of change of the microstructure
is dependent on four factors:
1. Maximum temperature that the weld
metal reached
2. Time that the weld spent at that
temperature
3. Chemical composition of the base
metal
NAVEDTRA 14250A

a weld.
10-59
4. Cooling rate of the weld

The weld metal zone, which is the area that is melted, usually has the coarsest grain
structure of the three areas. Generally, a fairly fine grain size is produced in most metals
on cooling, but in some metals, especially refractory metals, rapid grain growth in the
weld metal can become a problem.
Large grain size is undesirable because it gives the weld poor toughness and poor
cracking resistance. The solidification of the
weld metal starts at the edge of the weld
puddle next to the base metal. The grains
that form at the edge, called dendrites, grow
toward the molten center of the weld. Figure
10-44 shows the solidification pattern of a
weld. These dendrites give the weld metal its
Deoxidizers and scavengers are often added
to filler metal to help refine the grain size in
the weld. The greater the heat input to the
weld and the longer that it is held at high
temperatures, the larger the grain size. A fast
cooling rate will produce a smaller grain size
than a slower cooling rate. Preheating will
give larger grain sizes, but is often necessary
to prevent the formation of a hard, brittle
microstructure.

pattern of a weld.
The heat affected zone is the area where

changes occur in the microstructure of the base metal; the area closest to the weld
metal usually undergoes grain growth. Other parts of the heat affected zone will go
through grain refinement, while still other areas may be annealed and considerably
softened. Because of the changes due to the heat input, areas of the heat affected zone
can become embrittled and become the source of cracking. A large heat input during
welding will cause a larger heat affected zone, which is often not desirable, so the
welding parameters used can help influence the size of the heat affected zone.

The GMAW process can be used to weld most metals and their alloys, the most
common of which are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, mild steel, low alloy steel,
stainless steel, and titanium.
GMAW is one of the most widely used processes for welding aluminum and its alloys.
The major alloying elements used in aluminum are copper, manganese, silicon,
magnesium, and zinc. Table 10-12 shows how the aluminum alloys are classified
according to their alloy content. Aluminum alloys are also classified into heat treatable
and non-heat treatable categories; alloys of the 2XXX, 6XXX, and 7XXX series are heat
treatable.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-60
Table 10-12 Aluminum Alloy Classifications.

Aluminum Classification
Major Alloying Element
1XXX
Commercially pure
2XXX
Copper
3XXX
Manganese
4XXX
Silicon
5XXX
Magnesium
6XXX
Silicon + Magnesium
7XXX
Zinc
8XXX
Other
Gas metal arc welding is used to weld all metal thicknesses, but welding is most
commonly done on thicknesses greater than 1/8-in. (3.2 mm). This process is the best
method for the thicker metals because it produces higher deposition rates and travel
speeds than gas tungsten arc welding. Aluminum as thin as .030-in. (.8 mm) can be
welded using pulsed current. High welding speeds may be obtained with this process
and when welding aluminum, high welding speeds are desirable to prevent overheating.
Argon shielding gas is preferred for welding the thinner metal. Argon-helium mixtures
are preferred for welding thicker metal because of the better penetration obtained.
Argon-oxygen and argon-helium-oxygen mixtures are sometimes used to improve the
arc stability and make out-of-position welding easier.
Most GMAW applications are done with the spray transfer method, but pulsed current is
used for aluminum to reduce the heat input and use larger diameter electrode wires.
Larger electrode wires are less expensive and are easier to feed. Globular and shortcircuiting transfer are rarely used when welding aluminum.
The filler metal used for welding aluminum is generally of the non-heat treatable type.
Consequently, when welding some of the higher strength heat treatable alloys, the weld
deposit will be weaker than the base metal. Using heat treatable filler metal often
causes weld cracking, so non-heat treatable filler is preferred. Choosing the type of filler
metal to use for welding a specific aluminum alloy is based on ease of welding,
corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, elevated temperature service, and color match
with the base metal after welding. Table 10-13 shows a filler metal selection chart based
on the specific properties desired. Table 10-14 shows a filler metal selection chart for
welding different grades of aluminums together.
The typical oxide layer on the surface of aluminum makes it more difficult to weld than
many other types of metals. This oxide layer has a very high melting point compared to
the melting temperature of the aluminum itself. Direct current electrode positive gives
the welding arc an oxide-cleaning action which breaks the oxide layer so that welding
can take place. Before welding, the surface of the base metal should be cleaned to
prevent oxide inclusions and hydrogen entrapment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-61
Table 10-13 Aluminum Filler Metal Selection.

Property Desired
Type of
base metal
Strength Ductility
Color match after

anodizing
Corrosion
resistance
Least cracking
tendency
1100
4043
1100
1100
1100
4043
2219
2319
2319
2319
2319
2319
3003
4043
1100
1100
1100
4043
5052
5356
5654
5356
5554
5356
5083
5183
5356
5183
5193
5356
5086
5356
5356
5356
5356
5356
5454
5356
5554
5554
5554
5356
5456
5556
5356
5556
5556
5356
6061
5356
5356
5654
4043
4043
6063
5356
5356
5356
4043
4043
7005
5039
5356
5036
5039
5356
7039
5039
5356
5039
5039
5356
A preheat is used on aluminum only when the temperature of the parts is below 15F (10C), or when a large mass of metal is being welded, which will draw the heat away
very quickly. Aluminum has a high thermal conductivity, so heat is drawn away from the
welding area. Because aluminum has a relatively low melting point and a high thermal
conductivity, overheating can be a problem, especially on thin metal; therefore,
preheating is seldom used. The maximum preheat normally used on aluminum is 300 F
(150 C). Rather than use preheating, it is usually preferable to increase the voltage and
current levels to obtain adequate heat input. Alloys such as 5083, 5086, and 5456
should not be preheated to between 200 and 400 F (95-205C) because their
resistance to stress corrosion cracking will be reduced due to high magnesium contents.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-62
Table 10-14 Aluminum Filler Metal Selection Chart.
513.0
206.0
224.0
319.0,
333.0
354.0,
355.0
C355.0
413.0, 443.0
A444.0
ER4145
ER4145
ER4145
ER4145e
ER2319a
ER4145
ER4145e
ER4145e
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
201.0
Base Metal
1060, 1070, 1080,
1350
1100, 3003, Alc
3003
2014, 2036
2219
3004, Alc3004
5005 5050
5052 5652
5083
5086
5154, 5254
5454
5456
6005, 6061, 6063
6101, 6151, 6201
6351, 6951
6009, 6010, 6070
7004, 7005, 7039
710.0, 712.0
511.0, 512.0, 513.0
514.0, 535.0
356.0, A356.0, 357.0
A357.0, 413.0
443.0, A444.0
319.0, 333.0
354.0, 355.0
C355.0
201.0, 206.0, 224.0
Base Metal
1060, 1070,1080,
1350
1100, 3003, Alc3003
2014, 2036
2219
3004, Alc3004
5005
5052, 5652i
5083
5086
5154 5254i
511.0
356.0,
A356.0
357.0,
A357.0
ER4043b
512.0
6005, 6061
6009
6063, 6101
514.0
535.0
7004,
7005
7039,
710.0
712.0
6010
6070
6151, 6201
6351, 6951
5456
5454
ER4043ab
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043ab
ER4043ab
ER5356d
ER4043bd
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043f
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043f
ER4043f
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER4043bd
ER4043
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5183d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5556d
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER4043bf
ER4043bf
ER5356cf
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356ef
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER4043
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER4043ab
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4043b
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043bfg
ER5356f
ER5356cf
ER4043abg
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4043b
ER4043abg
ER4043bf
ER4043
ER5356f
ER4043
ER5356d
ER4043abg
ER4043f
ER5356f
ER4145
ER4145bc
ER4145e
ER4145bch
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5183d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5556d
ER4043b
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356f
ER5554cf
ER4043bfg
ER4043bh
ER2319ah
5154
5254
5086
5083
5052
5652
5005
5050
3004
Alc.3004
ER5356cd
ER5356cd
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER4043bd
ER4043bd
ER4043
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356f
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356fi
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5356d
ER5183d
ER1100bc
ER1100bc
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER5356cf
ER5356cf
ER4043bd
ER4043bd
ER4145
ER4043ab
ER5356cf
ER4043b
ER5356cf
ER5356cd
ER5354cfi
2219
ER4145bc
ER4145bc
ER4145e
ER2319a
1100
3003
Alc.3003
2014
2036
ER4145
ER4145
ER4145e
ER1001bc
ER1001bc
1060
1070
1080
1350
ER1188bchj
1. Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water, exposure to specific chemicals or a sustained high temperature (over 150F (66 C)) may limit the choice of filler
metals. Filler metals ER5IS3, ER5356, ER5556, and ER5654 are not recommended for sustained elevated temperature service.
2. Recommendations in this table apply to gas shielded arc welding processes. For oxyfuel gas welding, only ER118S, ER1100, ER4043, ER4047, and ER4145 filler metals
are ordinarily used.
3. Where no filler metal is listed, the base metal combination is not recommended for welding.
a. ER4145 may be used for some applications.
b. ER4047 may be used for some applications.
c. ER4043 may be used for some applications.
d. ER5183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used.
e. ER2319 may be used for some applications. It can supply high strength when the weldment is postweld solution heat treated and aged.
f. ER5183, ER5356, ER5554, ER5556, and ER5654 may be used. In some cases, they provide: (I) improved color match after anodizing treatment, (2) highest weld ductility,
and (3) higher weld strength. ER5554 is suitable for sustained elevated temperature service.
g. ER4643 will provide high strength in 1/2 in. (12 mm) and thicker groove welds in 6XXX hase alloys when postweld solution heat treated and aged.
h. Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used. The following wrought filler metals possess the same chemical composition limits as cast filler
alloys: ER4009 and R4009 as R-C355.0: ER4010 and R4010 as R-A356.0: and R4011 as R-A357.0.
i. Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are used for hydrogen peroxide service. ER5654 filler metal is used for welding both alloys for service temperatures below 150F (66C).
j. ER 1100 may he used for some applications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Gas metal arc welding is well suited for welding copper and copper alloys because of
the intense arc generated by this process. This is advantageous because copper has a
very high thermal conductivity and the heat is conducted away from the weld zone very
rapidly. An intense arc is important in completing the fusion with minimum heating of the
surrounding base metal.
The main alloying elements used in copper are zinc (brasses), phosphorous (phosphor
bronzes), aluminum (aluminum bronzes), beryllium (beryllium coppers), nickel (nickel
silvers), silicon (silicon bronzes), tin and zinc (tin brasses), and nickel and zinc (nickel
silvers). All of these are weldable with this process but some are easier than others. The
best are the deoxidized coppers, aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, and copper
nickels. The alloys having the poorest weldability are those with the highest zinc
contents, which have a high cracking tendency, and electrolytic tough pitch copper,
which gives problems with porosity. Care must be taken when welding beryllium
coppers because the fumes given off are dangerous to the welders health. For this
reason, extra special precautions should be taken. Table 10-15 shows the relative ease
of welding copper and copper alloys.
Table 10-15 Weldability Ratings of Coppers and Copper Alloys.
(1=excellent, 2=good, 3=fair)
Type
Weldability Rating
Oxygen-free copper
Electrolytic tough pitch copper
Deoxidized copper
Beryllium copper
Low-zinc brass
High-zinc brass
Tin brasses
Nickel silvers
Phosphor bronzes
Aluminum bronzes
Silicon bronzes
Copper nickels
Most applications of this process are for welding metal thicknesses greater than 1/8 in.
(3.2 mm). For thicknesses less than this, the gas tungsten arc welding process is more
popular. GMAW is the most practical process to use on thicknesses greater than 1/2 in.
(12.7) because of the higher deposition rates obtained. Generally, preheating is not
used on the thinner sections, but it is often used on sections thicker than 1/8 in. (3.2
mm) so that the heat does not leave the weld area as quickly. A temperature of 500800 F (260-425 C) is typical when preheat is used. Welding currents used for copper
are often 50-75% higher than those used for aluminum.
Most welding of copper and copper alloys is done in the flat position, but when welding
has to be done in other positions, the gas metal arc welding process is preferred over
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding. Out-of-position welding uses
small diameter electrodes, lower currents, and short-circuiting transfer, and is generally
done on the less fluid alloys such as the aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, and copper
nickels.
The shielding gases most commonly used for welding copper are argon and helium.
Argon has the lowest energy output but produces spray transfer and the least amount of
spatter. Helium produces globular transfer with heavy spatter. This gas produces more
heat, so the penetration patterns are broader and more uniform in depth than those
produced by argon. Nitrogen is occasionally used, but spatter is particularly heavy.
Mixtures of argon and helium are often used to get the stable arc characteristics of
argon and the deep penetration of helium.
The filler metal is usually selected so the chemical composition of the filler rod closely
matches the base metal. When welding copper and copper alloys, a deoxidized
electrode is required; this is often necessary to obtain a strong weld joint in some of the
copper alloys. For example, a silicon bronze filler metal is used with silicon bronze base
metal. A filler metal with a different chemical composition than the base metal may be
selected when welding some of the weaker alloys to give the weld joint added strength.
The best choice of filler metal depends primarily on the type of copper alloy being
welded with the application also being considered.
7.2.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Gas metal arc welding is widely used for welding magnesium alloys. The major alloying
elements used in magnesium are aluminum, zinc, and thorium (thawr-ee-uh m). Most
magnesium alloys are weldable with this process but the weldability will vary with the
alloy. Table 10-16 shows the main alloying elements used and the relative weldability of
the alloys. The rating is based mainly on the susceptibility to cracking. Aluminum
contents up to about 10% help the weldability because it promotes grain size
refinement. Zinc contents above about 1% will increase the tendency towards hot
cracking. Alloys that have high zinc content are very susceptible to cracking and have
poorer weldability. Thorium alloys generally have excellent weldability. Magnesium
forms an oxide similar to aluminum oxide, which gives these two metals similar welding
characteristics.
GMAW can be used to weld all thicknesses of magnesium; it is the most popular
process for welding thicknesses greater than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm). The higher deposition
rates and the faster travel speeds used, which reduce distortion, are primary reasons for
the popularity of this process. Welding is generally done in the flat, horizontal, and
vertical-up positions if possible, because of the higher deposition rates and the more
fluid weld puddle produced compared to gas tungsten arc welding.
Inert gases must be used for welding magnesium alloys because the base metal will
react chemically with an active gas. Argon is generally used as the shielding, but
occasionally, mixtures of argon and helium are used to give better filler metal flow and
heat input. Helium is not recommended because it produces globular transfer and more
spatter.
The three types of metal transfer useful for welding magnesium alloys are the shortcircuiting, spray, and pulsed arc methods. The pulsed arc mode is used in current
ranges between the short-circuiting mode and the spray mode to avoid the highly
unstable globular transfer mode.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Preheating is often used on thin sections and highly restrained joints to prevent weld
cracking. Thicker sections generally do not require preheating unless there is a high
degree of joint restraint.
If the filler metal has been selected properly, the GMAW-produced welds are often
stronger than the base metal. Electrodes with lower melting points and a wider freezing
range than the base metal are often used to avoid cracking. Electrodes for gas metal
arc welding magnesium alloys consist of four different types (refer again to Figure 1059). The type of electrode used is governed by the chemical composition of the base
metal.
Table 10-16 Magnesium Alloy Classification, Weldability and Filler Selection.
(1=excellent, 2=good, 3=fair, 4 =poor)
Magnesum
Alloy
Wrought
AZ10A
AZ31B
AZ31C
AZ61A
AZ80A
HK31A
HM21A
HM31A
LA141A
M1A
ZE10A
ZK21A
ZK60A
CastAlloys
AM100A
AZ63A
AZ81A
AZ91C
AZ92A
EK41A
EZ33A
HK31A
HZ32A
K1A
QE22A
ZE41A
ZH62A
ZK51A
ZK61A
Major Alloying
Elements
Alloys
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Thorium,Zirconium
Thorium,Manganese
Thorium,Manganese
Lithium,Aluminum
Manganese
Zinc,Rare Earths
Zinc,Zirconium
Zinc,Zirconium
Aluminum,Manganese
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Aluminum,Zinc
Rare
Earths,Zirconium
Rare Earths,Zinc
Thorium,Zirconium
Thorium,Zinc
Zirconium
Silver,Rare Earths
Zinc,Rare Earths
Zinc,Thorium
Zinc,Zirconium
Zinc,Zirconium
Weldability
Rating
Filler
Metal
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
4
AZ61A,AZ92A
AZ61AAZ92A
AZ61AAZ92A
AZ61A,AZ92A
AZ61AAZ92A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
LA141A,EZ33A
AZ61A,AZ92A
AZ61A,AZ92A
AZ61A,AZ92A
EZ33A
2
3
2
2
2
AZ101A,AZ92A
AZ101A,AZ92A
AZ101A,AZ92A
AZ101A,AZ92A
AZ101A
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
3
4
4
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A
EZ33A

Gas metal arc welding is one of the major processes used for welding nickel and nickel
alloys. The major alloying elements used in nickel are iron, chromium, copper,
molybdenum, and silicon. Trade names are widely used, but a classification system is
shown in Table 10-17. This process is used for welding the solid-solution strengthened
alloys; the precipitation-hardening alloys are more readily welded by gas tungsten arc
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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welding because it is difficult to transfer hardening elements across the arc. Many of the
cast alloys, especially ones with high silicon contents, are more difficult to weld.
Table 10-17 Classifications of nickel and nickel alloys.
Series
Alloy Group
200
Nickel, solid solution
300
Nickel, precipitation-hardenable
400
Nickel-copper, solid solution (Monel)
500
Nickel-copper, precipitation-hardenable (Monel)
600
Nickel-chromium, solid solution (Inconel)
700
Nickel chromium, precipitation-hardenable (Inconel)
800
Nickel-iron-chromium solid solution (Incoloy)
900
Nickel-iron-chromium, precipitation-hardenable (Incoloy)
One of the most important factors in welding nickel and nickel alloys is the cleanliness
of the base metal. These metals are susceptible to embrittlement caused by sulfur,
phosphorous, and lead. Therefore, the surface of the metal to be welded should be
cleaned of any grease, oil, paint, dirt, and processing chemicals. Another welding
characteristic of nickel is that the weld puddle is not very fluid; therefore, it is more
difficult to get complete fusion.
Short-circuiting, globular, or spray transfer may be used depending on the welding heat
input and the thickness of the metal being welded. The pulsed arc method is also used.
Argon shielding gas is widely used and normally recommended for welding in the spray
and pulsed arc modes. Argon-helium mixtures are used to produce wider and flatter
beads and are generally used with the short-circuiting mode. This process is employed
for welding most thicknesses of nickel and nickel alloys.
The filler metals used for welding of these metals are generally similar in composition to
the base metal being welded. The filler metals are alloyed to resist hot cracking and
porosity in the weld metal.
7.2.5 Steels
GMAW is widely used for welding steels. In general, steels are classified according to
the carbon content, such as low carbon, medium carbon, or high carbon steels. In
addition, steels are also classified according to the types of alloy used, such as chromemoly, nickel-manganese, etc. For discussion purposes in this chapter, steels will be
classified according to their welding characteristics.
In welding steel, the hardness and hardenability of the weld metal are influenced by the
carbon and any other alloy content, which in turn influences the amount of preheat
needed. The two terms, hardness and hardenability, are not the same. The maximum
hardness of steel is primarily a function of the amount of carbon in the steel.
Hardenability is a measure of how easily a martensite structure is formed when the steel
is quenched. Martensite is the phase or metallurgical structure in steel where the
maximum hardness of the steel can be obtained. Steels with low hardenability must
have very high cooling rates after welding to form martensite, where steels with high
hardenability will form martensite even when they are slow cooled in air. Hardenability
will determine to what extent a steel will harden during welding. The carbon equivalent
formula is one of the best methods of determining the weldability of steels. This value is
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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determined by the amounts of the alloying elements. There are several different
formulas used; one of the most popular is as follows:
fewer precautions such as the use of preheat and postheat. Steels with higher carbon
equivalents are generally more difficult to weld. In welding some of the steels, it is more
important to match the mechanical properties than the chemical compositions of the
filler metal to the base metal. Often, filler metal with a lower carbon content than the
base metal is used because the weld metal absorbs carbon from the base metal. This is
done to minimize the tendency for weld cracking.
7.2.5.1 Low Carbon and Mild Steels
Low carbon and mild steels generally have low carbon contents and are the most
readily weldable. They are the most widely used type of steel for industrial fabrication
and include the high strength structural steels.
Low carbon steels have carbon contents up to .14%; mild steels have carbon contents
ranging from .15 to .29%. For many applications, preheating is not required except on
thick sections and highly restrained joints, or where codes require preheating, but other
precautions such as interpass temperature control and postheating are sometimes
used. With thicker sections and highly restrained joints, preheating, interpass
temperature control, and postheating are usually required to prevent cracking.
Electrodes of the ER70S class are employed with carbon dioxide, inert gas, or carbon
dioxide-inert gas mixtures, and all types of metal transfer are used. Carbon dioxide is
the most widely used gas because it is the least expensive and provides good
penetration. The filler metal should be chosen to match the tensile strength of the base
metal. A filler metal with sufficient amounts of deoxidizers must be chosen to prevent
porosity when welding rimmed steels, which have a silicon content of less than .05%.
This precaution is not necessary for welding steels containing more than .05% silicon.
The high strength structural steels are steels whose yield strength falls between 45,000
psi (310M Pa) and 70,000 psi (483 MPa) and their carbon content is generally below
.25%. These steels have relatively small amounts of alloying elements. Some common
examples of these steels are the ASTM designations of A242, A441, A572, A588, A553,
and A537.
7.2.5.2 Low Alloy Steels
The low alloy steels discussed here will be those steels that are low carbon and have
alloy additions less than 5%. This includes the quenched and tempered steels, heat
treated low alloy steels, and the low nickel alloy steels. Elements such as nickel,
chromium, manganese, and molybdenum are the main alloying elements used.
These steels have a higher hardenability than mild steels, and this factor is the principal
complication in welding. Low alloy steels have good weldability but are not as easily
weldable as the mild steels. This higher hardenability permits martensite to form at
lower cooling rates. As the alloy content and the carbon content increase, the
hardenability also increases.
In general, as the hardenability of the material increases, the ability to weld it
decreases. One of the best methods for determining the weldability of a low alloy steel
is the use of the carbon equivalent formula. Steels that have carbon equivalents below
about .40% usually do not require the use of preheating and postheating in the welding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-68
procedure and generally have the best weldability. Steels with carbon equivalents
higher than .40% require more precautions for welding.
Typically, the higher the carbon equivalent, the more difficult the steel is to weld. Except
in the case of the low nickel alloys, the selection of electrodes for welding steel is
usually based on the desired strength and mechanical properties of the weld rather than
on matching chemical compositions. Short-circuiting, globular, and spray metal transfers
may be used. The most commonly used shielding gases are carbon dioxide or argoncarbon dioxide mixtures.
The quenched and tempered heat treated steels have yield strengths ranging from
50,000 psi (345 MPa) to very high yield strengths, and have carbon contents ranging to
.25%. Some common examples of these types of steel are the ASTM designations
A533 Grade B, A537 Grade B, A514, A517, A543, and A553. The .25% carbon limit is
used to provide fairly good weldability. These steels provide high tensile and yield
strength along with good ductility, notch toughness, corrosion resistance, fatigue
strength, and weldability. The presence of hydrogen is always bad in steel, but it is even
more critical in these types of steels compared to mild steels. Low hydrogen electrodes
should be used when welding these steels. Preheat is generally not used on thinner
sections, but it is used on thicker or highly restrained sections. Postweld heat treatment
is generally not used because the shielded metal arc welds have good toughness. The
steels are generally used in the welded or stress relieved conditions.
The nickel alloy steels included in these low alloy steel groups are those with less than
5% nickel contents. The 2 1/4% and 3 1/2% nickel steels are usually welded with
covered electrodes that have the same general chemical composition as the base
metal. Preheating is required with highly restrained joints.
The heat treatable steels are the medium and high carbon steels and medium carbon
steels that have been alloyed. This group includes the steels quenched and tempered
after welding, normalized or annealed steels, and medium and high carbon steels.
These steels are more difficult to weld than the other types of steels already mentioned
in this chapter. The most important factor for selecting the type of covered electrode to
be used is matching the chemical compositions of the base metal and the filler metal.
Medium carbon steels are those that have carbon contents ranging from .30% to .59%,
and high carbon steels have carbon contents ranging from .60% to about 1.0%. When
medium and high carbon steels are welded, precautions should be included in the
welding procedure because of the hardness that can occur in the weld joint. As the
carbon content increases up to .60%, the hardness of the fully hardened structure (or
martensite) increases to a maximum value. When the carbon content is above .60%,
the hardness of the fully hardened structure does not increase, so these steels can be
welded using about the same welding procedures as the medium carbon steels.
Martensite, which is the phase that steel is in at its fullest hardness, is harder and more
brittle in high carbon steel than it is in low carbon steel. A high carbon martensitic
structure can have a tendency to crack in the weld metal and heat affected zone during
cooling. Welding procedures that lower the hardness of the heat affected zone and the
weld metal will reduce the tendency to crack. This can be done by using a procedure
that requires lower carbon content in the filler metal and by slowing the cooling rate. The
procedure would include preheating, interpass temperature control, and postheating.
The procedures used for welding medium carbon steels can be simpler than the one
just mentioned, but that depends on the specific applications. Medium carbon steels can
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-69
be welded with the ER70S-ER90S classifications. High carbon steels should be welded
with the ER80S-ER120S using the electrode of the proper tensile strength to match the
tensile strength of the base metal. Generally, high carbon steels are not used in welded
production work. These steels are usually welded only in repair work. Mild steel
brittle. A preheat and/or postheat will help eliminate the brittle structure.
Steels quenched and tempered after welding have carbon contents ranging from about
.25% to .45%, which distinguishes them from the steels that are quenched and
tempered before welding. These steels also have small additions of alloying elements.
Some common examples of these steels are the AISI designations 4130, 4140, and
4340. Because of the higher carbon contents, the steels in this group can be heat
treated to extremely high levels of strength and hardness. Some of these steels have
enough alloy content to give them high hardenability. Because of this combination of
carbon and alloy content, the steels must be preheated before welding. Their weldability
is also influenced by the purity of the steels. High amounts of sulfur and phosphorous in
the steel increase the sensitivity to cracking and reduce the ductility. Gas metal arc
welding is often used for welding these steels, and a filler metal of the same chemical
composition as the base metal is required to obtain the maximum strength.
The low chromium molybdenum steels in this section are those with alloy contents of
about 6% or less. These steels are in the low carbon range, generally up to .15%, and
are readily weldable. The chromium and molybdenum alloying elements provide these
steels with good oxidation resistance and high temperature strength. The chromium is
mainly responsible for the resistance, and the molybdenum is mainly responsible for the
high temperature strength.
hardness because these steels are very sensitive to air hardening. For the welding of
these steels, preheating, interpass temperature control, slow cooling, and postweld heat
treatment are required to make a weld with good mechanical properties. These steels
generally do not require preheating except when welding thick sections or highly
restrained joints. Postheating is usually not required on chromium molybdenum steels
that contain less than 2 1/4% Cr and 1% Mo.
Gas metal arc welding is one of the most common methods of welding the chromium
molybdenum steels. Short-circuiting or spray transfer is generally used. The steels with
less than 6% chromium are welded with a carbon dioxide or argon-carbon dioxide
mixture, depending on the type of metal transfer desired. For the steels with 6%
chromium or more, argon, argon-helium mixtures, and argon with small additions of
oxygen or carbon dioxide are used. Pulsed arc transfer is often employed to fill the gap
between short-circuiting and spray transfer to avoid globular transfer. The filler metal is
chosen to match the chemical composition of the base metal as closely as possible to
give good corrosion resistance.
or lead in them to make these steels easier to machine. Except for the high sulfur, lead,
or phosphorous, these steels have chemical compositions similar to mild, low alloy, and
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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stainless steels. The addition of these elements makes these steels nearly unweldable
because lead, phosphorous, and sulfur have melting points much lower than the melting
point of the steel. As the weld solidifies, these elements remain liquid much longer than
the steel, so they coat the grain boundaries, causing hot cracking in the weld. Hot
cracking is cracking that occurs before the weld has had a chance to cool. Because of
this hot cracking problem, free machining steels cannot be welded easily. High
manganese filler metal and low base metal dilution will help give the best results
possible.
Most types of stainless steels can be welded by GMAW. The types that are very difficult
to weld are types such as 303, 416, 416 Se, 430 F, and 430 FSe, which have high
sulfur and selenium contents, and Type 440, which has a high carbon content. The
major alloying element which distinguishes stainless steels from the other types of steel
is the chromium. Steels that have chromium contents greater than 11% are considered
stainless steels. The high chromium content gives these steels very good corrosion and
oxidation resistance. The three major groups of stainless steels that are welded are the
austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic types.
200 series, which have high manganese contents to replace some of the nickel, are
also austenitic. Nickel and manganese are strong austenite formers and maintain an
toughness and ductility but also makes them non-hardenable. A major problem when
welding these types of steels is carbide precipitation or sensitization, which occurs only
in the austenitic structure. This occurs when the temperature of the steel is between
approximately 1000-1600 F (540-870 C) and can greatly reduce the corrosion
resistance. There are several methods for preventing this problem:
1. Fast cooling rate after welding through this temperature range. This is a major
relatively low maximum interpass temperature on multiple pass welds.
2. Use of extra low carbon base and filler metal (.03% carbon max). Examples are
304L and 316L.
3. Use of a stabilized alloy containing columbium, tantalum (tan-tl-uh m), or
titanium. Examples are 347 and 321.
4. Use of a solution heat treatment to redissolve the carbides after welding.
These stainless steels have approximately 11-18% chromium, which is the major
alloying element, and are designated by the AISI as the 400 series. Some examples are
403, 410, 420, and 440. These types of stainless steel are heat treatable because they
440, have carbon contents so high that they are often considered unweldable. A
stainless steel with a carbon content greater than .10% will often need preheating,
usually in the range of 400-600 F (205-315C) to avoid cracking. For steels containing
carbon contents greater than .20%, a postweld heat treatment such as annealing is
often required to improve the toughness of the weld produced.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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400 series. Some examples are types 405, 430, 442, and 446. These types are
GMAW is well suited for welding stainless steel. Lower current levels may be desirable
for welding stainless steel compared to welding mild steel because of the higher thermal
expansion, lower thermal conductivity, and lower melting point of stainless steel. The
lower thermal conductivity and higher thermal expansion cause more distortion and
warpage for a given heat input. All of the different modes of metal transfer are used
when welding stainless steel. Pulsed arc welding is popular because it helps reduce
distortion and warpage. An argon-oxygen mixture of 99% Ar-1 % O2, or 98% Ar-2% O2,
or pure argon is used to obtain spray transfer. The argon-oxygen mixtures are used to
improve arc stability and weld puddle wetting. Helium-argon-carbon dioxide mixtures
are used to obtain short-circuiting transfer. Argon-carbon dioxide mixtures are
sometimes used. Carbon dioxide causes a loss of silicon and manganese, and an
increase in carbon in the low carbon stainless steels. Carbon dioxide is restricted for
welding many of the stainless steels, especially austenitic grades, because corrosion
resistance may be reduced due to the carbon the gas adds to the weld. GMAW may be
used on most thicknesses of stainless steel
The filler metal for welding stainless steel is generally chosen to match the chemical
composition of the base metal. For the 200 series austenitic stainless steels, a 300
series austenitic filler metal is usually used due to lack of an available 200 series filler
metal. This weId joint will generally be weaker than the surrounding base metal. 300
series filler metal is used on 300 series base metal.
Type 410 and 420 electrodes are the only martensitic stainless steel types recognized
by the AWS. This limitation is often the reason why austenitic stainless steel filler metal
is often used when welding martensitic stainless steel. Austenitic filler metal provides a
weld with lower strength but higher toughness and eliminates the need for preheating
and postheating. For welding ferritic stainless steels, both ferritic and austenitic filler
metal may be used. Ferritic filler metal is used when higher strength and an annealing
postheat are required. Austenitic filler metal is used when higher ductility is required.
Table 10-18 shows filler metal selection for stainless steels.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Filler
C%
Mn%
Si%
Cr%
Ni%
No.
Other
Metal
Elements
Selection
201
0.15 max
5.5-7.5
1.00
16.00-18.00
3.50-5.50
N 0.25 max
308
202
0.15 max
7.5-10.0
1.00
17.00-19.00
4.00-6.00
N 0.25 max
308
301
0.15 max
2.00
1.00
16.00-18.00
6.00-8.00
308
302
0.15 max
2.00
1.00
17.00-19.00
8.00-10.00
308
3028
0.15 max
2.00
2.00-3.00
17.00-19.00
8.00-10.00
308
304
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
18.00-20.00
8.00-12.00
308
304L
0.03 max
2.00
1.00
18.00-20.00
8.00-12.00
308L
305
0.12 max
2.00
1.00
17.00-19.00
10.00-13.00
308 310
308
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
19.00-21.00
10.00-12.00
308
309
0.20 max
2.00
1.00
22.00-24.00
12.00-15.00
309
309S
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
22.00-24.00
12.00-15.00
309
310
0.25 max
2.00
1.50
24.00-26.00
19.00-22.00
310
310S
0.08 max
2.00
1.50
24.00-26.00
19.00-22.0
310
314
0.25 max
2.00
1.50-3.00
23.00-26.00
19.00-22.00
310 312
316
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
16.00-18.00
10.00-14.00
Mo 2.00-3.00
316
316L
0.03 max
2.00
1.00
16.00-18.00
10.00-14.00
Mo 2.00-3.00
316L
317
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
18.00-20.00
11.00-15.00
Mo 2.00-3.00
317
321
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
17.00-19.00
9.00-12.00
Ti 5xCmin
347
330
0.35 max
2.00
2.50
13.00-17.00
33.00-37.00
330
347
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
17.00-19.00
9.00-13.00
Cb+Ta
347
348
0.08 max
2.00
1.00
18.00-19.00
9.00-13.00
Cb+Ta 10 C
10xC min
347 348
min.Ta 0.10
403
0.15 max
1.00
0.50
11.50-13.00
410 309 310
410
0.15 max
1.00
1.00
11.50-13.50
410 309 310
414
0.15 max
1.00
1.00
11.50-13.50
1.25-2.50
410 309 310
420
Over 0.15
1.00
1.00
12.00-14.00
410 420
431
0.20 max
1.00
1.00
15.00-17.00
1.25-2.50
430 309 310
501
Over 0.10
1.00
1.00
4.00-6.00
Mo 0.40-
502
0.65
502
0.10 max
1.00
1.00
4.00-6.00
Mo 0.40-0.65
502
405
0.08 max
1.00
1.00
11.50-14.50
Al0.10-0.30
410 309 310
430
0.12 max
1.00
1.00
14.00-18.00
430 309 310
442
0.20 max
1.00
1.00
18.00-23.00
309 310
446
0.20 max
1.50
1.00
23.00-27.00
N20.25max
309 310
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium and many of the titanium alloys are welded by GMAW. The major alloying
elements contained in titanium alloys are aluminum, tin, zirconium, vanadium and
molybdenum. There are four basic groups of this metal:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Unalloyed titanium
Alpha alloys
Alpha-beta alloys
Beta alloys
The unalloyed titanium and alpha alloys are all weldable. The weakly beta-stabilized
alpha-beta alloys are weldable but strongly beta-stabilized alpha-beta alloys are
embrittled by welding. Most beta alloys can be welded, but proper heat treatment must
be used to prevent the welds from becoming brittle.
In general, titanium requires the same welding techniques used for welding stainless
steel with two exceptions: titanium requires greater cleanliness and an auxiliary
shielding gas. The molten weld puddle reacts with most materials, and contamination
from the atmosphere or from material on the surface of the metal can cause
embrittlement in the weld zone and a loss of corrosion resistance. The surface of the
metal to be welded must be cleaned thoroughly to avoid these problems. Argon or
helium shielding gases are almost exclusively used for welding titanium. The only other
shielding gas used is an argon-helium mixture. Welding titanium requires a shielding
gas on the backside of the root pass also. In many cases, welding is done in an inert
gas filler chamber. For out of chamber welding, a trailing shielding gas is used behind
the torch to protect the hot metal until it cools below about 600F (315C). A leading
shield is also used to prevent oxidation of any spatter that may be remelted into the
weld puddle. GMAW is used for welding metal thicknesses greater than 1/8 in. (3.2mm),
but gas tungsten arc welding is often preferred instead, even when welding thicker
metal, because of the weld spatter and arc instability, which can occur in GMAW, thus
reducing the weld quality. Preheating is rarely used except when removing moisture
from the surface of the metal.
Electrodes of the same chemical composition as the base metal are usually used.
Sometimes electrodes with a yield point lower than the base metal are used to improve
the joint ductility when welding higher strength titanium alloys. The electrode wire must
also be very clean because it can also cause contamination of the weld metal.

9.
What are the grains called that form on the edge of a weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Deoxidizers
Dendrites
Slag
Dross
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-74
10.
Why is preheating used when welding titanium?

A.
B.
C.
D.
To increase base metal temperature.

To remove moisture from the base metal.
To soften the base metal.
To increase the hardenability of the base metal.
8.0.0 WELD and JOINT DESIGN

The weld joint design used for gas metal arc welding is determined by the design of the
workpiece, metallurgical considerations, and codes or specifications.
Joints are designed for accessibility and economy during construction. The purpose of a
joint design is to obtain the required strength and highest quality at the lowest possible
cost. A weld joint consists of a specific weld made in a specific joint. A joint is defined as
being the junction of members who are to be, or have been, joined. Figure 10-45 shows
the five basic joint types. Each of the different joints may be joined by many different
types of welds. Figure 10-45 shows the most common types of welds. The type of weld
made is governed by the joint configuration, and each of the different welds has its own
specific advantages. Figure 10-45 lists the nomenclature used for groove and fillet
welds.
Several factors influence the joint design to be used:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Strength required
Welding position
Metal thickness
Joint accessibility
Type of metal being welded
The edge and joint preparation are important because they will affect both the quality
and cost of welding. The cost items to be considered are the amount of filler metal
required, the method of preparing the joint, the amount of labor required, and the level
of quality required. Difficult to weld joints will often have more repair work necessary
than those that are the easier to weld.
GMAW is applicable to all five basic joint types, with butt and tee joints the most
commonly welded. Lap joints have the advantage of not requiring much preparation
other than squaring off the edges and making sure the metal is in close contact. Edge
joints are widely used on thin metal. Corner joints generally use similar edge
preparations to those used on tee joints.
In some cases, the joint designs used for gas metal arc welding are similar to shielded
metal arc welding, but there are often differences due to the different characteristics of
the process. Gas metal arc welding has some characteristics that are different from
many other processes, which will sometimes affect the joint design. One of the main
items is that the joint must be designed so the welder can obtain good access to the
joint to be able to manipulate the electrode properly. In addition, a joint must not be
located so it creates an excessive distance between the root of the joint and the nozzle
of the welding gun. A large nozzle-to-work distance may prevent adequate root
penetration and adequate gas shielding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
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8.1.0 Strength
joints may be either full or partial penetration depending on the strength required of the
cross section of the joint; partial penetrating welds are those that have an unfused area
in the joint. Welds subject to cyclic, impact, or dynamic loading require complete
penetration welds. This is even more important for applications that require low
temperature service.
Partial penetration welds may be adequate for joints where loading is static only, and
they are easier to prepare and require less filler metal than full penetration joints.
The amount of penetration obtained will be affected by the root opening and root face
used. A root opening is used to allow good access to the root of the joint and is usually
used in full penetrating weld joints. A root opening is usually not used in partial
penetration weld joints because access to the root is not necessary and parts are easier
to fit together without a root opening. The size of the root face is also affected. A larger
root face is used for partial penetration welds than for complete penetration welds
because less penetration is required.
Because GMAW uses relatively small diameter electrode wire, the arc produced is more
intense than the arcs produced by shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc
welding. Slightly larger root faces are needed because of the greater penetrating
characteristics of the gas metal arc welding process, especially when using carbon
dioxide shielding gas. Smaller root openings may also be used to keep the weld metal
from falling through the root of the joint. These differences apply to the globular, spray,
and pulsed arc modes only. Because lower welding current values are used with the
short-circuiting mode of metal transfer, joint designs used are similar to those used for
shielded metal arc welding. The short-circuiting mode requires larger root openings and
smaller root faces. This metal transfer mode is widely used for welding thin metal and
for depositing the root pass in thick metal, while the rest of the groove may be filled
using the spray or globular transfer modes. Smaller groove angles are required with
GMAW because of the relatively small electrode diameter used, which allows better
access to the root of the joint.
8.2.0 Position
GMAW may be used in all welding positions. The position in which welding is done
often affects the joint configuration. A diagram of the welding position capabilities (also
the welding test positions) is shown in Figure 10-46. Good quality welding in the flat,
horizontal, vertical, and overhead positions depends on the skill of the welder and the
mode of metal transfer. Welding positions are classified by a set of numbers and letters.
The four basic welding positions are designated by the numbers 1 for flat, 2 for
horizontal, 3 for vertical, and 4 for overhead. F designations are used for fillet welds and
G designations are used for groove welds. The 5G and 6G positions are used in pipe
welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-78
The major effects that the position of a proposed weld will have are on the the types of
metal transfer used and the groove angles.
The short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed arc
modes may be used in all positions.
Globular and spray transfer using high
current levels are used for welding in the flat
position.
Wider groove angles are often used when
welding in the vertical position. Joints that
are welded in the horizontal position often
have an asymmetrical joint configuration.
This usually consists of a groove angle that
has horizontal lower groove face as shown
in Figure 10-47. The upper groove face is
raised accordingly to allow adequate access
to the root of the joint. The horizontal lower
groove face is used as a shelf to support the
molten weld metal. This joint configuration is
Figure 10-47 Single bevel joint
less expensive to prepare than symmetrical
in horizontal position.
groove joints for welding in other positions
because only one groove face has to be
beveled. Other joint design differences will occur on many out of position joints when
using the shortcircuiting mode of metal transfer where larger root openings and smaller
root faces are required.
8.3.0 Thickness
The thickness of the base metal has a large influence on the joint preparation required
to produce the best weld joint possible. Gas metal arc welding can be used to weld
metal thicknesses down to .020 in. (.5 mm). This process is suitable for welding fairly
thick metal so there are a wide variety of applicable joint preparations. The most
common groove preparations used on butt joints are the square-, V-, J-, U-, bevel-, and
combination grooves. The square-, J-, bevel-, and combination-groove preparations are
also used on tee joints. The different preparations are employed on different
thicknesses to make it possible to get complete or adequate penetration.
Square-groove welds are used on the thinnest metal thicknesses. The square-groove
joint design is the easiest to prepare and requires the least filler metal. Thicknesses up
to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) can be welded with full penetration from both sides. This is thicker
than the square-groove joints that can be welded with full penetration by shielded metal
arc welding or gas tungsten arc welding because of the hotter arc produced by this
process. Root openings are used to allow complete penetration through the joint. Many
square-groove welds are made in one pass. A backing strip may be used so the root
can be opened enough to provide better accessibility and ensure adequate penetration.
V-grooves for butt joints and bevel-grooves for tee joints are commonly used for thicker
metal up to about -in. (19.1 mm). These joints are more difficult to prepare and require
more filler metal than square groove welds. The included angle for a V-groove is usually
up to 75. The wider groove angles are used to provide better accessibility to the root of
the joint. Because of the deeper penetrating characteristics of this process, single-Vgroove or single-bevel-groove welds are often welded with little or no root opening.
Larger root faces and smaller groove angles are often used compared to those
employed for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding. This helps to
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-79
minimize the amount of distortion and reduce the amount of filler metal required. For
complete penetration welds, root faces usually are close to 1/8-in. (3.2 mm).
U- and J-grooves are generally used on thicknesses greater than 5/8-in. (14.3 mm).
These joint preparations are the most difficult and expensive to prepare, but the radius
at the root of the joint allows better access to the root of the joint. Another advantage is
that smaller groove angles may be used compared to those used in V-grooves. On
thicker metal, this reduces the amount of filler metal required and on very thick metals,
this savings becomes very substantial.
8.4.0 Accessibility
The accessibility of the weld joint is another important factor in determining the weld
joint design. Welds can be made from either one side or both sides of the joint. SingleV-, J-, U-, bevel-, and combination grooves are used when accessibility is from one side
only and on thinner metal. Double-V -, J-, U-, bevel-, and combination grooves are used
on thicker metal where the joint can be welded from both sides. Double-groove welds
have three major advantages over single-groove welds where accessibility is only from
one side. The first is that distortion is more easily controlled through alternate weld bead
sequencing. Weld beads are alternated from one side to the other to keep the distortion
from building up in the one direction. The roots are nearer the center of the plate. A
second advantage is that less filler metal is required to fill a double-groove joint than a
single-groove joint. The third advantage is that complete penetration can be more easily
ensured. The root of the first pass on the plate can be gouged or chipped out before the
root pass on the second side is welded to make sure there is complete fusion at the
root. The disadvantages of joints welded from both sides are that more joint preparation
is required and gouging or chipping is usually required to remove the root of the first
pass. Both of these add to the labor time required. Welding on both sides of a squaregroove weld joint provides fuller penetration in thicker metal than metal welded from one
side only. This would also save joint preparation time.
8.4.1 Backing Strips
When backing strips are used, joints are accessible from one side only. Backing strips
allow better access to the root of the joint and support the molten weld metal. These
strips are available in two forms, fusible or non-fusible. Fusible backing strips are made
of the metal being welded and remain part of the weldment after welding. These may be
cut or machined off. Non-fusible backing strips are made of copper, carbon, flux, or
ceramic backing in tape or composite form. These forms of backing do not become part
of the weld. Backing strips on square-groove joints make a full penetration weld from
one side easier. For this application, using a backing is more expensive because of the
cost of a backing strip and the larger amount of filler metal required. This is not always
the case. On V-groove joints, the backing strip allows wider root openings and removes
the need for a root face, which reduces the groove preparation costs. Another
advantage is that because the root may be opened up, the groove angle may be
reduced, which will reduce the amount of filler metal required in thicker metal. These
effects are shown in Figure 10-48 where single V-groove joints are shown with and
without a backing strip.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-80
Figure 10-48 Single V-groove joints with and without backing strips.
8.5.0 Types of Metal

The type of metal being welded is another factor that affects the joint design for gas
metal arc welding. For example, aluminum has a high thermal conductivity and low
melting point. Stainless steel has a lower thermal conductivity and a higher melting
point. The maximum thickness that a square groove joint design may be used in
aluminum is slightly less than that for stainless steel because the heat leaves the
welding area quicker, which does not allow the weld puddle to melt as deeply. Another
example is in nickel, where a larger root opening is used because the weld puddle is not
very fluid. The larger root opening is required to allow proper manipulation of the
electrode to get adequate fusion.

The weld joint designs in the rest of the chapter are those typically used for GMAW. The
exact dimensions of the joint design used will vary depending on the mode of metal
transfer being used. Some of the joint designs may not be acceptable when using the
short circuiting mode of metal transfer. For many of the root opening dimensions and
some of the root face dimensions, ranges are given to account for varying fitup or for
different modes of metal transfer.
Several joint designs using backing strips are included. The thicknesses given are those
typically used with the joint design. For different thickness of base metals, Table 10-19
shows the minimum effective throat thicknesses for partial penetration groove welds.
Figure 10-49 through 10-59 shows the American Welding Society "Standard Welding
Symbols," some of which have been used in the weld joint designs.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-81
Table 10-19 Effective Throat Thickness for Partial Joint Penetration Groove
Welds.
Base Metal Thickness of Thicker Part Joined
Inch
(mm)
Minimum Effective Throat

Inch
(mm)
To
1/4
6.5
inclusive
1/8
Over
1/4 to 1/2
6.4 to 12.7
inclusive
3/16
Over
1/2 to 3/4
12.7 to 19.0
inclusive
1/4
Over
3/4 to 1 1/2
19.0 to 38.1
inclusive
5/16
Over
1 1/2 to 2 1/4
38.1 to 57.1
inclusive
3/8
10
Over
2 1/4 to 6
57.1 to 152
inclusive
1/2
13
Over
152
5/8
16
8.6.1 Welding Symbols

AWS welding symbols are the shorthand of welding. They enable the engineer and
draftsman to convey complete welding instructions to the welder on blueprints and
drawings.
Using welding symbols promotes standardization and a common understanding of
design intent. It also eliminates unnecessary details on drawings and mistakes caused
by lack of information or misunderstanding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-82
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-83
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-84
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-85
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-86
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-87
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-88

NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-89
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-90
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-91
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-92
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-93
8.7.0 Welding Positions

In GMAW, the proper position of the welding torch and weldment are important. The
position of the torch in relation to the plate is called the work and travel angle. Work and
travel angles are shown in Figure 10-60. If the parts are equal in thickness, the work
angle should normally be on the center line of the joint; however, if the pieces are
unequal in thickness, the torch should angle toward the thicker piece.
Figure 10-60 Travel angle and work angle for GMAW.

The travel angle refers to the angle in which welding takes place. This angle should be
between 5 and 25 degrees. The travel angle may be either a push angle or a drag
angle, depending on the position of the torch.
When the torch is angled ahead of the
weld, it is known as pulling (dragging) the
weld or backhand welding. When the torch
is angled behind (over) the weld, it is
referred to as pushing the metal or
forehand welding (Figure 10-61).
The pulling or drag technique is for heavygauge metals. Usually the drag technique
produces greater penetration than the
pushing technique. Also, since the welder
can see the weld crater more easily, better
quality welds can consistently be made.
The pushing technique is normally used for
light-gauge metals. Welds made with this
technique are less penetrating and wider
because the welding speed is faster.
For the best results, you should position the
Figure 10-61 Pulling and
weldment in the flat position. This position
pushing travel angle techniques.
improves the molten metal flow and bead
contour, and gives better shielding gas protection.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-94
Figure 10-62 Multi-pass welding.

After you have learned to weld in the flat position, you should be able to use your
acquired skill and knowledge to weld out-of-position. These positions include horizontal,
vertical-up, vertical-down, and overhead welds. The only difference in welding out-ofposition from the flat position is a 10% reduction in amperage.
When welding heavier thicknesses of metal with GMAW, you should use the multi-pass
technique (buildup sequence discussed in Chapter 3, Introduction to Welding). This is
accomplished by overlapping single, small beads or making larger beads, using the
weaving technique. Various multi-pass welding sequences are shown in Figure 10-62.
The numbers refer to the sequences in which you make the passes
rotate the section you are welding to the appropriate position. Techniques that are
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-95
Plates up to 1/8 in. thick can be welded in one pass with no special edge preparation.
Plates from 1/8 to 3/16 in. thick also can be welded with no special edge preparation by
welding on both sides of the joint. Tack welds should be used to keep the plates aligned
for welding. The gun motion is the same as that used in making a bead weld.

In welding 1/4-in.plate or heavier, you should prepare the edges of the plates by
Figure 10-64 Butt welds with multi-pass beads.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-96
weld the root of the joint. This

bead or layer of weld metal must
be thoroughly cleaned to remove
all slag and dirt before the second
layer of metal is deposited.
In making multi-pass welds,the
second, third, and fourth layers of
weld metal are made with a
weaving motion of the gun, as
shown in Figure 10-64. Clean
each layer of metal before laying
additional beads. You may use
one of the weaving motions
shown in Figure 10-65, depending
upon the type of joint.
Figure 10-65 Weave motions.
In the weaving motion, oscillate or

move the gun uniformly from side
to side, with a slight hesitation at
the end of each oscillation. Incline
the gun 5 to 15 degrees in the
direction of welding as in bead
welding. When the weaving
motion is not done properly, undercutting can

occur at the joint, as shown in Figure 10-66.
Excessive welding speed also can cause
undercutting and poor fusion at the edges of the
weld bead.

butt joint welds.

butt joints.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Butt joints with backing strips

Welding 3/16-in. plate or thicker
requires backing strips to ensure
complete fusion in the weld root
pass and to provide better control
of the arc and the weld metal.
Prepare the edges of the plates in
the same manner as required for
welding without backing strips.
10-97
For plates up to 3/8 in. thick, the backing strips should be approximately 1 in. wide and
3/16 in. thick. For plates more than in. thick, the backing strips should be 1 1/2 in.
wide and in. thick Tack weld the backing strip to the base of the joint, as shown in
Figure 10-67. The backing strip acts as a cushion for the root pass. Complete the joint
by welding additional layers of metal. After you complete the joint, the backing strip may
be washed off or cut away with a cutting torch. When specified, place a seal bead
along the root of the joint.
a vertical plane (Figure 10-68). In a fillet weld, the welding is performed on the upper
side of a relatively horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical plane
(Figure 10-69).

weld.

weld.
Inexperienced welders usually find the horizontal position of arc welding difficult, at least
until they develop a fair degree of skill in applying the proper technique. The primary
difficulty is that in this position you have no shoulder of previously deposited weld
metal to hold the molten metal.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-98
Gun Movement
In horizontal welding, position the gun so
points upward at a 5- to 10-degree angle in
conjunction with a 20-degree travel angle
(Figure 10-70). Use a narrow weaving
motion in laying the bead. This weaving
motion distributes the heat evenly, reducing
the tendency of the molten puddle to sag.
You should use the shortest arc length
possible, and when the force of the arc
undercuts the plate at the top of the bead,
lower the gun a little to increase the upward
angle.
As you move in and out of the crater, pause
slightly each time you return. This keeps the
crater small and the bead has fewer
tendencies to sag.
Joint Type
Figure 10-70 Horizontal

welding angles.
Horizontal-position welding can be used on

most types of joints; the most common are tee, lap j, and butt joints.
may be tack welded to the surface of the horizontal plate, as shown in Figure 10-71.
fusion at the root and along the legs of the weld (Figure 10-72, View A). Hold the gun at
an angle of 45 degrees to the two plate surfaces (Figure 10-72, View B) with an incline
of approximately 15 degrees in the direction of welding.
Figure 10-71 Tack weld to hold


When practical, weld light plates with a fillet weld in one pass with little or no weaving of
the gun. Welding of heavier plates may require two or more passes in which the second
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-99
pass or layer is made with a semicircular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 10-73. To
ensure good fusion and to prevent undercutting, you should make a slight pause at the
end of each weave or oscillation.
For fillet-welded tee joints on 1/2-in. plate or heavier, deposit stringer beads in the


beads for tee joint on heavy.
Chain-intermittent or staggeredintermittent fillet welds are used on long tee joints (Figure 10-75). Fillet welds of these
types are for joints where high weld strength is not required; however, the short welds
are arranged so the finished joint is equal in strength to that of a joint that has a fillet
weld along the entire length of one side. Intermittent welds also have the advantage of
reduced warpage and distortion.
Lap joints When you make a lap joint, two overlapping plates are tack welded in

welds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-76 Tack welding a

lap joint.
10-100
The procedure for making this fillet weld is

similar to that used for making fillet welds in
tee joints. You should hold the gun so it
forms an angle of about 30 degrees from
the vertical and is inclined 15 degrees in the
direction of welding. The position of the gun
in relation to the plates is shown in Figure
10-77. The weaving motion is the same as
that used for tee joints, except that the
pause at the edge of the top plate is long
enough to ensure good fusion without
undercutting. Lap joints on 1/2-in. plate or
heavier are made by depositing a sequence
of stringer beads, as shown in Figure 10-77
In making lap joints on plates of different
thickness, you should hold the gun so that it
forms an angle of between 20 and 30
degrees from the vertical (Figure 10-78). Be
careful not to overheat or undercut the
thinner plate edge.

Butt joints Most butt joints designed for

horizontal welding have the beveled plate
positioned on the top. The plate that is not
beveled is on the bottom, and the flat edge of
this plate provides a shelf for the molten
metal so it does not run out of the joint
(Figure 10-79). On other joint designs, both
edges are beveled to form a 60-degree
included angle. When this type of joint is
used, more skill is required because you

do not have the retaining shelf to hold
the molten puddle.
The number of passes required for a
joint depends on the diameter of the gun
and the thickness of the metal. When
multiple passes are required (Figure 1080), place the first bead deep in the root
of the joint. The gun should be inclined
about 5 degrees downward. Clean and
remove all slag before applying each
following bead. The second bead should
be placed with the gun held about 10
degrees upward. For the third pass, hold
the gun 10 to 15 degrees downward from
the horizontal. Use a slight weaving
NAVEDTRA 14250A

joint.
10-101
motion and ensure that each bead penetrates the base metal.

A vertical weld is a weld that is applied to a vertical surface or one that is inclined 45
degrees or less (Figure 10-81). Erecting structures, such as buildings, pontoons, tanks,
and pipelines, require welding in this
position. Welding on a vertical surface is
much more difficult than welding in the flat or
horizontal position due to the force of
gravity; gravity pulls the molten metal down.
or downward position. The terms used for
the direction of welding are vertical up or
vertical down. Vertical down welding is
suited for welding light gauge metal because
the penetration is shallow and diminishes
the possibility of burning through the metal.
Furthermore, vertical down welding is faster,
which is very important in production work.
Current Settings and Gun Movement
In vertical arc welding, the current settings
Figure 10-81 Vertical weld
should be less than those used for the same
plate positions.
gun in the flat position. Another difference is
that the current used for welding upward on
a vertical plate is slightly higher than the current used for welding downward on the
same plate.
To produce good welds, you must maintain the proper angle between the gun and the
base metal. In welding upward, you should hold the gun at 90 degrees to the vertical
(Figure 10-82, View A). When weaving is necessary, oscillate the gun as shown in
Figure 10-82, View B.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-102
In vertical down welding, incline the outer end of the gun downward about 15 degrees
from the horizontal while keeping the arc pointing upward toward the deposited molten
metal (Figure 10-82, View C). When vertical down welding requires a weave bead, you
should oscillate the gun as shown in Figure 10-82, View D.
Figure 10-82 Bead welds in the vertical position.

Hold the gun at 90 degrees to the plates or not more than 15 degrees off the horizontal
for proper molten metal control when making fillet welds in either tee or lap joints in the
vertical position. Keep the arc short to obtain good fusion and penetration.
weld upward. Move the gun in a triangular weaving motion as shown in Figure 10-83,
View A. A slight pause in the weave at the points indicated improves the sidewall
When the weld metal overheats, you should quickly shift the gun away from the crater
without breaking the arc, as shown in Figure 10-83, View B. This permits the molten
metal to solidify without running downward. Return the gun immediately to the crater of
the weld in order to maintain the desired size of the weld.
weaving motions shown in Figure 10-83, Views C and D. A slight pause at the end of
the weave will ensure fusion without undercutting the edges of the plates.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-103
gun in a triangular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 10-83, View E). Use the same
procedure, as outlined above for the tee joint, except direct the gun more toward the
vertical plate marked G. Hold the arc short, and pause slightly at the surface of plate G.
Try not to undercut either of the plates or to allow the molten metal to overlap at the
edges of the weave.

Lap joints on heavier plate may require more
than one bead. If it does, clean the initial bead
thoroughly and place all subsequent beads as
shown in Figure 10-83, View F. The
precautions to ensure good fusion and uniform
weld deposits that were previously outlined for
tee joints also apply to lap joints.
you should hold a short arc and carefully
control its motion.
Butt joints on beveled plates in. thick can be
welded in one pass by using a triangular
NAVEDTRA 14250A

in the vertical position. 10-104
weave motion, as shown in Figure 10-84, View A.

Welds made on 1/2-in. plate or heavier should be done in several passes, as shown in
Figure 10-84, View B. Deposit the last pass with a semicircular weaving motion with a
slight whip-up and pause of the gun at the edge of the bead. This produces a good
cover pass with no undercutting. Welds made on plates with a backup strip should be
done in the same manner.
Current Settings and Gun Movement
molten metal to drop or sag from the plate. When too long an arc is held, the transfer of
metal from the gun to the base metal becomes increasingly difficult, increasing the
chances of large globules of molten metal dropping from the gun. When you routinely
shorten and lengthen the arc, dropping molten metal can be prevented; however, you
will defeat your purpose should you carry too large a pool of molten metal in the weld.
WARNING
Because of the possibility of falling molten metal, use a protective garment that
has a tight fitting collar that
buttons or zips up to the neck.
Roll down your sleeves and
wear a cap and appropriate
shoes.
Type of Welds
paragraphs.
the work angle of the gun is 90
degrees to the base metal
(Figure 10-85, View A). The
travel angle should be 10 to 15
degrees in the direction of
welding (Figure 10-85, View B).
NAVEDTRA 14250A

10-105
motion is necessary at the end of each semicircular weave to control the molten metal
deposit. Avoid excessive weaving because this can cause overheating of the weld
deposit and the formation of a large, uncontrollable pool.
for overhead butt welding in the
same manner as required for the
flat position. The best results are
obtained when backing strips are
used; however, you must
remember that you will not
always be able to use a backing
strip. When you bevel the plates
with a featheredge and do not
use a backing strip, the weld will
repeatedly burn through unless
you take extreme care.
placing the next pass. The gun
position and the order of
deposition of the weld beads
when welding on 1/4- or 1/2-in.
Figure 10-86 Multi-pass butt joint in the
overhead position.
Views B and C. Make the first
pass with the gun held at 90 degrees to the plate, as shown in Figure 10-86, View A.
When you use a gun that is too large, you cannot hold a short arc in the root area. This
results in insufficient root penetration and inferior joints.
maintain a short arc and refrain from weaving the gun. Hold the gun at approximately 30
degrees to the vertical plate and move it uniformly in the direction of welding, as shown
in Figure 10-87, View B. Control the arc motion to secure good penetration in the root of
the weld and good fusion with the sidewalls of the vertical and horizontal plates. When
the molten metal becomes too fluid and tends to sag, whip the gun quickly away from
the crater and ahead of the weld to lengthen the arc and allow the metal to solidify.
Immediately return the gun to the crater and continue welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-106
Figure 10-87, View A. The root pass is a string bead made with no weaving motion of
the gun. Tilt the gun about 15 degrees in the direction of welding, as shown in Figure
10-87, View C, and with a slight circular motion make the second, third, and fourth pass.
Figure 10-87 Fillet welds in the overhead position.

This motion of the gun permits greater control and better distribution of the weld metal.
Remove all slag and oxides from the surface of each pass by chipping or wire brushing
before applying additional beads to the joint.
has less flow restriction when compared to mechanical connections and the overall
installation costs are less. The most popular method for welding pipe is the shielded
metal arc process; however, gas shielded arc methods (GMAW, GTAW) have made big
inroads as a result of new advances in welding technology.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-107
skills are comparable to other types of welding, pipe welders develop skills that are
unique only to pipe welding. Because of the hazardous materials that most pipelines
carry, pipe welders are required to pass specific tests before they can be certified
In the following paragraphs, pipe
welding positions, pipe welding
You may recall from Figure 10-46,
there are four positions used in
pipe welding. The American
Welding Societys (AWS) welding
positions for pipe are the
horizontal rolled position (1G), the
horizontal fixed position (5G), the
pipe inclined fixed (6G), and the
vertical position (2G). Remember,
these terms refer to the position of
the pipe and not to the weld
Pipe Welding Procedures
Welds you cannot make in a
single pass should be made in
interlocked multiple layers, not
less than one layer for each 1/8
inch of pipe thickness. Deposit
joints.
each layer with a weaving or
oscillating motion. To prevent
entrapping slag in the weld metal, you should clean each layer thoroughly before
depositing the next layer.
between pipes and between pipes
and welded fittings. They are also
used for butt welding flanges and
welding stubs. In making a butt
joint, place two pieces of pipe end
to end, align them, and then weld
them. (Figure 10-88)
pipe is in. or less, you can use
either the single V or single U
in., only the single U type should
be used.
Fillet welds are used for welding
slip-on and threaded flanges to
pipe. Depending on the flange
and type of service, fillet welds
may be required on both sides of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-89 Flange connections.10-108
the flange or in combination with a bevel weld (Figure 10-89). Fillet welds are also used
in welding screw or socket couplings to pipe, using a single fillet weld (Figure 10-87).
Sometimes flanges require alignment. Figure 10-90 shows one type of flange square
and its use in vertical and horizontal
alignment.
Another form of fillet weld used in pipe fitting
Joint Preparation and Fitup
slag, rust, paint, oil, and other foreign matter.
Ensure that the joint surfaces are smooth
and uniform. Remove the slag from flamecut edges; however, it is not necessary to
remove the temper color.
When you prepare joints for welding,
remember that bevels must be cut
accurately. Bevels can be made by
machining, grinding, or using a gas cutting
torch. In fieldwork, the welding operator usually must make the bevel cuts with a gas
torch. When you are beveling, cut away as little metal as possible to allow for complete
fusion and penetration. Proper beveling reduces the amount of filler metal required,
which in turn reduces time and expense. In addition, it also means less strain in the
weld and a better job of design and welding.
operation. The maximum alignment
tolerance is 20% of the pipe thickness. To
ensure proper initial alignment, you should
use clamps or jigs as holding devices. A
piece of angle iron makes a good jig for a
small-diameter pipe (Figure 10-91), while a
section of channel or I-beam is more suitable
for larger diameter pipe.
Tack Welding
When welding material solidly, you may use
tack welds to hold it in place temporarily.
Tack welding is one of the most important
steps in pipe welding or any other type of
welding. The number of tack welds required
depends upon the diameter of the pipe. For
1/2-in. pipe, you need two tacks; place them
directly opposite each other. As a rule, four
tacks are adequate for standard size of pipe.
The size of a tack weld is determined by the wall thickness of the pipe. Be sure that a
tack weld is not more than twice the pipe thickness in length or two thirds of the pipe
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-109
thickness in depth. Tack welds should be the same quality as the final weld. Ensure that
the tack welds have good fusion and are thoroughly cleaned before proceeding with the
weld.
Spacers
backing rings, and they serve a number of purposes. For example, they provide a
means for maintaining the specified root opening, provide a convenient location for tack
welds, and aid in the pipe alignment. In addition, spacers can prevent weld spatter and
the formation of slag or icicles inside the pipe.
Weather Conditions

Before beginning to weld at temperatures between 0F and 32F, heat the weld area
within 3 inches of the joint with a torch to a temperature warm to the hand.

11.

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
4
5
6
8
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fillet
Bead
Butt
Tee

Welding procedure variables control the welding process and the quality of the welds
produced. The selection of the welding variables is done after the base metal, filler
metal, and joint design are selected. A proper selection of welding variables will make
the welding easier for the welder, increasing the chances of producing the weld
properties required. The three major types of welding variables are fixed or preselected,
primary adjustable, and secondary adjustable.
The fixed or preselected variables are those that are set before the welding takes place.
These are items such as the electrode size, type of shielding gas, and shielding gas
flow rate. Preselected variables are set according to the type of metal being welded,
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-110
metal thickness, welding position, deposition rate required, and mechanical properties
required. These are variables that cannot be easily changed once the welding starts.
process after the fixed variables have been selected. They control the formation of the
weld bead by affecting items such as bead width, bead height, depth of penetration, arc
stability, and weld soundness. The primary adjustable variables for gas metal arc
welding are the welding current, welding voltage, and travel speed. These are the best
controls over welding because they are
easily measured and can be continually
adjusted over a wide range.
The secondary adjustable variables are
the minor variables that can be continually
changed and used to control the welding
process. These variables are often more
difficult to measure or the effects of them
may not be as obvious. In many cases,
they do not directly affect the bead
formation, but they may cause a change in
a primary variable, which in turn causes a
change in bead formation. The secondary
variables are items such as the electrode
extension and the travel angles.
The different variables affect the
characteristics of the weld, such as the
penetration of the weld, bead height and
width, and penetration.
bead width, and the deposition rate. The
definitions of bead height, bead width, and
penetration are shown in Figure 10-92. The penetration of the weld is defined as the
greatest depth below the surface of the base metal or previous weld bead that the weld
metal reaches. The bead height is the height of the weld metal above the surface of the
base metal. The bead width is the width of the weld bead. The deposition rate is the
weight of metal that is deposited per unit of time.
The welding variables are discussed with particular attention to the three major
characteristics of penetration, deposition rate, and bead shape. Table 10-20 shows the
effects of welding variables on the three major characteristics.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-111
Table 10-20 Recommended welding variable adjustments for GMAW.

Welding
Variable
Change
Required
Arc Voltage
Travel Speed
Stick-out or
Tip to Work
Distance
Trailing
Max. 25
Wire Size
Gas Type
Increase
Decrease
Smaller
CO2
Shallower
Penetration
Bead Width
Nozzle
Angle
3
Deeper
Penetration
Bead Height
Welding
Current (See
footnote)
1
1
Larger Bead
Decrease
Increase
Leading
Decrease
2
3
Increase
Increase
Larger
Ar+CO2 c
Smaller Bead
Higher
Narrower Bead
Flatter Wider
Bead
Decrease
Decrease
Slower
Disposition Rate
Increase
Trailing
Max. 25
2
90 or
Leading
Increase
Faster
Deposition Rate
Increase
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Smaller b
Larger b
FOOTNOTE SAME ADJUSTMENT IS REQUIRED FOR WIRE FEED SPEED. KEY 1 FIRST CHOICE, 2 SECOND CHOICE, 3 THIRD CHOICE. 4
FOURTH CHOICE, 5 FIFTH CHOICE.
a WHEN THESE VARIABLES ARE CHANGED, THE WIRE FEED SPEED MUST BE ADJUSTED SO THAT THE WELDING CURRENT REMAINS
CONSTANT.
b SEE DEPOSITION RATE SECTION OF WELDING VARIABLES SECTION.
c THIS CHANGE IS ESPECIALLY HELPFUL ON MATERIALS 20 GAGE AND SMALLER IN THICKNESS.

The size of the electrode and the type of shielding gas used are fixed variables.
Each electrode wire diameter of a given chemical composition has a usable welding
current range. Larger diameter electrodes use higher current levels and produce higher
deposition rates and deeper penetration. The rate at which the electrode melts is a
function of the current density. If two electrode wires of different diameters are operated
at the same current level, the smaller one will give a higher deposition rate because the
heat is more concentrated. Figure 10-93 shows deposition rates produced by different
diameters of electrode wires. The penetration is also a function of the current density. A
smaller electrode wire will produce deeper penetration than a larger diameter wire at the
same current setting. The weld bead will be wider when using the larger electrode wire.
The choice of the size of the electrode wire to be used is dependent on the thickness of
the metal being welded, the amount of penetration required, the deposition rate desired,
the bead profile desired, the position of welding, and the cost of the different electrode
wires. A smaller electrode wire is more costly on a weight basis, but for each application
there is a wire size that will produce minimum welding costs.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-112
Figure 10-93 Deposition rates of different sizes of electrode wires using CO2.
9.1.2 Type of Shielding Gas
The different shielding gases used in gas metal arc welding each have their own
penetration, bead shape, and deposition rate characteristics. The choice of shielding
gas will also have an effect on the amount of smoke, gases, and spatter produced, the
welding speed used, the mechanical properties obtained, and the type of metal transfer.
For welding ferrous metals, carbon dioxide, argon-carbon dioxide, and argon-oxygen
mixtures are used most widely. Carbon dioxide shielding gas produces the highest
electrode burn-off rates, greatest depth of penetration, widest weld bead, and most
convex weld bead for a given current level. Carbon dioxide is the least expensive but
produces the most spatter and smoke. Because of the high heat input, faster travel
speeds may be used. Argon or argon-oxygen mixtures are the opposite of carbon
dioxide. These gases will give the lowest electrode burn-off rates, the least penetration,
and the narrowest, flattest weld bead for a given current level. Argon or argon-oxygen
mixtures produce the least amount of smoke and spatter. Argon-carbon dioxide
mixtures have characteristics in between carbon dioxide and argon-oxygen mixtures.
Figure 10-94 shows the bead profile and penetration characteristics of carbon dioxide,
argon-carbon dioxide mixtures, and argon-oxygen mixtures.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-113
For welding the non-ferrous

metals, the most commonly
used shielding gases are argon,
argon helium mixtures, and
helium. Argon produces the
least amount of penetration and
lowest electrode burn-off rates.
It also produces the narrowest
and flattest weld bead. Argon is
the least expensive of the three
types and produces the least
spatter. Helium produces the
most penetration, higher
electrode burn-off rates, and the
widest and most convex weld
bead. Helium causes higher
voltages for a given arc length,
is more expensive, and requires
higher flow rates than argon.
Argon-helium mixtures have
characteristics between argon
and helium. Figure 10-94 also
shows the weld bead profile
characteristics of argon, argonhelium mixtures, and helium.
Figure 10-94 Weld bead profile and

penetration characteristics of different
shielding gases.

As with any other type of welding, the GMAW procedure consists of certain variables
that you must understand and follow. Many of the variables have already been
discussed. This section applies some of these variables to the actual welding
procedure.
For a good arc start, the electrode must
make good electrical contact with the
work. For the best results, you should
clean the metal of all impurities. The wire
stick-out must be set correctly because as
the wire stick-out increases, the arc
initiation becomes increasingly difficult
(Figure 10-95).
Figure 10-95 Electrode stickout.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-114
When preparing to start the arc, hold the torch at an angle between 5 and 20 degrees.
Support the weight of the welding cable and gas hose across your shoulder to ensure
free movement of the welding torch. Hold the torch close to, but not touching, the
workpiece. Lower your helmet and squeeze the torch trigger. Squeezing the trigger
starts the flow of shielding gas and energizes the welding circuit. The wire-feed motor
does not energize until the wire electrode comes in contact with the work-piece. Move
the torch toward the work, touching the wire electrode to the work with a sideways
scratching motion (Figure 10-96). To prevent sticking, you should pull the torch back
quickly, about 1/2 inch, the instant contact is
made between the wire electrode and the
workpiece. The arc strikes as soon as
contact is made, and the wire-feed motor
feeds the wire automatically as long as you
hold the trigger.
A properly established arc has a soft,
sizzling sound. Adjustment of the wire-feed
control dial or the welding machine itself is
necessary when the arc does not sound
right. For example, a loud crackling sound
indicates that the arc is too short and that
the wire-feed speed is too fast. You may
correct this problem by moving the wire-feed
dial slightly counterclockwise. This
decreases the wire-feed speed and
Figure 10-96 Arc strike.
increases the arc length. A clockwise
movement of the dial has the opposite
effect. With experience, you can recognize
the sound of the proper length of arc to use
(Figure 10-97).
To break the arc, you simply release the
trigger. This breaks the welding circuit and
de-energizes the wire-feed motor. Should
the wire electrode stick to the work when
striking the arc or during welding, release
the trigger and clip the wire with a pair of
side cutters.
Figure 10-97 Following the arc.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-115

The amount of welding current used has the greatest effect on the deposition rate, the
weld bead size and shape, and the penetration of the weld. In a constant voltage
system, the welding current is controlled by the knob on the wire feeder control, which
controls the wire feed speed. As the wire feed speed is increased, the welding current
increases. In a constant current system, the welding current is set by a knob on the front
of the welding machine. As shown earlier in Figure 10-93, the deposition rate of the
process increases as the welding current increases. The lower part of the curve is flatter
than the upper part because at higher current levels, the melting rate of the electrode
increases at a faster rate as the current increases. This can be attributed to resistance
heating of the electrode extension beyond the contact tube. When all of the other
welding variables are held constant, increasing the welding current will increase the
depth and width of the weld penetration and the size of the weld bead. Figure 10-98
shows the effects of varying the welding current. An excessive current level will create a
large, deep penetrating weld bead, which wastes filler metal and can burn through the
bottom of the joint. An excessively low welding current produces insufficient penetration
and buildup of weld metal on the surface.
Figure 10-98 Effect of welding current on bead.

The welding voltage or arc voltage is determined by the distance between the tip of the
electrode and the work. In a constant voltage system, the welding voltage is adjusted by
a knob on the front of the power source because the machine maintains a given
voltage, which maintains a certain arc length. In a constant current system, the welding
voltage is controlled by the arc length held by the welder and the voltage sensing wire
feeder. The arc voltage required for an application is dependent on the electrode size,
type of shielding gas, position of welding, type of joint, and base metal thickness. There
is no set arc length that will consistently give the same weld bead characteristics. For
example, normal arc voltages in carbon dioxide and helium are much higher than those
obtained in argon. When the other variables are held constant and the arc voltage is
increased, the weld bead becomes flatter and wider. The penetration will increase up to
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-116
an optimum voltage level and then begin to decrease, as shown in Figure 10-99. A
higher voltage is often used to bridge a gap because of the decreased penetration
obtained. An excessively high arc voltage causes excessive spatter, porosity, and
undercutting. A decrease in the arc length produces a narrower weld bead with a
greater convexity and, down to the optimum voltage level, deeper penetration. An
excessively low arc voltage may cause porosity and overlapping at the edges of the
weld bead. Figures 10-100 and 10-101 show the effects of welding voltage on the bead
height and bead width respectively. Figure 10-102 shows the effects of varying the arc
length on the weld profile.
Figure 10-99 Effect of travel

speed, arc volts, and welding
current on penetration.

current on bead height.

current on bead width.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-117
Figure 10-102 Effect of arc voltage on bead and bead formation.

9.2.4 Travel Speed
The travel speed is the rate at which the arc travels along the workpiece.The travel
speed is controlled by the welder in semiautomatic welding. In machine and automatic
welding it is controlled by the machine. As shown in Figure 10-99, the penetration is
Figure 10-103 Effect of travel speed on bead.

maximum at a certain travel speed. Increasing or decreasing the travel speed from this
point will reduce the amount of penetration. When the travel speed is decreased, the
amount of filler metal deposited per unit length increases, which creates a large, shallow
weld puddle. Weld metal tends to get slightly ahead of the arc, which reduces the
amount of penetration and produces a wide weld bead. Reducing the travel speed will
increase the bead height, as shown in Figure 10-100. An excessively slow travel speed
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-118
can cause excessive piling up of the weld puddle overlapping at the edges, and
excessive heat input to the plate, which creates a larger heat affected zone. As the
travel speed is increased, the heat transmitted to the base metal is reduced, which
reduces the melting of the base metal and limits the amount of penetration. The bead
width and bead height are also decreased, as shown in Figures 10-100 and 10-101. An
excessive travel speed will tend to cause undercutting along the edges of the weld bead
because there is not enough filler metal to fill the groove melted by the arc. Figure 10103 shows the effects on the size and shape of the weld bead of different travel speeds.

Secondary variables include electrode
extension and angle.
The electrode extension, sometimes
referred to as stick-out, is the distance
between the tip of the contact tube and the
tip of the electrode (Figure 10-104). As this
distance is increased, the electrical
resistance of the electrode increases, which
increases the preheating on the electrode.
Because of this, less welding current is
required to melt the electrode at a given
wire feed rate. This is shown in Figure 10105. The measurements are made from the
tip of the contact tube to the surface of the
work using a constant welding voltage or
Figure 10-104 Electrode.
arc length. This distance is usually used
extension.
because it is easier to measure than the
actual electrode extension. Increasing the
electrode extension will reduce the amount
of penetration (Figure 10-106). An excessively long electrode extension results in an
excess of weld metal being deposited at low heat. This produces a poor weld bead
Figure 10-105 Effect of

electrode extension current.
NAVEDTRA 14250A

electrode extension on
penetration.
10-119
shape and shallow penetration. As the

contact tube-to-work distance increases, the
arc has a tendency to become less stable. A
longer electrode extension will also produce
a higher deposition rate, as shown in Figure
10-107. Typical electrode extensions range
from 1/4-1/2 in. (12.7-25.4 mm) for the other
types of metal transfer. The electrode
extension is often used to make adjustments
of the characteristics of the weld bead to
compensate for changes over a short length
of the weld, such as an area where the root
opening of the joint is excessively large or
small. If the penetration needed is to be
reduced to compensate for a large root
opening, the welder could increase the stickout, which reduces the welding current and
penetration in this area.
9.3.2 Electrode Angles

deposition rate.
The position of the welding electrode with

respect to the weld joint affects the shape of the weld bead and the amount of
penetration. The electrode angles are called the travel and work angles. The travel
angle of the electrode is the angle between the joint and electrode in the longitudinal
plane. A push angle exists when the electrode points in the direction of travel (forehand
welding) and a drag angle exists when the electrode points in the direction opposite to
travel (backhand welding). The work angle is the angle between the electrode and the
plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. The travel and work angles are shown in
Figure 10-108.
The effects on the weld bead with respect to travel angle are shown in Figure 10-109.
When the electrode angle is changed from 90 to a push angle, the amount of
penetration is decreased and the weld bead becomes wider and flatter. When changing
the electrode angle from 90 to a drag angle, the penetration will increase up to a travel
angle of 25 from the vertical where the maximum penetration is obtained. A travel
angle above this will start reducing the penetration and is not recommended because it
greatly increases the chances of overlapping. The drag angle produces a narrower,
more convex weld bead as well as a more stable arc with less spatter. A drag angle is
commonly used on steel; a push angle is used on aluminum to avoid contamination and
give good penetration but minimize the heat input to the base metal. Electrode travel
angles of approximately 5-15 are normally used in all positions for good control of the
molten weld puddle. When making fillet welds, the work angle should be approximately
45 from the plate.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-120
Figure 10-109 Effects of travel angle on penetration and bead shape.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-121

The welding procedure schedules in this chapter give typical welding conditions which
can be used to obtain high quality welds under normal welding conditions. Gas metal
arc welding uses a wide variety of operating conditions for welding a wide variety of
base metal types. The procedure schedules presented in this chapter are in no way a
complete guide to the procedures that can be used for GMAW, and are not the only
conditions that may be used to obtain a specific weld. These are not the only conditions
that could be used because factors such as weld appearances, welder skill, method of
application, and the specific application often require variations from the schedules. For
example, automatic GMAW usually employs higher welding currents and faster travel
speeds than semiautomatic welding.
The mode of metal transfer in GMAW has a large effect on the welding conditions. This
is because the different modes of metal transfer are dependent on the welding current
and voltage levels used, as well as the type of shielding gas. For example, the spray
transfer mode requires a higher welding current and often a different shielding gas than
the globular transfer mode. As the particular requirements of the application become
known, the settings may be adjusted to obtain the optimum welding conditions.
Qualifying tests or trials should be made under the actual conditions before using this
process for production welding.
When changing or adjusting the variables for welding, you must consider the effect of
the variables on each other. One variable cannot usually be drastically changed without
adjusting or changing the other variables to obtain a stable arc and good overall welding
conditions.
The following schedules are based on welding specific metals and using a specific
mode of metal transfer and method of application. The welding schedules for steel
include the semiautomatic and automatic methods of application and short-circuiting,
globular, and spray transfer modes of welding. Other base metals such as stainless
steel, aluminum, copper, magnesium, and nickel are also included. The tables use the
base metal thickness or fillet size, number of weld passes, electrode diameter, welding
current (wire feed speed), gas flow rate, and welding travel speed as variables. Each
table contains the type of shielding gas, type of joint, and the position of welding being
used. All of the schedules are based on using direct current electrode positive. Both the
welding current and wire feed speed values are given because even though the welding
current is set by the wire feed speed, it is sometimes more convenient to directly
establish the welding current without exactly knowing the wire feed speed. Figure 10110 shows wire feed speeds and their corresponding welding currents for several sizes
of steel electrode wire. Figure 10-111 shows wire feed speeds and their corresponding
welding currents for several sizes of non-ferrous metal electrode wire. Welding
procedure schedules for gas metal arc spot welding are given at the end of this section.
Many of the tables include welding conditions for both groove and fillet welds given on
the same chart. In general, fillet welds will use the higher current levels for the ranges
given and groove welds will generally use the lower end of the current range. See
Tables 10-21 through 10-33 for specific welding schedules.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-122
Figure 10-110 Wire-feed speed vs. welding current for steel electrodes.
Figure 10-111 Wire feed speed vs. welding current for several non-ferrous
electrodes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-123
Table 10-21 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of plain carbon and
low alloy steels using short circuiting metal transfer.
Thickness
of Base
Metal or
Electrode
Wire Feed
Gas
Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Fillet Size
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in./min
ft/hr
in./min
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(I/min)
(mm/s)
90-130
20 ga (.9)
.035 (.9)
15-17
65-85
18 ga ( 1.2)
.035 (.9)
17-19
80-100
(38-55)
35-40
20 (9)
(15-17)
20 (9)
(15-17)
120-170
(51-72)
35-40
150-190
1/16" (1.6)
.035 (.9)
17-19
90-110
(63-80)
30-35
25 (12)
190-240
3/32" (2.4)
.035 (.9)
18-20
110-130
(80-102)
1/8" (3.2)
.035 (.9)
19-21
140-160
(118-135)
25-30
25 (12)
250-320
045 (1.1)
20-23
180-200
(89-102)
.035 (.9)
19-21
140-160
(118-135)
25 (12)
.045 (1.1)
20-23
180-200
(89-102)
25 (12)
.035 (.9)
19-21
140-160
( 118-135)
25 (12)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
.045 (1.1)
20-23
180-200
(118-135)
(7.5-10)
10-15
25 (12)
210-240
1/4" (6.4)
(6-8)
18-23
280-320
1/4" (6.4)
(11-14)
14-19
210-240
3/16" (4.8)
(6-8)
27-32
280-320
3/16" (4.8)
(11-13)
20-25
25 (12)
210-240
1/8" (3.2)
(13-15)
(4-6.5)
12-17
25(12)
(5-7)
10-124
Fillet
size
in.
(mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
3/8
(9.5)
1-2
.035 (.9)
19-21
150-160
1/2
(12.7)
2-3
.035 (.9)
20-22
160-170
3/4
(19.1)
3-4
.035 (.9)
20-22
170-180
No. of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Electrode
Diameter Welding Welding
Wire
Feed
Speed
in./min.
Gas
Flow
Rate
Ft3/hr.
(mm/s)
290-320
(123135)
320-350
(135148)
350-380
(148161)
(l/min)
(mm/s)
6-7
25 (12)
(2.5-3)
5-6
25 (12)
(2-2.5
4-5
25 (12)
(1.5-2)
Travel
Speed
in./min
10-125
Fillet
size
in.
(mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
3/8 (9.5)
.035 (.9)
19-21
150-160
1/2
(12.7)
.035 (.9)
20-22
160-170
3/4
(19.1)
.035 (.9)
20-22
170-180
No. of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Electrode
Diameter Welding Welding
Wire
Feed
Speed
in./min.
Gas
Flow
Rate
FT3/hr.
(mm/s)
290-320
(123135)
320-350
(135148)
350-380
(148161)
(l/min)
(mm/s)
11-12
25 (12)
(5-5.5)
7-8
25 (12)
(3-3.5)
6-7
25 (12)
(2.5-3)
Travel
Speed
in./min
10-126
low alloy steels using globular metal transfer.
Thickness
of Base
Metal or
Electrode
Wire Feed
Gas
Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Fillet Size
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in./min
ft/hr
in./min
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(I/min)
(mm/s)
325-375
18 ga ( 1.2)
.045 (1.1)
24-26
260-290
(137-159)
16 ga (1.5)
.045 (1.1)
26-28
300-340
(169-203)
180-190
25 (12)
400-480
140-150
35 (17)
410-500
14 ga (1.9)
.045 (1.1)
27-29
310-350
(173-212)
1/16 (1.6)
27-29
360-400
(114-131)
35 (17)
045 (1.1)
28-30
330-370
(190-233)
35 (17)
1/16 (1.6)
30-32
375-425
(118-135)
1/4" (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
31-33
450-500
(152-178)
35 (17)
35 (17)
(30-34)
35 (17)
(19-23)
45-55
125-150
1
3/32 (2.4)
33-35
550-600
( 53-63)
30-40
35 (17)
150-175
1/2 (12.7)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
3/32 (2.4)
35-37
600-650
(63-74)
(38-47)
70-80
360-420
3/8 (9.5)
(32-40)
90-110
280-320
3/16" (4.8)
(42-55)
75-95
450-550
1/8" (3.2)
(59-63)
100-130
270-310
1/8" (3.2)
(76-80)
(13-17)
25-35
35 (17)
(11-15)
10-127
low alloy steels using globular metal transfer.
Thickness
of Base
Electrode
Wire
Feed
Gas
Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Metal
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in./min
ft/hr
in./min
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(I/min)
(mm/s)
35 (17)
200-30
(8.513)
130-145
1/2 (12.7)
3/32 (2.4)
35-37
525-575
(55-61)
150-175
5/8 (15.9)
3/32 (2.4)
36-38
600-650
(63-74)
17-25
35 (17)
(7-11)
35 (17)
15-23
(6.510)
90-100
3/4 (19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
36-38
650-700
(38-42)
90-100
1 (25.4)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1/8 (3.2)
36-38
650-700
(38-42)
12-20
35 (17)
(5-8.5)
10-128
low alloy steels using spray transfer.
Thickness
of Base
Metal
in. (mm)
1/8 (3.2)
No. of
Passes
Electrode
Diameter
in. (mm)
Welding
Voltage
Welding
Current
1/16 (1.6)
23-25
275-325
Wire Feed
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
Gas
Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(I/min)
Travel
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
45 (21)
(14-15)
155-175
(66-74)
34-36
210-260
3/16 (4.8)
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
(89-110)
31-33
45 (21)
210-260
1/4 (6.4)
1-2
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
1/4 (6.4)
1-2
3/32 (2.4)
26-29
400-450
(89-110)
30-32
45 (21)
(13-14)
45 (21)
(14-15)
100-120
(42-51)
32-35
100-120
3/8 (9.5)
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
(42-51)
20-24
45 (21)
100-120
3/8 (9.5)
1-2
3/32 (2.4)
26-29
400-450
(42-51)
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
(89-110)
45 (21)
3/32 (2.4)
26-29
400-450
3/4 (19.1)
4-5
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
(42-51)
45 (21)
45 (21)
3/32 (2.4)
26-29
400-450
(42-51)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
(89-110)
(9-11)
24-28
45 (21)
210-260
1 (25.4)
(11-13)
22-26
45 (21)
100-120
3/4 (19.1)
(9-11)
26-30
210-260
(89-110)
(8-12)
22-26
100-120
1/2 (12.7)
(8-10)
20-28
210-260
1/2 (12.7)
(13-14)
(10-12)
22-26
45 (21)
(9-11)
10-129
1 (25.4)
1/16 (1.6)
24-26
325-375
3/32 (2.4)
26-29
400-450
6
1 (25.4)
(89-110)
45 (21)
(9-11)
45 (21)
(10-12)
100-120
(42-51)
24-28
Table 10-27 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of stainless steel.
Thickness
of Base
Metal
No. of
Electrode
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
1/16 (1.6)
.035 (.9)
15-18
60-100
Wire Feed
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
125-200
(53-85)
Gas
Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(I/min)
15 (7)
250-320
3/32 (2.4)
.035 (.9)
18-21
125-150
(106-135)
.045 (1.1)
18-21
125-150
(55-68)
15 (7)
.035 (.9)
19-24
130-160
(110-140)
15 (7)
.045 (1.1)
19-24
150-225
(68-106)
5/32 (4.0)
.045 (1.1)
22-26
190-250
(85-123)
15 (7)
15 (7)
(8-13)
20 (9)
(11-13)
25-30
250-370
NAVEDTRA 14250A
.045 (1.1)
24-30
225-300
(106-157)
(8-11)
20-30
200-290
1/4 (6.4)
(11-13)
20-25
160-250
1/8 (3.2)
(11-13)
25-30
260-330
1/8 (3.2)
(mm/s)
25-30
(11-13)
25-30
130-160
3/32 (2.4)
Travel
Speed
in./min
25-30
25 (12)
(11-13)
10-130
Table 10-28 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of aluminum and

alloys.
Wire Feed
Fillet
Electrode
Gas Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
in./min.
ft3/hr.
in./min
Current
(mm/s)
(l/min)
(mm/s)
15 (7)
12-24
(6-10)
size
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
1/16 (1.6)
.035 (.9)
13-14
55-60
250-300
(106-127)
3/32 (2.4)
.035 (.9)
16-18
90-100
300-350
(127-148)
30 (14)
24-36
(10-15)
1/8 (3.2)
3/64 (1.2)
19-21
110-130
160-200
(68-85)
35 (17)
22-26
(9-11)
3/16 (4.8)
3/64 (1.2)
19-21
150-190
225-275
(95-116)
35 (17)
20-25
(8-11 )
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
20-22
175-225
150-190
(63-80)
35 (17)
20-25
(8-11 )
3/8 (7.9)
1/16 (1.6)
21-26
200-250
170-210
(72-89)
40 (19)
24-30
(10-13)
112 (12.7)
3-5
1/16 (1.6)
24-29
200-250
170-210
(72-89)
50 (24)
12-18
(5-7.5)
1/2 (12.7)*
2-3
3/32 (2.4)
26-28
240-280
140-150
(59-63)
45 (21)
15-20
(6.5-8.5)
3/4 (19.1)
4-8
1/16 (1.6)
22-27
250-300
230-260
(97-110)
50 (24)
10-16
(4-7)
3/4 (19.1)*
3-4
3/32 (2.4)
27-29
280-320
150-160
(63-68)
50 (24)
16-22
(7-9.5)
1 (25.4)
6-10
1/16 (1.6)
22-27
250-300
230-260
(97-110)
50 (24)
8-14
(3.5-6)
1 (25.4)*
5-6
3/32 (2.4)
27-29
280-320
150-160
(63-68)
50 (24)
14-26
(6-8.5)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-131
Table 10-29 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of copper and copper
alloys.
Thickness
of Base
Metal
in. (mm)
Welding
Current
Wire Feed
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
Gas Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(I/min)
Travel
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
22-24
150-170
210-220
(89-93)
35 (17)
20-23
(8-10)
3/64 (1.2)
22-25
180-200
240-270
(102-114)
40(19)
20-25
(8.5-11 )
3/64 (1.2)
23-27
200-230
270-290
(114-123)
40 (19)
20-25
(8.5-11 )
1/8 (3.2)
3/64 (1.2)
23-27
210-240
280-300
(118-127)
40 (19)
20-25
(8.5-11 )
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
23-27
340-360
190-210
(80-89)
40 (19)
12-15
(5-6.5)
3/8 (7.9)
1/16 (1.6)
24-28
380-410
220-240
(93-102)
40 (19)
12-15
(5-6.5)
1/2 (12.7)
1/16 (1.6)
24-28
400-440
270-290
(114-123)
50 (19)
8-10
(3.5-4)
3/4 (19.1)
2-3
1/16 (1.6)
24-30
420-460
280-300
(118-127)
50 (24)
7-9
(3.5-4)
1 (25.4)
1/16 (1.6)
24-30
420-460
280-300
(118-127)
50 (24)
7-9
(3.5-4)
No. of
Passes
Electrode
Diameter
in. (mm)
Welding
Voltage
1/16 (1.6)
3/64 (1.2)
5/64 (2.0)
7/64 (2.8)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-132
Silicon Bronze
Thickness
of Base
Metal
in. (mm)
No. of
Electrode
Diameter
Welding
Welding
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
1/8 (3.2)
3/64 (1.2)
25-28
220-230
1/4 (6.4)
1-3
1/16 (1.6)
27-30
170-190
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
25-28
220-250
1/2 (12.7)
3-5
1/16 (1.6)
27-30
180-200
Wire Feed
Speed
in./min
Gas Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(mm/s)
(I/min)
220-230
(93-97)
170-190
(72-80)
220-250
(93-106)
180-200
(76-85)
Aluminum Bronze
Thickness
of Base
Electrode
35 (17)
40 (19)
50 (24)
50(24)
Travel
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
25-32
(11-14)
25-32
(11-14)
30-34
(13-14)
15-20
(6.5-8.5)
Wire Feed
Speed
Gas
Flow
Rate
Travel
Speed
Metal
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in./min
ft/hr
in./min
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(I/min)
(mm/s)
1/8 (3.2)
3/64 (1.2)
22-25
190-225
1/4(6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
23-29
275-300
3/8(7.9)
3-6
1/16 (1.6)
23-29
300-340
1/2 (12.7)
6-8
1/16 (1.6)
23-29
320-350
5/8 (15.9)
6-8
1/16(1.6)
23-29
320-350
3/4 (19.1)
6-8
1/16 (1.6)
23-29
340-370
NAVEDTRA 14250A
280-300
(118-127)
170-190
(72-80)
190-210
(80-89)
200-220
(85-93)
200-220
(85-93)
210-230
(89-97)
40 (19)
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
18-24
(7.5-10)
16-22
(7-9.5)
16-22
(7-9.5)
11-15
(4.5-6.5)
9-13
(4-5.5)
8-12
(3.5-5)
10-133
Table 10-30 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of nickel and nickel
alloys.
Thickness
of Base
Electrode
Wire Feed
Speed
Gas
Flow
Rate
Travel
Speed
ft/hr
in./min
(I/min)
(mm/s)
55-65
(23-27)
30-35
(13-15)
20-25
(8.5-11 )
Metal
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in./min
in. (mm)
Passes
in. (mm)
Voltage
Current
1/16 (1.6)
3/64 (1.2)
21-23
200-230
1/8 (3.2
)1
1/16 (1.6)
25-27
310-350
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
26-28
300-350
(mm/s)
290-310
(123-131 )
190-215
(80-91 )
180-215
(76-91 )
NAVEDTRA 14250A
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
10-134
Table 10-31 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of magnesium alloys.
Thickness
of Base
Metal
in. (mm)
Welding
Current
Wire Feed
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
Gas Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(I/min)
Travel
Speed
in./min
(mm/s)
14-17
40-70
225-325
(95-137)
50 (24)
30-36
(13-15)
.040 (1.0)
14-17
50-90
275-425
(116-180)
50 (24)
30-36
(13-15)
1/16 (1.6)
15-19
100-140
275-350
(116-148)
50 (24)
30-36
(13-15)
1/8 (3.2)
1/16 (1.6)
15-19
120-160
310-380
(131-161)
50 (24)
24-32
(10-14)
3/16 (4.8)
1/16 (1.6)
24-29
220-270
515-615
(218-260)
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
24-29
250-300
575-675
(243-286)
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
3/8 (9.5)
1/16 (1.6)
24-29
275-375
625-725
(264-307)
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
3/8 (9.5)
3/32 (2.4)
24-29
300-350
330-380
(140-161 )
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
1/2 (12.7)
1/16 (1.6)
23-26
320-370
725-825
(307-349)
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
1/2 (12.7)
2-3
3/32 (2.4)
24-29
330-380
365-410
(154-173)
65 (31)
24-32
(10-14)
5/8 (15.9)
3/32 (2.4)
25-30
350-400
380-430
(161-182)
65 (31)
20-30
(8.5-13)
1 (25.4)
3/32 (2.4)
25-30
350-400
380-430
(161-182)
65 (31)
20-30
(9.5-13)
No. of
Passes
Electrode
Diameter
in. (mm)
Welding
Voltage
.044 (1.0)
.040 (1.0)
1/16 (16)
3/32 (2.4)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-135
Table 10-32 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of plain carbon steel.
Wire
Consumed
Per Spot
Gas Flow
Rate
ft/hr
(I/min)
Shear
Strength
Per Spot
lbs. (kN)
Metal
Thickness
in. (mm)
Electrode
Diameter
in. (mm)
Arc Spot
Time
sec.
Welding
Voltage
Welding
Current
24 ga. (.6)
.030 (.8)
1.0
24
90
4.6(117)
25 (12)
625 (2.78)
22 ga. (.8)
.030 (.8)
1.2
27
120
5.0 (127)
25 (12)
730 (3.25)
in./min
22 ga (.8)
.035 (.9)
1.0
26
140
6.0 (152)
25 (12)
800(3.561
20 ga. (.9)
.030 (.8)
1.2
27
120
10.1 (257)
25 (12)
1337 (5.95)
20 ga. (.9)
.035 (.9)
1.0
26
140
6.0 (152)
25 (12)
1147 (5.10)
18 ga. (1.2)
.035 (.9)
1.0
27
190
8.5 (216)
25 (12)
1507 (6.70)
18 ga. (1.2)
.045 (1.1)
0.7
27
200
4.0 (102)
25 (12)
1414 (6.29)
1434 (6.38)
16 ga.(1.5)
.035 (.9)
2.0
28
190
17.3 (438)
25 (12)
16 ga. (1.5)
.045 (1.1)
1.0
29
260
6.0 (152)
25 (12)
2070 (9.21)
16 ga (1.5)
1/16 (1.6)
1.0
29
250
2.8 (70)
35 (17)
1654 (7.36)
14 ga. (1.9)
.035 (.9)
5.0
28
190
40.5 (1029)
25 (12)
2600 (11.57)
14 ga. (1.9)
.045 (1.1)
1.5
30
300
12.8 (324)
25 (12)
3224 (14.34)
14 ga (1.9)
1/16 (1.6)
1.0
31
360
5.5 (140)
35 (17)
3340 (14.86)
12 ga. (2.7)
.045 (1.1)
3.5
30
300
28.5 (724)
25 (12)
4300 (19.13)
12 ga. (2.7)
1/16~1.6)
1.0
32
440
7.3 (184)
35 (17)
5000 (22.24)
4114 (18.30)
11 ga (3.0)
.045(1.1)
4.2
30
300
4 (864)
25 (12)
11 ga. (3.0)
1/16 (1.6)
1.0
32
490
8.5 (216)
35 (17)
634 (25.06)
5/32 (4.0)
1/16 (1.61
1.5
32
490
9 (229)
35 (17)
5447 (24.25)
3/16 (4.8)
1/16 (1.6)
2.0
32
490
16.8 (425)
35(17)
6834 (30.40)
1/4 (6.4)
1/16 (1.6)
3.5
32
490
28.1 (714)
35 (17)
8667 (38.55)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-136
Table 10-33 Welding procedure schedules for GMAW of aluminum and

aluminum alloys.
Metal
Electrode
Arc
Spot
Thickness
in. (mm)
.020 (.5)
.030 (.8)
.040 (1.0)
.040 (1.0)
.050 (1.3)
.050 (1.3)
.064 (1.6)
.064 (1.6)
.080 (2.0)
.092 (2.3)
.125 (3.2)
Diameter
in. (mm)
3/64 (1.2)
3/64 (1.2)
3/64 (1.2)
1/16 (1.6)
3/64 (1.2)
1/16(1.6)
3/64 (1.2)
1/16 (1.6)
1/16 (1.6)
1/16 (1.6)
1/16 (1.6)
Time
sec.
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.8
0.4
1.0
0.5
1.2
1.4
2.0
2.2
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Welding
Voltage
23
23
24
24
25
24
26
24
24
23
23
Welding
Current
105
135
175
320
225
335
270
340
375
300
300
Wire
Gas
Flow
Consumed
Rate
Per Spot
in./min
0.8 (21)
1.0 (25)
1.3 (33)
4.4 (113)
2.2 (56)
6.0 (152)
3.1 (79)
7.5 (191)
9.5 (241)
10.9 (277)
12 (305)
ft/hr
(I/min)
35 (17)
35 (17)
35 (17)
50 (24)
35 (17)
50 (24)
35 (17)
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
50 (24)
10-137

Preparation is the key to producing quality weldments with the gas metal arc welding
process. Several operations may be required before making a weld. These include
preparing the weld joint, cleaning the nozzle of the weld gun, setting up or fixturing the
weldment, setting the variables, and in some cases preheating. The amount of preweld
preparation depends upon the size of the weld, the material to be welded, the ease of
fitup, the quality requirements, the governing code or specification, and the welder.

For the most part, the same joint designs recommended for other arc welding processes
can be used for GMAW (refer to Chapter 3). However, some minor modifications should
be considered due to the welding characteristics of the GMAW process. Since the arc in
GMAW is more penetrating and narrower than the arc for shielded metal arc welding,
groove joints can have smaller root faces and root openings. Also, since the nozzle
does not have to be placed within the groove, less beveling of the plates is required.
GMAW welding can actually lower material costs since you use less weld metal in the
joint.
There are different ways of preparing the edges of the joint for welding. The methods
most often used for edge preparation are oxygen fuel cutting, plasma arc cutting,
shearing, machining, air carbon arc gouging, grinding, and chipping. When they can be
used, the thermal cutting methods, oxy fuel, plasma arc cutting, and air carbon arc
cutting are generally faster than the mechanical cutting methods, with the exception of
shearing. Oxygen fuel cutting is used on carbon and low alloy steels; plasma arc cutting
is used on ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and is best for applications where high
production rates are required. Air carbon arc cutting is used for preparing joints in most
steels including stainless steels, but this process should not be used on stainless steels
for critical corrosion applications because of the carbon deposited, unless the cut
surfaces are cleaned by grinding and brushing. The surfaces cut by these thermal
methods often have to be ground lightly to remove scale or contamination. Common
types of prepared joints are the V-, U-, J-, bevel-, and combination grooves, The more
complex types of bevels require longer joint preparation times, which makes the joint
preparation more expensive.
Since GMAW is used on all metal thicknesses, all of the different joint preparations are
widely employed. Joints for fillet or square-groove welds are prepared simply by
squaring the edges of the members to be welded if the as-received edge is not suitable.
Next to the square-edge preparation, the V-groove and single-bevel grooves are the
types most easily prepared by oxygen fuel cutting, plasma arc cutting, chipping, or
machining. These methods leave a smooth surface if properly done. The edges of Uand J-grooves can be done by using special tips and techniques with oxy fuel cutting or
machining, which will produce a uniform groove. Carbon arc cutting is used extensively
for preparing U-grooves in steels, and for removing part of root passes, so the joint can
be welded from both sides. Chipping is done on the backside of the weld when full
penetration is required on non-ferrous metals.
Weld backings are commonly used in GMAW to provide support for the weld metal and
to control the heat input. Copper, steel, stainless steel, and backing tape, which are
used as weld backing, are the three most common methods. Copper is a widely used
method of weld backing because it does not fuse to thin metals. It also provides a fast
cooling rate because of the high heat conductivity of copper, which makes this the best
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-138
method of controlling the heat input. Steel backing is used when welding steels. These
are fusible and remain part of the weldment unless they are cut off, usually by oxy fuel,
air carbon arc cutting, or grinding. Stainless steels are good backing materials for
GMAW of aluminum, magnesium, and the other non-ferrous metals. Backing tape is
popular because it can be molded to any joint configuration, such as the inside of a
pipe.

Welds made by gas metal arc welding are very susceptible to contamination during the
welding process. The surface of the base metal must be free of grease, oil, paint,
plating, dirt, oxides, or any other foreign material. This is especially critical when welding
aluminum and the non-ferrous metals. Except for titanium, very dirty workpieces are
usually cleaned by using solvent cleaners, followed by vapor degreasing. Simple
degreasing is often used for cleaning metals that have oxide-free surfaces. Acid pickling
is generally used for cleaning metals that have a light oxide coating; heavier oxide
coatings are generally removed mechanically by grinding and abrasive blasting.
The type of cleaning operation will vary, depending on the type of metal. Aluminum
forms a thick, refractory oxide coating, which has a high electrical resistance. This oxide
coating is removed by deoxidation with a hot alkaline cleaning solution, followed by
rinsing in distilled water. Carbon and low alloy steels may be cleaned chemically in a
hydrochloric acid solution. Nickel alloys and stainless steels may be cleaned by pickling,
which removes iron, sand blast residue, and other contaminants. Titanium and titanium
alloys may be cleaned in molten salt baths or by abrasive blasting. Chlorinated solvents,
which are used for degreasing operations, should not be used on titanium because they
will cause corrosion cracking. Welding should never be done near chlorinated solvents
because the arc can create phosgene gas, which is toxic. Chemical cleaning can be
done by pickling.
Just before welding, you should perform several other tasks. One is to file the edges of
the joint smooth so there are no burrs. Burrs can cause physical pain as well as create
a place to trap contaminants in a weld joint. You can use grinding on plain carbon and
low alloy steels to remove burrs and rust or mill scale from the area in and around the
joint. You should wire brush the surfaces of the joint and surrounding area. Use mild
steel brushes for cleaning plain carbon and low alloy steel, and stainless steel wire
brushes for cleaning stainless steel, aluminum, and the other non-ferrous metals.
You should also brush off the joint surfaces and surface of the previous weld bead
between passes of a multiple pass weld. Use stainless steel brushes on these metals to
avoid contamination due to rust or carbon from the mild steel wire brushes. Begin
welding soon after cleaning, especially on metals that form moderate or thick surface
oxides, such as stainless steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Wire brushing does not
completely remove the oxide, but it reduces their thickness and makes the metals
easier to weld. Wear gloves while cleaning stainless steels and non-ferrous metals to
prevent oil or dirt from your fingers from getting on the joint surfaces, which can also
cause contamination.

Fixturing can affect the shape, size, and uniformity of a weld bead. Fixtures are devices
that are used to hold the parts to be welded in proper relation to each other. When
fixturing is not used, it usually indicates that the resulting weld distortion can be
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-139
tolerated or be corrected by straightening operations. The three major functions of

fixtures are the following:
1. Locate and maintain parts in their positions relative to the assembly.
2. Increase the welding efficiency of the welder.
3. Control distortion in the weldment.
When a welding fixture is used, the components of a weldment can be assembled and
securely held in place while the weldment is positioned and welded. Using these
devices is dependent on the specific application. They are used more often when large
numbers of the same parts are produced. When fixtures can be used, the production
time for the weldments can be greatly reduced. They are also good for applications
where close tolerances must be held.
Positioners are used to move the workpiece into a position so welding can be done
more conveniently, which affects the appearance and quality of the weld bead.
Positioning is sometimes needed simply to make the weld joint more accessible. The
position, which increases the efficiency of the welder because higher welding speeds
can be used. This also allows the use of larger diameter wires with globular and high
current spray transfer. These modes of metal transfer will produce the highest
deposition rates, and flat position welding usually increases the quality of the weld
because it makes the welding easier.
11.4.0 Preheating
Preheating is sometimes required, but this depends on the type of metal being welded,
the base metal thickness, and the amount of joint restraint. The specific amount of
preheat needed for a given application is often obtained from the welding procedure.
The preheat temperature of the metal is often carefully controlled. There are several
good methods of performing this such as furnace heating, electric induction coils, and
electric resistance heating blankets. On thin materials, hot air blasts or radiant lamps
may be used. With these methods, temperature indicators are attached to the parts
being preheated. Oxy fuel torches are another method of preheating. This method gives
a more localized heating than the previously mentioned methods. When using oxy fuel
torches, it is important to avoid localized overheating and deposits of incomplete
combustion products from collecting on the surface of the parts to be welded. There are
several methods of measuring the temperature of preheat, such as temperature color
crayons, pellets, and hand-held temperature indicators. The crayons and pellets melt at
a specific predetermined temperature. The hand-held temperature indicators can give
meter readings, digital readings, or recorder readings, depending on the type of
temperature indicators.

13.
Which is NOT a major type of welding variable?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fixed
Primary adjustable
Secondary fixed
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-140
14.
What is the main objective of a positioning fixture?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Stop warping
Proper alignment
Increase access
Portability
12.0.0 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES and PROBLEMS

Once you get the feel of welding with GMAW equipment, you will probably find the
techniques are less difficult to master than many of the other welding processes;
however, as with any other welding process, GMAW does have some pitfalls. To
produce good quality welds, you must learn to recognize and correct possible welding
defects. The following are a few of the more common defects you may encounter, along
with corrective actions that you can take.

Like all welding processes, GMAW can develop discontinuities or defects that include
one or a combination of multiple defects, including inclusions, porosity, wormhole
porosity, undercutting, incomplete fusion, overlapping, melt-through, whiskers,
excessive spatter, arc strikes, and craters.
These problems with the welding technique or procedure weaken the weld and can
cause cracking. A poor welding technique and improper choice of welding parameters
are major causes of weld defects. Some defects are caused by the use of improper
base metal, filler metal, or shielding gas.
The base metal and filler metal should also be clean to avoid creating a discontinuity.
These defects will appear in many of your early attempts, but will usually disappear as
you put forth more practice effort and gain experience.
12.1.1 Inclusions
There are two basic types of inclusions that
can occur in gas metal arc welding: slag
inclusions and oxide inclusions (Figure 10112). Inclusions cause a weakening of the
weld and often serve as crack initiation
points. GMAW does not have as many
problems with slag inclusions as shielded
metal arc welding because the weld puddle
is protected by a shielding gas instead of by
Figure 10-112 Inclusions.
a slag layer. Some electrodes, particularly
those used for welding steel, will sometimes
leave small, glassy slag islands on the surface of the weld. Slag inclusions can be
caused by welding over these in multiple pass welds. The best method of preventing
this problem is to clean the surface of the weld bead, especially the toes of the weld
where any slag can be easily trapped.
An oxide inclusion is a film type inclusion. These inclusions often occur when
excessively high travel speeds are used when welding metals such as aluminum,
magnesium, or stainless steel, which have heavy oxide coatings; the oxide coatings on
the surface of these metals become mixed in the weld puddle. Methods of preventing or
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-141
correcting this problem are to reduce the travel speed, increase the welding voltage,
and use a more highly deoxidized type of electrode.
Another major cause of oxide inclusions is by welding the metal without cleaning.
Because of the thick oxide coatings on the surface of aluminum, magnesium, and
stainless steel, you should reduce the thickness of the oxide layer by chemical cleaning,
grinding, or wire brushing before welding. This will decrease the chance of an oxide
inclusion being formed.
12.1.2 Porosity
Porosity is the presence of gas pockets in the weld metal that may be scattered in small
clusters or along the entire length of the weld (Figure 10-113). These voids left in the
weld cause it to be weakened. Porosity may be internal, on the surface of the weld
bead, or both. This discontinuity is caused by one or more of the following:
1. Inadequate shielding gas flow rate
2. Wind drafts that deflect the shielding
gas coverage
3. Blockage of the shielding gas flow
when spatter builds up on the nozzle
4. Contaminated or wet shielding gas
6. Excessive welding voltage
7. Excessive electrode extension
8. Excessive travel speed which
causes freezing of the weld puddle
before gases can escape
9. Rust, grease, oil, moisture, or dirt on the surface of the base metal or filler wire
including moisture trapped in aluminum oxide
10. Impurities in the base metal, such as sulfur and phosphorous in steel
Porosity can be prevented or corrected by the following:
1. Increasing the shielding gas flow rate.
2. Setting up wind shields.
3. Cleaning the nozzle of the welding gun.
4. Replacing the cylinder of shielding gas.
5. Lowering the welding current (reducing the wire feed speed).
6. Decreasing the voltage.
7. Decreasing the electrode extension.
8. Reducing the travel speed.
9. Cleaning the surface of the base metal or filler metal.
10. Changing to a different base metal with a different composition.
12.1.3 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)
Wormhole porosity is the name given to
elongated gas pockets, and is usually caused
by sulfur in the steel or moisture on the
surface of the base metal which becomes
trapped in the weld joint (Figure 10-114).
Wormhole porosity can seriously reduce the
strength of the weld. The best methods of
preventing this are to clean the surfaces of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-114 Wormhole.
10-142
the joint and preheat to remove moisture. If sulfur in the steel is the problem, a more
weldable grade of steel should be selected.
12.1.4 Undercutting
Undercutting is a groove melted in the base metal next to the toe or root of a weld that
is not filled by the weld metal (Figure 10-115). This is particularly a problem with fillet
welds. Undercutting causes a weaker joint at the toe of the weld, which may result in
cracking.
It is caused by one or more of the following:
2. Arc voltage too high
3. Excessive travel speed which does
not allow enough filler metal to be
added
4. Erratic feeding of the electrode wire.
6. Incorrect electrode angles, especially
on vertical and horizontal welds
It can be prevented by the following:

2. Reducing the welding voltage.
3. Using a travel speed slow enough so the weld metal can completely fill all of the
melted-out areas of the base metal.
4. Cleaning the nozzle inside of the contact tube, or removing the jammed electrode
wire.
5. Pausing at each side of the weld bead when a weaving technique is used.
6. Correcting the electrode angles being used.
12.1.5 Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion occurs when the weld
metal is not completely fused to the base
metal (Figure 10-116). This can occur
between the weld metal and the base
metal, or between passes in a multiple pass
weld. Incomplete fusion between the weld
metal and the base metal is usually due to
inadequate penetration. This is often a
major problem with the short-circuiting
Figure 10-116 Incomplete
mode of metal transfer. When shortfusion.
circuiting welding is done, wider root
openings are often used to allow better
penetration. You should take more care when using a weaving technique to prevent
creating an area of incomplete penetration because short-circuiting welding has the
poorest penetration characteristics of the different modes of gas metal arc welding.
Incomplete fusion between passes in a multiple pass weld is often caused by welding
over a previous weld bead that has an excessive convexity. If an excessively convex
weld bead is created, grind the surface off enough so complete fusion can be made by
the next pass. Causes of incomplete fusion can be the following:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-143
1. Excessive travel speed which causes an excessively convex weld bead or does
not allow adequate penetration
4. Letting the weld metal get ahead of the arc or letting the weld layer get too thick,
which keeps the arc away from the base metal
Incomplete fusion can be prevented by the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Increasing the welding current.
Preparing the joint better.
Using proper electrode angles or
increasing the travel speed.
A special type of incomplete fusion is

wagon tracks, shown in Figure 10-117.
Figure 10-117 Wagon tracks.
Wagon tracks are linear voids along both

sides of a weld deposit and are usually caused by a highly convex weld bead. The area
where the bead fuses to the side of the joint is depressed, and the following weld bead
may not completely fill the void. The excessive convexity of the bead can be reduced by
using a slightly higher arc voltage, or increasing the travel speed. If you must weld over
a bead with an excessively convex profile, grinding is often required to make the voids
more accessible.
12.1.6 Overlapping
Overlapping is the protrusion of the weld
metal over the edge or toe of the weld bead
(Figure 10-118). This defect can cause an
area of incomplete fusion which creates a
notch and can lead to crack initiation. If this
is allowed to occur, you can grind off the
excess weld metal after welding.
Overlapping is produced by one or more of
the following:

1. Too slow a travel speed, which
permits the weld puddle to get ahead of the electrode
2. Arc welding current that is too low.
3. Incorrect electrode angle that allows the force of the arc to push the molten weld
metal over unfused sections of the base metal
Overlapping can be prevented or corrected by the following:

1. Using a higher travel speed.
2. Using a higher welding current.
3. Using the correct electrode angles.
12.1.7 Melt-through
Melt-through occurs when the arc melts
through the bottom of the weld and creates
holes (Figure 10-119). This can be caused
by one or more of the following:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-119 Melt through.10-144

2. Travel speed that is too slow
3. Root opening that is too wide or a root face that is too small.
This can be prevented by the following:
2. Increasing the travel speed.
3. Reducing the width of the root opening, using a slight weaving motion, or
increasing the electrode extension.
12.1.8 Whiskers
Whiskers are short lengths of weld
electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or contained within the
weld (Figure 10-120). They are caused by
pushing the electrode wire past the leading
edge of the weld puddle. The small sections
of wire will protrude inside the joint and are
welded to the deposited metal.
They can be prevented by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Using a weaving motion.
Increasing electrode extension.
Reducing electrode current.
Figure 10-120 Whiskers.
Spatter consists of the metal particles

expelled during welding. Excessive weld spatter creates a poor weld appearance,
wastes electrodes, causes difficult slag removal, and can lead to incomplete fusion in
multi-pass welds. In addition, excessive spatter can block the flow of shielding gas from
the nozzle, which causes porosity. The amount of welding spatter produced in GMAW
varies depending on the type of metal transfer and the type of shielding gas. For
example, globular transfer with carbon dioxide shielding creates high levels of spatter
compared to spray transfer with argon shielding.
Excessive spatter is caused by an excessive welding current, arc voltage, or electrode
extension. Methods of reducing the amount of spatter would then be to reduce the
welding current, the arc voltage, or the amount of stick-out. Another method of reducing
weld spatter when using carbon dioxide shielding gas would be to change to an argoncarbon dioxide mixture, which in many cases produces spray transfer and less
spattering. You can also remove spatter by grinding or chipping.
12.1.10 Arc Strikes
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-145
12.1.11 Craters
Weld craters are depressions on the weld
surface at the point where the arc was
broken (Figure 10-121). These are caused
by the solidification of the metal after the arc
has been broken. The weld crater often
cracks and can serve as an origin for linear
cracking back into the weld metal or into the
base metal. These craters can usually be
removed by chipping or grinding and the
Figure 10-121 Craters.
depression filled in with a small deposit of
filler metal. There are three common
methods of preventing craters. The first is to reverse the travel of the electrode a little
way back into the weld bead from the end before breaking the arc. For automatic
welding, a downslope control is sometimes used. This is done by gradually reducing the
welding current at the end of the weld, which gradually reduces the size of the molten
weld puddle. The third method is by stopping the travel long enough to fill the crater
before breaking the arc.
12.2.0 Cracking
Weldment cracking can be caused by an improper welding procedure, welder
technique, or materials. All types of cracking can be classified as either hot or cold
cracking. These cracks are transverse or longitudinal to the weld. Transverse cracks are
perpendicular to the axis of the weld where longitudinal shrinkage strains are acting on
excessively hard and brittle weld metal. Longitudinal cracks are often caused by high
joint restraint and high cooling rates. Preheating will often help to reduce these
problems.
Hot cracking occurs at elevated temperatures and generally happens just after the weld
metal starts to solidify. This type of cracking is often caused by excessive sulfur,
phosphorous, and lead contents in the steel base metal. In non-ferrous metals, it is
often caused by sulfur or zinc. It can also be caused by an improper method of breaking
the arc, or in a root pass when the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is small
compared to the mass of the base metal.
Hot cracking often occurs in deep penetrating welds and can continue through
successive layers if not repaired. Hot cracking may be prevented or minimized by the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Preheating to reduce shrinkage stresses in the weld.

Using clean or uncontaminated shielding gas.
Increasing the cross-sectional area of the weld bead.
Changing the contour of the weld bead.
Using base metal with very low
contents of those elements that tend
to cause hot cracking.
6. In steel, using filler metals that are
high in manganese.
Crater cracks are shallow hot cracks caused
by improperly breaking the arc; Figure 10122 shows two types. Crater cracks may be
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 10-122 Cracking.

10-146
prevented the same way craters are, by reversing the travel of the electrode back into
the weld bead a little way, gradually reducing the welding current at the end of the weld,
or by stopping the travel before breaking the arc.
excessive joint restraint, and rapid cooling. Preheating and using a dry high purity
shielding gas help reduce this problem.
occur in single pass concave fillet welds. A
runs down the center of the weld (Figure
10-123).
This problem may be caused by one or
more of the following:
1. Weld bead too small for the
thickness of the base metal
2. Poor fitup
The best methods of preventing centerline

cracks are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Increasing the bead size.

Decreasing the gap width.
Preheating.
Preventing weld craters.
Base metal and underbead cracks are cold

cracks that form in the heat affected zone of
Figure 10-124 Underbead
the base metal. Underbead cracks occur
cracks.
underneath the weld bead, as shown in
Figure 10-124. Base metal cracks are those
cracks that originate in the heat affected zone of the weld. These types of cracking are
caused by excessive joint restraint, entrapped hydrogen, and a brittle microstructure. A
brittle microstructure is caused by rapid cooling or excessive heat input. Underbead and
base metal cracking can be reduced or eliminated by using preheat.

Other problems that can occur and reduce the quality of the weld are arc blow, loss of
shielding gas coverage, defective electrical contact between the contact tube and the
electrode, and wire feed stoppages.
12.3.1 Arc Blow
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Direct current is highly susceptible to arc blow, especially when welding is being done in
corners and near the end of joints. Arc blow occurs with direct current because the
induced magnetic field is in one direction. Arc blow is shown in Figure 10-125.
It is often encountered when welding magnetized metal or near a magnetized fixture.
This problem also occurs when welding complex structures and on massive structures
with high currents and poor fitup. Forward arc blow is encountered when welding away
from the ground connection or at the beginning of a weld joint. Backward arc blow
occurs toward the grounding connection, into a corner, or toward the end of a weld joint.
You can use several corrective methods to correct the arc blow problem:
1. Weld toward an existing weld or tack weld.
2. Reduce the welding current and reduce the arc voltage.
3. Place the work connection as far as possible from the weld, at the end of the
weld, or at the start of the weld, and weld toward the heavy tack weld.
4. Change the position of the fixture or demagnetize the base metal or fixture.
Figure 10-125 Arc blow.

Many defects that occur in gas metal arc welding are caused by an inadequate flow or
blockage of shielding gas to the welding area.
An inadequate gas supply can cause oxidation of the weld puddle, which causes
porosity in the weld bead, usually appearing as surface porosity. This can be easily
detected because the arc will change color, the weld bead will be discolored, and the
arc will become unstable and difficult to control. The most common causes of this
problem are the following:
1. Blockage of gas flow in the torch or hoses, or freezing of the regulator with
carbon dioxide
2. Leak in the gas system
3. Weld spatter blocking the nozzle of the welding gun
4. Very high travel speed
5. Improper flow rate
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-148
6. Wind or drafts
7. Distance between the nozzle and the work too long
There are several ways you can correct or prevent this problem. Check the torch and
hoses before welding to make sure the shielding gas can flow freely and is not leaking.
Clean spatter from the nozzle and contact tube regularly. A very high travel speed may
leave the weld puddle or part of it exposed to the atmosphere. This may be corrected in
some cases by inclining the gun in the direction of travel, using a nozzle that directs
shielding gas back over the heated area, or by increasing the gas flow rate. The best
method is to slow the travel speed.
Increasing the gas flow rate will increase the expense of the welding. An improper flow
rate may occasionally be a problem. For example, when using argon and welding in the
overhead position, you may have to use higher gas flow rates to provide adequate
shielding. This is because argon is heavier than air and it will fall away from the weld
area. Too high of a flow rate can cause excessive turbulence in the weld puddle.
When winds or air drafts are present, you may take several corrective steps. Setting up
screens around the operation is the best method of solving this problem. Increasing the
gas flow rate is another method, but again, this will increase the cost of welding. An
excessive distance between the end of the nozzle and the molten weld puddle will also
create a problem in providing adequate shielding, which can be corrected by shortening
this distance.
12.3.3 Clogged or Dirty Contact Tube
The power delivered to the arc in GMAW depends on a transfer of current from the tip of
the contact tube to the electrode by means of a sliding contact tube. A clogged, dirty, or
worn contact tube can cause changes in the amount of power transferred to the
electrode, which can have an effect on the arc characteristics. It can also cause an
irregular weld bead and possibly incomplete fusion because of the power fluctuations. A
clogged contact tube can stop the feed of the electrode wire, which stops the welding
arc. A contact tube can become dirty or clogged by spatter from the arc, by rust, scale,
copper wire coating, drawing compounds left from the manufacture of the wire on the
surface of the electrode, or by metal chips created by tight wire feed rolls. These
problems can best be prevented by making sure that the electrode wire is clean and the
wire feed rolls are tight enough to feed the wire without creating chips. A wire wipe
made of cloth is often attached to the wire feeder to clean the electrode wire as it is fed.
12.3.4 Wire Feed Stoppages
GMAW has the greatest problem with wire feed stoppages compared to the other
continuous wire feed welding processes because of the relatively small diameter of the
electrode wires used. Wire feed stoppages cause the arc to be extinguished and can
create an irregular weld bead because of the stops and starts. Wire stoppages can also
cause a loss of welding time because many of the problems take a long time to correct
when wire becomes wrapped around the wire feed rolls, wadded up in bird nests in the
wire feeder, or broken. Wire feed stoppages can be caused by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Clogged contact tube

Clogged conduit in the welding gun assembly
Sharp bends or kinks in the wire feed conduit
Excessive pressure on the wire feed rolls which can cause breakage of the wire
Inadequate pressure on the wire feed rolls
Attempting to feed the wire over excessively long distances
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7. Spool of wire clamped too tightly to the wire reel support

Problems such as sharp bends or kinks in the wire feed conduit, excessive pressure on
the wire feed rolls, or attempting to feed the wire over excessively long distance are
particularly troublesome when using soft electrode wires such as aluminum,
magnesium, and copper. In many cases, wire feed stoppages must be corrected by
taking the gun assembly apart and cutting and removing the wire or by cutting and
removing the wire from the wire feeder. These both result in time lost to locate the
problem and feed the new length of wire through the assembly to the gun. Wire
stoppages can be prevented by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cleaning the contact tube.

Cleaning the conduit, which is usually done with compressed air.
Straightening or replacing the wire feed conduit.
Reducing the pressure on the wire feed rolls to prevent breakage.
Increasing the pressure on the wire feed rolls to provide adequate driving force.
Using a shorter distance from the wire feeder to the gun or from the wire feeder
to the electrode wire source.
7. Reducing clamping pressure on the spool of wire.

Several operations may be required after welding, such as cleaning, inspecting the
welds, and postheating. These are items which may or may not be part of the
procedure. The operations performed will depend on the governing code or
specification, type of metal, and the quality of the weld deposit.
13.1.0 Cleaning
Gas metal arc welding generally produces a very smooth weld bead with very little slag,
so in some cases cleaning the weld bead may be omitted. When welding steel, you can
remove the slag islands left by the process with a chipping hammer, an air chisel, or a
grinder. Removal of these slag islands is particularly important between passes of a
multiple pass weld because if they are not removed from the weld surface and then
welded over, slag inclusions can be formed. A certain amount of spatter is normally
produced, which you can remove by wire brushing, chipping, or grinding. Wire brushing
or buffing may be required to remove the discoloration around the weld bead. Mild steel
brushes can be used on most steels. Stainless steel brushes should be used on
stainless steels and non-ferrous metals to prevent contamination by rust from a mild
steel brush.

Inspection and testing the weld to determine the quality of the weld joint are done after
cleaning. The many different methods of inspection and testing were covered in
previous chapters. The uses of these methods wiII often depend on the code or
specification that covered the welding. Testing of a weldment may be done
Nondestructive testing is used to locate defects in the weld and base metal. Of the
many different nondestructive testing methods, some of the most widely used methods
magnetic particle and liquid penetrant inspection are used to locate surface defects
where ultrasonic and radiographic inspections are used to locate internal defects.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-150
Destructive testing is used to determine the mechanical properties of the weld such as

Repairing the weld is sometimes necessary when defects are found during inspection.
When a defect is found, it can be gouged, ground, chipped, or machined out depending
on the type of material being welded. For steels, grinding and air carbon arc gouging
are commonly used. Air carbon arc gouging is used on stainless steels when maximum
corrosion resistance is required, after grinding or wire brushing the groove face to
remove carbon deposits is done. It is not used on the non-ferrous metals because it
causes contamination in the form of carbon deposits.
For the stainless steels and the non-ferrous metals, chipping is a common method of
removing defects. Air carbon arc gouging is preferred for many applications because it
is usually the quickest method. Grinding is popular for removing surface defects and
shallow lying defects. Once the defects have been removed, the low areas created by
the grinding and gouging can be rewelded using GMAW or some other welding process.
The welds are then reinspected to make sure the defects have been properly repaired.
13.4.0 Postheating
Postheating is often required after the weld has been completed, but this depends upon
the type of metal being welded, the specific application, and the governing code or
specifications. Many of the low carbon steels and non-ferrous metals are rarely
postheated.
commonly used postheats are annealing stress relieving, normalizing, and quenching
Postheating is accomplished by most of the same methods used for preheating such as
furnaces, induction coils, and electric resistance heating blankets. One method used for
stress relieving that does not involve the reheating of the weldments is called vibratory
stress relief. This method vibrates the weldment during or after welding to relieve the
residual stresses during or after solidification.
softening. This process is widely used on metals that become very hard and brittle
because of welding. There are several different kinds, and when used on ferrous metals
it is called full annealing. Annealing is the heating up of a material to cause
recrystallization of the grain structure, which causes softening. Full annealing is a
softening process in which a ferrous alloy is heated to a temperature above the
transformation range and is slowly cooled to a temperature below this range. This
process is usually done in a furnace to provide a controlled cooling rate.
normalizing and annealing is that a normalized weldment is cooled in still air which
produces a quicker cooling rate than an annealed weldment which is slowly cooled in a
furnace. A normalizing heat treatment will refine the metal grain size and yield a tougher
weld, where an annealing heat treatment will result in a softer weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-151
Stress relieving is the uniform heating of a weldment to a high enough temperature

below the critical range to relieve most of the residual stresses due to welding. This is
followed by uniform cooling. This operation is performed on the ferrous metals and
some of the non-ferrous metals. This process also reduces warpage during machining
that may occur with a high residual stress buildup. Stress relieving is performed on nonferrous metal when stress buildup is a problem, but, for example in the case of
aluminum alloys, this heat treatment also will reduce the mechanical properties of the
base metal. In the case of magnesium alloyed with aluminum, stress relieving is
performed to avoid problems with stress corrosion. On parts and metals that are likely to
crack due to the internal stress created by welding, the parts should be put into stress
relief immediately after welding without being allowed to cool to room temperature. The
terms normalizing and annealing are misnomers for this heat treatment.
Quenching and tempering is another postweld heat treatment that is commonly used;
the metal is heated up and then quenched to form a hard and brittle metallurgical
structure. The weldment is then tempered by reheating to a particular temperature
dependent on the degree of ductility, strength, toughness, and hardness desired.
Tempering reduces the hardness of the part as it increases the strength, toughnes, and
ductility of the weld.

16.
What causes inclusions?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Steady travel speed

Too narrow a weaving motion
Too small an electrode being used
Why i s a c ommon n on-stainless steel w ire br ush N OT used o n no n-ferrous

metals?
A.
B.
C.
D.
It causes etching.
The metal is too soft.
It will cause a static charge to build up.
It causes contamination in the form of carbon deposits.

Gas metal arc welding requires a certain degree of welder skill to produce good quality
welds. Semi-automatic GMAW requires that the welder must still control the
manipulation of the welding gun and the speed of travel. This process will generally take
less skill to operate when compared to the manual welding processes because the
machine controls the arc length and feeds the filler wire. A welder who is skilled in the
manual welding processes (SMAW, GTAW) will generally have less difficulty learning to
weld with this process, but since the settings on the welding machine are more
important, a higher knowledge of how the equipment works is needed.
The exact content of a training program will vary depending on the specific applications
of the process. A training program should have enough flexibility so it can be adapted to
changing needs and applications. Because of this, emphasis may be placed on certain
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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areas of training based on the complexity of the parts to be welded, and the type of
metal and governing code or specification. A pipe welding course would take more
training than a plate welding course.
Because of the wide variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals welded and the wide
variety of equipment used, the exact content of a training course will vary. For example,
welding aluminum takes different equipment and has different welding characteristics
compared to welding steel. The major purpose of a training program is to give the
welder the skill and knowledge to be able to do the best job possible. A training program
may be broken up into several areas depending on the training requirements of the
student. The training discussed in the rest of the chapter has been divided into several
different areas.
14.1.1 Basic Gas Metal Arc Welding
The basic gas metal arc welding training program is used to teach the students the
basic skills necessary to weld plate. This course provides training on how to make tack
welds, strike the arc, make weld beads, and produce good quality fillet and groove
welds. This course also gives the student the knowledge of the process of setting up the
equipment and cleaning the metal, the basic operating principles, and the difficulties
that are commonly encountered. The training obtained by the student should give the
skill to perform a job welding plate material. This course should also provide the
background skill and knowledge required to take an advanced course for welding pipe.
The following is an outline for a course approximately 70 hours long.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Gas Metal Arc Welding Introduction

Safety and Health of Welders
Preparation for Welding
Surface Weld-Flat Position
Adjustment of Equipment
Square-Groove and Fillet Weld-Butt, Lap, Tee Joints-Flat Position (1 G, 1F)
Square-Groove and Fillet Weld-Butt, Lap, Tee Joints-Horizontal Position (2G, 2F)
Quality Butt and Fillet Welds
Square-Groove and Fillet Welds-Butt, Lap, Tee-Joints-Vertical Position, Down
(3G, 3F)
10. Square-Groove and Fillet Weld-Butt, Lap, Tee-Joints-Vertical Position, Up (3G,
3F)
11. Metal Transfer and Shielding Gas
12. Square-Groove and Fillet Weld-Butt, Lap, Tee Joints-Overhead Position (4G, 4F)
13. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Horizontal Position (2G)
14. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Guided Bend Tests
15. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Vertical Position, Down (3G)
16. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Guided Bend Test
17. Variations of Gas Metal Arc Welding (Spray Transfer, Globular Transfer, ShortCircuiting Transfer, Spot Welding)
18. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Flat Position
19. Single-V-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Overhead Position (4G)
20. Fillet Weld-Lap and Tee-Joints-Horizontal Position (2F)
21. Fillet Weld-Lap and Tee-Joints-Vertical Position, Down (3F)
A specific program could then be taken for welding the different non-ferrous metals. A
program should explain the specific properties and welding characteristics of the metal.
Other parts of the program should explain the types and compositions of the different
alloys, the selection of filler metal and shielding gas, the equipment variations, and the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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special precautions such as cleaning and postweld operations. This training program
should provide the student the basic skills necessary for the welding of these metals.
The following course outline is for training of gas metal arc welding of aluminum and
aluminum alloys. It is approximately 35 hours in length.
1. Introduction to "Gas Metal Arc Welding of Aluminum"
2. Safety and Health of Welders
3. Stringer Bead-Flat Position (Machine Adjustment)
4. Fillet Weld-Lap and Tee-Joint-Horizontal Position (2F)
5. Fillet Weld-Lap and Tee-Joints-Vertical Position, Up (3F)
6. Weldability of Aluminum Alloys
7. Fillet Weld-Tee-Joint-Overhead Position (4F)
8. Fillet Weld-Outside Corner and Tee-Joint Flat Position (1 F)
9. Shielding Gases for Gas Metal Arc Welding of Aluminum
10. Single-Vee-Groove Weld-Butt Joint-Flat Position (with backing) (1 G)
11. Fillet Weld-Outside Corner and Tee-Joint Vertical Position ,Up (3F)
12. Fillet Weld-Tee-Joint-Vertical Position Up (Visual and Etch Tests) (3F)
13. Fillet Weld-Tee-Joint-Overhead Position (4F)
14. Gas Metal Arc Welding of Non-ferrous Metals Other than Aluminum
14.1.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding Steel Pipe
Since pipe welding is more difficult than plate welding, the student should be skilled in
welding groove joints in all positions on plate before welding pipe. Pipe welding usually
involves fixed position welding. Vertical position, downhill welding is used on crosscountry transmission pipelines. Vertical position, uphill welding is used on power plants,
refinery, and chemical installation applications. The following outline is for a general
course on pipe welding and is approximately 70 hours in length.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction to Gas Metal Arc Pipe Welding

Safety and Health of Welders
Preparation of Equipment for Gas Metal Arc Pipe Welding
Preparation and Assembly of a Pipe Workpiece
Single-V-Groove Weld Butt Joint, Horizontal
Fixed Position Downhill Travel (5G)
Single-V-Groove Weld, Horizontal Fixed Position Travel, Guided Bend-Test (5G)
Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Fixed Position (5G), Downhill
Travel-Root Pass, Uphill Travel-Fill and Cover Passes
9. Welding Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Pipe Welding
10. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Fixed Position (2G)
11. Single-V-Groove Weld, Vertical Fixed Position (2G), Guided Bend Test
12. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, 45 Fixed Position (6G)

Before the welder can begin work on any job covered by a welding code or
specification, the welder must become certified under the code that applies. Many
different codes are in use today, and it is very important that the specific code is
referred to when taking qualification tests. In general, the following types of work are
covered by codes: pressure vessels and piping, highway and railway bridges, public
buildings, tanks and containers, cross-country pipelines, ordnance material, ships and
boats, and nuclear power plants. Several of the specifications include consideration of
the GMAW process:
1. ANSI/API 1104 Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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2. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, Welding and Brazing
Qualifications
3. ANSI/AWS 01.1 Structural Welding Code Steel
4. AWS 05.2 Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Standpipes, and
Reservoirs for Water Storage
5. AWS 010.9 Specification for Qualification of Welding Procedures and Welders for
Piping and Tubing
6. ANSI/AWS 014.1 Specification for Welding Industrial and Mill Crane and Other
Material Handling Equipment
7. ANSI/AWS 014.2 Specification for Metal Cutting Machine Tool Weldments
8. ANSI/AWS 014.3 Specification for Welding Earthmoving and Construction
Equipment
9. ANSI/ASME B96.1 Specification for Welded Aluminum Alloy Storage Tanks
10. Marine Engineering Regulations and Material Specifications (CG 115)
These specifications do not provide qualifications of the GMAW process for all
applications and service requirements. For applications where AWS or other
specifications are not available and generalized criteria for qualification are desired,
AWS B3.0, Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification is often used.
code will not necessarily qualify a welder to weld under a different code. In most cases,
certification for one employer will not allow the welder to work for another employer. If
the welder uses a different process or the welding procedure is altered drastically,
recertification is required. In most codes, if the welder is continually employed, welding
recertification is not required providing the work performed meets the quality
requirements.
Qualification tests may be given by responsible manufacturers or contractors. On
pressure vessel work, the welding procedure must also be qualified and this must be
done before the welders are qualified; under other codes, this is not necessary. To
become qualified, the welder must make specified welds using the required process,
base metal, thickness, electrode type, position, and joint design.
Because of the versatility of the GMAW process, the type of metal transfer and shielding
gas must also be considered. For example, in the AWS Structural Welding Code (01.1),
certain joint designs are considered prequalified for gas metal arc welding in the spray
and globular metal transfer modes. The short-circuiting mode is not considered
prequalified for these joint designs because of the lower welding voltage and welding
current values used, which can more easily cause an incomplete penetration
discontinuity if the process is not used properly.
Test specimens must be made according to standardized sizes and under the
observation of a qualified person. For most government specifications, a government
inspector must witness making the weld specimens. Specimens must be properly
identified and prepared for testing.
The most common test is a guided bend test. In some cases, radiographic
examinations, fracture tests, or other tests are employed. Satisfactory completion of test
specimens, providing they meet acceptability standards, will qualify the welder for
specific types of welding. Again, the welding that will be allowed depends on the
particular code. In general, the code indicates the range of thicknesses which may be
welded, the positions which may be employed, and the alloys which may be welded.
You should obtain and study the actual code prior to taking any tests.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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safety program and take adequate safety precautions to protect welders. Every welder
should be made aware of safety precautions and procedures. Employees who fail to
follow adequate safety precautions can cause physical injury to themselves and others
as well as damage to property. Failure to take safety precautions can result in physical
safety rules and common sense are followed. A set of safety rules which should be
followed is presented in the American National Standard Z49.1, "Safety in Welding and
Cutting," published by the American Welding Society.
There are a number of hazards associated with gas metal arc welding. These do not
necessarily result in serious injuries. They can also be of a minor nature which can
are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Electrical shock
Arc radiation
Air contamination
Compressed gases
Fire and explosion

You can take several precautions to prevent an electrical shock hazard. First, make
sure that the arc welding equipment is properly installed, grounded, and in good working
condition. The electrical equipment should be maintained and installed in accordance
with the National Electrical Code and any state and local codes that apply. Equipment
should be operated within NEMA Standards usual operating conditions for proper safety
and equipment life. The case or frame of the power supply should be connected to an
adequate electrical ground such as an approved building ground, cold water pipe, or
ground rod. Welding cables with frayed or cracked insulation and faulty or badly worn
connections can cause electrical short circuits and shocks. An improperly insulated
welding cable is both an electrical shock hazard and a fire hazard.
The welding area should be dry and free of any standing water. When it is necessary to
weld in a damp or wet area, wear rubber boots and stand on a dry, insulated platform.

Gas metal arc welding produces an intense welding arc that emits ultraviolet and
infrared rays. Skin exposed to the arc for a short time can suffer serious ultraviolet and
infrared burns, which are essentially the same as sunburn, but the burn caused by
welding can take place in a much shorter time and can be very painful. Because of this,
you should always wear protective clothing suitable for the welding to be done. These
jackets, capes, and bibs, or other similar arrangements to shield the arms, shoulders,
gloves for the welder.
You should also protect your eyes from the radiation emitted by the welding arc;
otherwise, arc-burn can result. Arc-burn of the eye is similar to sunburn of the skin, and
it is extremely painful for about 24 to 48 hours. Usually arc-burn does not permanently
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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injure the eyes, but it can cause intense pain. There are several commercial solutions
available to soothe the skin and eyes during the period of suffering. Infrared arc rays
can cause fatigue of the retina of the eye.
The effects of infrared rays are not nearly as noticeable or immediate as the effects of
ultraviolet rays. Infrared rays are probably more dangerous in that their effects can be
longer lasting and result in impaired vision. Gas metal arc welding produces a brighter
arc than shielded metal arc welding because there is no smoke and it is often used on
bright shiny metals such as aluminum and stainless steel.
Protect your eyes and face by a head shield that has a window set in it with a filter lens
in the window. Head shields are generally made of fiberglass or a pressed fiber material
so they will be lightweight. The filter lens is made of a dark glass capable of absorbing
infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, and most visible light coming from the arc. The type of
lens used varies for different welders, but it should be dark enough so that you can view
the arc without discomfort but not so dark that the you cannot see the puddle clearly
while welding. Table 10-34 shows the different lenses commonly recommended for use
in shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). The higher the lens numbers the darker the
lens. A clear glass should be put on the outside of the welding lens to protect it from
spatter and breakage. Never weld with a broken filter lens or cracks in your head shield.
Table 10-34 Recommended Filter Lens Shades Used in Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (ANSI/AWS Z49.1).
Lens Shade Number
1/16 (1.6), 3/32 (2.4), 1/8 (3.2), 5/32 (4.0)
10
3/16 (4.8), 7/32 (5.6), 1/4 (6.4)
12
5/16 (7.9), 3/8 (9.5)
14

Provide enough ventilation wherever welding and cutting are performed. Proper
ventilation will protect you from the evolving noxious fumes and gases. The degree and
type of ventilation will depend on the specific welding and cutting operation. It varies
with the size of work area, the number of operators, and types of materials to be welded
or cut. Potentially hazardous materials may exist in certain fluxes, coatings, and filler
metals, and they can be released into the atmosphere during welding and cutting.
In some cases, general natural-draft ventilation may be adequate. Other operations may
require forced-draft ventilation, local exhaust hoods or booths, or personal filter
respirators or air supplied masks. Welding inside tanks, boilers, or other confined
spaces requires special procedures, such as the use of an air-supplied hood or hose
mask. Check the welding atmosphere and ventilation system if workers develop unusual
symptoms or complaints. Measurements may be needed to determine whether
adequate ventilation is being provided. A qualified person, such as an industrial
hygienist, should survey the welding operations and environment. Follow their
recommendations for improving the ventilation of the work area. Do not weld on dirty
plate or plate contaminated with unknown material; the fumes and gases formed could
be hazardous to your health. Remove all paint and galvanized coatings before welding.
Consider all fumes and gases as potentially hazardous. More complete information on
health protection and ventilation recommendations for general welding and cutting can
be found in the American National Standard Z49.1,Safety in Welding and Cutting.
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15.4.0 Compressed Gasses

Use compressed gases only for their intended purpose. Store cylinders containing
oxygen separately from cylinders containing fuel gases. Securely fasten cylinders in
use, or in stores or cargo, to prevent their shifting or falling under any weather
conditions. Open the valve of the cylinder slowly and stand away from the face of the
regulator when doing this. Never strike the welding arc on a compressed gas cylinder.
When not in use, store gas cylinders with their caps on; caps should also be on when
they are moved. If the valve should get knocked off, the cylinder acts like a missile
because of the escaping gas and can cause injury and damage. When compressed gas
cylinders are empty, the valve should be closed and they should be marked empty. This
is done by marking the letters "MT" or "EMPTY" on the cylinder.
Move cylinders by tilting and rolling them on their bottom edges; avoid dragging and
sliding cylinders. When cylinders are transported by vehicle, secure them in position.
Cylinders should not be dropped, struck, or permitted to strike each other violently.
Discontinue the use of any cylinder before the pressure falls to zero. In particular,
oxygen cylinders should not be used in welding or cutting operations after the pressure
falls below approximately 25 lb/in2.

precautions are not taken. The GMAW process produces sparks and spatters which can
start a fire or explosion in the welding area if it is not kept free of flammable, volatile, or
explosive materials. Welding should never be done near degreasing and other similar
operations. Welders need to wear leather clothing to protect from burns because the
leather is fireproof.
Fires can also be started by an electrical short or by overheated worn cables. In case of
a fire that is started by a flammable liquid or an electrical fire, a CO2 or dry chemical
type of fire extinguisher is used. Fire extinguishers should be kept at handy spots
around the shop and the welders should make a mental note of where they are located.
Welders should not have disposable butane or propane lighters when welding. Sparks
or weld spatter hitting them can cause an explosion which may cause injury.
Other precautions that have to do with explosions are also important. A welder should
not weld on containers that have held combustibles unless it is certain that there are no
fumes or residue left. Welding should not be done on sealed containers without
providing vents and taking special precautions. When the welding gun is set down or
not in use, it should never be allowed to touch a compressed gas cylinder.

You can also encounter hazards during the weld cleaning process. Take precautions to
protect your skin and eyes from hot slag particles. The welding helmet, gloves, and
heavy clothing protect your skin from slag chipping and grinding of the weld metal. Wear
safety glasses with side shields underneath the welding helmet to protect your eyes
from particles that could get inside the welding helmet. Set up screens if there are other
people in the area to protect them from arc burn.

1. Make sure your arc welding equipment is installed properly, grounded, and in
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-158

3. Always wear proper eye protection when welding, grinding, or cutting.
5. Handle all compressed gas cylinders with extreme care. Keep caps on them
when they are not in use.
6. Make sure compressed gas cylinders are secured to the wall or other structural
supports.
7. When compressed gas cylinders are empty, close the valve and mark the
cylinder Empty or MT.
8. Do not weld in a confined space without extra special precautions.
9. Do not weld on containers that have held combustibles without taking extra
special precaution.
15. When the welding gun is not in use, do not hang it on a compressed gas cylinder.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to the GMAW process from the types of power
sources, controls, and welding guns to the types of training and qualifications needed. It
described the industries that use the GMAW process and its applications. Welding
metallurgy, weld and joint design, and welding procedure variables were also
discussed. The chapter concluded with a description of possible weld defects and how
to identify them, and safety precautions used for the GMAW process. As always, refer
to the manufacturers operator manuals for the specific setup and safety procedures of
the welding machine you will be using.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-159

1.
What type of current is used in gas metal arc welding?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
How can the gas metal arc welding process be applied?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
C.
D.
Circuit voltage that fails to produce enough heat

Damaged welding machine
Damaged cables
All of the above
Which safety device should you use to protect other personnel in a welding work
area from eye flash burns?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Size of the electrode and number of lock connections

Amperage rating of the machine and distance from the work to the
machine
Size of the ground cable and capacity of the electrode holder
Distance from the ground clamp and type of electrode
The use of a good ground clamp that provides proper grounding is essential to
the production of quality welds. Which condition could develop without this proper
grounding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Semi-automatically and manually

Semi-automatically only
Semi-automatically and mechanized
Semi-automatically, mechanized, and automatically
What factors determine the size of a welding cable needed for a job?
A.
B.
4.
Constant
Indirect
Welding helmets
Flash goggles
Face masks
Welding screens
Electrodes manufactured in the U.S. must conform to what standards?

A.
B.
C.
D.
AISC/CRSI
AWS /ASTM
NAVOP 1061 (welding)
Engineering Standards, U.S. (1996 Ed.)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-160
7.
When the gun is positive and the workpiece is negative, the electrons flow from
the workpiece to the gun. What polarity is being used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What kind of sound does improper polarity emit?

A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
B.
C.
D.
True
False
What condition occurs when the welding current is too high?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Hold the electrode at right angles to the work and strike it sharply against
the base metal.
Bring the electrode into contact with the work by using lateral motion.
Slowly lower the electrode onto the work until the arc strikes.
Place the electrode on the work until the base metal melts.
(True or False) Upon striking an arc, you immediately start the weld to ensure
good fusion and penetration.
A.
B.
12.
Changing the position of the ground clamp

Welding away from the ground clamp
Changing to alternating current
All of the above
What is the first thing you should do to start an arc by the striking method?
A.
11.
Cracking
Humming
Whistling
Hissing
Which step do you take to correct arc blow?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Straight
Negative
Positive
Reverse
Overlap
Poor fusion
Undercutting
Porosity
What condition(s) can develop when the welding current is too low?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Overlap only
Poor fusion only
Undercutting and poor fusion
Overlap and poor fusion
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-161
14.
What kind of sound does a good arc produce when the electrode, current, and
polarity are correct?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What is the maximum thickness, in inches, a plate can be welded in one pass,
without edge preparation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
(a.) 1 1/2
(a.) 1 1/4
(a.) 1 1/4
(a.) 1 1/2
(b.) 1/4
(b.) 3/8
(b.) 1/8
(b.) 1/4
What angle from the vertical should you hold the electrode when welding a lap
joint on plates of varying thicknesses?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
To reinforce the weld.

To hold plates in position while tack welding in place.
To obtain complete fusion at the root pass of the weld.
To reflect the heat from the electrode.
What (a) width and (b) thickness, in inches, of backing strip should be used on
plate over inch thick?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
For what purpose do you use a backing strip when making a butt weld on 3/16inch plate or heavier in the flat position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Sharp cracking
Humming
Whistling
Hissing
15 to 20
20 to 30
30 to 40
40 to 50
When vertical welding upwards, how many degrees do you hold the electrode to
the vertical?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30
45
60
90
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-162
20.
Which mistake can cause excessive spatter in welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
Which mistake can cause cracked welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
-inch or less
-inch or less
-inch or more
-inch or more
A tack weld should not exceed what size when applied to a pipe with a wall
thickness of inch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
Current too low

Current too high
Rigid joints
Faulty preheating
Only the single U-type of butt joint should be used to weld joints between pipes
when pipe has what wall thickness?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Current too low

Current too high
Welding speed too slow
Rigid joints
Which mistake can cause brittle welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Improper welding procedures

Improper welder techniques
Improper welding materials
All of the above
Which mistake can cause poor penetration?

A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Arc too short

Arc too long
Current too low
Rigid joints
1 inch long and two thirds of the thickness of the pipe in depth
inch long and two thirds of the thickness of the pipe in depth
inch long and 2/3 inch deep
1 inches long and 1/8 inch deep
The root of a fillet weld is where the _______.

A.
B.
C.
D.

back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-163
27.
Which description refers to the face of a fillet weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
Which description refers to the toe of a fillet weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
Wear the proper lens shade in the helmet

Use eye drops
Close your eyes
Turn your head away from the arc
Ultra-violet rays from the arc _______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
face to the toe

root to the toe
toe to the leg
The welding arc gives off ultra-violet rays which can cause eye injury. How can
you prevent this injury?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
length of the weld

The throat of a fillet is the shortest distance from the _______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
Junction between the face of the weld and the base metal
Rippled surface of the weld
Root of the weld to the face
Edge of the weld that intersects the base metal
The leg of the weld is the _______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
Exposed surface of the weld

Edge of the weld that intersects the base metal
Groove face adjacent to the root joint
Separation between the members to be joined
do not damage skin

can cause skin damage similar to sunburn
Welding on contaminated metal surfaces can create gases that are________.

A.
B.
C.
D.
hazardous
inert
used as shielding gases
benign
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-164
34.
Compressed gas cylinders_______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
Compressed gases_______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
an imaginary line drawn through the weld along its length

an imaginary line drawn through the weld across its width
the rippled surface of the weld
parallel to the leg of the weld
In the flat position welding, the face of the weld is approximately_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
40.

In a groove weld, the axis of a weld is ______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
are not needed in welding areas

should be worn during welding and cleaning operations
are not authorized at any time during welding operations
provide adequate protection for welding operations
When welding over a previously deposited bead, ______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
are extremely expensive and should be used sparingly

are not temperature sensitive
may be used to blow dirt off clothes and work area
are to be used only for the purpose intended
Safety glasses with side shields______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
should be kept at below freezing

should be handled and stored with care
need no special care
should be painted fluorescent green
perpendicular
at a right angle
horizontal
vertical
Horizontal position fillet welding is performed_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
with the electrode in the horizontal position

with the electrode in the vertical position
on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against an
approximately vertical surface
on the lower side of an approximately vertical surface against an
approximately horizontal surface
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-165
41.
When making a horizontal fillet weld in a lap joint, the electrode should be positioned with a______ work angle and a _______ travel angle.
A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
Tack welds should be______.

A.
B.
C.
D.
43.
excessive penetration
dross
overlap
fingernailing
The distance that the fusion zone extends below the surface of the base metal is
called______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
cleaned before the weld is made

Excess weld metal beyond the toe line of the weld is called______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
44.
30; 15
10; 45
45; 30
30; 45
intrusion
penetration
undercutting
a crater
The metal particles expelled during welding which do not form a part of the weld
are called______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
porosity
spatter
dross
inclusions
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-166

Alloy

elements. For example, brass is the alloy of copper and
zinc.
American Wire Gauge

(AWG)

solid, nonferrous, electrically conducting wire.
Austenitic

Ferritic

Ferrous

Inverter

Martensitic

carbon tool steels.
Nonferrous

Tantalum
A gray, hard, rare, metallic element occurring in

columbite and tantalite and usually associated with
niobium; used because of its resistance to corrosion by
most acids, for chemical, dental, and surgical
instruments and apparatus.
Ternary
Consisting of three different elements or groups.
Thorium
A grayish-white, lustrous, somewhat ductile and

malleable, radioactive metallic element present in
monazite; used as a source of nuclear energy, as a
coating on sun-lamp and vacuum-tube filament
coatings, and in alloys.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-167

Appleton, WI.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-168

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
10-169
Chapter 11
Flux Cored Arc Welding
Topics
1.0.0
2.0.0
3.0.0
4.0.0
Equipment Setup, Operation, and Shut Down
5.0.0
Shielding Gas and Electrodes
6.0.0
7.0.0
Welding Metallurgy
8.0.0
9.0.0
10.0.0
11.0.0
12.0.0
13.0.0
Postweld Procedures
14.0.0
15.0.0
Welding Safety
Overview
Flux cored arc welding, or FCAW, evolved from the gas metal arc welding, or GMAW
process to improve arc action, metal transfer, weld metal properties, and weld
appearance. The heat is provided by an arc between a continuously fed tubular
electrode wire and the workpiece. The major difference is that FCAW utilizes an
electrode very different from the solid electrode used in GMAW. In fact, it is closer to the
electrodes used in shielded metal arc welding, or SMAW or stick welding, except the
flux is on the inside of a flexible electrode instead of on the outside of a very stiff
electrode.
The flux-cored electrode is a fabricated electrode and, as the name implies, flux
material is deposited into its core. The flux-cored electrode begins as a flat metal strip
that is formed first into a "U" shape. Flux and alloying elements are deposited into the
"U" and then the shape is closed into a tubular configuration by a series of forming rolls.
Shielding is obtained by the flux contained within the tubular electrode wire, or by the
flux and the addition of a shielding gas.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-1
This chapter is designed to give you a basic understanding of the FCAW process and
equipment along with the key variables that affect the quality of welds, such as
electrode selection, polarity and amperage, arc length, travel speed, and electrode
angles. It will also cover core competencies, such as setting up welding equipment,
preparing weld materials, fitting up weld materials, welding carbon steel plates, and
repairing welds. It will also provide you with an understanding of the safety precautions
for FCAW and an awareness of the importance of safety in welding.
Always refer to the manufacturers manuals for specific operating and maintenance
instructions.
Objectives
1. Describe the process of flux cored arc welding.
2. Describe the principles of operation used for flux cored arc welding.
3. Describe the equipment associated with flux cored arc welding.
4. Describe the setup, operation and shut down of flux cored arc welding
equipment.
5. Identify the classification and selection of flux-cored electrodes flux-cored
electrodes used for flux cored arc welding.
6. Identify the welding applications for flux cored arc welding.
7. Describe the welding metallurgy of flux cored arc welding.
8. Identify weld and joint designs used for flux cored arc welding.
9. Describe the welding procedure variables associated with flux cored arc
welding.
10. Identify welding procedure schedules used for flux cored arc welding.
11. Describe pre-weld preparations for flux cored arc welding.
12. Identify defects and problems associated with flux cored arc welding.
13. Describe post-weld procedures for flux cored arc welding.
14. State the welder training and qualifications associated with flux cored arc
welding.
15. Describe the welding safety associated with flux cored arc welding.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-2
the course map.

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-3

again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-4

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process in which the heat for welding
is produced by an arc between a continuously fed tubular electrode wire and the work.
Shielding is obtained by a flux contained within the tubular electrode wire or by the flux
and an externally supplied shielding gas (Figure 11-1).
Flux cored arc welding is similar to gas metal arc welding in many ways, but the fluxcored wires used for this process give it different characteristics. Flux cored arc welding
is widely used for welding ferrous metals and is particularly good for applications where
high deposition rates are desirable. Also, at high welding currents, the arc is smooth
and more manageable when compared to using large diameter gas metal arc welding
electrodes with carbon dioxide. With FCAW, the arc and weld pool are clearly visible to
the welder, and a slag coating is left on the surface of the weld bead, which must be
removed. Since the filler metal transfers across the arc, some spatter is created and
some smoke produced.
Figure 11-1 FCAW self shielded and external gas shielded electrodes.
As in GMAW, FCAW depends on a gas shield to protect the weld zone from detrimental
atmospheric contamination. However, with FCAW, there are two primary ways this is
accomplished:
1. The gas is applied from an external source, in which case the electrode is
referred to as a gas shielded flux-cored electrode.
2. The gas is generated from the decomposition of gas-forming ingredients
contained in the electrode's core. In this instance, the electrode is known as a
self-shielding flux-cored electrode.
In addition to the gas shield, the flux-cored electrode produces a slag covering for
further protection of the weld metal as it cools, which must be manually removed with a
wire brush or chipping hammer.
The main advantage of the self-shielding method is that its operation is somewhat
simplified because of the absence of external shielding equipment. Although selfNAVEDTRA 14250A
11-5
shielding electrodes have been developed for welding low-alloy and stainless steels,
they are most widely used on mild steels. The self-shielding method generally uses a
long electrical stickout (distance between the contact tube and the end of the unmelted
electrode, commonly from one to four inches). Electrical resistance is increased with the
long extension, preheating the electrode before it is fed into the arc. This preheating
enables the electrode to burn off at a faster rate and increases deposition. The
preheating also decreases the heat available for melting the base metal, resulting in a
more shallow penetration than the gas shielded process.
A major drawback of the self-shielded process is the metallurgical quality of the
deposited weld metal. In addition to gaining its shielding ability from gas-forming
ingredients in the core, the self-shielded electrode contains a high level of deoxidizing
and denitrifying alloys, primarily aluminum, in its core. Although the aluminum performs
well in neutralizing the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the arc zone, its presence in
the weld metal will reduce ductility and impact strength at low temperatures. For this
reason, the self-shielding method is usually restricted to less critical applications.
The self-shielding electrodes are more suitable for welding in drafty locations than the
gas-shielded types. Since the molten filler metal is on the outside of the flux, the gases
formed by the decomposing flux are not totally relied upon to shield the arc from the
atmosphere. To compensate, the deoxidizing and denitrifying elements in the flux
further help to neutralize the effects of nitrogen and oxygen present in the weld zone.
The gas-shielded flux-cored electrode has a major advantage over the self-shielded
flux-cored electrode, which is, the protective envelope formed by the auxiliary gas shield
around the molten puddle. This envelope effectively excludes the atmosphere without
the need for core ingredients, such as aluminum. Because of this more thorough
shielding, the weld metallurgy is cleaner, which makes this process suitable for welding
not only mild steels, but also low-alloy steels in a wide range of strength and impact
levels.
The gas-shielded method uses a shorter electrical stickout than the self-shielded
process. (Refer to Figure 11-1 again) Extensions from 1/2" to 3/4" are common on all
diameters, and 3/4" to 1-1/2" on larger diameters. Higher welding currents are also used
with this process, enabling high deposition rates. The auxiliary shielding helps to reduce
the arc energy into a columnar pattern. The combination of high currents and the action
of the shielding gas contributes to the deep penetration inherent with this process. Both
spray and globular transfer are utilized with the gas-shielded process.

Although flux cored arc welding may be applied semiautomatically, by machine, or
automatically, the process is usually applied semiautomatically. In semiautomatic
welding, the wire feeder feeds the electrode wire and the power source maintains the
arc length. The welder manipulates the welding gun and adjusts the welding
parameters. FCAW is also used in machine welding where, in addition to feeding the
wire and maintaining the arc length, the machinery also provides the joint travel. The
welding operator continuously monitors the welding and makes adjustments in the
welding parameters. Automatic welding is used in high production applications. In
automatic welding, the welding operator only starts the operation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-6

Flux cored arc welding has many advantages for a wide variety of applications. It often
competes with shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, and submerged arc
welding (SAW) for many applications. Some of the advantages of this process are:
1. It has a high deposition rate and faster travel speeds.
2. Using small diameter electrode wires, welding can be done in all positions.
3. Some flux-cored wires do not need an external supply of shielding gas, which
simplifies the equipment.
4. The electrode wire is fed continuously so there is very little time spent on
changing electrodes.
5. Deposits a higher percentage of the filler metal when compared to shielded metal
arc welding.
6. Obtains better penetration than shielded metal arc welding.

Flux cored arc welding uses the heat of an electric arc between a consumable, tubular
electrode and the part to be welded. Electric current passing through an ionized gas
produces an electric arc. The gas atoms and molecules are broken up and ionized by
losing electrons and leaving a positive charge. The positive gas ions then flow from the
positive pole to the negative pole and the electrons flow from the negative pole to the
positive pole. The electrons carry about 95% of the heat and the rest is carried by the
positive ions. The heat of the arc melts the electrode and the surface of the base metal.
One of two methods shields the molten weld metal, heated weld zone, and electrode.
The first method is by the decomposition of the flux core of the electrode. The second
method is by a combination of an externally supplied shielding gas and the
decomposition of the flux core of the electrode wire. The flux core has essentially the
same purpose as the coating on an electrode for shielded metal arc welding. The
molten electrode filler metal transfers across the arc and into the molten weld puddle,
and a slag forms on top of the weld bead that can be removed after welding.
The arc is struck by starting the wire feed which causes the electrode wire to touch the
workpiece and initiate the arc. Arc travel is usually not started until a weld puddle is
formed. The welding gun then moves along the weld joint manually or mechanically so
that the edges of the weld joint are joined. The weld metal then solidifies behind the arc,
completing the welding process. A large amount of flux is contained in the core of a selfshielding wire as compared to a gas-shielded wire. This is needed to provide adequate
shielding and because of this, a thicker slag coating is formed. In these wires,
deoxidizing and denitrifying elements are needed in the filler metal and flux core
because some nitrogen is introduced from the atmosphere.
2.1.0 Arc Systems

The FCAW process may be operated on both constant voltage and constant current
power sources. A welding power source can be classified by its volt-ampere
characteristics as a constant voltage (also called constant potential) or constant current
(also called variable voltage) type, although there are some machines that can produce
both characteristics. Constant voltage power sources are preferred for a majority of
FCAW applications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-7
In the constant voltage arc system, the voltage delivered to the arc is maintained at a
relatively constant level that gives a flat or nearly flat volt-ampere curve, as shown in
Figure 11-2. This type of power source is widely used for the processes that require a
continuously fed wire electrode. In this system, the arc length is controlled by setting the
voltage level on the power source and the welding current is controlled by setting the
wire feed speed.
As Figure 11-2 shows, a slight change in
the arc length (voltage level) will produce a
large change in the welding current.
Most power sources have a fixed slope built
in for a certain type of flux cored arc
welding. Some constant voltage welding
machines are equipped with a slope control
used to change the slope of the voltampere curve.
Figure 11-3 shows different slopes obtained
from one power source. The slope has the
effect of limiting the amount of shortcircuiting current the power supply can
deliver. This is the current available from
the power source on the short-circuit
Figure 11-2 Constant voltage
between the electrode wire and the work.
system volt-ampere curve.
This is not as important in FCAW as it was
in GMAW because short-circuiting metal transfer is not encountered except with alloy
cored, low flux content wires.
A slope control is not required, but may be
desirable, when welding with small
diameter, alloy cored, low flux content
electrodes at low current levels. The shortcircuit current determines the amount of
pinch force available on the electrode. The
pinch forces cause the molten electrode
droplet to separate from the solid electrode.
The flatter the slope of the volt-ampere
curve, the higher the short-circuit and the
pinch force. The steeper the slope, the
lower the short-circuit and pinch force. The
pinch force is important with these
electrodes because it affects the way the
droplet detaches from the tip of the
electrode wire. When a high short-circuit
and a flat slope cause pinch force,
excessive spatter is created. When a very
Figure 11-3 Different slopes
low short-circuit current and pinch force are
from a constant voltage motor
caused by a steep slope, the electrode wire
generator power source.
tends to freeze in the weld puddle or pile up
on the work piece. When the proper amount of short-circuit current is used, it creates
very little spatter.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-8
The inductance of the power supply also has an effect on the arc stability. When the
load on the power supply changes, the current takes time to find its new level. The rate
of current change is determined by the inductance of the power supply. Increasing the
inductance will reduce the rate of current rise. The rate of the welding current rise
increases with the current that is also affected by the inductance in the circuit. Increased
arc time or inductance produces a flatter and smoother weld bead as well as a more
fluid weld puddle. Too much inductance will cause more difficult arc starting.
The constant current arc system provides a nearly constant welding current to the arc,
which gives a drooping volt-ampere characteristic, as shown in Figure 11-4. This arc
system is used with the SMAW and GTAW processes. A dial on the machine sets the
welding current and the welding voltage is
controlled by the arc length held by the
welder.
This system is necessary for manual
welding because the welder cannot hold a
constant arc length, which causes only
small variations in the welding current.
When flux cored arc welding is done with a
constant current system, a special voltagesensing wire feeder is used to maintain a
constant arc length.
For any power source, the voltage drop
across the welding arc is directly dependent
on the arc length. An increase in the arc
length results in a corresponding increase
in the arc voltage and a decrease in the arc
length results in a corresponding decrease
in the arc voltage.
Figure 11-4 Volt-ampere curve

for a constant current arc system.
Another important relationship exists

between the welding current and the melt off-rate of the electrode. With low current, the
electrode melts off slower and the metal is deposited slower. This relationship between
welding current and wire feed speed is definite, based on the wire size, shielding gas
type and type of electrode. A faster wire feed speed will give a higher welding current.
In the constant voltage system, instead of regulating the wire to maintain a constant arc
length, the wire is fed into the arc at a fixed speed and the power source is designed to
melt off the wire at the same speed. The self-regulating characteristic of a constant
voltage power source comes about by the ability of this type of power source to adjust
its welding current in order to maintain a fixed voltage across the arc.
With the constant current arc system, the welder changes the wire feed speed as the
gun is moved toward or away from the weld puddle. Since the welding current remains
the same, the burn-off rate of the wire is unable to compensate for the variations in the
wire feed speed, which allows stubbing or burning back of the wire into the contact tip to
occur. To lessen this problem, a special voltage-sensing wire feeder is used, which
regulates the wire feed speed to maintain a constant voltage across the arc.
The constant voltage system is preferred for most applications, particularly for small
diameter wire. With smaller diameter electrodes, the voltage-sensing system is often
unable to react fast enough to feed at the required burn-off rate, resulting in a higher
instance of burnback into the contact tip of the gun.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-9
Figure 11-5 shows a comparison of the voltampere curves for the two arc systems. This
shows that for these particular curves, when
a normal arc length is used, the current and
voltage levels are the same for both the
constant current and constant voltage
systems. For a long arc length, there is a
slight drop in the welding current for the
constant current machine and large drop in
the current for a constant voltage machine.
For constant voltage power sources, the
volt-ampere curve shows that when the arc
length shortens slightly, a large increase in
welding current occurs. This results in an
increased burn-off rate, which brings the arc
length back to the desired level. Under this
system, changes in the wire feed speed,
caused by the welder, are compensated for
electrically by the power source.
Figure 11-5 Volt-ampere curves.

Metal transfer, from consumable electrodes across an arc, has been classified into
three general modes of transfer: spray transfer, globular transfer, and short-circuiting
transfer. The metal transfer of most flux-cored electrodes resembles a fine globular
transfer. Only the alloy-cored, low flux content wires can produce a short-circuiting
metal transfer similar to GMAW.
On flux-cored electrodes, the molten
droplets build up around the periphery or
outer metal sheath of the electrode. By
contrast, the droplets on solid wires tend to
form across the entire cross section at the
end of the wire. A droplet forms on the
cored wire, is transferred, and then a
droplet is formed at another location on the
metal sheath. The core material appears to
transfer independently to the surface of the
weld puddle. Figure 11-6 shows the metal
transfer in flux=cored arc welding.
At low currents, the droplets tend to be
larger than at higher current levels. If the
welding current using a 3/32 in. (2.4 mm)
electrode wire is increased from 350 to 550
Figure 11-6 Metal transfer in
amps, the metal transfer characteristics will
FCAW.
change. Transfer is much more frequent
and the droplets become smaller as the current is increased. At 550 amperes, some of
the metal may transfer by the spray mode, although the globular mode prevails. There
is no indication that higher currents cause a transition to a spray mode of transfer,
unless an argon-oxygen shielding gas mixture is used.
The larger droplets at the lower currents cause a certain amount of "splashing action"
when they enter the weld puddle. This action decreases with the smaller droplet size.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-10
This explains why there is less visible spatter. The arc appears smoother to the
operator, and the deposition efficiency is higher when a wire is used with a high current
density rather than at the low end of its current range.

1.
What does the welding process leave on the surface of the weld bead that must
be removed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
Dross
Splatter
Slag
Rust
What is pinch force?

A.
B.
C.
D.
The amount of pressure applied by the grounding clamp

The grip between the wire feed rollers
It causes the molten electrode droplet to separate from the electrode
It helps the arc transfer from the work piece to the electrode

The equipment used for FCAW is very similar to that used for GMAW. The basic arc
welding equipment consists of a power source, controls, wire feeder, welding gun, and
welding cables. A major difference between the gas-shielded electrodes and self shielded electrodes is that the gas shielded wires also require a gas shielding system.
This may also have an effect on the type of welding gun used. Fume extractors are
often used with this process. For machine and automatic welding, several items, such
as seam followers and motion devices, are added to the basic equipment. A diagram of
the equipment for semiautomatic FCAW is shown in Figure 11-7.
Figure 11-7 Equipment for flux cored arc welding.
3.1.0 Power Sources

The power source (welding machine) provides the electric power of the proper voltage
and amperage to maintain a welding arc. Most power sources operate on 230 or 460
volt input power, but machines that operate on 200 or 575 volt input are available as
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-11
options. Power sources may operate on either single-phase or three-phase input with a
frequency of 50 to 60 Hz.
Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of arc time to total time. Most power sources used for
FCAW have a duty cycle of 100%, which indicates that they can be used to weld
continuously. However, some machines have a duty cycle of 60%. For a welding
machine, a 10 minute time period is used. Thus, for a 60% duty cycle machine, the
welding load would be applied continuously for 6 minutes and would be off for 4
minutes. Most industrial type, constant current machines are rated at 60% duty cycle.
The formula for determining the duty cycle of a welding machine for a given load current
is:
% Duty Cycle =
( Rated Current ) 2
X Rated Duty Cycle
( Load Current ) 2
duty cycle of the machine when operated at 350 amperes would be.
% Duty Cycle =
(300) 2
X 60 = 44%
(350) 2
In general, these lower duty cycle machines are the constant current type, which are
used in plants where the same machines are also used for SMAW and gas tungsten arc
welding. Some of the smaller constant voltage welding machines have a 60% duty
cycle.
FCAW uses direct current, which can be connected in one of two ways: electrode
positive (reverse polarity) or electrode
negative (straight polarity). The electrically
charged particles flow between the tip of the
electrode and the work as shown in Figure
11-8.
Flux-cored electrode wires are designed to
operate on either DCEP or DCEN. The wires
designed for use with an external gas
shielding system are generally designed for
use with DCEP, while some self-shielding
flux-cored wires are used with DCEP and
others are used with DCEN. Electrode
positive current gives better penetration into
the weld joint. Electrode negative current
gives lighter penetration, and is used for
welding thinner metal or where there is poor
fit-up. The weld created by DCEN is wider
and shallower than the weld produced by
DCEP
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-8 Particle flow for

DCEP and DCEN.
11-12

The power sources generally recommended for flux cored arc welding are direct current
constant voltage types. Both rotating (generator) and static (single- or three-phase
transformer-rectifiers) are used. Any of these types of machines are available to
produce constant current or constant voltage output, or both. The same power sources
used with GMAW are used with FCAW, but FCAW generally uses higher welding
currents, which sometimes requires a larger power source. It is important to use a
power source capable of producing the maximum current level required for an
application.
3.1.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding Machines
Generator welding machines used for this
process can be powered by an electric
motor for shop use, or an internal
combustion engine for field applications.
Gasoline or diesel engine-driven welding
machines have either liquid or air-cooled
engines and many of them provide auxiliary
power for emergency lighting, power tools,
etc. Many of the engine-driven generators
used for FCAW in the field are combination
constant current-constant voltage types.
These types are popular for applications
where both SMAW and FCAW can be
accomplished using the same power source.
Figure 11-9 shows an engine-driven
generator machine used for flux cored arc
welding. The motor-driven generator welding
machines are gradually being replaced by
Figure 11-9 Gas powered
transformer-rectifier welding machines.
welder/generator.
Motor-driven generators produce a very
stable arc, but they are noisier, more expensive, consume more power and require
more maintenance than transformer-rectifier machines. They can, however, function
without being sourced by an electrical power supply and, in fact, can produce the
auxiliary electricity during power outages.
An alternator welding machine is an electric generator made to produce AC power. This
power source has a rotating assembly. These machines are also called rotating or
revolving field machines.
3.1.3.2 Transformer Welding Machines
Transformer-rectifiers are the most widely used welding machines for FCAW. . Adding a
rectifier to a basic transformer circuit is a method of supplying direct current to the arc
without using a rotating generator.. A rectifier is an electrical device which changes
alternating current into direct current. These machines are more efficient electrically
than motor-generator welding machines and they provide quieter operation. There are
two basic types of transformer-rectifier welding machines: those that operate on singlephase input power and those that operate on three-phase input power.
The single-phase transformer-rectifier machines provide DC current to the arc and a
constant current volt-ampere characteristic, but are not as popular as three-phase
transformer-rectifier welding machines for FCAW. When using a constant current power
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-13
source, a special variable speed or voltage-sensing wire feeder must be used to

maintain a uniform current level. A limitation of the single-phase system is that the
power required by the single-phase input power may create an unbalance of the power
supply lines which is objectionable to most power companies. These machines normally
have a duty cycle of 60%.
The most widely used type of power source
for this process is the three-phase
transformer-rectifier. These machines
produce DC current for the arc, and for
FCAW, most have a constant voltage voltampere characteristic. When using these
constant voltage machines, a constantspeed wire feeder is used. This type of wire
feeder maintains a constant wire feed speed
with slight changes in welding current. The
three-phase input power gives these
machines a more stable arc than singlephase input power and avoids the line
unbalance that occurs with the single-phase
machines.
Many of these machines also use solid state
controls for the welding. A 650 amp solid
Figure 11-10 Three-phase, 650
state controlled power source is shown in
amp solid state power source.
Figure 11-10. This machine will produce the
flattest volt-ampere curve of the different constant voltage power sources. Most threephase transformer-rectifier power sources are rated at a 100% duty cycle.
3.2.0 Controls
The controls for this process are located on
the front of the welding machine, on the
welding gun, and on the wire feeder or a
control box.
The welding machine controls for a
constant voltage machine include an on-off
switch, a voltage control, and often a switch
to select the polarity of direct current. The
voltage control can be a single knob, or it
can have a tap switch for setting the voltage
range and a fine-voltage control knob.
Other controls are sometimes present, such
as a switch for selecting constant current
(CC) or constant voltage (CV) output on
Figure 11-11 Programmable
combination machines, or a switch for a
control unit.
remote control. On constant current welding
machines, there is an on-off switch, a
current level control knob, and sometimes a knob or switch for selecting the polarity of
direct current.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-14
The trigger or switch on the welding gun is a remote control used by the welder in
semiautomatic welding to stop and start the welding current, wire feed, and shielding
gas flow. For semiautomatic welding, a wire feed speed control is normally part of, or
close by, the wire feeder assembly. The wire feed speed sets the welding current level
on a constant voltage machine. For machine or automatic welding, a separate control
box is often used to control the wire feed speed. A control box for semiautomatic or
automatic welding is shown in Figure 11-11. There may also be switches to turn the
control on and off on the wire feeder control box, and gradually feed the wire up and
down.
Other controls for this process are used for special applications, especially when a
programmable power source is used. An example is a timer for spot welding. Controls
that produce a digital readout are popular because it is easier for concise control.
3.3.0 Wire Feeders

The wire feed motor provides the power for driving the electrode through the cable and
gun to the work. There are several different wire feeding systems available. The
selection of the best type of system depends on the application. Most FCAW wire feed
systems are the constant speed type, which are used with constant voltage power
sources. This means the wire feed speed is set before welding. The wire feed speed
controls the amount of welding current. Variable speed or voltage-sensing wire feeders
are used with constant current power sources. With a variable speed wire feeder, a
voltage-sensing circuit maintains the desired arc length by varying the wire feed speed.
Variations in the arc length increase or decrease the wire feed speed.
A wire feeder consists of an electrical motor connected to a gear box containing drive
rolls. The gear box and wire feed motor shown in Figure 11-12 have four feed rolls in
the gear box. While many systems have only two, in a four-roll system, the lower two
rolls drive the wire.
Because of their structure, flux-cored wires can be easily flattened. The type of drive roll
used is based on the size of the tubular wire being fed. The three basic types of drive
rolls are the U groove, V knurled, and U cogged, as shown in Figure 11-13. U
groove drive rolls are only used on small diameter wires. These can be used because
small diameter tubular wires are less easily flattened. V knurled drive rolls are most
commonly used for wire sizes 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and greater. These drive rolls are lightly
knurled to prevent slipping of the wire. The U cogged drive rolls are used for large
diameter flux-cored wires. A groove is cut into both rolls. Different gear ratios are used,
depending on the wire feed speed required. Table 11-1 shows the wire feed speeds that
can be obtained from different gear ratios.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-15
Figure 11-12 Wire feed assembly.
Figure 11-13 Drive roll types and applications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-16
Table 11-1 Wire feed speeds obtained from different gear ratios.
Wire Feed Speed
Gear Ratio
In/min
(mm/s)
15:1
500-2000
212-846
37.5:1
60-1000
25-423
46:1
50-825
21-349
75:1
30-500
13-212
90:1
25-400
11-169
150:1
15-250
6-106
300:1
8-125
3-53
600:1
4-63
2-27
1200:1
2-30
1-13
Wire feed systems may be the pull, push, or push-pull type, depending on the method of
application and the distance between the welding gun and the coil or spool of wire. Pull
type wire feeders have the drive rolls attached to the welding gun. Most machine and
automatic welding stations use this type of
system, but pull type wire feeders are rarely
used in semiautomatic welding. Pull wire
feeders have the advantage for welding
small diameter aluminum and soft nonferrous metals with GMAW because it
reduces wire feeding problems, but, since
most flux-cored wires are steel, this is not
an advantage for FCAW.
The push type system with the drive rolls
mounted near the coil or spool of wire is the
most commonly used wire feed method for
semiautomatic welding (Figure 11-14). The
wire is pulled from the coil or spool and
then pushed into a flexible conduit and
through the gun. The relatively large
diameter wires used in FCAW are well
Figure 11-14 Semi-automatic,
suited to this type of system. The length of
solid state control wire feeder.
the conduit can be up to about 12 feet (3.7
m). Another advantage of this push type system is that the wire feed mechanism is not
attached to the gun, which reduces the weight and makes the gun easier to handle.
Some wire feed systems contain a two-gun, two wire feeder arrangement connected to
a single control box, which is connected to a single power source. Both wire feeders
may be set up, and there is a switch on the control to automatically select which of the
two systems will be used.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-17
One advantage to this system is that the second wire feeder and gun can provide
backup in case of breakdown, gun maintenance, or electrode change. Another
advantage is that two different electrodes for different applications can be set up. For
example, a GMAW electrode and gun can be set up on one schedule for welding a root
pass, and a second schedule can be set up with a flux-cored wire to weld the rest of the
joint with FCAWs faster deposition. This eliminates the need for two power sources or
the need to change the electrode wire and gun. The liner is made of flexible metal and
is available in sizes compatible with the electrode size. The liner guides the electrode
wire from the wire feeder drive rolls through the cable assembly and prevents
interruptions in the travel.
Heavy-duty welding guns are normally used because of the large size electrode wires
typically used and the corresponding high welding current levels required. Because of
the intense heat created by this process, heat shields are attached to the gun in front of
the trigger to protect the welder's hand.
Both air-cooled and water-cooled guns are used for FCAW. Air-cooled guns are cooled
primarily by the surrounding air, but when a shielding gas is used, this will have an
additional cooling effect.
A water-cooled gun is similar to an air-cooled gun, except that ducts to permit the water
to circulate around the contact tube and nozzle have been added. Water-cooled guns
permit more efficient cooling of the gun. Figure 11-15 shows a 500-ampere watercooled gun. Water-cooled guns are preferred for many applications using 500 amperes
and recommended for use with welding currents greater than 600 amperes. Welding
guns are rated at the maximum current capacity for continuous operation.
Figure 11-15 Water-cooled gun.

Air-cooled guns are lighter and easier to manipulate. Figure 11-16 shows a 350 ampere
air-cooled welding gun.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-18
Figure 11-16 Air-cooled gun.

Some self-shielded electrode
wires require a specific minimum
electrode extension to develop
proper shielding, so welding guns
for these electrodes have guide
tubes with an insulated extension
guide. This guide supports the
electrode and insures a minimum
electrode extension, as shown in
Figure 11-17.
3.3.1 Machine Welding Guns
Machine and automatic welding
guns use the same basic design
principles and features as the
semiautomatic welding guns.
These guns often have very high
current-carrying capacities and
may also be air cooled or watercooled. Large diameter wires up
to 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) are commonly
used with high amperages.
Figure 11-17 Insulated extension guide.
Machine welding guns must be
heavy duty because of the high amperages and duty cycles required, and the welding
gun is mounted directly below the wire feeder. Figure 11-18 shows a machine welding
head for FCAW.
If a gas-shielded wire is to be used, the gas can be supplied by a nozzle that is
concentric around the electrode or by a side delivery tube, as is shown in Figure 11-18.
The side shielding permits the welding gun to be used in deep, narrow grooves and
reduces spatter buildup problems in the nozzle. Side shielding is only recommended for
welding using carbon dioxide. A concentric nozzle is preferred when using argon-carbon
dioxide and argon-oxygen mixtures, and a concentric nozzle provides better shielding
and is sometimes recommended for CO2 at high current levels when a large weld
puddle exists.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-19
3.4.0 Fume Extractors

Fume extractors are often used to
help reduce the smoke levels
produced by flux-cored electrodes.
This reduces air pollution and
gives better visibility. Welding guns
can be equipped with a fume
extractor that consists of an
exhaust nozzle that encircles the
gun nozzle, as shown in Figure 1119. The nozzle is connected to a
filter and an exhaust pump. The
fume extraction nozzle should be
located at a distance far enough
from the arc to draw in the rising
fumes without disturbing the
shielding gas flow.
The major advantage of this fume
extraction system is that it is
always close to the point of
welding. A portable fume exhaust
fan cannot be positioned as close
to the arc, and requires
repositioning for every change in
welding position.
Figure 11-18 Automatic welding head.
The major disadvantage of the

fume extractor is that it makes the
gun bulkier and more difficult to
manipulate. Fume extractors are
generally not necessary in a
welding booth that is well
ventilated.
3.5.0 Shielding Gas

Equipment
The shielding gas equipment used
for gas-shielded flux-cored wires
consists of a gas supply hose, a
gas regulator, control valves, and
supply hose to the welding gun.
The shielding gases are supplied
in liquid form when they are in
Figure 11-19 Fume extractor nozzle.
storage tanks with vaporizers or in
a gas form in high-pressure
cylinders. An exception is carbon dioxide. When put in high-pressure cylinders, it exists
in both the liquid and gas forms. The bulk storage tank system is used when there are
large numbers of welding stations using the same type of shielding gas in large
quantities. For applications where there are large numbers of welding stations but
relatively low gas usage, a manifold system is often used. This consists of several high
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-20
pressure cylinders connected to a manifold, which then feeds a single line to the
welding stations. Individual high-pressure cylinders are used when the amount of gas
usage is low, when there are few welding
stations, or when portability is required.
The purpose of a gas flow regulator is to
reduce the pressure from the gas supply
source and maintain a constant delivery
pressure. The gas flowmeter is then used to
control the flow of gas from the regulator to
the welding gun. A valve at the flowmeter
outlet adjusts the gas flow rate. The
flowmeter is often attached to the regulator,
as shown in Figure 11-20. Regulators and
flowmeters are designated for use with
specific shielding gases and should only be
used with the gas for which they were
designed.
The hoses are normally connected to
solenoid valves on the wire feeder to turn the
gas flow on and off with the welding current.
A hose is used to connect the flowmeter to
the welding gun, and is usually part of the
welding gun assembly.
Figure 11-20 Flowmeter and

regulator for carbon dioxide.

The welding cables and connectors connect the power source to the welding gun and to
the work. These cables are normally made of copper or aluminum with copper being the
most common. The cable consists of hundreds of wires enclosed in an insulated casing
of natural or synthetic rubber. The cable connecting the power source to the welding
gun is called the electrode lead. In semiautomatic welding, this cable is often part of the
cable assembly, which also includes the shielding gas hose and the conduit the
electrode wire feeds through. For machine or automatic welding, the electrode lead is
normally separate.
The cable connecting the work to the power source is called the work lead. Work leads
are usually connected to the work by pincher clamps or a bolt. The size of the welding
cables used depends on the output capacity of the welding machine, the duty cycle of
the machine, and the distance between the welding machine and the work. Cable sizes
range from the smallest at American Wire Gauge (AWG) No.8 to AWG No. 4/0 with
amperage ratings of 75 amperes on up. Table 11-2 shows recommended cable sizes
for use with different welding currents and cable lengths; too small a cable may become
too hot during welding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-21
Table 11-2 Recommended cable sizes for different welding currents and cable
lengths.
Weld
Weld
Length of Cable Circuit in Feet-Cable Size A.W.G.
Type
Current
60
100
150
200
300
400
Manual
100
1/0
(Low
150
2/0
3/0
Duty
200
1/0
3/0
4/0
Cycle)
250
1/0
2/0
300
2/0
3/0
350
1/0
1/0
3/0
4/0
400
1/0
1/0
3/0
450
2/0
2/0
4/0
500
2/0
2/0
4/0
Automatic
400
4/0
4/0
(High
800
4/0
4/0
Duty
1200
4/0
4/0
Cycle)

For machine and automatic welding, several
items, such as seam followers, water
circulators, and motion devices, are added to
the basic equipment
When a water-cooled gun is used, a water
supply must be included in the system. This
can be supplied by a water circulator or
directly from a hose connection to a water
tap. The water is carried to the welding gun
through hoses that may or may not go
through a valve in the welding machine. A
typical water circulator is shown in Figure 1121.
Motion devices are used for machine and
automatic welding. These motion devices
can be used to move the welding head, workpiece, or gun, depending on the type and
size of work and the preference of the user.
Motor-driven carriages that run on tracks or directly on the workpiece are commonly
used. Carriages can be used for straight line, contour, vertical, or horizontal welding.
Side beam carriages are supported on the vertical face of a flat track and can be used
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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for straight line welding. Multiple electrode welding heads can be used to obtain higher
deposition rates.
Welding head manipulators may be used for longitudinal welds and, in conjunction with
a rotary weld positioner, for circumferential welds. Available in many boom sizes, they
can also be used for semiautomatic welding with mounted welding heads.
Oscillators are optional equipment used to oscillate the gun for surfacing, vertical-up
welding, and other welding operations that require a wide bead. Oscillators can either
be mechanical or electromagnetic devices.
3.7.3 Accessories
Accessory equipment for FCAW consists of items for cleaning the weld bead and
cutting the electrode wire. Because of the slag coating formed, chipping hammers and
wire brushes are usually required to remove the slag. A grinder is often used for final
cleaning and for removing spatter. A pair of wire cutters or pliers is used to cut the end
of the electrode wire between stops and starts.
4.0.0 EQUIPMENT SETUP, OPERATION, and SHUT DOWN

It is necessary for a welder to be able to set up, weld, and secure the equipment that
will be used. The following is a brief overview on what materials you will need and what
to look for when you are welding, followed by a short description on how to secure the
welding machine.
4.1.0 Protective Clothing and Tools

The FCAW process could be a dangerous process if you do not protect yourself from
the heat, radiation, and spatter. You must wear a leather coat, gloves, safety glasses,
and a welding helmet.
Normally, a number 11 or 12 filter lens is required to protect your eyes from the intense
arc created by this welding process.
You should also be equipped with a wire brush, wire cutters, pliers, and chipping
hammer.
4.2.0 Obtaining Materials

You will need to select the proper electrode according to the base metal you will be
welding. You can obtain the proper electrode type and diameter using the AWS
classifications.
You may also be using a shielding gas, depending on which electrode wire you are
using. Welding-grade carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and argon are
normally used.
4.3.0 Set Up Equipment

Now that you have your electrode wire, you need to know how to install it on the welding
machine.
Small diameter flux-cored electrode wires are generally spooled in the manner as solid
wires used for GMAW, and can be loaded in the same manner.
Large-diameter electrode wires are usually much stiffer. Rather than being stored on
spools, the large-diameter flux-cored electrode wires are rolled into coils. These wires
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-23
have a surprising amount of tension and can cause serious injury if they are allowed to
unwind suddenly or uncontrollably.
When removing the wire, four equally spaced bands should be used in order to
completely secure the wire and prevent the coil from distorting in shape while handling.
Cut the wire between the coil and the wire feeder, and then loosen the hold down
brackets, to remove the secured coil.
The wire feed rollers should then be removed from the wire feeder before mounting the
new coil.
With the coil removed, advance the wire feeder until the cutoff end of the wire is
released from the drive rollers. Remove the wire with a pair of pliers.
Every time a coil or spool is used or changed, the liner should be cleaned or replaced if
damaged. To clean the liner, first remove the two set screws, then remove the gun from
the wire feeder and pull the liner from the cable. Use a compressed air supply to purge
any contaminants from the liner. Replace in the same manner.
Before adding a new coil, the contact tube and nozzle should be removed from the
welding gun and examined for evidence of excessive wear damage. Replace these
parts if necessary.
With the coil in place on the feeder, slip the end of the electrode through the wire feeder
guides. Manually advance the wire through the wire feed guides, replace the fee rolls,
then clip the bands as the wire is advanced through the system.
Some self-shielded electrode wires require a higher preheat to help decompose the flux
and provide shielding gas. The welding gun for these wires was designed to maintain as
much as 2 1/2 inches of stickout. The contact tube is recessed as much as 1 1/2 inches,
and an insert, which acts as an insulator, is placed in the nozzle to protect the
preheated wire. The length of the insert controls the amount that the contact tube is
recessed into the nozzle.
Gas-shielded wires require a gas nozzle. The electrode stickout is generally between
three-fourths and 1 1/2 inches.
Welding guns may be cooled by either air or water, depending on the application. When
welding currents over 500 amps are used, water-cooled guns are necessary.
Due to the large amounts of smoke given off by the flux-cored process, a smoke
exhaust system can be fitted to the gun, or even manufactured as part of the gun.
High current densities and production welding may require that a heat shield be
attached to the gun to protect the hand from the intense heat.
Welding gun maintenance is not complicated. Periodically, the gun should be cleaned to
remove spatter and dirt from inside the nozzle.
The flux-cored electrode wire is easily flattened during feeding. To prevent this from
happening, the feed rollers must match the size of the wire being used.
Of the types of feed rolls available, the knurled V-groove is generally used with largediameter electrodes, from one sixteenth to one eighth in diameter.
Medium diameter electrodes should be used with groove geared drive rolls. Normally,
groove gear rolls can handle either solid or tubular wire from .045-to 7/64-inch in
diameter.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-24
Small-diameter electrodes require a concave roller with a smooth face to prevent the
wire from flattening.
In most cases, the drive rollers are mounted in pairs, with two pair being a typical
feeding system. The electrode wire is pushed from the wire feeder to the gun.
4.4.0 Adjust Equipment

The voltage is adjusted by turning the voltage control knob to the desired range.
To adjust the gas flow rate, stand to one side as a safety measure, open the cylinder
valve of the shielding gas, and check the regulator dial to assure there is sufficient
pressure. Press the button on the wire feeder, and at the same time, adjust the
flowmeter.
If the wire feeder is not equipped with a purge button, set the wire feed control to zero,
press the gun trigger, and then set the flowmeter for the desired gas flow rate.
Select the correct current and polarity. Direct current electrode positive is usually used
for gas-shielded wires. Direct current electrode positive or negative may be used for
self-shielded wires as appropriate to the work material.
To adjust the amperage setting when using a constant voltage power source, it will be
necessary to start the arc by pressing the gun trigger, and then tune the wire feed
speed control until the current is within the desired range. Since the current will register
on the ammeter only during welding, it may be necessary to ask someone to watch the
meter while you maintain the arc.
4.5.0 Perform the Weld

Flux-cored wires are sensitive to changes in voltage; it is important that the electrode
stickout remain in the recommended range (Figure 11-22).
Allowing the stickout to increase reduces the amperage, while reducing the stickout will
cause the amperage to increase. Since penetration is greatly influenced by welding
current, you can use stickout to a limited degree to control penetration without
interrupting the arc to adjust the welding machine.
The flux core of the electrode will cover the weld with a glass-like slag, which must be
chipped and brushed from the weld before inspecting. Always wear eye protection when
performing any welding operation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-25
Figure 11-22 Different effects of voltage and current on a weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-26
4.6.0 Shut Down Equipment

Shut down the welding equipment. Close the shielding gas cylinder valve. Purge the
shielding gas cylinder lines. Some welding machines are equipped with a purge button.
On other equipment, it may be necessary to set the wire feed to zero and press the gun
trigger. Adjust the flowmeter to zero.
Turn off the power source.
Cleanup your work area
5.0.0 SHIELDING GAS and ELECTRODES

FCAW electrodes provide the filler metal to the weld puddle and shielding for the arc,
but a shielding gas is required for some electrode types. The purpose of the shielding
gas is to provide protection to the arc and molten weld puddle from the atmosphere.
The chemical composition of the electrode wire and flux core in combination with the
shielding gas will determine the weld metal composition and mechanical properties of
the weld.
5.1.0 Shielding Gas

The primary purpose of a shielding gas in FCAW, as in any gas-shielded arc welding
process, is to protect the arc and weld puddle from the contaminating effects of the
atmosphere. If allowed to be exposed to the molten weld metal, the nitrogen and
oxygen of the atmosphere can cause porosity and brittleness.
In SMAW, protection is accomplished by placing an outer coating on the electrode,
which produces a gaseous shield as the coating disintegrates in the welding arc. In
FCAW, the same effect is accomplished by decomposition of the electrode core, or by a
combination of this and surrounding the arc area with a shielding gas supplied from an
external source.
A shielding gas displaces air in the arc area. Welding is then accomplished under a
blanket of shielding gas, and since the molten weld metal is exposed only to the
shielding gas, the atmosphere does not contaminate it.
Oxygen, which makes up 21% of air, is a highly reactive element that, at high
temperatures, combines readily with other elements in metals, and specifically in steels,
to form undesirable oxides and gases. Oxygen combines with the iron in steels to form
compounds that can lead to inclusions in the weld metal and lower its mechanical
properties. On heating, free oxygen in the molten metal combines with the carbon of the
steel to form carbon monoxide. If gas is trapped in the weld metal as it cools, it collects
in pockets and causes pores in the weld deposit.
Nitrogen, which makes up 78% of air, causes the most serious problems when welding
steel. When steel is molten, it can take a relatively large amount of nitrogen into
solution. At room temperature, the solubility of nitrogen in steel is very low. Therefore, in
cooling, nitrogen precipitates or comes out of the steel as nitrites. These nitrites cause
high yield strength, tensile strength, hardness, and a pronounced decrease in the
ductility and impact resistance of the steel. The loss of ductility due to the presence of
iron nitrites often leads to cracking of the weld metal. Excessive amounts of nitrogen
can also lead to extensive porosity in the weld deposit.
Hydrogen may come from water in the atmosphere or from moisture on surfaces welded
and is harmful to welds. Hydrogen is also present in oils, paints, and some protective
coverings. Even very small amounts of hydrogen in the atmosphere can produce an
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-27
erratic arc. Of more importance is the effect that hydrogen has on the properties of the
weld deposit. As in the case of nitrogen, steel can hold a relatively large amount of
hydrogen when it is molten but, upon cooling, it has a low solubility for hydrogen. As the
metal starts to solidify, it rejects the hydrogen. The hydrogen entrapped in the solidifying
metal collects at small discontinuities and causes pressure stresses to occur. This
pressure can lead to minute cracks in the weld metal, which can later develop into
larger cracks. Hydrogen also causes defects known as "fish eyes" and underbead
cracks. Underbead cracking is caused by excessive hydrogen that collects in the heataffected zone.
Inert and active gases may be used for FCAW. Active gases, such as carbon dioxide,
argon-oxygen mixtures, and argon-carbon dioxide mixtures are used for almost all
applications, with carbon dioxide being the most common. Active gases are not
chemically inert and can form compounds with the metals. Since almost all flux cored
arc welding is done on ferrous metals, this is not a problem.
The choice of the proper shielding gas for a specific application is based on:
1. Type of metal to be welded
2. Arc characteristics and metal transfer
3. Availability
4. Cost of the gas
5. Mechanical property requirements
6. Penetration and weld bead shape
5.1.1 Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is manufactured from fuel
gases that are given off by the burning of
natural gas, fuel oil, or coke. It is also
obtained as a by-product of calcining
operation in limekilns, from the
manufacturing of ammonia, and from the
fermentation of alcohol. The carbon dioxide
given off by the manufacturing of ammonia
and the fermentation of alcohol is almost
100% pure. Carbon dioxide is made
available to the user in either cylinder or
bulk containers, with the cylinder being
more common. With the bulk system,
carbon dioxide is usually drawn off as a
liquid and heated to the gas state before
going to the welding gun. The bulk system is
normally only used when supplying a large
Figure 11-23 Carbon dioxide gas
number of welding stations. In the cylinder,
cylinder.
the carbon dioxide is in both a liquid and a
vapor form, with the liquid carbon dioxide occupying approximately two thirds of the
space in the cylinder, as shown in Figure 11-23. By weight, this is approximately 90% of
the content of the cylinder. Above the liquid, it exists as a vapor gas. As carbon dioxide
is drawn from the cylinder, it is replaced with carbon dioxide that vaporizes from the
liquid in the cylinder; therefore, the overall pressure will be indicated by the pressure
gauge. When the pressure in the cylinder has dropped to 200 psi (1.4 MPa) the cylinder
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-28
should be replaced. A positive pressure should always be left in the cylinder in order to
prevent moisture and other contaminants from backing up into the cylinder. The normal
discharge rate of the CO2 cylinder is about 10 to 50 cubic feet per hour (4.7 to 24 liters
per minute). However, a maximum discharge rate of 25 cfh (12 L/min.) is recommended
when welding using a single cylinder. As the vapor pressure drops from cylinder
pressure to discharge pressure through the regulator, it absorbs a great deal of heat. If
flow rates are set too high, this absorption of heat can lead to freezing of the CO2
regulator and flow meter, which interrupts the shielding gas flow. When flow rates higher
than 25 cfh (12 L/min.) are required, normal practice is to manifold two CO2 cylinders in
parallel, or to place a heater between the cylinder and gas regulator, pressure regulator,
and flow meter. Figure 11-24 shows a
manifold system used for connecting several
cylinders together. Excessive flow rates can
also result in drawing liquid from the
cylinder.
Carbon dioxide is the most widely used
shielding gas for FCAW. Most active gases
cannot be used for shielding, but carbon
dioxide provides several advantages for use
in welding steel, such as deep penetration,
low cost, and it promotes a globular transfer.
The carbon dioxide shielding gas breaks
down into components, such as carbon
monoxide and oxygen. Because carbon
dioxide is an oxidizing gas, deoxidizing
elements are added to the core of the
Figure 11-24 Manifold system for
electrode wire to remove oxygen. The
CO2.
oxides formed by the deoxidizing elements
float to the surface of the weld and become part of the slag covering. Some of the
carbon dioxide gas will break down to carbon and oxygen. If the carbon content of the
weld pool is below about .05%, carbon dioxide shielding will tend to increase the carbon
content of the weld metal. Carbon, which can reduce the corrosion resistance of some
stainless steels, is a problem for critical corrosion applications. Extra carbon can also
reduce the toughness and ductility of some low-alloy steels. If the carbon content in the
weld metal is greater than about .10%, carbon dioxide shielding will tend to reduce the
carbon content. This loss of carbon can be attributed to the formation of carbon
monoxide, which can be trapped in the weld as porosity deoxidizing elements in the flux
core, reducing the effects of carbon monoxide formation.
5.1.2 Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures
Argon and carbon dioxide are sometimes mixed for use with FCAW. A high percentage
of argon gas in the mixture tends to promote a higher deposition efficiency due to
creating less spatter. This mixture also creates less oxidation and lower fumes. The
most commonly used argon-carbon dioxide mixture contains 75% argon and 25%
carbon dioxide. This gas mixture produces a fine globular metal transfer that
approaches a spray. It also reduces the amount of oxidation that occurs, compared to
pure carbon dioxide. The weld deposited in an argon-carbon dioxide shield generally
has higher tensile and yield strengths. Argon-carbon dioxide mixtures are often used for
out-of-position welding, achieving better arc characteristics and welder appeal. This
mixture also improves arc transfer on smaller diameters. Argon/CO2 is often used on
low-alloy steels and stainless steels.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-29
Electrodes designed for use with CO2 may cause an excessive build-up of manganese,
silicon, and other deoxidizing elements if they are used with shielding gas mixtures
containing a high percentage of argon, and this will have an effect on the mechanical
properties of the weld.
5.1.3 Argon-oxygen mixture
Argon-oxygen mixtures containing 1 or 2% oxygen are used for some applications.
Argon-oxygen mixtures tend to promote a spray transfer that reduces the amount of
spatter. A major application of these mixtures is in welding stainless steels where
carbon dioxide can cause corrosion problems.
5.2.0 Electrodes
The electrodes for FCAW consist of a metal
sheath surrounding a core of fluxing and/or
alloying compounds, as shown in Figure 1125. The core of carbon steel and low-alloy
electrodes contains primarily fluxing
compounds. Some of the low-alloy steel
electrode cores contain high amounts of
alloying compounds with a low flux content.
Most low-alloy steel electrodes require gas
shielding.
The sheath comprises approximately 75 to
90% of the weight of the electrode. Selfshielded electrodes contain more fluxing
compounds than gas shielded electrodes.
The compounds contained in the electrode
perform essentially the same functions as
the coating of a covered electrode used in
shielded metal arc welding. These functions
are:
Figure 11-25 Cross section of a fluxcored wire.
1. To form a slag coating that floats on

the surface of the weld metal and
protects it during solidification
2. To provide deoxidizer and
scavengers which help purify and
produce solid weld metal
3. To provide arc stabilizers which
produce a smooth welding arc and
keep spatter to a minimum
4. To add alloying elements to the weld
metal which will increase the strength
and improve other properties in the
weld metal
5. To provide shielding gas, as gasshielded wires require an external
supply of shielding gas to supplement
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-26 Making a flux-cored

wire.
11-30
that produced by the core of the electrode

The manufacture of a flux-cored electrode is an extremely technical and precise
operation requiring specially designed machinery. Figure 11-26 shows a simplified
version of the apparatus for producing tubular type cored electrodes on continuous
production. A thin, narrow, flat, low-carbon steel strip passes through forming rolls,
which form the strip into a U-shaped cross-section. This U-shaped steel passes through
a special filling device where a measured amount of the specially formulated granular
core material is added. The flux-filled U-shaped strip then flows through special closing
rolls which form it into a tube and tightly compress the core materials. This tube is then
pulled through draw dies to reduce its diameter and further compress the core
materials. Drawing tightly seals the sheath and additionally secures the core materials
inside the tube under compression, thus avoiding discontinuities in the flux. The
electrode may or may not be baked during, or between, drawing operations. This
depends on the type of electrode and the type of elements and compounds enclosed in
the sheath.
Additional drawing operations are performed on the wire to produce various electrode
diameters. Flux-cored electrode wires are commonly available in sizes ranging from
.035- to 5/32-inch.
The finished electrode is wound into a continuous coil, spool, reel, or drum. These are
available as 10 lb., 15 lb., or 50 lb. spools, 60 lb. (27 kg) coils, 250 or 500 lb. (113-225
kg) reels, or a 600 lb. drum. Electrode wires are generally wrapped in plastic to prevent
moisture pick-up.
The American Welding Society (AWS) devised the classification system used for tubular
wire electrodes throughout industry in the United States. There are several different
specifications covering flux cored arc welding electrodes for steels as shown in Table
11-3.
Table 11-3 Specifications covering flux-cored electrodes.
AWS
Specification
Metal
A5.20
Carbon Steel
A5.22
Stainless Steel
A5.29
Low-alloy Steel
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-31
Table 11-4 As-welded mechanical property requirements of carbon steel fluxcored electrodes (AWS A.5.20).
AWS
Shielding
Classification
E6XT-13
Gas
None
E6XT-G
Not Specified
E6XT-GS
Not Specified
E7XT-1
CO2
75-80%Ar/bal
CO2
E7XT-1M
E7XT-2
E7XT-2M
CO2
75-80%Ar/bal
CO2
E7XT-3
None
E7XT-4
None
E7XT-5
E7XT-5M
CO2
75-80%Ar/bal
CO2
E7XT-6
None
E7XT-7
None
E7XT-8
None
E7XT-9
E7XT-9M
CO2
75-80%Ar/bal
CO2
E7XT-10
None
E7XT-11
None
E7XT-12
E7XT-12M
CO2
75-80%Ar/bal
CO2
E7XT-13
None
E7XT-14
None
E7XT-G
Not Specified
E7XT-GS
Not Specified
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Tensile
Strength
ksi
(Mpa)
60(415)
60
(415)
60
(415)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70 (480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
70
(480)
Yield
Strength
% Elongation
Min in
ksi (Mpa)
48 (330)
1" (50mm)
22
48 (330)
48 (330)
22
Not
Specified
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
58 (400)
22
Not
Specified
Not
Specified
58 (400)
22
Not Specified
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
Not Specified
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
58 (400)
22
Not
Specified
58 (400)
20
58 (400)
22
58 (400)
22
Not
Specified
Not
Specified
58 (400)
58 (400)
58 (400)
Not
Specified
Not
Specified
22
Not
Specified
Min Impact
Strength
ft-Ibs @OF(J
@0C)
Not Specified
Not Specified
Not Specified
20 @ -20 (27 @ 18)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 18)
Not Specified
Not Specified
Not Specified
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
Not Specified
Not Specified
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
20 @ -20 (27 @ 29)
Not Specified
Not Specified
Not Specified
Not Specified
11-32
Carbon and low-alloy steels are classified on the basis of the following items:
1. Mechanical properties of the weld metal
2. Position of welding
3. Chemical composition of the weld metal
4. Type of welding current
5. Whether or not CO2 shielding gas is used
An example of a carbon-steel electrode classification is E70T-4 where:
1. The "E" indicates an electrode.
2. The second digit indicates the minimum tensile strength in units of 10,000 psi (69
Mpa). Table 11-4 shows the mechanical property requirements for carbon steel
electrodes.
3. The third digit indicates the welding position. A "0" indicates flat and horizontal
positions only, and a "1" indicates all positions.
4. The "T" stands for a tubular (flux-cored) wire classification.
5. The suffix "4" gives the performance and usability capabilities as shown in Table
11-5.
When a "G" classification is used, no specific performance requirements are indicated.
This classification is intended for electrodes not covered by another classification. The
chemical composition requirements of the deposited weld metal for carbon steel
electrodes are shown in Table 11-6.
Table 11-7 shows the mechanical properties requirements of low-alloy flux-cored
electrodes. Single-pass electrodes do not have chemical composition requirements
because checking the chemistry of undiluted weld metal does not give the true results of
normal single-pass weld chemistry.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-33
Table 11-5 Performance and usability characteristics of carbon steel flux-cored

electrodes (AWS A5.20).
AWS
Welding
Shielding
Classification
EXXT-1
EXXT-2
EXXT-3
EXXT-4
EXXT-5
EXXT-6
EXXT-7
EXXT-8
EXXT-9
EXXT-10
EXXT-11
EXXT-12
EXXT-13
EXXT-14
EXXT-G
EXXT-GS
Current
DCEP
DCEP
DCEP
DCEP
DCEP
DCEP
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
DCEN
Not Specified
Not Specified
Gas
CO2
CO2
None
None
CO2
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
CO2
None
Not Specified
Not Specified
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Single or
Multiple
Pass
Multiple
Single
Single
Multiple
Multiple
Multiple
Multiple
Multiple
Multiple
Single
Multiple
Multiple
Single
Single
Multiple
Single
11-34
Table 11-6 Chemical composition requirements of carbon-steel flux-cored

AWS
Classification
E7XT-1
E7XT-1M
E7XT-5
E7XT-5M
E7XT-9
E7XT-9M
E7XT-4
E7XT-6
E7XT-7
E7XT-8
E7XT-11
EXXT-G
E7XT-12
E7XT-12M
E6XT-13
E7XT-2
E7XT-2M
EXXT-3
EXXT-10
E7XT-13
E7XT-14
EXXT-GS
UNS
Number
Chemical Composition (%max.)

C
Mn
Si
Cr
Ni
Mo
AI
Cu
0.18
1.75
0.90
0.03
0.03
0.20
0.50
0.30
0.08
(b)
1.75
0.60
0.03
0.03
0.20
0.50
0.30
0.08
1.8
0.35
(b)
1.75
0.90
0.03
0.03
0.20
0.50
0.30
0.08
1.8
0.35
0.15
1.75
0.90
0.03
0.03
0.20
0.50
0.30
0.08
1.8
0.35
W07601
W07605
0.35
W07609
W07604
W07606
W07607
W07608
W07611
W07612
W06613
W07602
W07603
W07610
W07613
W07614
Not Specified
a. Chemical compositions are based on the analysis of the deposited weld metal.
b. No requirement, but the amount of carbon shall be determined and reported.
c. Since these are single-pass welds, the analysis of the undiluted weld metal is not meaningful.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-35
Table 11-7 Mechanical property requirements of low-alloy flux-cored

Tensile Strength
AWS
Range
Yield Strength
@0.2 Offset
Min
Percent Elongation
in 2 in (51 mm)
Classification
ksi
MPa
ksi
MPa
Min
E6XTX-X
60-80
410-550
50
340
22
E7XTX-X
70-90
490-620
58
400
20
E8XTX-X
80-100
550-690
68
470
19
E9XTX-X
90-110
620-760
78
540
17
E10XTX-X
100-120
690-830
(b)
(b)
610
560670
16
E10XTX-K9 -K9M
88
8297
E11XTX-X
110-130
760-900
98
680
15
E12XTX-X
120-140
830-970
108
750
14
18
EXXXTX-Ga
EXXTG-Xa
Properties as agreed between supplier and purchaser
EXXTG-Ga
a. Placement of a "G" in this designation indicates those properties as agreed upon between the
supplier and purchaser.
Other properties are dictated by the digit(s) or suffix replacing the X. Variations used in this
specification include the following:
(1) EXXTX-G-Alloy requirements are as agreed upon. The mechanical properties and slag
system are as indicated by the digits used.
(2) EXXTG-X-The slag system and shielding gas are as agreed upon. Mechanical properties
and alloy requirements conform to those indicated by the digits.
(3) EXXTG-G-The slag system, shielding gas, and alloy requirements are as agreed upon.
Mechanical properties conform to those indicated by the digits.
b. For this classification, E10XTX-K9, K9M, the "10" approximates the tensile strength, not a
requirement.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-36
The classification of low-alloy steel electrodes is similar to the classification of carbonsteel electrodes. An example of a low-alloy steel classification is ES1T1-Ni2 where:
2. The second digit indicates the minimum tensile strength in units of 10,000 psi (69
Mpa). The mechanical property requirements for low-alloy steel electrodes are
shown in Table 11-8.
3. The third digit indicates the welding position capabilities of the electrode. A "0"
indicates flat and horizontal positions only, and a "1" indicates all positions.
4. The "T" stands for a tubular (flux-cored) wire classification.
5. The fifth digit describes the usability and performance characteristics of the
electrode. These digits are the same as used in carbon steel electrode
classification but only EXXT1-X, EXXT4-X, EXXT5-X and EXXTS-X are used
with low-alloy steel flux-cored electrode classifications.
6. The suffix tells the chemical composition of the deposited weld metal as shown in
Table 11-9.
The classification system for stainless steel electrodes is based on the chemical
composition of the weld metal and the type of shielding to be used during welding. An
example of a stainless steel electrode classification is E30ST-1 where:
2. The digits between the "E" and the "T" indicate the chemical composition of the
weld as shown in Table 11-10.
3. The 'T' stands for a tubular (flux-cored) wire classification.
4. The suffix indicates the type of shielding to be used as shown in Table 11-11.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-37
Table 11-8 Impact requirements for low-alloy flux-cored electrodes (AWS

A5.29)
Classifications
Condition
(a)
Minimum Impact Strength
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-A 1 ,-Ai M
PWHT
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E7XT5-A 1, -A 1 M
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-B1, -B1M
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-B1L, -B1LM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-B2, -B2M
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-B2, -B2M
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-B2H, -B2HM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT1-B2L, -B2LM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-B2L, -B2LM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-B6, -B6M
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-B6L, -B6LM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-BB, -BBM
PWHT
Not Required
EBXT5-BBL, -BBLM
PWHT
Not Required
E9XT1-B3, -B3M
PWHT
Not Required
E9XT5-B3, -B3M
PWHT
Not Required
E10XT1-B3, -B3M
PWHT
Not Required
E9XT1-B3L, -B3LM
PWHT
Not Required
E9XT1-B3H, -B3HM
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E6XT1-Ni1, -Ni1M
AW
E7XT6-Ni1
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
AW
E7XTB-Ni1
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
AW
EBXT1-Ni1, -Ni1 M
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
PWHT
E9XTS-N11, -Ni1 M
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
AW
E7XTB-Ni2
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
AW
EBXTB-Ni2
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
AW
EBXT1-Ni2, -Ni2M
20 ftlbf @ -40F (27 J @ -40C)
PWHT
EBXT5-Ni2(b), -Ni2M(b
20 ftlbf @ -75F (27 J @ -60C)
AW
20 ftlbf @ -40F (27 J @ -40C)
E9XT1-Ni2, -Ni2M
PWHT
20 ftlbf @ -100F (27 J @ -73C)
EBXT5-Ni3(b), -Ni3M(b)
AW
20 ftlbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
EBXT11-Ni3
PWHT
20 ftlbf @ -100F (27 J @ -73C)
E9XT5-Ni3(b), -Ni3M(b)
AW
20 ftlbf @ -40F (27 J @ -40C)
E9XT1-D1, -D1M
PWHT
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E9XT5-D2, -D2M
PWHT
20 ftlbf @ -40F (27 J @ -40C)
E10XT5-D2, -D2M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E9XT1-D3, -D3M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -40F (27 J @ -40C)
EBXTS-K1, -K1M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E7XT7-K2
AW
20 ftlbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
E7XT4-K2
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E7XTB-K2
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
EBXT1-K2, -K2M
AW
20 ftlbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
E9XT1-K2, -K2M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
EBXT5-K2, -K2M
AW
20 ftlbf @ +32F (27 J @ 0C)
E7XT11-K2
AW
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E9XT5-K2, -K2M
AW
20 ftlbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
E10XT1-K3, -K3M
AW
20 ftlbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
E11 XT1-K3, -K3M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E10XT5-K3, -K3M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E11 XT5-K3, -K3M
AW
20 ft lbf @ 0F (27 J @ -18C)
E 11 XT1-K4, -K4M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E11XT5-K4, -K4M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E12XT5-K4, -K4M
AW
Not Required
E12XT1-K5, -K5M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -75F (27 J @ -60C)
E7XT5-K6, -K6M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E6XTB-K6
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E7XTB-K6
AW
20 ftlbf@ -60F (27 J @ -51C)
E10XT1-K7, -K7M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
E9XTB-KB
AW
35 ftlbf @ -60F (47 J @ -51C)
E10XT1-K9, -K9M
AW
20 ftlbf @ -20F (27 J @ -29C)
EBXT1-W2, -W2M
EXXXTX-G
(c)
Not Specified
Not Specifiedc
EXXXTG-G
EXXXTG-X
a. AW= As welded
PWHT = Postweld heat treated in accordance with AWS 5.29 Specification.
b. PWHT temperatures in excess 1150F (620C) will decrease the impact value.
c. See Table 11-7, Note a
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-38
Table 11-9 Chemical composition requirements for low-alloy flux-cored

Chemical Composition Weight-Percenta
AWS
Classification
UNS
Number
E7XT5-A1-A1M
ESXT1-A1-A1M
Mn
W17035
W17031
0.12
1.25
P
S
Si
Ni
Carbon-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes
0.03
0.03
0.80
ESXT1-B1-B1M
ESXT1-B1L-B1LM
ESXT1-B2-B2M
ESXT5-B2-B2M
ESXT1-B2L-B2LM
ESXT5-B2L-B2LM
ESXT1-B2H-B2HM
E9XT1-B3-B3M
E9XT5-B3-B3M
E10XT1-B3-B3M
E9XT1-B3L-B3LM
E9XT1-B3H-B3HM
ESXT5-B6-B6M
ESXT5-B6L-B6LM
ESXT5-BS-BSM
ESXT5-BSL-BSLM
W51031
W51131
W52031
W52035
W52131
W52135
W52231
W53031
W53035
W53031
W53131
W53231
W50231
W50230
W50431
W50430
0.05-0.12
0.05
0.05-0.12
1.25
1.25
1.25
Chromium-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes

0.03
0.03
0.80
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.40-0.65
0.40-0.65
1.00-1.50
0.40-0.65
0.40-0.65
0.40-0.65
0.05
1.25
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.00-1.50
0.40-0.65
0.10-0.15
1.25
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.00-1.50
0.40-0.65
0.05-0.12
1.25
0.03
0.03
0.80
2.00-2.50
0.90-1.20
0.05
0.10-0.15
0.05-0.12
0.05
0.05-0.12
0.05
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
2.00-2.50
2.00-2.50
4.0-6.0
4.0-6.0
8.0-10.5
8.0-10.5
0.90-1.20
0.90-1.20
0.45-0.65
0.45-0.65
0.85-1.20
0.85-1.20
E7XTS-Ni1
E7XT6-Ni1
E6XT1-Ni1-Ni1M
ESXT1-Ni1-Ni1M
ESXT5-Ni1 -Ni1M
ESXT1-Ni2 -Ni2M
ESXT5-Ni2 -Ni2M
E9XT1-Ni2 -Ni2M
E7XTS-Ni2
ESXTS-Ni2
ESXT5-Ni3 -Ni3M
E9XT5-Ni3 -Ni3M
ESXT11-Ni3
W21038
W21038
W21031
W21031
W21035
W22031
W22035
W22031
W22038
W22038
W23035
W23035
W23039
0.12
1.50
0.03
0.15
0.35
0.05
0.12
1.50
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.80-1.10
0.15
0.35
0.05
0.12
1.50
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.75-2.75
0.12
1.50
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.75-2.75
0.12
0.12
0.12
1.50
1.50
1.50
E9XT1-01 -01M
E9XT5-02 -02M
E10XT5-02 -02M
E9XT1-03 -03M
W19131
W19235
W19235
W19331
0.12
0.15
1.25-2.00
1.65-2.25
0.12
1.00-1.75
ESXT5-K1, K1M
E7XT4-K2
E7XT7-K2
E71TS-K2
E7XT11-K2
ESXT1-K2 -K2M
E9XT1-K2 -K2M
ESXT5-K2 -K2M
E9XT5-K2 -K2M
E10XT1-K3 -K3M
E11XT1-K3 -K3M
E10XT5-K3 -K3M
E11XT5-K3 -K3M
E11XT1-K4 -K4M
E11XT5-K4 -K4M
E12XT5-K4 -K4M
E12XT1-K5 -K5M
E6XTS-K6
E7XTS-K6
E7XT5-K6 -K6M
E10XT1-K7 -K7M
E9XTS-KS
E10XT1-K9 -K9M
ESXT1-W2 -W2M
EXXTX-G
W21135
W21234
W21237
W2123S
W21239
W21231
W21231
W21235
W21235
W21331
W21331
W21335
W21335
W22231
W22235
W22235
W21531
W21048
W21048
W21045
W22051
W21438
W23230
W21031
0.15
0.03
0.80
0.03
0.80
0.03
1.0
0.40
0.03
1.0
0.40
0.03
1.0
0.40
0.03
1.0
0.40
Nickel-Steel Electrodes
0.03
0.80
0.80-1.10
Cr
Mo
A1b
Cu
0.40-0.65
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.8
1.8
0.03
0.03
0.80
2.75-3.75
0.03
0.03
0.80
2.75-3.75
0.03
0.03
0.80
2.75-3.75
Manganese-Molybdenum Steel Electrodes
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.8
0.25-0.65
0.25-0.55
0.80-1.40
0.03
0.03
0.80
All Other Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.80-1.10
0.40-0.65
0.15
0.20-0.65
0.05
0.15
0.50-1.75
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.00-2.00
0.15
0.35
0.05
0.15
0.50-1.75
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.00-2.00
0.15
0.35
0.05
0.15
0.75-2.25
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.25-2.80
0.15
0.25-0.65
0.05
0.15
1.20-2.25
0.03
0.03
0.80
1.75-2.60
0.20-0.60
0.20-0.65
0.03
0.010-0.25
0.15
0.60-1.60
0.50-1.50
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.80
0.75-2.00
0.40-1.00
0.20-0.70
0.20
0.15-0.55
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.07
0.12
0.50-1.50
1.00-1.75
1.00-2.00
0.50-1.50
0.50-1.30
1.75c
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.15
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.15
0.03
0.03
0.80
0.80
0.40
0.80
0.35-0.80
0.80c
0.40-1.00
2.00-2.75
0.50-1.50
1.30-3.75
0.40-0.80
0.50c
0.20
0.15
0.05
0.20
0.20
0.45-0.70
0.30c
0.20
0.50
0.05
0.05
1.8
0.20
0.10
1.8
1.8
0.8
0.06
0.30-0.75
a. Single values are maximum unless otherwise noted.

b. For self-shielded electrodes only.
c. In order to meet the alloy requirements of the G group, the undiluted weld metal shall have the minimum of at least one of the elements listed in this table.
Shielding gas, slag system, and mechanical properties are dictated by the digit(s) replacing XIs).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-39
Table 11-10 Undiluted weld metal composition requirements for stainless steel
Chemical Composition Weight-Percenta
AWS
UNS
Cb(Nb)
Classificationb
Numberc
Cr
Ni
Mo
Mn
Si
E307TX-X
W30731
013
18.0-20.5
9.0-10.5
0.5-1.5
3.30-4.75
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308TX-X
W30831
0.08
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308LTX-X
W30835
0.04
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308HTX-X
W30831
0.04-0.08
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308MoTX-X
W30832
0.08
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308LMoTX-X
W30838
0.04
18.0-21.0
9.0-12.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309TX-X
W30931
0.10
22.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LCbTX-X
W30932
0.04
22.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LTX-X
W30935
0.04
22.0-25.0
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309MoTX-X
W30939
0.12
21.0-25.0
12.0-16.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LMoTX-X
W30938
0.04
21.0-25.0
12.0-16.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LNiMoTX-X
W30936
0.04
20.5-23.5
15.0-17.0
2.5-3.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E310TX-X
W31031
0.20
25.0-28.0
20.0-22.5
0.5
1.0-2.5
1.0
0.03
0.03
0.5
E312TX-X
W31331
0.15
28.0-32.0
8.0-10.5
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E316TX-X
W31631
0.08
17.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E316LTX-X
W31635
0.04
17.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E317LTX-X
W31735
0.04
18.0-21.0
12.0-14.0
3.0-4.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E347TX-X
W34731
0.08
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
+Ta
0.70-1.00
8 x C min.
Cu
1.0 max.
E409TX-Xd
W40931
0.10
10.5-13.5
0.60
0.5
0.80
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410TX-X
W41031
0.12
11.0-13.5
0.60
0.5
1.2
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410NiMoTX-X
W41036
0.06
11.0-12.5
4.0-5.0
0.40-0.70
1.0
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410NiTiTX-Xd
W41038
0.04
11.0-12.0
3.6-4.5
0.5
0.70
0.50
0.03
0.03
0.5
E430TX-X
W43031
0.10
15.0-18.0
0.60
0.5
1.2
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E502TX-X
W50231
0.10
4.0-6.0
0.40
0.45-0.65
1.2
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E505TX-X
W50431
0.10
8.0-10.5
0.40
0.85-1.20
1.2
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E307T0-3
W30733
0.13
19.5-22.0
9.0-10.5
0.5-1.5
3.30-4.75
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308T0-3
W30833
0.08
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308LT0-3
W30837
0.03
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308HT0-3
W30833
0.04-0.08
19.5-22.0
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308MoT0-3
W30839
0.08
18.0-21.0
9.0-11.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308LMoT0-3
W30838
0.03
18.0-21.0
9.0-12.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E308HMoT0-3
W30830
0.07-0.12
19.0-21.5
9.0-10.7
1.8-2.4
1.25-2.25
0.25-0.80
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309T0-3
W30933
0.10
23.0-25.5
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LT0-3
W30937
0.03
23.0-25.5
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LCbT0-3
W30934
0.03
23.0-25.5
12.0-14.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309MoT0-3
W30939
0.12
21.0-25.0
12.0-16.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E309LMoT0-3
W30938
0.04
21.0-25.0
12.0-16.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E310T0-3
W31031
0.20
25.0-28.0
20.0-22.5
0.5
1.0-2.5
1.0
0.03
0.03
0.5
E312T0-3
W31231
0.15
28.0-32.0
8.0-10.5
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E316T0-3
W31633
0.08
18.0-20.5
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
0.70-1.00
E316LT0-3
W31637
0.03
18.0-20.5
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E316LKT0-3e
W31630
0.04
17.0-20.0
11.0-14.0
2.0-3.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E317LT0-3
W31737
0.03
18.5-21.0
13.0-15.0
3.0-4.0
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E347T0-3
W34733
0.08
19.0-21.5
9.0-11.0
0.5
0.5-2.5
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E409T0-3d
W40931
0.10
10.5-13.5
0.60
0.5
0.80
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410T0-3
W41031
0.12
11.0-13.5
0.60
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410NiMoT0-3
W41036
0.06
11.0-12.5
4.0-5.0
0.40-0.70
1.0
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.5
E410NiTiT0-3d
W41038
0.04
11.0-12.0
3.6-4.5
0.5
0.70
0.50
0.03
0.03
0.5
E430T0-3
W43031
0.10
15.0-18.0
0.60
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.04
0.03
E2209T0-X
W39239
0.04
21.0-24.0
7.5-10.0
2.5-4.0
0.5-2.0
1.0
0.04
0.03
0.80-2.0
0.5
E2553T0-X
W39553
0.04
24.0-27.0
8.5-10.5
2.9-3.9
0.5-1.5
0.75
0.04
0.03
0.10-0.20
1.5-2.5
8 x C min.
1.0 max.
0.5
EXXXTX-G
Not Specified
a. Single values shown are maximum.
b. In this table, the "X" following the ''T'' refers to the position of welding (1 for all-position operation or 0 for flat or horizontal operation) and the "X" following the dash refers to the
shielding medium (-1 or -4).
c. ASTM/SAE Unified Number System for Metals and Alloys.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-40
d. Titanium - 10 x C min., 1.5% max.

e. This alloy is designed for cryogenic applications.
Table 11-11 Performance and usability characteristics for stainless steel fluxcored electrodes.
AWS Classification
External Shielding Gas
Welding Polarity
EXXXT-1
CO2
DCEP
EXXXT-3
None (Self-shielded)
DCEP
EXXXT-4
75-80% Argon/remainder CO2
DCEP
EXXXT-G
Not Specified
Not Specified
5.2.2 Electrode Selection

The selection of the proper electrode for an application is based on the type of metal to
be welded and the specific chemical and mechanical properties required of the joint.
Identification of the base metal is required to select an electrode. If the type of metal is
not known, tests must be made based on visual, magnetic, chisel, flame, fracture,
spark, or chemistry tests.
The selection of the proper filler metal for a specific job application is quite involved but
may be based on the following factors.
1. Base Metal Strength Properties This is done by choosing an electrode wire to
match the tensile or yield strength of a metal. This is usually one of the most
important criteria for selecting a filler metal to be used on low-carbon and many
low-alloy steels.
2. Base Metal Composition The chemical composition of the metal to be welded
should be known. Closely matching the filler and base metal com positions is
important when corrosion resistance and creep resistance are needed. The filler
metals for welding stainless steels and alloy steels are usually chosen based on
matching chemical compositions.
3. Welding Position Flux-cored electrodes are designed to be used in specific
positions. Wire diameter is the major factor limiting the position in which an
electrode can be used. All-position electrodes are available only in the smaller
sizes. Flat and horizontal-position-only electrodes may have very similar
compositions but are available in all sizes or the larger sizes that cannot be
easily used for vertical and overhead welding. Electrodes should be selected to
match the welding position.
4. Welding Current Flux-cored electrodes are designed to operate on either
direct current electrode negative or direct current electrode positive. Electrodes
operating on DCEN generally give lighter penetration and higher deposition
rates. Electrodes operating on DCEP generally provide deeper penetration.
5. Joint Design and Fit-up Electrodes should be chosen according to their
penetration characteristics. Gas-shielded flux-cored wires produce deeper
penetration than self-shielding wires. This can have an effect on the joint design
used.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-41
6. Thickness and Shape of Base Metal Weldments may include thick sections or
complex shapes that may require maximum ductility to avoid weld cracking.
Electrodes that give the best ductility should be used for these applications.
7. Service Conditions and/or Specifications For weldments subject to severe
conditions, such as low temperature, high temperature, or shock loading, an
electrode that matches the ductility and impact strength of the steel should be
selected.
8. Production Efficiency and Job Conditions Large-diameter electrodes should
be used, if possible, to give higher deposition rates.
Flux-cored electrodes for carbon and low-alloy steels are each designed for specific
applications based on the composition of the flux core of the wire. Each suffix used
indicates a general grouping of electrodes that have similar flux components and
usability characteristics.
T-I electrodes are single- or multiple-pass electrodes. They operate on DCEP and
require gas shielding. They produce a flat to slightly convex weld bead with a moderate
slag coating. T-I electrodes produce a fine globular transfer and low spatter levels.
Welds produced with T-1 electrodes have good mechanical properties.
T-2 electrodes operate on DCEP and also require gas shielding. These electrodes are
similar to T-I types, but are designed to weld over rust and scale. They are for
singlepass welding only because of their high silicon and manganese contents.
T-3 electrodes are self-shielding wires using DCEP for single-pass welding operations.
These electrodes produce a fine globular transfer, and are designed for welding sheet
metal at high welding speeds.
T-4 electrodes are self-shielding wires using DCEP for single- or multiple-pass
operation. These electrodes produce a globular metal transfer and light penetration for
joints with poor fit-up. Desulfurizing elements are contained in the flux core to help
prevent weld cracking.
T-5 electrodes can be used to weld higher carbon steels, or for joining low-alloy steels
to carbon steels because of cleaner welds and lower hydrogen levels.
T-6 electrodes are self-shielded electrodes for single- or multiple-pass welding using
DCEP. A fine globular transfer and deep penetration characterize these electrodes. The
slag coating has good deep-groove removal characteristics and produces good low
temperature impact properties.
T-7 electrodes are self-shielded electrodes that operate on DCEN for single- or multiplepass welding. The larger sizes of this type of electrode are designed to produce high
deposition rates. The smaller sizes are used for all-position welding. The slag coating
desulfurizes the weld metal to a very low level that helps prevent cracking.
T-8 electrodes are self-shielding electrodes for single- or multiple- pass welding that
operate on DCEN. The slag system is designed to allow all-position welding. The slag
also desulfurizes the weld metal and produces good low temperature impact properties.
T-10 electrodes are self-shielded, single-pass electrodes that operate on DCEN. These
electrodes are used for making welds in the flat and horizontal positions at high travel
speeds.
T-11 electrodes are self-shielded electrodes that operate on DCEN for single- and
multiple-pass welding. These are general-purpose electrodes for all-position welding at
moderate travel speeds. They produce a fine globular transfer.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-42
T-G electrodes are for multiple-pass welding not covered by another classification.
T-GS electrodes are single-pass electrodes not covered by another classification. The
operating conditions and characteristics are not defined for the T-G and the T-GS
electrodes.
5.2.3 Conformance and Approvals
Flux cored arc welding electrodes must conform to specifications, or be approved by
code-making organizations for many FCAW applications. Some of the code-making
organizations that issue specifications or approvals are the American Welding Society
(AWS), the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), and other state and federal highway
and military organizations.
The American Welding Society provides specifications for flux-cored wire electrodes.
Electrodes must meet specific requirements in order to conform to a particular electrode
classification.
Many code-making organizations, such as the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) and the American Petroleum Institute (API), recognize and use the
AWS specifications.
Some of the code-making organizations, such as the American Bureau of Shipping
(ABS) and the military, must directly approve the electrodes before they can be used for
welding on a project covered by that code. These organizations send inspectors to
witness the welding and testing, as well as to approve the classification of the flux-cored
electrodes.
To conform to the AWS specifications for carbon- and low-alloy steel filler metals, the
electrodes must produce a weld deposit that meets the specific mechanical and
chemical requirements. For stainless steel filler metal, the electrodes must produce a
weld deposit with a specific chemical composition. The requirements will vary
depending on the class of the electrodes.

3.
For what wire size is the knurled V-groove drive rolls most commonly used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
1/32 and smaller

1/16 and smaller
1/32 and larger
1/16 and larger
(True or False) Electrodes are designed to be used in specific positions.

A.
B.
True
False

Flux cored arc welding has gained popularity for a wide variety of applications. FCAW
has replaced SMAW for some applications. One of the major advantages of the process
is the high deposition rates obtained when compared to the manual arc welding
processes. FCAW deposition rates are also generally higher than those obtained from
gas metal arc welding. Because FCAW is a semiautomatic process, higher productivity
can be obtained compared to SMAW. This process also lends itself easily to machine
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-43
and automatic welding. Because of the versatility of FCAW, it has obtained wide
application in shop fabrication, maintenance, and field erection work.
Each of the two variations of FCAW has their advantages, but the areas of application
of the two variations often overlap. The method of welding used depends on the joint
design, fit-up, availability of electrodes, and mechanical property requirements of the
welded joints.
The self-shielding electrode wire variation can often be used for applications that can be
done by SMAW. This is especially true when welding in locations where compressed
gas cylinders are difficult to handle.
Gas-shielded flux-cored wires are used for many applications that compete with GMAW.
There are many different applications possible but the most common ones are
discussed below.
6.1.0 Industries
FCAW is the welding process of choice in a number of civilian industries because it is
versatile, has high deposition rates, and is user friendly.
6.1.1 Structures
One of the most important applications of FCAW is in the structural fabrication industry.
This industry uses a wide variety of low-carbon and low-alloy steels in many different
thicknesses. Welding is done in the shop and in the field, and FCAW is readily
adaptable to both types of wires. The major advantages of this process in the structural
industry are the high deposition rates, high production rates, deep penetrating
characteristics, and the adaptability of the process for field erection welding. Because a
large percentage of the welds made in
structural work are fillets, FCAW is widely
used for making large single-pass fillet
welds. Many of these welds would require
multiple passes using GMAW and SMAW.
Gas-shielded flux-cored wires have replaced
SMAW and GMAW for many shop
applications. FCAW is widely used for
welding the thicker structural members
where the higher deposition rates provide
more advantage. Figure 11-27 shows
welding a bridge girder using a gas-shielded
flux-cored wire in the flat position. Out-ofposition welding is done using the smaller
diameter wires.
For field welding, the self-shielding fluxcored wires are commonly used. These fluxFigure 11-27 Flux cored arc
cored wires are preferred over the gaswelding of structures.
shielded types because a supply of shielding
gas is not required, which makes the equipment more portable.
Another advantage of the self-shielding electrodes for field construction is that they can
be used in windier conditions. This is because the decomposition of the flux core that
provides the shielding is less sensitive to wind than an external gas shielding supply.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-44
Figure 11-28 shows FCAW being used.

Note the welders hand shield in place to
protect from the higher heat created by the
FCAW process.
Another application of self-shielding
electrodes is for welding galvanized steel
roof decking. Single-pass electrodes using
DCEN are preferred for most applications
because of the lighter penetration produced,
which reduces the chances of burning
through the decking.
6.1.2 Ships
FCAW is used in the shipbuilding industry
because of the wide variety of low-carbon
and low-alloy steels and metal thicknesses
being welded. Because this process can be
used in the vertical and overhead positions,
it is used in places where submerged arc
welding (SAW) cannot be used. The
process is also useful for vertical welding on
metal thicknesses too thin for electroslag
welding to be economical. Most FCAW is
done semiautomatically but some automatic
welding applications are used. Figure 11-29
shows an automatic welding system welding
a cargo hoist control unit.
Figure 11-28 Self-shielded flux

cored welding.

FCAW is used to some extent in the
industrial piping industry. This process is
used for welding pipe in both the shop and
the field for steam generating plants,
refineries, distilleries, and chemical
processing plants. FCAW competes with
submerged arc welding, SMAW, and
GMAW.
Figure 11-29 Automatic

welding system.
This process may be used to deposit all

passes or it may be used to deposit the fill and cover passes over a root pass welded by
another process. Flat roll welding (I G position) is often used for both semiautomatic and
automatic welding applications. This allows higher welding currents with larger diameter
wires and requires fewer weld passes. Roll welding is often used, especially on largediameter piping. Copper backing strips are sometimes used to allow higher current
levels and insure full penetration to the root of the joint. When welding fixed position
pipe, smaller diameter electrodes are used. These electrodes operate at lower current
levels and require more passes. In these positions, the root pass is often welded using
GMAW and sometimes GTAW. In horizontal fixed (5 G position) welding, the root pass
by FCAW is done using a downhill technique. The remaining passes are then welded
using an uphill technique.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-45
FCAW is used for welding both carbon-steel and alloy-steel pipe. A major application of
the process is for welding chromium-molybdenum steel pipe. This is the major type of
alloy steel used for pipe. Flux-cored electrodes are preferred over the solid wire when
matching chemical compositions. This is because porosity is hard to avoid. In addition,
with the solid wire electrodes the operating characteristics of solid wires are not as
good, which makes them more difficult to use. Most of the electrodes used for FCAW
pipe are gas-shielded because of the better penetration and the generally better
mechanical properties produced.
6.1.4 Railroads
FCAW is used extensively in the railroad industry. Other processes, such as SMAW,
GMAW and SAW, are also widely used, so
the choice of the welding process is based
on the weld size, joint accessibility, joint
length and welding position. The longest
welds on the heavier metal thicknesses in
the flat position are generally welded using
SAW. FCAW is usually used on the heavier
metal thicknesses where SAW is not
practical. Examples would be for joints in
other positions, shorter joints, and where
accessibility is more limited. FCAW is
preferred over SMAW and GMAW for many
uses because of the higher deposition rates
obtained. Many different components on the
engines and the rail cars are commonly
welded. Figure 11-30 shows FCAW of a
seam on a rail car.
6.1.5 Automotive Products
FCAW has gained popularity for use in the
automobile and truck manufacturing
industries. This process is used because of
the high production rates that can be
obtained. Both the self-shielding and the
gas-shielded electrode wires have been
used. The gas-shielded wires are generally
used when deeper penetration is required.
FCAW is also popular because it can be
easily automated. Components such as
frames, truck wheels, trailers, and axle
housings are common applications. FCAW
is more popular for trucks because of the
larger thicknesses of metal generally used.
An example of FCAW is shown in Figure 1131 where a truck trailer chassis is being
welded. This part had previously been a
casting that was made into a weldment.
Because of the relatively thick plate being
welded, FCAW is more economical on this
application than GMAW. Another advantage
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-30 FCAW of a

railroad car.
Figure 11-31 FCAW of a truck

frame.
11-46
of this application is that the depth of some bevels has been reduced and some bevels
have been eliminated because of the deep penetrating characteristics of the process.
The use of FCAW has increased over GMAW for many frame welding applications
because joint fit-up is less important, better appearing weld beads can be produced,
and FCAW has better welder appeal. Many flux-cored electrodes have been developed
for welding over some rust and scale, which reduces the metal preparation time.
A special application of FCAW is for welding catalytic converters. These are made of
type 409 stainless steel that is welded with an equivalent filler metal using gas shielding.
The heavy equipment manufacturing industry includes mining, agricultural, and earth
moving equipment, as well as other items such as forklift trucks and armored vehicles.
FCAW is popular in these industries because of the high deposition rates obtained.
Fillet welds are often encountered in these industries, and large single-pass fillet welds
can often be welded by FCAW, which eliminates interpass cleaning time and increases
productivity.
The mining equipment manufacturing industry also is a major user of FCAW for welding
a wide variety of low-carbon and low-alloy steels.
The FCAW process is very useful for maintenance and surfacing operations.
Maintenance operations range from repairing and modifying plant and building facilities
to repairing pipe, production equipment, and castings. Surfacing and salvaging
operations include the repair of mismachined parts, foundry defects, accommodating
engineering changes, rebuilding worn parts (especially shafting and rollers), and
overlaying parts with special materials. Reclamation includes the disassembly and
rewelding of defective items manufactured in the factory and in the field. It has been
used for maintaining and repairing items too expensive to repair with oxyacetylene
welding and other arc welding processes. Self-shielding flux-cored electrodes are
popular for field repairs and maintenance because the equipment is more portable.
A metal overlay can be used to extend the usable life of new parts that lack some of the
wear-resistant qualities required for certain applications. Overlays are used mostly to
replace metal that has been worn away by abrasion, corrosion, and impacts. An overlay
provides toughness and resistance to corrosion, abrasion, and wear at the exact
location on the part where it is needed most. The primary reason for weld overlaying
parts is to prepare them for certain applications and to extend their service life. FCAW is
widely used because of its characteristic high deposition rate and good weld bead
appearance.
6.2.0 Flux Cored Arc Spot Welding

Flux cored arc spot welding (FCASW) is a variation of the process where a fusion weld
is made through one sheet into an adjacent sheet of a lap joint while the welding gun is
held stationary. The equipment used for arc spot welding is the same as for normal
welding, except that it requires a timer and a special gun nozzle. FCASW is used on
low-carbon and low-alloy steels and is generally preferred for welding thicker sheet
metal and thin plate sections. This is because of the greater penetrating capability of the
process as compared to gas tungsten (GTASW) or gas metal arc spot welding
(GMASW). The FCASW process also provides a wider penetration spot weld at the
interface between the plates to be joined. This produces a larger diameter spot weld
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-47
with greater strength. FCASW is identical to GMASW except that a flux-cored electrode
wire is used. Carbon dioxide shielding is generally used but argon-CO2 mixtures are
sometimes used to reduce the amount of penetration. When welding thinner metals, a
backup bar is used under the sheet metal.
The advantages of FCASW over resistance spot welding are:
1. Access is only required from the top of the joint.
2. Spot welding can be done in all positions more easily.
3. The gun is light and portable and can be taken to the weldment.
4. Weld joint fit-up is not as critical.
5. Faster production rates can be obtained, particularly on thicker metal.
The main disadvantage of arc spot welding is the consistency of weld size and strength
is not as good.
Either the gas-shielded or self-shielding fluxcored electrodes may be used. The weld is
made by depressing the trigger that starts
the shielding gas, if used, and, after a
preflow interval, starts the arc and the wire
feed. The arc melts through the top sheet of
the lap joint and fuses into the bottom sheet.
When the preset weld time is finished, the
arc and wire feed are stopped, followed by
the gas flow, if used. FCASW is shown in
Figure 11-32. This process is used for
making welds in metal ranging from 16
gauge (1.5 mm) to 1/4-in. (6.4 mm) in
thickness. Metals of the same or different
thicknesses can be made. If dissimilar
thicknesses are being welded, the thinner
member should always be placed on top.
Figure 11-32 FCASW.
The length of the spot weld cycle affects the
penetration and the amount of reinforcement
on the surface of the weld bead. FCASW generally produces larger, stronger weld
nuggets on the same metal thicknesses as compared to GMASW. The rest of the
welding variables affect the weld in the same way as normal weld.

Welding metallurgy concerns the chemical, physical, and atomic properties and
structures of metals, and the principles by which metals are combined to form alloys.

The properties of a weld include the chemical composition, mechanical strength,
ductility, toughness, and the microstructure. These items will relate to the weldability of
the metal. The weldability of a metal is the quality obtained and the ease of welding for
the intended service conditions. The types of materials used affect the chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties of the weld. The mechanical properties and
microstructure are determined by the heat input as well as the chemical composition
and physical properties of the weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-48

The chemical composition of the base and filler metal has a great influence on the
weldability of a metal, and this property has an influence on the preheating and
postheating used, as well as the welding parameters.
For welding stainless steels, the chemical composition of the weld is often the most
important property. The chemical composition of the weld must match the composition
of the base metal when corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity, and
appearance are major considerations. The chemical composition can also affect the
high and low temperature strength, as well as the microstructure and mechanical
properties of the weld. Preheating reduces the cooling rate of the weld after welding to
prevent cracking. The amount of preheat needed depends on the type of metal being
welded, the metal thickness, and the amount of joint restraint.
Steels with higher carbon contents need higher preheat than steels with lower carbon
equivalents. Table 11-12 shows typical preheat values for different metals welded by
FCAW.
Another major factor that determines the amount of preheat needed is the thickness of
the base metal. Thicker base metals usually need higher preheat temperatures than
thinner base metals. Thick metal draws the heat away from the welding zone more
quickly because there is a large mass of metal to absorb the heat. This would cause a
quicker cooling of the weld if the same preheat temperature was used, as on thinner
base metals.
The third major factor for determining the amount of preheat needed is the amount of
internal stresses build up. Higher preheat temperatures are needed as the amount of
joint restraint increases. Slower cooling rates reduce the amount of internal stresses
that are building up as the weld cools.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-49
Table 11-12 Preheats for various metals.

Type of Steel
Preheat
Low-Carbon Steel
Medium-Carbon Steel
400-500F (205-260C)
High-Carbon Steel
500-600F (260-315C)
Low-alloy Nickel Steel

Room Temperature
500F (260C)
Low-alloy Nickel-Chrome Steel

200-300F (93-150C)
600-800F (315-425C)
900-1100F (480-595C)
Low-alloy Manganese Steel
400-600F (205-315C)
Low-alloy Chrome Steel
Up to 750F (400C)
Low-alloy Molybdenum Steel

Carbon content below .150%
Room Temperature
Carbon content above .15%
400-650F (205-345C)
Low-alloy High Tensile Steel
150-300F (66-150C)
Room Temperature
300-350F (150-260C)

Note:
400-600F (205-315C)
The actual preheat needed may depend on several other factors, such as the thickness of the base
metal, the amount of joint restraint, and whether or not low-hydrogen types of electrodes are used. This
chart is intended as general information; the specifications of the job should be checked for the specific
preheat temperature used.

measures of the strength of the material, the next two are a measure of the ductility, and
the last is a measure of the impact toughness. These properties are often important in
FCAW steels designed to give maximum strength, ductility, and toughness.
FCAW can produce good properties in the weld- and heat-affected zone. The slag
coating in FCAW slows the cooling rate of the weld metal, which reduces the tendency
to become brittle.
FCAW produces a higher heat input, which will also tend to produce a slower cooling
rate. A disadvantage of the higher heat input is that distortion is more of a problem than
with GMAW. The mechanical properties of the weld will vary, depending on whether a
self-shielded or gas-shielded flux-cored wire is used. Some self-shielded electrodes
contain high amounts of deoxidizers, which may produce weld metal with relatively low
impact toughness. Most of the gas-shielded flux-cored wires produce welds that have
better impact toughness.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-50
The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,

measured from a .505 in. (12.8 mm)
diameter machined tensile testing bar. The
metal is tested by pulling it in a tensile
testing machine. Figure 11-33 shows a
tensile bar before and after testing. The
yield strength of the metal is the stress at
which the material is pulled beyond the point
where it will return to its original length. The
ultimate tensile strength is the maximum
stress or load that can be carried by the
metal without breaking. This is also
measured in psi (MPa). Elongation is a
measure of ductility that is also measured
on the tensile bar. Two points are marked
on the bar 2 in. (51 mm) apart before
testing. After testing, the distance between
the two points is measured again and the
percent of change in the distance between
them, or percent of elongation, is measured.

testing bars.
Reduction of area is another method of measuring ductility. The original diameter of the
testing bar is .20 sq in (128 sq mm). During the testing, the diameter of the bar reduces
as it elongates. When the bar finally breaks, the diameter of the bar at the breaking
point is measured, which is then used to
determine the area. The percent reduction of
this cross-sectional area is called the
reduction of area.
some typical Charpy V-notch test bars. Bars
with V-notches are put in a machine where
they are struck by a hammer attached to the
end of a pendulum. The energy that it takes
to break these bars is known as the impact
strength and it is measured in foot-pounds
(joules, also called newton-meters).
NAVEDTRA 14250A

bars.
11-51
Figure 11-35 shows a cross section of a

weld bead showing the weld metal zone,
the heat-affected zone, and the base metal
zone- the three basic microstructural areas
within a weldment. The weld metal zone is
where the metal was molten during welding.
The heat-affected zone is the area where
the heat from welding has an effect on the
microstructure of the base metal. The base
metal zone is the area that was not affected
by the welding. The extent of change of the
microstructure is dependent on four factors:
1. Maximum temperature exposure
2. Temperature exposure time
3. The chemical composition of the
base metal

weld bead showing in the three
areas.
4. The cooling rate of the weld

The weld metal zone, which is the area heated above about 2800F (1540C) and
melted, generally has the coarsest grain structure of the three areas. Generally, a fairly
fine grain size is produced on cooling in most metals. Large grain size is undesirable
because it gives poor weld toughness and cracking resistance. The filler metal starts to
solidify at the edges of the weld puddle. The grains that form at the edge are called
dendrites and they grow toward the center
of the weld into the area that is still molten
(Figure 11-36).
These dendrites give the weld metal its
Deoxidizers and scavengers are often
added to filler metal to help refine the grain
size in the weld. The greater the heat input
to the weld and the longer that it is held at
high temperature, the larger the grain size.
A faster cooling rate will produce a smaller
grain size than a slower cooling rate.
Preheating will give larger grain sizes, but is
often necessary to prevent the formation of
a hard, brittle microstructure.
The heat-affected zone is an area of change
pattern of the weld.
in the microstructure of the base metal. The
area that is closest to the weld metal usually
undergoes grain growth. Other parts of the heat-affected zone will go through grain
refinement. Other areas may be annealed and considerably softened. Because of the
changes due to the heat input and cooling rate, areas of the heat-affected zone can
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-52
become embrittled and become the source of cracking. A large heat input during
welding will cause a larger heat-affected zone. This is often not desirable, so the
welding parameters used can help influence the size of the heat-affected zone.

FCAW is commonly used to weld most steels and stainless steels. This process also
welds some nickel alloys. Most nonferrous metals are not welded by this process
because of the high heat input and because suitable electrode wires have not been
developed.
7.5.1 Steels
FCAW is widely used for welding steels. In general, steel is classified according to the
carbon content, such as low-carbon, mild, medium-carbon, and high-carbon steels. In
addition, steel is also classified according to the alloys used. For the purpose of
discussion in this chapter, the different steels will be grouped according to their welding
characteristics.
When welding steel, the carbon and other alloy content influences the hardness and
hardenability of the weld metal, which in turn influences the amount of preheat needed.
The two terms, hardness and hardenability, are not the same. The maximum hardness
of a steel is primarily a function of the amount of carbon in the steel. Hardenability is a
measure of how easily a martensite structure is formed when the steel is quenched.
Martensite is the phase or metallurgical structure in steel where the maximum hardness
of the steel can be obtained. Steels with low hardenability must have very high cooling
rates after welding to form martensite, where steels with high hardenability will form
martensite even when they are slow cooled. The hardenability wiII determine to what
extent a steel will harden during welding. The carbon equivalent formula is one of the
best methods of determining the weldability of steels. This value is determined by the
amounts of the alloying elements used. There are several different formulas used. One
of the most popular is as follows:
Carbon Equivalent = %C +
%Cr % Mn % Mo % Ni %Cu
+
+
+
+
10
6
10
20
40
fewer precautions, such as the use of preheat and postheat. Steels with higher carbon
equivalents are generally more difficult to weld. When welding some of the steels, it is
more important to match the mechanical properties than the chemical composition of
the filler metal to the base metal. Often, filler metal with a lower carbon content than the
base metal is used because the weld metal absorbs carbon from the base metal. This is
done to minimize the tendency for weld cracking.
7.5.1.1 Low-carbon and Mild Steels
Low-carbon and mild steels are those that have low carbon contents and are the most
readily weldable. This group of steels is the most widely used in industrial fabrication.
This group also includes the high strength structural steels.
Low-carbon steels have carbon contents up to .14%. Mild steel has carbon contents
ranging from .15 to .29%. For many applications, preheating is not required except on
thick sections, highly restrained joints, or where codes require preheating. Other
precautions, such as interpass temperature control and postheating, are sometimes
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-53
used. With thicker sections and highly restrained joints, preheating, interpass
temperature control, and postheating are usually required to prevent cracking. When
welding these steels, electrodes of the E70-T class are used with carbon dioxide. Selfshielding wires are also widely used. The filler metal should be chosen so that it
matches the tensile strength of the base metal. When welding rimmed steels, which
have silicon contents less than .05%, filler metal with sufficient amounts of deoxidizers
must be chosen to prevent porosity. This precaution is not necessary for welding steels
containing more than .05% silicon.
The high-strength structural steels are steels whose yield strength falls between 45,000
psi (310 MPa) and 70,000 psi (485 MPa) and their carbon content is generally below
.25%. These steels have relatively small amounts of alloying elements. Some common
examples of these steels are the ASTM designations of A242, A441, A572, A588, A553,
and A537.
Some low-carbon and mild steel electrodes are designed for welding over some rust
and mill scale. The flux core helps to reduce the bad effects of rust and mill scale but
some reduction in weld quality may occur. These FCAW electrodes are preferred for
many applications because cleaning of the base metal is less important. For
applications where the maximum mechanical properties are not as important as higher
deposition rates and travel speeds, high welding currents can be used.
7.5.1.2 Low-alloy Steels
The low-alloy steels discussed here will be those steels that are low-carbon and have
alloy additions less than 5%. This includes the quenched and tempered steels, heattreated low-alloy steels, and the low-nickel-alloy steels. Elements such as nickel,
chromium, manganese, and molybdenum are the main alloying elements used. These
steels have a higher hardenability than mild steels and that is the principal complication
in welding. Low-alloy steels have good weldability but are not as good as the mild
steels. This higher hardenability permits martensite to form at lower cooling rates. As
the alloy content and the carbon content increases, the hardenability also increases.
In general, the weldability of the steel decreases as the hardenability increases. One of
the best methods for determining the weldability of a low-alloy steel is the use of the
carbon equivalent formula. Steels that have carbon equivalents below about .40%
usually do not require the use of preheating and postheating in the welding procedure
and generally have the best weldability. Steels with carbon equivalents higher than
.40% require more precautions for welding. Generally, the higher the carbon equivalent,
the more difficult the steel is to weld.
The selection of electrodes for welding steels is usually based on the strength and
mechanical properties desired of the weld, rather than matching chemical compositions.
Low-alloy steels are often welded using the gas-shielded EXXT-1 and EXXT-5
electrodes. These wires produce good, low temperature toughness and are preferred
for most applications. EXXT-4 and EXXT-8 self-shielded wires often contain nickel for
good strength and aluminum as a deoxidizer to help give good mechanical properties.
In other cases, such as for welding low nickel steels, the electrode wires are chosen to
match the chemical composition of the base metal.
The quenched and tempered heat-treated steels have yield strengths ranging from
50,000 psi (345 MPa) to very high yield strengths and have carbon contents ranging up
to .25%. Some common examples of these types of steel are the ASTM designations
A533 Grade B, A514, A517, A543, and A553. The .25% carbon limit is used to provide
fairly good weldability. These steels provide high tensile and yield strength along with
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-54
good ductility, notch toughness, corrosion resistance, fatigue strength, and weldability.
The presence of hydrogen is always bad in steel, but it is even more critical in these
types of steels compared to mild steels. Preheat is generally not used on thinner
sections, but it is used on thicker or highly restrained sections. Postweld heat treatment
is usually not used because the flux cored arc welds made in these have a good
toughness. The steels are generally used in the welded or stress-relieved conditions.
The nickel alloy steels included in these low-alloy steel groups are those with less than
5% nickel contents. The 2-1/4% and 3-1/2% nickel steels are usually welded with
electrodes that have the same general chemical compositions as the base metal.
Preheating is required with highly restrained joints. Most self-shielding wires for lowalloy steels have been developed for welding the low nickel steels.
The heat treatable steels are the medium- and high-carbon steels and medium-carbon
steels that have been alloyed. This group includes quenched and tempered steels after
welding, normalized or annealed steels, and medium- and high-carbon steels. These
steels are more difficult to weld than other types of steels already mentioned in this
chapter. The most important factor for selecting the type of electrode to be used is
matching the chemical compositions of the base metal and the filler metal.
Medium-carbon steels are those that have carbon contents ranging from .30% to .59%
and high-carbon steels have carbon contents ranging from .60% to about 1.0%. When
medium- and high-carbon steels are welded, precautions should be included in the
welding procedure because of the hardness that can occur in the weld joint. As the
carbon content increases up to .60%, the hardness of the fully hardened structure (or
martensite) increases to a maximum value. When the carbon content is above .60%,
the hardness of the fully hardened structure does not increase, so these steels can be
welded using about the same welding procedures as the medium-carbon steels.
Martensite, which is the phase that steel is in at its fullest hardness, is harder and more
brittle in a high-carbon steel than it is in low-carbon steel. A high-carbon, martensitic
structure can have a tendency to crack in the weld metal and heat-affected zone during
cooling.
Welding procedures that lower the hardness of the heat-affected zone and the weld
metal reduce the cracking tendency. This can be done by using a procedure that
requires a lower carbon content in the filler metal, and by slowing the cooling rate. The
procedure includes preheating, interpass temperature control, and postheating.
The procedures used for welding medium-carbon steels can be simpler than the one
just mentioned, but that depends on the specific applications. Medium-carbon steels
can be welded with the E70T-E90T classifications. High-carbon steels should be welded
with the E80T-E120T, using the electrode of the proper tensile strength to match the
tensile strength of the base metal. Generally, very high-carbon steels are not used in
welded production work. These steels are usually only welded in repair work. Mild steel
brittle. A preheat and/or postheat will help reduce the brittle structure.
The quenched and tempered steels, after welding, have carbon contents ranging from
about .25% to .45%, which distinguishes them from the steels that are quenched and
tempered before welding. These steels also have small additions of alloying elements.
Some common examples of these steels are the AISI designations 4130, 4140, and
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-55
4340. Because of the higher carbon contents, the steels in this group can be heat
treated to extremely high levels of strength and hardness. Some of these steels have
enough alloy content to give them high hardenability. Because of this combination of
carbon and alloy content, the steels must be preheated before welding. The weldability
of these steels is also influenced by the purity of the steels. High amounts of sulfur and
phosphorous in the steel increase the sensitivity to cracking and reduce the ductility.
FCAW is often used for welding these steels. Filler metal of the same chemical
composition as the base metal is required to obtain the maximum strength. The
composition of the weld metal is usually similar to that of the base metal.
The low chromium-molybdenum steels in this section are those with alloy contents of
about 6% or less. These steels are in the low-carbon range, generally up to .15%, and
are readily weldable. The chromium- and molybdenum-alloying elements provide these
steels with good oxidation resistance and high temperature strength. The chromium is
mainly responsible for the high oxidation resistance and the molybdenum is mainly
responsible for the high temperature strength.
hardness because these steels are very sensitive to air hardening. For welding these
steels, preheating, interpass temperature control, slow cooling, and postweld heat
treatment are required to make a weld with good mechanical properties. These steels
generally do not require preheating except when welding thick sections or highly
restrained joints. Postheating is usually not required on chromium molybdenum steels
that contain less than 2-1/4% Cr and 1% Mo.
FCAW is one of the most common methods of welding the chromium-molybdenum
steels. The steels with less than 6% chromium are welded with a carbon dioxide or
argon-carbon dioxide mixture. For the steels with 6% chromium or more, argon with
small additions of carbon dioxide is often used. The filler metal is chosen to match the
chemical composition of the base metal as closely as possible to give good corrosion
resistance.
or lead in them to make these steels easier to machine. Except for the high sulfur, lead,
selenium, or phosphorous, these steels have chemical compositions similar to mild, lowalloy, and stainless steels. The addition of these elements makes these steels difficult to
weld. The reason for this is that the elements- lead, phosphorous, selenium and sulfurhave melting points that are much lower than the melting point of the steel. As the weld
solidifies, these elements retain liquid much longer than the steel so that they coat the
grain boundaries, which cause hot cracking in the weld. Hot cracking is cracking that
occurs before the weld has had a chance to cool. Because of this hot cracking problem,
free machining steels cannot be welded easily. High manganese filler metal and low
base metal dilution will help give the best results possible.
FCAW can weld most types of stainless steels. The types that are very difficult to weld
are types such as 303,416,416 Se, 430 F, and 430 FSe, which have high sulfur and
selenium contents, and Type 440, which has a high carbon content. The element that
distinguishes stainless steels from the other types of steel is the chromium. Steels that
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-56
have chromium contents greater than 11 % are considered stainless steels. The high
chromium content gives them very good corrosion and oxidation resistance. The three
major groups of stainless steels that are welded are the austenitic, martensitic, and
ferritic types.
200 series, which has high manganese contents to replace some of the nickel, is also
austenitic. Nickel and manganese are strong austenite formers and maintain an
toughness and ductility but also makes them non-hardenable. A major problem when
welding these types of steels is carbide precipitation or sensitization, which only occurs
in the austenitic structure. This occurs when the temperature of the steel is between
approximately 1000-1600 F (540-870 C) and can greatly reduce the resistance to
corrosion. There are several methods for preventing this problem:
1. A fast cooling rate after welding through this temperature range. This is a major
relatively low maximum interpass temperature on multiple-pass welds.
2. The use of extra low-carbon base and filler metal (.03% C max.). Examples are
304L and 316L.
3. The use of a stabilized base and filler metal alloy containing columbium,
tantalum, or titanium. Examples are 347 and 321.
4. The use of a solution heat treatment to resolve the carbides after welding.
These stainless steels have approximately 11-18% chromium, (the major alloying
element), and are designated by the AISI as the 400 series. Some examples are
403,410, 420, and 440. These types of stainless steels are heat treatable because they
440, have carbon contents so high that they are often considered unweldable. A
stainless steel with a carbon content greater than .10% will often need preheating.
Preheating is usually done in the range of from 400-600 F (205-315 C) to avoid
cracking. For steels containing carbon contents greater than .20%, a postweld heat
treatment, such as annealing, is often required to improve the toughness of the weld
produced.
400 series. Some examples are Types 405, 430, 442, and 446. These types are
The FCAW process can produce stainless steel weld deposits with a quality similar to
those produced by GMAW. Lower current levels may be desirable for welding stainless
steel compared to welding mild steel because of the higher thermal expansion, lower
thermal conductivity, and lower melting point of stainless steel. The lower thermal
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-57
conductivity and higher thermal expansion cause more distortion and warpage for a
given heat input.
Carbon dioxide, argon-carbon dioxide, and argon-oxygen mixtures are used. Carbon
dioxide causes a loss of silicon and manganese and an increase in carbon in the lowcarbon stainless steels. The use of carbon dioxide or EXXT-1 electrodes is restricted for
welding many of the stainless steels, especially austenitic grades, because the
corrosion resistance may be reduced due to carbon added to the weld by gas. When
good corrosion resistance is required, argon-carbon dioxide or argon-oxygen mixtures
are used. The argon-oxygen mixtures containing 1 or 2% oxygen are used to improve
the arc stability and weld puddle wetting, as well as to eliminate carbon pickup from the
shielding gas. When the self-shielding EXXXT-3 electrodes are used, there is greater
pickup of nitrogen from the atmosphere into the weld metal. Nitrogen is an austenite
stabilizer and when the weld absorbs excessive nitrogen, there is a greater chance for
micro-cracking to occur. The welding position and arc length have a large influence on
this problem. An excessive arc length will usually cause excessive nitrogen pickup in
the weld. For this reason, procedures for out-of-position welding with self-shielding
wires should be carefully controlled to produce a sound weld deposit.
The filler metal used for welding stainless steel is generally chosen to match the
chemical composition of the base metal. In the 200-series austenitic stainless steels,
300-series austenitic filler metal is usually used due to a lack of availability of 200-series
filler metal. This weld joint will generally be weaker than the surrounding base metal.
300-series filler metal is used on 300-series base metal. The Type 410 and 420
electrodes are the only martensitic stainless steel types recognized by the AWS. This
limitation is often the reason why austenitic stainless steel filler metal is used for welding
martensitic stainless steel. Austenitic filler metal provides a weld with lower strength but
higher toughness and eliminates the need for preheating and postheating. For welding
ferritic stainless steels, both ferritic and austenitic filler metal may be used. Ferritic filler
metal is used when higher strength and an annealing postheat are required. Austenitic
filler metal is used when higher ductility is required. Table 11-13 shows filler metal
selection for stainless steels.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-58
AISI
No.
C%
Mn%
Si%
201
202
301
302
3028
304
304L
305
308
309
309S
310
310S
314
316
316L
317
321
330
347
348
403
410
414
420
431
501
502
405
430
442
446
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.08 max
0.03 max
0.12 max
0.08 max
0.20 max
0.08 max
0.25 max
0.08 max
0.25 max
0.08 max
0.03 max
0.08 max
0.08 max
0.35 max
0.08 max
0.08 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
0.15 max
Over 0.15
0.20 max
Over 0.10
0.10 max
0.08 max
0.12 max
0.20 max
0.20 max
5.5-7.5
7.5-10.0
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.00-3.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.50
1.50-3.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
2.50
1.00
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Cr%
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
16.00-18.00
17.00-19.00
17.00-19.00
18.00-20.00
18.00-20.00
17.00-19.00
19.00-21.00
22.00-24.00
22.00-24.00
24.00-26.00
24.00-26.00
23.00-26.00
16.00-18.00
16.00-18.00
18.00-20.00
17.00-19.00
13.00-17.00
17.00-19.00
18.00-19.00
11.50-13.00
11.50-13.50
11.50-13.50
12.00-14.00
15.00-17.00
4.00-6.00
4.00-6.00
11.50-14.50
14.00-18.00
18.00-23.00
23.00-27.00
Ni%
3.50-5.50
4.00-6.00
6.00-8.00
8.00-10.00
8.00-10.00
8.00-12.00
8.00-12.00
10.00-13.00
10.00-12.00
12.00-15.00
12.00-15.00
19.00-22.00
19.00-22.0
19.00-22.00
10.00-14.00
10.00-14.00
11.00-15.00
9.00-12.00
33.00-37.00
9.00-13.00
9.00-13.00
1.25-2.50
1.25-2.50
Other Elements
N 0.25 max
N 0.25 max
Mo 2.00-3.00
Mo 2.00-3.00
Mo 3.00-4.00
Ti 5 x C min
Cb + Ta 10 x C min
Cb + Ta 10 C min. Ta 0.10
Mo 0.40-0.65
Mo 0.40-0.65
AI 0.10-0.30
N 0 .25 max
Filler Metal
Selection
308
308
308
308
308
308
308L
308, 310
308
309
309
310
310
310, 312
316
316L
317
347
330
347
347, 348
410, 309, 310
410, 309, 310
410, 309, 310
410, 420
430, 309, 310
502
502
410, 309, 310
430, 309, 310
309, 310
309, 310

5.
What primary property determines the maximum hardness of steel?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
The amount of heat used to make the steel

The amount of carbon in the steel
The amount of alloy in the steel
What type of stainless steel is generally the easiest to weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Annealed
Ferritic
Modular
Austenitic
8.0.0 WELD and JOINT DESIGN

Like other welding processes, the weld joint designs used in FCAW are determined by
the design of the weldment, metallurgical considerations, and codes or specifications.
Another factor to consider is the method of FCAW to be used. A properly selected joint
design should allow the highest quality weld to be made at the lowest possible cost. A
weld joint consists of a specific weld being made in a specific joint. A joint is defined as
the junction of members which are to be, or have been, joined. Figure 11-37 shows the
five basic joint classifications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-59
Figure 11-37 Types of joints.

Each of the different types of joints can be joined by many different types of welds.
Figure 11-38 shows the most common types of welds made.

The type of weld made is governed by the joint configuration. Each of the different types
of welds has its own specific advantages. The nomenclature used for the various parts
of groove and fillet welds is given in Figure 11-39. There are several factors that
influence the joint design to be used:
1. Process Method
2. Strength Required
3. Welding Position
4. Joint Accessibility
5. Metal Thickness
6. Type of Metal
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-60

The edge and joint preparation are important because they affect both the quality and
cost of welding. The cost items to be considered are the amount of filler metal required,
the method of joint preparation, the amount of labor required, and the quality level
required. Joints that are more difficult to weld will often have more repair work
necessary than those that are easier to weld. This can lead to significant increases in
cost, since repair welding sometimes requires more time and expense than the original
weld. All of the five basic joint types are applicable to FCAW, although the butt and Tjoints are the most widely used. Lap joints have the advantage of not requiring much
preparation other than squaring off the edges and making sure the members are in
close contact. Edge joints are widely used on thin metal. Corner joints generally use
similar edge preparations to those used on T-joints.
Many of the joint designs used for FCAW are similar to those used in GMAW or SMAW.
FCAW has some characteristics that may affect the joint design. The joint should be
designed so the welder has good access to the joint and is properly able to manipulate
the electrode. Joints must be located so an adequate distance between the joint and
nozzle of the welding gun is created. The proper distance will vary depending on the
type of flux-cored electrode being used.
8.1.0 Process Method

The joint design as well as the welding procedure will vary, depending on whether the
welding is done using gas-shielded or self-shielded electrodes. Both methods of FCAW
achieve deeper penetration than SMAW. This permits the use of narrower grooves with
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-61
smaller groove angles, larger root faces, and narrower root openings. Differences also
exist between the two FCAW methods because of the deeper penetration that is
produced by the gas-shielded electrode wires. Figure 11-40 shows a comparison of a
flat position, V-groove weld on a backing strip for each of the two methods.
Figure 11-40 Comparison between gas-shielded and self-shielded wire joint

designs for the flat position.
The joint design for the self-shielding wire requires a larger root opening to allow better
access to the root of the joint. The joint design for the gas-shielded wire does not need
such a wide root opening because complete penetration is easier to obtain. This weld
would be less expensive to make using the gas-shielded electrode because less filler
metal is required. This difference in joint design usually only applies when a backing
strip is used. For joints not requiring a backing strip, gas-shielded and self-shielded
wires use the same joint designs.
8.2.0 Type of Metal

The FCAW process is used to weld steel, some stainless steels, and some nickels. The
influence of the type of metal on the joint design is based primarily on the physical
properties of the metal to be welded and whether or not the metal has an oxide coating.
For example, stainless steels have a lower thermal conductivity than carbon steels. This
causes the heat from welding to remain in the weld zone longer, which enables slightly
greater thicknesses of stainless steels to be welded using a square groove joint design.
Stainless steels also have an oxide coating that tends to reduce the depth of fusion of
the weld. Consequently, stainless steels normally use larger groove angles and root
openings than carbon steels. This allows the welder to direct the arc on the base metal
surfaces to obtain complete fusion.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-62
8.3.0 Strength
joints may be either full or partial penetration, depending on the strength required of the
cross section of the joint. Partial penetrating welds are those where weld metal only
extends partially through the joint thickness. Welds that are subject to cyclic, impact, or
dynamic loading require complete
penetration. This is even more important for
applications that require low temperature
service. Partial penetration welds may be
adequate for joints where loading is static
only. This type of joint is easier to prepare
and requires less filler metal than full
penetration joints. Fillet welds of the same
leg size made by this process are stronger
than those made by SMAW. This is because
of the deeper penetration obtained from
FCAW, as shown in Figure 11-41. For some
applications, the size of the weld can be
reduced which decreases the amount of
filler metal required. This can reduce the
total cost also.
The root opening and root face used will
Figure 11-41 Comparison
affect the amount of penetration obtained. A
between the penetrating
root opening is used to allow good access to
characteristics of SMAW and
the root of the joint and is usually used in full
penetrating weld joints. A root opening is
FCAW.
usually not used in partial penetration weld
joints because access to the root is not
necessary and parts are easier to fit together without a root opening. The size of the
root face is also affected. A larger root face is used more for partial penetration welds
than for complete penetration welds because less penetration is required. Because of
the deep penetrating characteristics of the FCAW process, larger root faces are used
compared to SMAW and GMAW, which use short circuiting metal transfer. This is to
prevent burning through the back of the joint being welded, which can be a problem in
FCAW because of the high welding currents used. When compared to SMAW, smaller
groove angles are used because the flux-cored wire is smaller than a covered electrode
and operates with a higher current density. Because of the smaller electrode, access to
the root of the joint is better.
8.4.0 Position
FCAW may be used in all welding positions based on the size and type of electrode
wire used. A diagram of the welding position capabilities is shown in Figure 11-42.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-63

positions are designated by the numbers 1 for flat, 2 for horizontal, 3 for vertical, and 4
for overhead. A G designation indicates a groove weld and an F designation indicates a
fillet weld. The 5G and 6G positions are used in pipe welding. The large diameter wires,
which are over 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) in diameter,
are limited to the flat and horizontal positions
only because the weld puddle becomes too
large to control. The smaller diameter
electrodes, which are 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) and
less, can generally be used easily in all
positions.
The joint configuration will vary depending
on the position of welding. One example of
this is wider groove angles needed for
vertical position welding. This is done to
provide enough room to manipulate the
electrode wire in the joint. Weaving of the
electrode is usually required in vertical
position welding to prevent excessive
reinforcement or dropping the weld metal out
of the puddle. Joint designs for overhead
welding are generally the same as for flat
position welding. Joints that are welded in
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-43 V-groove joint in

the horizontal position.
11-64
the horizontal position often have an unsymmetrical joint configuration. This usually
consists of a groove angle that has a horizontal lower groove face, as shown in Figure
11-43. The upper groove face is raised accordingly to provide a groove angle large
enough to provide good access. The horizontal lower groove face is used as a shelf to
support the molten weld metal. This joint configuration is less expensive to prepare
because the bevel is only made in one plate.
8.5.0 Thickness
The thickness of the base metal has a large influence on the joint preparation required
to produce the best quality weld joint. FCAW is used to weld thicknesses down to 18
gauge (1.2 mm), but the process is also suitable for welding thick metal. Because of
this, wide varieties of joint designs are used. The most common groove preparations
used on butt joints are the square-, V-, J-, U- bevel-, and combination-grooves. The
square-, J-, bevel-, and combination-groove preparations are also used on tee joints.
The different preparations are used on different thicknesses to make it possible to get
complete or adequate penetration.
Square-groove welds are used on the thinnest metal thicknesses. The square-groove
joint design is the easiest to prepare and requires the least filler metal. Thicknesses up
to 3/8-in. (9.5 mm) thick can be welded with full penetration from both sides. This is
thicker than the square-groove joints that can be welded with full penetration by SMAW
or GTAW because of the hotter arc and deeper penetration produced by this process.
Root openings are used to allow complete penetration through the joint. Many squaregroove welds are made in one pass. A backing strip may be used so the root can be
opened enough to provide better accessibility and insure adequate penetration.
V-grooves for butt joints and bevel-grooves for tee joints are commonly used for thicker
metal up to about 3/4-in. (19.1 mm). These joints are more difficult to prepare and
require more filler metal than square-groove welds. The included angle for a V-groove is
usually up to 75 with smaller groove angles, such as 45 or 60, being more commonly
used. The smaller groove angles become even more economical as the thickness of the
metal increases. The wider groove angles are used to provide better accessibility to the
root of the joint. Because of the deeper penetrating characteristics of this process,
single V-groove or single bevel-groove welds are often welded with little or no root
opening. Larger root faces and smaller groove angles are often used compared to those
used for SMAW and GTAW. This helps to minimize the amount of distortion and reduce
the amount of filler metal required. For complete penetration welds, root faces usually
are close to 1/8-in. (3.2 mm).
U- and J-grooves are generally used on thicknesses greater than 5/8-in. (14.3 mm).
These joint preparations are the most difficult and expensive to prepare but the radius at
the root of the joint allows better access to the root of the joint. Another advantage is
that smaller groove angles may be used compared to those used in V-grooves. On
thicker metal, this reduces the amount of filler metal required, and on very thick metals,
the savings become very substantial.
8.6.0 Accessibility
The accessibility of the weld joint is another important factor in determining the weld
joint design. Welds can be made from one or both sides of the weld joint. Single V-, J-,
U-, bevel-, and combination grooves are used when accessibility is from one side only
and on thinner metal. Double V-, J-, U-, bevel-, and combination grooves are used on
thicker metal where the joint can be welded from both sides. Double-groove welds have
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-65
three major advantages over single-groove welds where accessibility is only from one
side. The first is that distortion is more easily controlled through alternate weld bead
sequencing. Weld beads are alternated from one side to the other to keep the distortion
from building up in the one direction. The weld roots are nearer the center of the plate.
A second advantage is that less filler metal is required to fill a double groove joint than a
single-groove joint. This tends to make double-groove welds more economical on metal
1-in. (25 mm) thick or greater.
The third advantage is that complete penetration can be more easily insured. The root
of the first pass on the plate can be gouged or chipped out before the root pass on the
second side is welded, to make sure there is complete fusion at the root. The
disadvantages of joints welded from both sides are that more joint preparation is
required and gouging or chipping is usually required to remove the root of the first pass.
The amount of savings in the filler metal needed for a double-groove weld may more
than compensate for the extra joint preparation costs; both of these add to the labor
time required. Welding on both sides of a square-groove weld joint provides fuller
penetration in thicker metal than metal welded from one side only. This would also save
joint preparation time.
8.6.1 Backing Strips
When backing strips are used, joints are accessible from one side only. Backing strips
allow better access to the root of the joint and support the molten weld metal. These
strips are available in two forms, which are fusible or nonfusible. Fusible backing strips
are made of the metal being welded and remain part of the weldment after welding.
These may be cut or machined off. Nonfusible backing strips are made of copper,
carbon, flux, or ceramic backing in tape or composite form. These forms of backing do
not become part of the weld. Backing strips on square-groove joints make a full
penetration weld from one side easier. For this application, using a backing strip is more
expensive because of the cost of a backing strip and the larger amount of filler metal
required. However, on V-groove joints, the backing strip allows wider root openings and
removes the need for a root face, which reduces the groove preparation costs. Another
advantage is that because the root may be opened up, the groove angle may be
reduced, which will reduce the amount of filler metal required in thicker metal. These
effects are shown in Figure 11-44, where single V-groove joints are shown with and
without a backing strip.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, the use of a backing strip will have an effect on the
joint designs used for gas-shielded and self-shielded electrodes. The deeper
penetrating characteristics of the gas-shielded electrode allow the joint designs to be
adjusted to take advantage of this.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-66
Figure 11-44 Single V-groove joints with and without backing strip in the
same thickness metal.

The details of a joint, which include both the geometry and the required dimensions, are
called the joint design. Just what type of joint design is best suited for a particular job
depends on many factors. Although welded joints are designed primarily to meet
strength and safety requirements, there are other factors that must be considered. A
few of these factors are as follows:
1. Whether the load will be in tension or compression and whether bending, fatigue,
or impact stresses will be applied
2. How a load will be applied; that is, whether the load will be steady, sudden, or
variable
3. The direction of the load as applied to the joint
4. The cost of preparing the joint
Another consideration that must be made is the ratio of the strength of the joint
compared to the strength of the base metal. This ratio is called joint efficiency. An
efficient joint is one that is just as strong as the base metal.
Normally, the joint design is determined by a designer or engineer and is included in the
project plans and specifications. Even so, understanding the joint design for a weld
enables you to produce better welds.
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the five basic types of welded jointsbutt, corner,
tee, lap, and edge.
Just keep in mind that there are many different variations of the basic joint welds. If you
want more information refer to Chapter 3, Introduction to Welding. The weld joint
designs shown in Figures 11-45 through 11-56 are those typically used for FCAW. All of
the partial penetration weld joint designs covered may be welded using either the selfNAVEDTRA 14250A
11-67
shielded or gas-shielded electrode wires. The joint dimensions will vary for full
penetration welds using backing strips, depending on which method of FCAW is being
used. The joint designs that should be used only by the gas-shielded method are
indicated on these joints. All other full penetration welds may be made by either of the
two methods.
Ranges are given on many of the joint dimensions to account for varying fit-up and
types of electrode wires. The thickness ranges given are those typically recommended
for use with the joint designs. Minimum effective throat thicknesses are commonly used
for partial penetration welds. Recommended minimum effective throat sizes are given in
Table 11-14.
Table 11-14 Effective throat thickness for partial joint
penetration groove welds.
Base Metal Thickness of
Thicker Part Joined
Inch
(mm)
Minimum Effective
Throat
Inch
(mm)
To 1/4
(6.5)
Inclusive
1/8
(3)
Over1/4 to 1/2
(6.4 to 12.7)
Inclusive
3/16
(5)
Over1/2 to 3/4
(12.7 to 19.0)
Inclusive
1/4
(6)
Over3/4 to 1 1/2
(19.0 to 38.1)
Inclusive
5/16
(8)
Over1 1/2 to 2 1/4
(38.1 to 57.1)
Inclusive
3/8
(10)
Over2 1/4 to 6
(57.1 to 152)
1/2
(13)
Over 6
(152)
5/8
(16)
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Figure 11-47 Application of arrow and other side convention.
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Figure 11-48 Applications of break in arrow of welding symbol.
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11-72
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Figure 11-49 Combinations of weld symbols.
11-73
Figure 11-50 Combinations of weld symbols (cont.).
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11-74
Figure 11-52 Specification of location and extent of fillet welds (cont.).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-75
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Figure 11-53 Specification of extent of welding.
11-76

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11-77
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-56 Applications of melt-through symbol.
11-79
8.8.0 Arc Welding Positions

The types of welds, joints, and welding positions used in FCAW are very similar to those
used in GMAW, with the exception of overhead welding. Manual overhead welding is
rarely used in FCAW because the filler metal is so fluid due to the powdered core.
flat-position welding can be made on just about any type of joint, providing you can
rotate the section you are welding on to the appropriate position. Techniques that are
Plates up to 1/8-inch thick can be welded in one pass with no special edge preparation.
Plates from 1/8- to 3/16 -inch thick also can be welded with no special edge preparation
by welding on both sides of the joint. Tack welds should be used to keep the plates
aligned for welding. The electrode motion is the same as that used in making a bead
weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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In welding 1/4-inch plate or heavier, you should prepare the edges of the plates by
weld the root of the joint. This bead or layer of weld metal must be thoroughly cleaned
to remove all slag and dirt before the second layer of metal is deposited.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-81
In making multi pass welds, as shown in Figure 11-58, the second, third, and fourth
layers of weld metal are made with a weaving motion of the electrode. Clean each layer
of metal before laying additional beads. You may use one of the weaving motions
shown in Figure 11-59, depending upon the type of joint and size of electrode.
Figure 11-58 Butt welds with multipass beads.

In the weaving motion, oscillate
or move the electrode uniformly
from side to side, with a slight
hesitation at the end of each
oscillation. Incline the electrode 5
welding as in bead welding.
When the weaving motion is not
done properly, undercutting could
occur at the joint, as shown in
Figure 11-60. Excessive welding
speed also can cause
undercutting and poor fusion at
the edges of the weld bead.
Butt joints with backing strips
Welding 3/16-inch plate or thicker
requires backing strips to ensure
complete fusion in the weld root
pass and to provide better control
of the arc and the weld metal.
Prepare the edges of the plates
Figure 11-59 Weave motions used in
in the same manner as required
FCAW.
for welding without backing
strips. For plates up to 3/8-inch thick, the backing strips should be approximately 1-inch
wide and 3/16-inch thick. For plates more than 1/2-inch thick, the backing strips should
be 1 1/2 inches wide and 1/4-inch thick. Tack-weld the backing strip to the base of the
joint, as shown in Figure 11-61. The backing strip acts as a cushion for the root pass.
Complete the joint by welding additional layers of metal. After you complete the joint,
the backing strip may be washed off or cut away with a cutting torch. When specified,
place a seal bead along the root of the joint.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-82

butt joint welds.

butt joints.
a vertical plane (Figure 11-62). In a fillet weld, the welding is performed on the upper
side of a relatively horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical plane
(Figure 11-63).

weld.
NAVEDTRA 14250A

11-83
weld.
Inexperienced welders usually find the horizontal position of arc welding difficult, at least
until they have developed a fair degree of skill in applying the proper technique. The
primary difficulty is that in this position, you have no shoulder of previously deposited
weld metal to hold the molten metal.
8.8.2.1 Electrode Movement
In horizontal welding, position the electrode
so that it points upward at a 5- to 10-degree
angle in conjunction with a 20-degree travel
angle (Figure 11-64). Use a narrow weaving
motion in laying the bead. This weaving
motion distributes the heat evenly, reducing
the tendency of the molten puddle to sag.
You should use the shortest arc length
possible, and when the force of the arc
undercuts the plate at the top of the bead,
lower the electrode holder a little to increase
the upward angle.
As you move in and out of the crater, pause
slightly each time you return. This keeps the
crater small and the bead has fewer
tendencies to sag.
Figure 11-64 Horizontal

welding angles.
8.8.2.2 Joint Type

Horizontal-position welding can be used on most types of joints. The most common
types of joints it is used on are tee joints, lap joints, and butt joints.
may be tack-welded to the surface of the horizontal plate, as shown in Figure 11-65.

NAVEDTRA 14250A

11-84
fusion at the root and along the legs of the weld (Figure 11-66, View A). Hold the
electrode at an angle of 45 degrees to the two plate surfaces (Figure 11-66, View B)
with an incline of approximately 15 degrees
in the direction of welding.
When practical, weld light plates with a fillet
weld in one pass with little or no weaving of
the electrode. Welding of heavier plates
may require two or more passes in which
the second pass or layer is made with a
semicircular weaving motion, as shown in
Figure 11-67. To ensure good fusion and
the prevention of undercutting, you should
make a slight pause at the end of each
weave or oscillation.
For fillet-welded tee joints on 1/2-inch plate
or heavier, deposit stringer beads in the
Chain-intermittent or staggered-intermittent
fillet welds, as shown in Figure 11-69, are
used on long tee joints. Fillet welds of these
types are for joints where high weld
strength is not required; however, the short welds are arranged so the finished joint is
equal in strength to that of a joint that has a fillet weld along the entire length of one
side. Intermittent welds also have the advantage of reduced warpage and distortion.

plate.

welds.
Lap joints When you make a lap joint, two overlapping plates are tack-welded in
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-85
tee joints. You should hold the electrode so it forms an angle of about 30 degrees from
the vertical and is inclined 15 degrees in the direction of welding. The position of the
Figure 11-70 Tack welding a

lap joint.

electrode in relation to the plates is shown in Figure 11-71. The weaving motion is the
same as that used for tee joints, except that the pause at the edge of the top plate is
long enough to ensure good fusion without undercut. Lap joints on 1/2-inch plate or
heavier are made by depositing a sequence of stringer beads, as shown in Figure 1171.
In making lap joints on plates of different thickness, you should hold the electrode so
that it forms an angle of between 20 and 30 degrees from the vertical (Figure 11-72). Be
careful not to overheat or undercut the thinner plate edge.

NAVEDTRA 14250A

joint.
11-86
positioned on the top. The plate that is not beveled is on the bottom and the flat edge of
this plate provides a shelf for the molten
metal so that it does not run out of the joint
(Figure 11-73). Often, both edges are beveled
to form a 60-degree included angle. When
this type of joint is used, more skill is required
because you do not have the retaining shelf
to hold the molten puddle.
The number of passes required for a joint
depends on the diameter of the electrode and
the thickness of the metal. When multiple
passes are required (Figure 11-74), place the
first bead deep in the root of the joint. The
electrode holder should be inclined about 5
degrees downward. Clean and remove all
slag before applying each following bead.
The second bead should be placed with the
electrode holder held about 10 degrees
upward. For the third pass, hold the electrode
holder 10 to 15 degrees downward from the
horizontal. Use a slight weaving motion and
ensure that each bead penetrates the base metal.
A vertical weld is defined as a weld that is
applied to a vertical surface or one that is
inclined 45 degrees or less (Figure 11-75).
Erecting structures, such as buildings,
pontoons, tanks, and pipelines, require
welding in this position. Welding on a vertical
surface is much more difficult than welding in
the flat or horizontal position due to the force
of gravity. Gravity pulls the molten metal
down. To counteract this force, you should
use fast-freeze or fill-freeze electrodes.
or downward position. The terms used for the
direction of welding are vertical up or vertical
down. Vertical down welding is suited for
welding light gauge metal because the
penetration is shallow and diminishes the
possibility of burning through the metal.
Furthermore, vertical down welding is faster,
which is very important in production work.
Figure 11-75 Vertical weld

plate positions.

In vertical arc welding, the current settings should be less than those used for the same
electrode in the flat position. Another difference is that the current used for welding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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upward on a vertical plate is slightly higher than the current used for welding downward
on the same plate.
To produce good welds, you must maintain the proper angle between the electrode and
the base metal. In welding upward, you should hold the electrode at 90 degrees to the
vertical, as shown in Figure 11-76, View A. When weaving is necessary, oscillate the
electrode, as shown in Figure 11-76, View B. In vertical down welding, incline the outer
end of the electrode downward about 15 degrees from the horizontal while keeping the
arc pointing upward toward the deposited molten metal (Figure 11-76, View C). When
vertical down welding requires a weave bead, you should oscillate the electrode, as
shown in Figure 11-76, View D.
Figure 11-76 Bead welding in vertical position.

8.8.3.2 Joint Type
Hold the electrode at 90 degrees to the plates or not more than 15 degrees off the
horizontal for proper molten metal control when making fillet welds in either tee or lap
joints in the vertical position. Keep the arc short to obtain good fusion and penetration.
weld upward. Move the electrode in a triangular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 1177, View A. A slight pause in the weave at the points indicated improves the sidewall
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-88
When the weld metal overheats, you should quickly shift the electrode away from the
crater without breaking the arc, as shown in Figure 11-77, View B. This permits the
molten metal to solidify without running downward. Return the electrode immediately to
the crater of the weld in order to maintain the desired size of the weld.
weaving motions shown in Figure 11-77, Views C and D. A slight pause at the end of
the weave will ensure fusion without undercutting the edges of the plates.
electrode in a triangular weaving motion, as shown in Figure 11-77, View E. Use the
same procedure as outlined above for the tee joint, except direct the electrode more
toward the vertical plate marked G. Hold the arc short and pause slightly at the surface
of plate G. Try not to undercut either of the plates or to allow the molten metal to overlap
at the edges of the weave.

Lap joints on heavier plate may require more than one bead. If it does, clean the initial
bead thoroughly and place all subsequent beads, as shown in Figure 11-77, View F.
The precautions to ensure good fusion and uniform weld deposits that were previously
outlined for tee joints also apply to lap joints.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-89

for welding in the flat position. To obtain
good fusion and penetration with no
undercutting, you should hold a short arc
and the motion of the arc should be carefully
controlled.
Butt joints on beveled plates 1/4-inch thick
can be welded in one pass by using a
triangular weave motion, as shown in Figure
11-78, View A.
Welds made on 1/2-inch plate or heavier
should be done in several passes, as shown
in Figure 11-78, View B. Deposit the last
pass with a semicircular weaving motion and
a slight whip-up and pause of the electrode
at the edge of the bead. This produces a
good cover pass with no undercutting.
Welds made on plates with a backup strip
should be done in the same manner.


molten metal to drop or sag from the plate. When too long an arc is held, the transfer of
metal from the electrode to the base metal becomes increasingly difficult and the
chances of large globules of molten metal dropping from the electrode increase. When
you routinely shorten and lengthen the arc, the dropping of molten metal can be
prevented; however, you will defeat your purpose should you carry too large a pool of
molten metal in the weld.
WARNING
Because of the possibility of falling molten metal, use a protective garment that has
a tight fitting collar that buttons or zips up to the neck. Roll down your sleeves and
wear a cap and appropriate shoes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-90
8.8.4.2 Type of Welds

paragraphs.
the work angle of the electrode is
90 degrees to the base metal
(Figure 11-79, View A). The travel
angle should be 10 to 15 degrees
in the direction of welding (Figure
11-79, View B).
motion is necessary at the end of
each semicircular weave to
control the molten metal deposit.
Avoid excessive weaving
because this can cause
overheating of the weld deposit
and the formation of a large,
uncontrollable pool.

Butt Joint Prepare the plates for overhead butt welding in the same manner as
required for the flat position. The best results are obtained when backing strips are
used; however, you must remember that you will not always be able to use a backing
strip. When you bevel the plates with a featheredge and do not use a backing strip, the
weld will repeatedly burn through
unless extreme care is taken by
the operator.
placing the next pass. The
electrode position and the order
of deposition of the weld beads
views B and C. Make the first
pass with the electrode held at
90 degrees to the plate, as
shown in Figure 11-80, View A.
When you use an electrode that
is too large, you cannot hold a
short arc in the root area. This
results in insufficient root
penetration and inferior joints.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-80 Multipass butt joint in the

overhead position.
11-91
maintain a short arc and refrain from weaving of the electrode. Hold the electrode at
electrode quickly away from the crater and ahead of the weld to lengthen the arc and
allow the metal to solidify. Immediately return the electrode to the crater and continue
welding.
Figure 11-81, View A. The root pass is a string bead made with no weaving motion of
the electrode. Tilt the electrode about 15 degrees in the direction of welding, as shown
in Figure 11-81, View C, and with a slight circular motion make the second, third, and
fourth pass. This motion of the electrode permits greater control and better distribution
of the weld metal. Remove all slag and oxides from the surface of each pass by
chipping or wire brushing before applying additional beads to the joint.
Figure 11-81 Fillet welding in the overhead position.

8.8.5 Pipe welding
has less flow restriction compared to mechanical connections and the overall installation
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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costs are less. The most popular method for welding pipe is the shielded metal arc
process; however, gas shielded arc methods (TIG, MIG & FCAW) have made big
inroads as a result of new advances in welding technology.
skills are comparable to other types of welding, pipe welders develop skills that are
unique only to pipe welding. Because of the hazardous materials that most pipelines
carry, pipe welders are required to pass specific tests before they can be certified.
In the following paragraphs, pipe
welding positions, pipe welding
8.8.5.1 Pipe welding positions
You may recall that there are four
positions used in pipe welding.
They are known as the horizontal
rolled position (1G), the horizontal
fixed position (5G), pipe inclined
fixed (6G), and the vertical
position (2G). Remember: these
terms refer to the position of the
pipe and not to the weld.
8.8.5.2 Pipe welding procedures
Welds that you cannot make in a
single pass should be made in
interlocked, multiple layers, not
less than one layer for each 1/8inch of pipe thickness. Deposit
each layer with a weaving or
oscillating motion. To prevent
entrapping slag in the weld metal,
you should clean each layer
thoroughly before depositing the
next layer.

joints.

between pipes and between pipes
and welded fittings. They are also
used for butt welding of flanges
and welding stubs. In making a
butt joint, place two pieces of pipe
end to end, align them, and then
weld them. (See Figure 11-82).
pipe is 3/4-inch or less, you can
use either the single V or single U
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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3/4-inch, only the single U type should be used.

Fillet welds are used for welding slip-on and threaded flanges to pipe. Depending on the
flange and type of service, fillet welds may be required on both sides of the flange or in
combination with a bevel weld (Figure 11-83). Single-fillet welds are also used in
welding screw or socket couplings to pipe
(Figure 11-83). Sometimes flanges require
alignment. Figure 11-84 shows one type of
flange square and its use in vertical and
horizontal alignment.
Another form of fillet weld used in pipe fitting
8.8.5.3 Joint preparation and fit-up
slag, rust, paint, oil, and other foreign
matter. Ensure that the joint surfaces are
smooth and uniform. Remove the slag from
flame-cut edges; however, it is not necessary to remove the temper color.
When you prepare joints for welding, remember that bevels must be cut accurately.
Bevels can be made by machining, grinding, or using a gas cutting torch. In fieldwork,
the welding operator usually must make the bevel cuts with a gas torch. When you are
beveling, cut away as little metal as possible
to allow for complete fusion and penetration.
Proper beveling reduces the amount of filler
metal required, which in turn reduces time
and expense. In addition, it also means less
strain in the weld and a better job of design
and welding.
Align the piping before welding and maintain
it in alignment during the welding operation.
The maximum alignment tolerance is 20
percent of the pipe thickness. To ensure
proper initial alignment, you should use
clamps or jigs as holding devices. A piece of
angle iron makes a good jig for a smalldiameter pipe (Figure 11-85), while a section
of channel or I-beam is more suitable for
larger diameter pipe.
8.8.6 Tack welding
When welding material solidly, you may use tack welds to hold it in place temporarily.
Tack welding is one of the most important steps in pipe welding or any other type of
welding. The number of tack welds required depends upon the diameter of the pipe. For
1/2-inch pipe, you need two tacks. Place them directly opposite each other. As a rule,
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four tacks are adequate for standard size of pipe. The size of a tack weld is determined
by the wall thickness of the pipe. Be sure that a tack weld is not more than twice the
pipe thickness in length or two-thirds of the pipe thickness in depth. Tack welds should
be the same quality as the final weld. Ensure that the tack welds have good fusion and
are thoroughly cleaned before proceeding with the weld.
8.8.7 Spacers
backing rings, and they serve a number of purposes. For example, they provide a
means for maintaining the specified root opening, provide a convenient location for tack
welds, and aid in the pipe alignment. In addition, spacers can prevent weld spatter and
the formation of slag or icicles inside the pipe.
8.8.8 Electrode selection
Select the electrode that is best suited for the position and type of welding to be done.
For the root pass of a multilayer weld, you need an electrode large enough, yet not
exceeding 3/16-inch, that ensures complete fusion and penetration without undercutting
and slag inclusions.
Make certain the welding current is within the range recommended by the
manufacturers of the welding machines and electrodes.
8.8.9 Weather conditions
During periods of high wind, unless using self-shielded electrodes
At temperatures between 0F and 32F, within 3 inches of the joint, heat the weld area

7.

A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
4
5
6
8
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fillet
Bead
Butt
Tee
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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The welding procedure variables are those that control the welding process and the
quality of the welds that are produced. When all of the variables are in proper balance,
the result will be a smooth running arc and a quality weld deposit. You need to
understand the effect of each variable on the different properties or characteristics of
the weld to increase the probability of producing the required weld properties. You
should recognize that some welding variables are more easily applied as controls of a
welding process. There are three major types of welding variables used for welding.
These are the fixed or preselected, primary adjustable, and the secondary adjustable
variables.
The preselected or fixed variables are those that can only be changed in large steps or
intervals and are therefore unfavorable as controls. For the FCAW process, these
variables are set according to the type of material being welded, the thickness of the
material, welding position, deposition rate required, and mechanical properties required.
These variables cannot be changed once the welding starts.
process once the fixed variables have been selected. The primary variables control the
formation of the weld bead by affecting the bead width, bead height, penetration, arc
stability, and weld soundness. The primary welding variables are welding current, arc
voltage, and travel speed. These can be easily adjusted and measured so they can be
used effectively to control the welding
process. Specific values can be assigned to
the primary adjustable variables and these
values can be accurately reset time after
time.
The secondary adjustable variables can also
be changed continuously over a wide range
of values. However, they are sometimes
difficult to measure accurately. It is not easy
to use them as controls since, for the most
part, they cannot be assigned exact values.
This is especially true in semiautomatic
welding operations. Although difficult to
measure, these variables should be
controlled within the range for proper
operation. Secondary adjustable variables
are such things as electrode extension or
stickout, work and travel angles.

bead width, and penetration.
The different variables affect the

characteristics of the weld, such as the penetration of the weld, bead height, bead
width, and the deposition rate. The penetration of the weld is defined as the greatest
depth below the surface of the base metal that the weld metal reaches. The bead height
or reinforcement is the height of the weld metal above the surface of the base metal.
The deposition rate is the weight of the metal that is deposited per unit of time. The
definitions of bead height, bead width, and penetration are shown in Figure 11-86.
The welding variables are discussed with particular attention to the three major
characteristics of penetration, deposition rate, and bead shape. Table 11-15 is a chart
showing the effects of welding variables on the three major characteristics.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-96
Table 11-15 Recommended welding variable adjustment for FCAW.

Change
Required
Welding
Variable
Deeper
Penetration
Shallower
Penetration
Larger
Bead
Smaller
Bead
Bead
Height
Higher
and
Narrower
Bead
Bead
Flatter
Width
Wider
Bead
Faster
Deposition Rate
Slower
Disposition Rate
Arc
Voltage
Welding
Current
(See footnote)
Travel
Speed
Nozzle
Angle
3
Trailing
Max. 25
3
Leading
1
Increase
1
Decrease
Stickout or
Tip to Work
Distance
Wire
Size
Gas
Type
2
Decrease
5 (a)
Smaller
4
CO2
2
Increase
5 (a)
Larger
4 (C)
Ar+CO2
1
Increase
2
Decrease
3 (a)
Increase
1
Decrease
2
Increase
3 (a)
Decrease
1
Decrease
2
Trailing
3
Increase
1
Increase
2
90 or
Leading
3
Decrease
1
Increase
2 (a)
Increase
3 (b)
Smaller
1
2 (a)
3 (b)
Decrease
Decrease
Larger
Footnote: Same adjustment is required for wire feed speed.
Key 1-first choice, 2-second choice, 3-third choice, 4-fourth choice, 5-fifth choice.
a. When these variables are changed, the wire feed speed must be adjusted so the welding current remains constant.
b. See deposition rate section of welding variables section.
c. This change is especially helpful on materials 20 gauge and smaller in thickness.

Fixed variables include electrode size and type, welding current type, and polarity.
9.1.1 Electrode Type
The type of electrode wire will have an effect on the welding characteristics of this
process. The flux cores of the electrodes contain different components that affect bead
shape, penetration, deposition rate, and the operating characteristics. Because of this, a
wide variety of operating characteristics exist, which are similar to those found with the
various covered electrodes used in SMAW. Some self-shielded flux-cored electrodes
have been developed to operate on DCEN. These electrodes produce relatively light
penetration, and are used for many sheet metal welding and weld surfacing operations.
Self-shielded electrodes that operate on DCEP produce deeper penetration. Gasshielded electrode wires operate on DCEP and provide the deepest penetration due to
the gas shielding addition to the flux core.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-97
Many FCAW electrodes are

designed to produce a stable arc
and high deposition rates at the
higher current levels. Figures 1187 and 11-88 show some
deposition rate comparisons
between several types of fluxcored electrodes.
Each electrode wire diameter of a
given type has a usable welding
current range. Larger diameter
electrode wires use higher
welding currents to produce
higher deposition rates and
deeper penetration. The rate at
which the electrode melts is
based on the welding current
density and the components in
the flux. If two electrode wires of
Figure 11-87 Deposition rate vs. current
the same type, but different
for externally shielded FCAW electrode wire.
diameters, are operated at the
same current level, the smaller
electrode will give a higher
deposition rate because the
current density is higher. Figures
11-87 and 11-88 also show the
deposition rates produced by
different electrode diameters. The
amount of penetration is also
based on the current density. A
smaller electrode will produce
deeper penetration than a larger
electrode at the same current
setting, but the weld bead will be
wider when using the larger
electrode wire. The choice of the
optimum electrode size to be
used is based on the thickness of
the metal to be welded, the
amount of penetration required,
the position of welding, the
deposition rate desired, the bead
profile desired, and the cost of
Figure 11-88 Deposition rate vs. current
the electrode wires. A smaller
for self-shielded FCAW electrode wire.
diameter electrode is more costly
on a weight basis, although for out-of-position welding, the smaller diameter electrodes
are the only ones that can be used. For each application, an optimum electrode size
can be used to produce minimum welding costs.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-98

Primary variables include welding current, travel speed, and welding voltage.
The amount of welding current has the greatest effect on the deposition rate, weld bead
size and shape, and the weld penetration. Welding current is proportional to the wire
feed speed for a given electrode type, shielding gas type and pressure, and amount of
electrode extension. In a constant voltage system, the welding current is controlled by
the knob on the wire feeder control, which sets the wire feed speed. The welding current
increases with the wire feed speed.
As shown in Figures 11-87 and 11-88, the deposition rate of the process increases as
the welding current increases. The lower part of the curve is flatter than the upper part
because at higher current levels, the melting rate of the electrode increases at a faster
rate as the current increases. This can be attributed to resistance heating of the
electrode extension beyond the contact tube. When all of the other variables are held
constant, increasing the welding current will increase the electrode deposition rate,
increase penetration, and increase the size of the weld bead. Figure 11-89 shows the
effect of welding current.
Figure 11-89 Effect of welding current on bead formation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-99
An excessive welding current

level will create a large, deeppenetrating weld bead that
causes excessive convexity and
can burn through the bottom of
the joint. Insufficient welding
current produces large globular
transfer and excessive spatter
in addition to poor penetration
and excessive piling up of the
weld metal. With self-shielding
electrodes, insufficient current
can cause porosity and pickup
too much nitrogen from the
atmosphere. The nitrogen
causes a harder weld that has
poorer ductility. Figures 11-90,
11-91, and 11-92 show the
effects of welding current on the
penetration, bead height, and
bead width.
Figure 11-90 Effect of travel speed, arc

volts, and welding current on penetration.

volts, and welding current on bead height.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-100

volts, and welding current on bead width.
The welding voltage is determined by the distance between the tip of the electrode and
the work. In a constant voltage system, a voltage control knob on the front of the power
source adjusts the welding voltage. The power source maintains a given voltage that
maintains a certain arc length. In a constant current system, the voltage-sensing wire
feeder controls the voltage. The voltage-sensing wire feeder regulates the wire feed
speed to maintain the arc length that produces the preselected arc voltage. For a given
welding current, a certain voltage will provide the smoothest welding arc. The arc
voltage required for an application is dependent on the electrode size, type of shielding
gas, position of welding, type of joint, and base metal thickness. When the other welding
variables are held constant and the welding voltage is increased, the weld bead
becomes wider and flatter. The effect of varying the arc voltage on a gas-shielded
electrode is shown in Figure 11-93. The penetration will increase up to an optimum
voltage level and then begin to decrease, as shown in Figure 11-90. A higher voltage is
often used to bridge a gap because of the decreased penetration obtained. An
excessive voltage or arc length will result in excessive amounts of spatter and
irregularly shaped weld beads. When using self-shielded electrodes, an excessive arc
length can also cause nitrogen pickup, which causes porosity in low-carbon steel weld
metal. With the self-shielded stainless steel electrodes, nitrogen absorption can cause
cracking. With all types of electrodes, undercutting can also be produced. A decrease in
the arc length results in a narrower weld bead with a greater convexity and deeper
penetration. An arc voltage that is too low will cause a narrow convex weld bead with
excessive spatter and reduced penetration. Figures 11-91 and 11-92 show the effects of
the welding voltage on bead height and bead width.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-101
Figure 11-93 Effects of arc voltage on the weld bead.

9.2.3 Travel Speed
The travel speed influences the weld penetration and the shape of the weld deposit. In
semiautomatic welding, this is controlled by the welder and will vary somewhat,
depending on the welder. In machine and automatic welding, as shown in Figure 11-90,
the penetration is at a maximum with a certain travel speed. Increasing or decreasing
the travel speed from this point will reduce the amount of penetration. When the travel
speed is decreased, the amount of filler metal deposited per unit of length increases,
which creates a large, shallow weld puddle. Weld metal tends to get slightly ahead of
the arc, which reduces the penetration and produces a wide weld bead. Reducing the
travel speed will increase the bead height, as is shown in Figure 11-91, and the bead
width, as shown in Figure 11-92. Travel speeds that are too slow can result in
overheating the weld metal because of the excessive heat input, which creates a very
large heat affected zone. It can also cause excessive piling up of the weld metal, which
has a rough appearance and may trap slag. As the travel speed is increased, the heat
input into the base metal is reduced, which decreases the melting of the base metal,
limits penetration, and the bead height and the bead width are also reduced. An
excessive travel speed will result in an irregular, ropy weld bead that may have
undercutting along the edges. Figure 11-94 shows the effects of travel speed on the
shape of the weld bead.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-102
Figure 11-94 Effects of travel speed on the weld bead.

The effects of the primary welding variables are summarized in Figure 11-95 for gasshielded flux-cored electrodes and in Figure 11-96 for self-shielded flux-cored
electrodes.
Figure 11-95 Externally shielded flux cored arc good and bad welds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-103
Figure 11-96 Self-shielded flux cored arc good and bad welds.

Secondary variables include work and travel
angles of the electrode.
The electrode extension, sometimes referred
to as the stickout, is the distance between
the tip of the contact tube and the tip of the
electrode as shown in Figure 11-97.
The length of electrode that extends beyond
the contact tube is resistance heated in
proportion to its length. The amount of
resistance heating that occurs affects the
electrode deposition rate and the amount of
penetration, as well as weld quality and arc
stability, by varying the welding current.
Increasing the electrode extension reduces
the welding current, as shown in Figure 1198.
NAVEDTRA 14250A

extension or stickout.
11-104
In semiautomatic welding, the electrode

extension can be varied by the welder to
compensate for joint variation without
interrupting the welding operation. Electrode
extension provides a good control during
welding to change the amount of penetration
obtained. In FCAW, the electrode extension
is a variable that must be held in balance
with the shielding conditions and the related
welding variables. As the electrode
extension is increased, the amount of
preheating of the wire is increased. For gasshielded flux-cored electrodes, an electrode
extension ranging from - to 1-1/2-in. (1938 mm) is normally recommended.
Because the shielding comes from the core
of self-shielded electrodes alone, a longer
electrode extension is generally
electrode
extension on welding
recommended to take advantage of the
current.
extra preheating effect needed to activate
the shielding components in the electrode
core. Welding guns for self-shielded electrodes often have nozzles where the contact
tube is set inside far enough to ensure a minimum electrode extension. Electrode
extensions ranging from - to 3-1/2-in. (19-89 mm) are commonly used. This will vary
depending on the type of electrode wire so the manufacturer's data should be consulted
for each electrode. An electrode extension
that is too long will produce an unstable arc
and cause excessive spatter. A short
extension will cause an excessive arc length
at a particular voltage setting. With gasshielded electrodes, excessive spatter may
result, which can build up in the nozzle and
restrict the shielding gas flow. Poor shielding
gas coverage can result in porosity and
surface oxidation of the weld bead.
The amount of electrode extension also has
an effect on the deposition rate. Increasing
the electrode extension will increase the
preheating effect on the electrode and
therefore increase the deposition rate.
Figure 11-99 shows this for a gas-shielded
flux-cored electrode.
NAVEDTRA 14250A

deposition rate.
11-105
9.3.2 Electrode Angles

The angle at which the welding electrode is held with respect to the weld joint is called
the electrode angles. These angles have an effect on the shape of the weld bead and
the amount of penetration. The electrode angles are called the travel and work angles
and are shown in Figure 11-100.

The travel angle is the angle between the joint and electrode in the longitudinal plane. A
push angle exists when the electrode points in the direction of travel. A drag angle
exists when the electrode points in the direction opposite of travel. The work angle is the
angle between the electrode and the plane perpendicular to travel.
The angle at which the electrode is held during welding determines the direction in
which the arc force acts on the weld pool. The electrode angles are used to shape the
weld bead and to prevent the slag from running ahead of the weld pool and becoming
trapped in the weld. When making flat position fillet and groove welds, gravity tends to
make the molten slag run ahead of the weld pool. To compensate for this, a drag angle
is used, which forces the slag back. The proper travel angle depends on the method of
FCAW being used, the thickness of the base metal, and the position of welding. Using
gas-shielded electrodes, maximum weld penetration is obtained with a 10 drag angle.
Drag angles ranging from about 2 to 15 are normally recommended, but a drag angle
greater than 25 should not be used. Drag angles greater than this do not provide good
control of penetration. As the drag angle is decreased, the bead height decreases and
the width increases.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-106
This effect continues into the push angle up

to a point where the bead will start to
narrow down again. Push angles are
generally not recommended because of the
greater chances of slag entrapment
occurring. For self-shielded electrodes, the
drag angles used are similar to those used
in SMAW. Flat and horizontal position
welding is done using drag angles ranging
from 20 to 45. Larger angles may be used
for thin sections. As the thickness of the
metal increases, smaller angles are used to
increase the penetration. For vertical
position, uphill welding, a push angle of 5
to 10 is recommended. When making fillet
welds in the horizontal position, the weld
metal tends to flow in both the horizontal
and vertical directions. To compensate for
Figure 11-101 Positioning the
the vertical flow, a work angle of 40 to 50
electrode for fillet welds.
from the upper plate is used. The electrode
should be centered about one diameter of
the electrode below the center of the weld, as shown in Figure 11-101. This will prevent
an unequal legged fillet weld from being formed.

The welding procedure schedules in this chapter give typical welding conditions that can
be used to obtain high quality welds under normal welding conditions. FCAW uses a
wide variety of operating conditions for welding mainly steels, some stainless steels,
and some nickels. The procedure schedules presented in this chapter are in no way a
complete guide to the procedures that can be used for FCAW and are not the only
conditions that may be used to obtain a specific weld. Other conditions could be used
because of factors such as weld appearance, welder skill, method of application, and
the specific application that may require variations from the schedules. For example,
automatic FCAW normally requires higher amperage settings and faster travel speeds
than semiautomatic welding. The type of electrode wire has a significant effect on the
conditions. This is because the type of electrode wire indicates whether a shielding is
required, the recommended electrical polarity, the recommended amount of electrode
extension, and other factors. As the particular requirements of the application become
known, the settings may be adjusted to obtain the optimum welding conditions.
Qualifying tests or finals should be made under the actual conditions before applying
the information in the tables to actual production welding.
When changing or adjusting the variables for welding, the effect of the variables on
each other must be considered. One variable cannot usually be drastically changed
without adjusting or changing the other variables in order to obtain a stable arc and
good overall welding conditions.
The following schedules are based on welding plain carbon steels using various types
of electrode wires in appropriate positions. Generally, electrode wires over 1/16in. (1.6
mm) diameter are limited to the flat and horizontal positions. The welding schedules
include the semiautomatic and automatic methods of application, using self-shielded
and CO2-shielded electrode wires. The tables use the base metal thickness or fillet size,
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-107
number of weld passes,

electrode diameter, welding
current, welding voltage, wire
feed speed, gas flow rate (if
used), and travel speed as
variables. Each table contains
the type of shielding gas (if
used), type of joint, and the
position of welding being used.
All of the schedules are based
on using DCEP. Both the
welding current and wire feed
speed values are given because,
even through the welding current
is set by the wire feed speed, it
is sometimes more convenient to
directly establish the welding
current without exactly knowing
the wire feed speed. Figures 11102 and 11-103 show wire feed
speeds and their corresponding
welding currents for several
sizes of tubular electrode wire.
Figure 11-102 Wire feed speed vs.

welding current for externally-shielded
tubular wires.
Many of the charts include

welding conditions for both
groove and fillet welds given on
the same chart. Generally, fillet
welds will use the higher current
levels for the ranges given and
groove welds will use the lower
end of the current range.
Figure 11-103 Wire feed speed vs.

welding current for self-shielded tubular
wires.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-108
Table 11-16 Flux cored arc welding of plain and low-alloy steels using
external shielding.
Thickness
of Base
Electrode
Wire Feed
Gas Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Metal
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
In/min
Ft /hr
in/min
in (mm)
Passes
In (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(L/mm)
(mm/s)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (.24)
24-26
300
100 (42)
35-45 (17-21)
44 (19)
3/16 (4.8)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
350
120(51)
35-45 (17-21)
42 (18)
3/16 (4.8)
1/8 (3.2)
24-26
450
90 (38)
35-45 (17-21)
47 (20)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
400
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
24 (10)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
25-27
500
105 (44)
35-45 (17-21)
30 (13)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
28-30
500
205 (87)
35-45 (17-21)
22 (9)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
500
105 (44)
35-45 (17-21)
22 (9)
3/8 (9.5)
3/32 (2.4)
28-30
500
205 (87)
35-45 (17-21)
15 (6)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
29-31
575
130 (55)
35-45 (17-21)
20 (8)
1/2 (12.7)
3/32 (2.4)
29-31
525
220 (93)
35-45 (17-21)
11 (5)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
30-32
625
150 (63)
35-45 (17-21)
14 (6)
5/8 (15.9)
3/32 (2.4)
29-31
475
190 (80)
35-45 (17-21)
12 (5)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
500
105 (44)
35-45 (17-21)
14 (6)
3/4 (19.1)
3/32 (2.4)
29-31
500
205 (87)
35-45 (17-21)
13 (5)
3/4 (19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
29-31
500
105 (44)
35-45 (17-21)
13 (5)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-109
Table 11-17 Welding procedure schedules for flux cored arc welding carbon
and low-alloy steel using external shielding.
Thickness
of Base
Electrode
Wire Feed
Gas Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Metal
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
In/min
Ft /hr
in/min
in (mm)
Passes
In (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(L/mm)
(mm/s)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (.24)
24-26
350
120(51)
35-45 (17-21)
60 (25)
3/16 (4.8)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
400
155 (55)
35-45 (17-21)
36 (15)
3/16 (4.8)
1/8 (3.2)
24-26
425
75 (32)
35-45 (17-21)
38 (16)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
400
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
24 (10)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
25-27
450
90 (38)
35-45 (17-21)
26 (11)
5/16 (7.9)
3/32 (2.4)
25-27
440
175 (74)
35-45 (17-21)
20 (8)
5/16 (7.9)
1/8 (3.2)
26-28
460
93 (39)
35-45 (17-21)
20 (8)
3/8 (9.5)
3/32 (2.4)
26-28
475
190 (80)
35-45 (17-21)
15 (6)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
500
105 (44)
35-45 (17-21)
16 (7)
1/2 (12.7)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
400
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
18 (8)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
25-27
450
90 (38)
35-45 (17-21)
20 (8)
5/8 (15.9)
3/32 (2.4)
26-28
450
180 (90)
35-45 (17-21)
14 (6)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
27-29
450
90 (38)
35-45 (17-21)
14 (6)
3/4 (19.1)
3/32 (2.4)
28-30
400
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
20 (8)
3/4 (19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
470
96 (41)
35-45 (17-21)
22 (9)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-110
external shielding.
Metal
Electrode
Wire Feed
Gas Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Thickness
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Welding
in/min
ft3/hr
in/min
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(L/mm)
(mm/s)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
325-350
120 (51)
35-45 (17-21)
56 (24)
3/16 (4.8)
3/32 (2.4)
24-26
350-375
130 (55)
35-45 (17-21)
48 (20)
1/4 (6.4)
3/32 (2.4)
25-27
375-400
137 (58)
35-45 (17-21)
41 (17)
3/8 (9.5)
1/8 (3.2)
26-28
450-500
107 (45)
35-45 (17-21)
24 (10)
1/2 (12.7)
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
475-525
120 (51)
35-45 (17-21)
14 (6)
5/8 (15.9)
1/8 (3.2)
30-32
575-600
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
14-16 (6)
3/4 (19.1)
1/8 (3.2)
30-32
575-600
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
15-20 (6-8)
7/8 (22.2)
1/8 (3.2)
30-32
575-600
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
13-18 (5-8)
1 (25.4)
1/8 (3.2)
31-32
575-600
155 (66)
35-45 (17-21)
12-20 (5-8)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-111
external shielding.
Metal
Electrode
Thickness
No. of
Diameter
Welding
Wire Feed
Gas Flow
Travel
Speed
Rate
Speed
Welding
in/min
ft /hr
in (mm)
Passes
in (mm)
Voltage
Current
(mm/s)
(L/mm)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (2.4)
16-18
225-250
65 (27)
35-45 (17-21)
3/16 (4.8)
1/4 (6.4)
3/8 (9.5)
1/2 (12.7)
5/8 (15.9)
3/4 (19.1)
3/32 (2.4)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2))
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
17-19
26-28
27-29
27-29
29-31
27-29
29-31
27-29
29-31
27-29
29-31
275-300
350-375
375-400
400-425
500-525
425-450
525-550
400-425
475-500
400-425
475-500
90 (38)
240 (102)
125 (53)
270 (114)
185 (78)
290 (123)
190 (80)
270 (114)
170 (72)
270 (114)
170 (72)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
in/min
(mm/s)
55 (23)
36 (15)
22 (9)
14 (6)
17 (7)
14 (6)
14 (6)
13 (5)
14-20 (6-8)
13-18 (5-8)
14-20 (6-8)
13-18 (5-8)
11-112
Table 11-20 Flux cored arc welding of plain and low-alloy steels using selfshielding electrode wires.
Thickness
of Base
metal
in (mm)
11 ga. (3.2)
3/16 (4.8)
1/4 (6.4)
3/8 (9.5)
1/2 (12.7)
5/8 (15.9)
3/4 (19.1)
7/8 (22.2)
1 (25.4)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
No. of
Passes
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
Electrode
Diameter Welding
in (mm)
Voltage
3/32 (2.4)
25
3/32 (2.4)
26
3/32 (2.4)
26
1/8 (3.2)
28
1/8 (3.2)
29
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
1/8 (3.2)
28-30
1/8 (3.2)
28-31
1/8 (3.2)
28-31
Welding
Current
200-225
250-275
350-375
400-425
425-450
400-425
425-450
475-500
425-450
Wire
Feed
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
80 (34)
95 (40)
130 (55)
95 (40)
107 (45)
95 (40)
107 (45)
120 (51)
107 (45)
Travel
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
16 (7)
12 (5)
10 (4)
12-14 (5-6)
14 (6)
12-16 (5-7)
12-16 (5-7)
12-16 (5-7)
12-16 (5-7)
11-113
Table 11-21 Flux cored arc welding of plain and low-alloy steels using selfshielding electrode wires.
Thickness
Of Base
Metal
No. of
in (mm)
Passes
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/4 (6.4)
1
3/8 (9.5)
2
1/2 (12.7)
2
5/8 (15.9)
3
3/4 (19.1)
3
7/8 (22.2)
3
1 (25.4)
4
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Electrode
Diameter
in (mm)
3/32 (2.4)
3/32 (2.4)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
1/8 (3.2)
Welding
Voltage
19
20
28
28-30
27-29
29-31
28-30
29-31
29-31
Welding
Current
200-225
250-275
375-400
400-425
425-450
400-425
425-450
475-500
425-450
Wire Feed
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
60 (25)
80 (34)
110 (47)
135 (57)
150 (63)
130 (55)
150 (63)
170 (72)
150 (63)
Travel
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
12 (5)
9 (4)
14 (6)
13-16 (5-7)
14-16 (6-7)
13-18 (5-8)
13-16 (5-7)
13-18 (5-8)
13-16 (5-7)
11-114
Table 11-22 Flux cored arc welding of plain and low-alloy steels using small
diameter externally-shielded electrode wires.
Fillet
Weld
Size or
Metal
Thickness No. of
in (mm)
Passes
1/8 (3.2)
1
3/16 (4.8)
1
1/4 (6.4)
1
3/8 (9.5)
2
1/2 (12.7)
2
3/4 (19.1)
3
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Electrode
Diameter
in (mm)
.045 (1.1)
.045 (1.1)
.045 (1.1)
.045 (1.1)
.045 (1.1)
.045 (1.1)
Welding Welding
Voltage Current
22-24
150
22-24
200
23-25
220
24-25
220
24-26
220
24-26
220
Wire Feed
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
200 (85)
270 (114)
320 (135)
320 (135)
320 (135)
320 (135)
Gas Flow
Rate
ft3/hr
(L/mm)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
35-45 (17-21)
Travel
Speed
in/min
(mm/s)
30 (13)
24-30 (10-13)
15-18 (6-8)
8-10 (3-4)
8-10 (3-4)
8-10 (3-4)
11-115

Several operations may be required before making a weld. These operations include
preparing the weld joint, setting up or fixturing the weldment, possible maintenance of
welding gun and cable assembly, setting the variables, and in some cases preheating.
The amount of preweld preparation depends upon the size of the weld, the material to
be welded, the ease of fit-up, the quality requirements, the governing code or
specification, and the welder.

There are different ways of preparing the edges of the joint for welding. The methods
most often used for edge preparation are oxygen fuel gas cutting, plasma arc cutting, air
carbon arc gouging, shearing, machining, grinding, and chipping. When they can be
used, the thermal cutting methods, oxyfuel gas, plasma arc cutting, and air carbon arc
cutting are generally faster than the mechanical cutting methods, with the exception of
shearing. Oxygen fuel gas cutting is used on carbon and low-alloy steels. Plasma arc
cutting is used on carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels and is best for applications
where high production rates are required. Air carbon arc cutting is used for preparing
joints in most steels, including stainless steels. This process should not be used on
stainless steels for critical corrosion applications because of the carbon deposited,
unless the cut surfaces are cleaned by grinding and brushing. The surfaces cut by these
thermal methods sometimes have to be ground lightly to remove scale or
contamination. Common types of prepared weld joints are the square-, V-, U-, J-,
bevel-, and combination grooves. The more complex types of bevels require a longer
joint preparation time, which makes the joint preparation more expensive.
Since FCAW is used on all metal thicknesses, all of the different joint preparations are
widely used. Joints for fillet or square-groove welds are prepared simply by squaring the
edges of the members to be welded if the as-received edge is not suitable.
Next to the square edge preparation, the V-groove and single-bevel grooves are the
types most easily prepared by oxygen fuel cutting, plasma arc cutting, chipping, or
machining. These methods leave a smooth surface if properly done. The edges of Uand J-grooves can be done by using special tips and techniques with oxy-fuel cutting or
by machining. Machining produces the uniform groove. Carbon arc cutting is used
extensively for preparing U-grooves in steels and for removing part of root passes so
that the joint can be welded from both sides. Chipping is sometimes done on the back
side of the weld, when full penetration is required and a thermal cutting method is not
being used.
Weld backings are commonly used in FCAW to provide support for the weld metal and
to control the heat input. Copper, steel, stainless steel, and backing tape are the most
common types of weld backing. Copper is a widely used method of weld backing
because it does not fuse to thin metals. It also provides a fast cooling rate because of
the high heat conductivity of copper, which makes this the best method of controlling the
heat input. Steel backing is used when welding steels. These are fusible and remain
part of the weldment unless they are cut off. Often, these are removed by oxy-fuel, aircarbon arc cutting, or grinding. Stainless steels are good backing materials for welding
stainless steels. Backing tape is popular because it can be molded to any joint
configuration, such as the inside of a pipe.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-116

The welds made by FCAW are susceptible to contamination during the welding process.
The surface of the base metal should be free of grease, oil, paint, plating, dirt, oxides, or
any other foreign material. This is especially critical when welding stainless steel. FCAW
is less sensitive to contaminants than GMAW because of the scavengers and
deoxidizers present in the flux core. Some flux-cored electrodes are made specifically
for welding over rust and scale. This is done to make preweld cleaning less expensive.
Very dirty workpieces are usually cleaned by using solvent cleaners followed by vapor
degreasing. Simple degreasing is often used for cleaning carbon and low-alloy steels
that have oxide free surfaces. Acid pickling is generally used for cleaning scale and rust,
and can be removed mechanically by grinding and abrasive blasting.
The type of cleaning operation will vary, depending on the type of metal. Carbon and
low-alloy steels may be cleaned chemically in a hydrochloric acid solution. Nickel alloys
and stainless steels may be cleaned by pickling, which removes iron, sand blast
residue, and other contaminants. Welding should never be done near chlorinated
solvents because the arc can create phosgene gas, which is toxic. Chemical cleaning
can be done by pickling.
Just before welding, several other tasks should be performed. One is to grind or file the
edges of the joint smooth so that there are no burrs present. Burrs can cause physical
pain as well as create a place to trap contaminants in a weld joint. Grinding is often
used on plain carbon and low-alloy steels to remove burrs and rust or mill scale from the
area in and around the joint. The surfaces of the joint and surrounding area should be
wire brushed. Mild steel brushes are used for cleaning plain carbon and low-alloy steel.
Stainless steel wire brushes are used for cleaning stainless steel. The joint surfaces and
surface of the previous weld bead should also be cleaned off between passes of a
multiple-pass weld. Stainless steel brushes should be used on these metals to avoid
contamination due to rust or carbon from the mild steel wire brushes. Welding should be
done soon after cleaning, especially on metals that form surface oxides, such as
stainless steel. Wire brushing does not completely remove the oxide but it reduces the
thickness and makes them easier to weld. Gloves should be worn while cleaning
stainless steels to prevent oil or dirt from the fingers or from getting on the joint
surfaces, which can also cause contamination.

Fixturing can affect the shape, size, and uniformity of a weld bead. Fixtures are devices
that are used to hold the parts to be welded in proper relation to each other. The
alignment is called fit-up. When fixturing is not used, it usually indicates that the
resulting weld distortion can be tolerated or corrected by straightening operations. The
three major functions of fixtures are:
1. Locate and maintain parts in their position relative to the assembly.
2. Increase the welding efficiency of the weld.
3. Control distortion in the weldment.
When a welding fixture is used, the components of a weldment can be assembled and
securely held in place while the weldment is positioned and welded. The use of those
devices is dependent on the specific application. These devices are more often used
when large numbers of the same part are produced. When a fixture is used, the
production time for the weldments can be greatly reduced. They are also good for
applications where close tolerances must be held. Positioners are used to move the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-117
workpiece into a position so welding can be done more conveniently, which improves
the appearance and the quality of the weld bead.
Positioning is sometimes needed simply to make the weld joint more accessible. The
position. Positioners are particularly important in FCAW because they allow the use of
larger diameter flux-cored electrode wires when the weld joint can be rotated into the
flat or horizontal fillet. The larger diameter electrodes produce higher deposition rates,
are less expensive, and generally reduce the overall welding costs. Flat position welding
usually increases the quality of the weld because it makes the welding easier.
11.4.0 Preheating
The use of preheat is sometimes needed, depending on the type of metal being welded,
the base metal thickness, and the amount of joint restraint. For a refresher, refer again
to topic 7.0.0 and Table 11-12. The specific amount of preheat needed for a given
application is often obtained from the welding procedure.
The preheat temperature of the base metal is often carefully controlled. Several good
methods of doing this are furnace heating, electric induction coils, and electric
resistance heating blankets. On thin metals, hot air blasts or radiant lamps may be
used. With these methods, temperature indicators are connected to parts being
preheated. Another method of preheating is using torches, which give more localized
heating than the previously mentioned methods. However, when using torches for
preheating, it is important to avoid localized overheating and deposits of incomplete
combustion products from collecting on the surface of the parts to be welded. Colored
chalks and pellets are often used to measure the preheat temperature. Chalks and
pellets melt at a specific, predetermined temperature. Another method of measuring the
temperature is by using a hand-held temperature indicator. These indicators can give
meter readings, digital readings, or recorder readings, depending on the type of
temperature indicator.

9.
Which of the following is NOT a major type of welding variable?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Fixed
Primary adjustable
Secondary fixed
Fixtures and jigs are devices that are used to hold the parts to be welded in
proper relation to each other. What is this alignment called?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Fixed-up
Jigged-up
Fit-up
Butted-up
12.0.0 WELDING DEFECTS and PROBLEMS

Flux cored arc welding, like other welding processes, has welding procedure problems
that may develop, which can cause defects in the weld. Some defects are caused by
problems with the materials. Other welding problems may not be foreseeable and may
require immediate corrective action.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-118

A poor welding technique and improper choice of welding parameters can cause weld
defects. Defects that can occur when using the FCAW process are slag inclusions,
wagon tracks, porosity, wormhole porosity, undercutting, lack of fusion, overlapping,
burn through, arc strikes, craters, and excessive weld spatter. Many of these welding
technique problems weaken the weld and can cause cracking. A poor welding
technique and improper choice of welding parameters are major causes of weld defects.
Some defects are caused by the use of improper base metal, filler metal, or shielding
gas. The base metal and filler metal should also be cleaned to avoid creation of a
discontinuity. Other problems that can occur and reduce the quality of the weld are arc
blow, loss of shielding, defective electrical contact between the contact tube and the
electrode, and wire feed stoppages.
12.1.1 Slag Inclusions
FCAW produces a slag covering over the weld. Slag inclusions (Figure 11-104) occur
when slag particles are trapped inside the weld metal, which produces a weaker weld.
Slag inclusions can be caused by:
1. Slag left on the previous weld pass
2. An erratic travel speed
3. Improper electrode angles that let
the slag get ahead of the arc
4. A weaving motion that is too wide
5. A travel speed that is too slow which
lets the weld puddle get ahead of the
arc
Figure 11-104 Slag inclusions.
6. an Amperage setting too low

This defect can be prevented by:
1. Cleaning the slag off of the previous weld bead, especially along the toes of the
weld
2. Using a uniform travel speed
3. Increasing the drag angle to prevent the slag from getting ahead of the arc
4. Using a tighter weaving motion
5. Increasing the travel speed so that the arc is at the front of the weld puddle
6. Increasing the amperage setting
12.1.2 Wagon Tracks
Wagon tracks (Figure 11-105) are linear
slag inclusions that run the longitudinal axis
of the weld. They result from allowing the
slag to run ahead of the weld puddle and by
slag left on the previous weld pass.
This is especially common when slag forms
in undercuts on the previous pass. This
discontinuity occurs along the toe line of the
previous weld bead and can be corrected
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-105 Wagon tracks.

11-119
by correcting the electrode travel angles, increasing the travel speed, or by doing a
better slag cleaning.
12.1.3 Porosity
Porosity (Figure 11-106) is gas pockets in
the weld metal that may be scattered in
small clusters or along the entire length of
the weld. Porosity weakens the weld in
approximately the same way that slag
inclusions do. Porosity may be internal, on
the surface of the weld bead, or both.
Porosity may be caused by:
1. Inadequate shielding gas flow rate

for gas-shielded electrodes
2. Wind drafts that deflect the shielding gas coverage
3. Contaminated or wet shielding gas
5. Excessive welding voltage
6. Excessive electrode extension
7. An excessive travel speed, which causes freezing of the weld puddle before
gases can escape
8. Rust, grease, oil, moisture, or dirt on the surface of the base metal or electrode
9. Impurities in the base metal, such as sulfur and phosphorous in steel
Porosity can be prevented by:
1. Increasing the shielding gas flow rate
2. Setting up wind shields
3. Replacing the cylinder of shielding gas
4. Lowering the welding current (reducing the wire feed speed)
5. Decreasing the voltage
6. Decreasing the electrode extension
8. Cleaning the surface of the base metal or electrode
9. Changing to a different base metal
with a different composition
12.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping
Porosity)
Wormhole porosity (Figure 11-107) is the
name given to elongated gas pockets and
is usually caused by sulfur or moisture
trapped in the weld joint
The best methods of preventing this are to
clean the surfaces of the joint and preheat
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-107 Wormhole

porosity.
11-120
to remove moisture. If sulfur in the steel is the problem, a more weldable grade of steel
should be selected.
12.1.5 Undercutting
Undercutting (Figure 11-108) is a groove melted in the base metal next to the toe or root
of a weld that is not filled by the weld metal. Undercutting causes a weaker joint and it
can cause cracking. This defect is caused
by:
2. Arc voltage too high
3. Excessive travel speed, which does
not allow enough filler metal to be
added
4. Erratic feeding of the electrode wire
6. Incorrect electrode angles, especially on vertical and horizontal welds

On vertical and horizontal welds, undercutting can also be caused by too large an
electrode size and incorrect electrode angles. This defect can be prevented by:
1. Reducing the weld current
2. Reducing the welding voltage
3. Using a travel speed slow enough so that the weld metal can completely fill all of
the melted out areas of the base metal
4. Cleaning the nozzle inside the contact tube, or removing the jammed electrode
wire
5. Pausing at each side of the weld bead when a weaving technique is used
6. Correcting the electrode angles being used
12.1.6 Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion (Figure 11-109) occurs when the weld metal is not fused to the base
metal. This can occur between the weld
metal and the base metal or between
passes in a multiple-pass weld. This is less
of a problem with FCAW than with SMAW
and short-circuiting transfer GMAW because
of the deeper penetration obtained. More
care should be taken when using a weaving
technique because there is a greater
chance of creating this discontinuity.
Figure 11-109 Lack of fusion.
Incomplete fusion between passes in a
multiple-pass weld often is the result of
welding over a previous weld bead that has excessive convexity. If an excessively
convex weld bead is created, the surface should be ground off enough so that complete
fusion can be made in the next pass. Causes of this defect can be:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-121
2. Electrode size too large

5. Letting the weld metal get ahead of the arc
Lack of fusion can usually be prevented by:
2. Using a smaller diameter electrode
3. Increasing the welding current
4. Better joint preparation
5. Using a proper electrode angle
12.1.7 Overlapping
Overlapping (Figure 11-110) is the
protrusion of the weld metal over the edge
or toe of the weld bead. This defect can
cause an area of lack of fusion and create a
notch that can lead to crack initiation. If
overlapping is allowed to occur, grinding off
the excess weld metal after welding can be
done. Overlapping is often produced by:
1. A travel speed that is too slow, which

permits the weld puddle to get ahead of the electrode
2. An arc welding current that is too low
3. An incorrect electrode angle that allows the force of the arc to push the molten
weld metal over unfused sections of the base metal
Overlapping can be prevented by or corrected by:
1. A higher travel speed
2. Using a higher welding current
3. Using the correct electrode angle
12.1.8 Melt-Through
Melt-through (Figure 11-111) occurs when
the arc burns through the bottom of the
weld. It is usually caused by the heat input
being too high. This can be caused by:
2. Too slow of a travel speed
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 11-111 Melt-through.

11-122
3. Too wide of a root gap

1. Reducing the welding current
2. Increasing the travel speed
3. Reducing the size of the root gap
FCAW may produce a small amount of spatter but excessive weld spatter creates a
poor weld appearance, wastes electrodes, causes difficult slag removal, and can lead to
incomplete fusion in multipass welds. Excessive spatter can also block the flow of
shielding gas from the nozzle that causes porosity. The amount of spatter produced by
FCAW will vary, depending on the type of metal transfer, type of electrode, and the type
of shielding gas used. (Electrode wires that produce a large droplet size globular metal
transfer will produce more spatter than those that produce a fine globular transfer. Selfshielded electrodes tend to produce higher spatter levels than gas-shielding types.)
The shielding gas provides slightly better arc stability. A gas-shielded electrode that is
used with carbon dioxide shielding will produce higher spatter levels than the same
electrode used with argon-carbon dioxide or argon-oxygen mixtures. This is due to the
coarser droplet size promoted by the carbon dioxide shielding. Excessive weld spatter
may also result from operating the electrode wire outside the operating ranges of
amperage, voltage, and electrode extension for which the manufacturer designed the
electrode. Methods of reducing the amount of spatter would be to reduce the welding
current, welding voltage, or electrode extension. When gas-shielded wires are being
used, changing the shielding gas from carbon dioxide to an argon-carbon dioxide
mixture will further reduce spatter levels. If spatter is caused, it can be removed by
grinding or chipping.
12.1.10 Arc Strikes
the base metal outside the weld joint can produce a hard spot on the base metal
small notch on the surface of the metal that can act as an initiating point for cracks.
12.1.11 Craters
Weld craters (Figure 11-112) are depressions on the weld surface at the point where
the arc was broken. These craters are caused by the solidification of the metal after the
arc has been broken. The weld crater often
cracks and can serve as an origin for linear
cracking back into the weld metal or into the
base metal. These craters can usually be
removed by chipping or grinding and the
depression can be filled in with a small
deposit of filler metal. The best way of
preventing weld craters is to reverse the
travel of the electrode a little way back into
Figure 11-112 Weld crater.
the weld bead from the end of the weld
bead before breaking the arc. Another
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-123
method is to stop the travel long enough to fill the crater before breaking the arc.
12.2.0 Cracking
An improper welding procedure, welder technique, or materials may cause cracking. All
types of cracking can be classified as either hot cracking or cold cracking, and these
cracks can be oriented transversely or longitudinally to the weld. Transverse cracks are
perpendicular to the axis of the weld, where longitudinal cracks are parallel to the axis of
the weld. Transverse cracks are often the result of longitudinal shrinkage strains acting
on excessively hard and brittle weld metal. Longitudinal cracks are often caused by high
joint restraint and high cooling rates. Hot cracking is a defect that occurs at higher
temperatures and generally happens just after the weld metal starts to solidify. This type
of cracking is often caused by excessive sulfur, phosphorous, and lead contents in the
base metal. It can also occur because of an improper method of breaking the arc or in a
root pass when the cross-sectional area of the weld bead is small compared to the
mass of the base metal. Hot cracking often occurs in deep penetrating welds and it can
continue through successive layers if it is not repaired. Hot cracking may be prevented
or minimized by:
1. Preheating
2. Using uncontaminated shielding gas, base metals, and filler metals
3. Increasing the cross-sectional area of the weld bead
4. Changing the contour of the weld bead
5. Using base metal with very low sulfur, phosphorous, and lead contents
6. Using filler metals that are high in manganese when welding steel
Crater cracks are shallow hot cracks that are caused by improperly breaking the arc.
Several types are shown in Figure 11-113.

Crater cracks may be prevented the same way that craters are prevented: by reversing
the travel of the electrode a little way back into the weld from the end of the weld or
stopping the travel before breaking the arc.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-124
excessive joint restraint, and rapid cooling. Preheating, the use of a dry, high purity
shielding gas, and a proper cleaning procedure can help reduce this problem. Cold
cracking is often less of a problem with FCAW than GMAW because of the higher heat
input of FCAW, which provides more of a
preheating effect. The preheating helps to
reduce slightly the problems with cold
cracking due to excessive cooling rates.
occur in single-pass, concave fillet welds. A
runs down the center of the weld, as shown
in Figure 11-114.
Figure 11-114 Centerline crack.
This problem may be caused by:

1. Too small of a weld bead for the thickness of the base metal
2. Poor fit-up
The chief methods of preventing centerline
cracks are:
1. Increasing the bead size
2. Decreasing the gap width
3. Positioning the joint slightly uphill
4. Preventing weld craters
Figure 11-115 Underbead

cracks.
Base metal and underbead cracks are cold

cracks that form in the heat-affected zone of the base metal. Underbead cracks occur
underneath the weld bead, as shown in Figure 11-115.
Base metal cracks are those cracks that originate in the heat-affected zone of the weld.
These types of cracking are caused by excessive joint restraint, hydrogen, and a brittle
microstructure. Rapid cooling causes a brittle microstructure or excessive heat input.
Underbead and base metal cracking can be reduced or eliminated by using preheat.

A number of other welding problems may occur, such as those caused by magnetic
fields, improper moisture, or indirect electrode arc.
12.3.1 Arc Blow
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-125
Direct current is susceptible to arc blow, especially when welding is being done in
corners and near the end of joints. Arc blow occurs with direct current because the
induced magnetic field is in one direction. Arc blow is shown in Figure 11-116.
Figure 11-116 Arc blow.

Arc blow is often encountered when welding magnetized metal or near a magnetized
fixture. This problem also occurs when welding complex structures and on massive
structures with high currents and poor fit-up. Forward arc blow is encountered when
welding away from the ground connection or at the beginning of a weld joint. Backward
arc blow occurs toward the grounding connection, into a corner, or toward the end of a
weld joint. Several methods can be used to correct the arc blow problem:
1. Welding toward an existing weld or tack weld
2. Reducing the welding current and the arc voltage
3. Placing the work connection as far as possible from the weld, at the end of the
weld, or at the start of the weld, and weld toward the heavy tack weld
4. Change position of fixture or demagnetize base metal or fixture
Many discontinuities that occur in FCAW are caused by inadequate shielding of the arc.
Inadequate shielding can cause oxidation of the weld puddle and porosity in the weld
bead. This will usually appear as surface porosity. This problem can easily be detected
because the arc will change color, the weld bead will be discolored, and the arc will
become unstable and difficult to control.
The most common causes of this problem when using gas-shielded flux-cored arc wires
are:
1. Blockage of gas flow in the torch or hoses, or freezing of the regulator with
carbon dioxide
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2. A leak in the gas system

3. Weld spatter blocking the nozzle of the welding gun
4. A very high travel speed
5. Improper flow rate
6. Winds or drafts
7. Too much distance between nozzle and work
The most common causes of inadequate shielding for self-shielded electrodes are:
1. Electrode extension that is too short and does not allow proper activation of
shielding gas core components
2. A very high travel speed
3. Winds or drafts- self-shielding electrodes can withstand higher winds and drafts
than gas-shielded electrodes; popular for use in field conditions where wind is a
problem
In general, inadequate shielding is more of a problem with gas-shielding electrodes.
There are several ways that this problem can be corrected or prevented. The torch and
hoses should be checked before welding to make sure that the shielding gas can flow
freely and is not leaking. The nozzle and contact tube should be cleaned of spatter
regularly. A very high travel speed may leave the weld puddle or part of it exposed to
the atmosphere. This may be corrected, in some cases by inclining the gun in the
direction of travel, using a nozzle that directs shielding gas back over the heated area,
or by increasing the gas flow rate. The best method is to slow the travel speed.
Increasing the gas flow rate will increase the expense of the welding. An improper flow
rate may occasionally be a problem. For example, when using carbon dioxide shielding
in the overhead position, highest gas flow rates may have to be used to provide
adequate shielding. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and will tend to fall away from the
weld area. An excessive gas flow rate can cause excessive turbulence in the weld
puddle. When winds or air drafts are present, several corrective steps may be taken.
One method is to switch from a gas-shielded electrode to a self-shielded electrode.
Setting up screens around the operation is another method of solving this problem.
Increasing the gas flow rate is helpful when using gas-shielded electrodes, or increasing
the electrode extension when using self-shielded electrodes. An excessive distance
between the end of the nozzle and the molten weld puddle will also create a problem in
providing adequate shielding, which can be corrected by shortening this distance.
12.3.3 Clogged or Dirty Contact Tube
The power delivered to the arc in FCAW depends on a transfer of current from the tip of
the contact tube to the electrode by means of a sliding contact tube. A clogged, dirty, or
worn contact tube can cause changes for power transferred to the electrode, which can
have an effect on the arc characteristics. It can also cause an irregular weld bead and
possible incomplete fusion because of the power fluctuations. A clogged contact tube
can stop the feed of the electrode wire, which stops the welding arc. A contact tube can
become dirty or clogged by spatter from the arc, by rust, scale, drawing compounds left
from the manufacture of the wire on the surface of the electrode, or by metal chips
created by tight wire feed rolls. These problems can best be prevented by making sure
that the electrode wire is clean and the wire feed rolls are tight enough to feed the wire
without creating chips. A wire wipe made of cloth is often attached to the wire feeder to
clean the electrode wire as it is fed.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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12.3.4 Wire Feed Stoppages

Wire feed stoppages are generally less of a problem with FCAW than with GMAW
because of the larger diameter electrode wires used in FCAW. However, this can still be
a problem. Wire feed stoppages cause the arc to be extinguished and can create an
irregular weld bead because of the stops and starts. Wire stoppages can also cause a
loss of welding time because many of the problems take a long time to correct when
wire becomes wrapped around the wire feed rolls, wadded up in bird nests in the wire
feeder, or broken. Wire feed stoppages can be caused by:
1. A clogged contact tube
2. A clogged circuit in the welding gun assembly
3. Sharp bends or kinks in the wire feed conduit
4. Excessive pressure on the wire feed roll, which can cause breakage of the wire
5. Inadequate pressure on the wire feed rolls
6. Attempting to feed the wire over excessively long distances
7. A spool of wire clamped too tightly to the wire reel support
Wire feed stoppages, in many cases, must be corrected by taking the disassembling the
gun and cutting and removing the wire, or by cutting and removing the wire from the
wire feeder. Both result in time lost to locate the problem and feed the new length of
wire through the assembly to the gun. Wire stoppages can be prevented by:
1. Cleaning the contact tube
2. Cleaning the conduit, which is usually done with compressed air
3. Straightening or replacing the wire feed conduit
4. Reducing the pressure on the wire feed rolls to prevent breakage
5. Increasing the pressure on the wire feed rolls to provide adequate driving force
6. Using a shorter distance from the wire feeder to the gun or from the wire feeder
to the electrode wire source
7. Reducing clamping pressure on the wire spool

Several operations may be required after welding, such as cleaning, inspection of the
welds, and postheating. These items may or may not be part of the procedure, the
operations performed will depend on the governing code or specification, type of metal,
and the quality of the weld deposit.
13.1.0 Cleaning
FCAW produces a moderate slag covering that must be removed after welding. Slag
removal is also required between passes of a multipass weld to prevent slag inclusions
and incomplete fusion.
Slag removal is generally done using a chipping hammer. A certain amount of spatter is
created in FCAW, which can make slag removal slightly more difficult. If an excessive
amount of spatter is created, slag removal may become very difficult. After the slag has
been removed, wire brushing or buffing can be done to remove the loose slag particles
and to remove discoloration around the bead. Mild steel brushes can be used on most
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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steels but stainless steel brushes should be used on stainless steel to prevent
contamination. Spatter can be removed by grinding or wire brushing. FCAW usually
produces a smooth weld surface. If a different weld profile is needed, grinding can be
used, although grinding of weld profiles should be avoided due to the expense.

Inspection and testing of the weld is done after cleaning to determine the quality of the
weld joint. There are many different methods of inspection and testing which will not be
covered in detail in this course. The uses of these methods wiII often depend on the
code or specification that covered the welding. Testing of a weldment may be done
magnetic particle and liquid penetrant inspection are used to locate surface defects,
while ultrasonic and radiographic inspections are used to locate internal defects.
methods, depending on the mechanical properties being tested. Some of the most

Repairing the weld is usually needed when defects are found during inspection. When a
defect is found, it can be gouged, ground, chipped, or machined out, depending on the
type of material being welded. For steels, grinding and air carbon arc gouging are
commonly used. When maximum corrosion resistance is required, air carbon arc
gouging is used on stainless steels only when grinding or wire brushing of the groove
face to remove carbon deposits is done. For stainless steels, chipping is a common
method for removing defects. Air carbon arc gouging is preferred for many applications
because it is usually the quickest method. Grinding is popular for removing surface
defects and shallow-lying defects. Once the defects have been removed, the low areas
created by the grinding and gouging can be rewelded using FCAW or some other
welding process. The welds are then reinspected to make sure that the defects have
been properly repaired.
13.4.0 Postheating
Postheating is often required after the weld has been completed, depending on the type
of metal being welded, the specific application, and the governing code or
specifications. Many of the low-carbon and low-alloy steels are rarely postheated.
commonly used postheats are annealing, stress relieving, normalizing, and quenching
Postheating is accomplished by most of the same methods that are used for preheating,
such as furnaces, induction coils, and electric resistance heating blankets. One method
used for stress relieving that does not involve the reheating of the weldments is called
vibratory stress relief. This method vibrates the weldment during or after welding to
relieve the residual stresses during or after solidification.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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softening. This process is widely used on steels that become very hard and brittle
because of welding. There are several different kinds and when used on ferrous metals,
it is called full annealing. Full annealing is the heating up of a material to cause
recrystallization of the grain structure, which causes softening. This softening process is
done by heating a ferrous metal to a temperature above the transformation range and
slowly cooling to a temperature below this range. This process is usually done in a
furnace to provide a controlled cooling rate.
normalizing and annealing is that a normalized weldment is cooled in still air that
produces a quicker cooling rate and an annealed weldment is slowly cooled in a
furnace. A normalizing heat treatment will refine the metal grain size and give a tougher
weld, while an annealing heat treatment will result in a softer weld.
Stress relieving is the uniform heating of a weldment to a high enough temperature,
below the critical range, to relieve most of the residual stresses due to welding. This
operation is performed on many steels after welding to relieve the residual stresses due
to welding. This also reduces warpage during machining that may occur with a high
residual stress buildup. On parts and metals that are likely to crack due to the internal
stress created by welding, the parts should be put into stress relief immediately after
welding, without being allowed to cool to room temperature. The terms normalizing and
annealing are misnomers for this heat treatment.
Quenching and tempering is another postweld heat treatment commonly used. The
metal is heated up and then quenched to form a hard and brittle metallurgical structure.
The weldment is then tempered by reheating to a particular temperature, dependent on
the degree of ductility, strength, toughness, and hardness desired. Tempering reduces
the hardness of the part as it increases the strength, toughness, and ductility of the
weld.

10.
What causes slag inclusions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Steady travel speed

A weaving motion that is too narrow
Using an electrode that is too small
Which of the following is a nondestructive test?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Etching
Liquid penetrant
Tensile strength
Free-bend

To become a fully certified welder, you must know the requirements for training and
qualifications. While these requirements may differ somewhat from organization to
organization, and you may need to demonstrate your skills to qualify for a particular
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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project and specific welding task, the basic guidelines are the same for achieving the
training and qualifications.

FCAW requires a certain degree of skill to produce good quality welds. In
semiautomatic welding, the welder has to manipulate the welding gun and control the
speed of travel. Less skill is required to operate this process when compared to the
manual welding processes because the machine controls the arc length and feeds the
electrode wire. Welders skilled in manual welding processes and GMAW generally have
less difficulty learning FCAW. This process uses similar equipment and welding
techniques to those used in GMAW. At higher current levels, when using larger
diameter wires, FCAW has a smoother arc and is easier to handle than larger diameter
solid wires with a carbon dioxide shielding. Because of the deep penetrating
characteristics of the process, lack of fusion and incomplete penetration are easier to
avoid and compensate for than GMAW using short-circuiting transfer.
The exact content of a training program will vary, depending on the specific application
of the process. A training program should have enough flexibility so that it can be
adapted to changing needs and applications. Because of this, the emphasis may be
placed on certain areas of training based on the complexity of the parts to be welded,
type of metal, and governing code or specification. A welding course that covers all
position welding requires more training time than one that simply covers flat position
welding only. A welding course for pipe requires more training time than one for welding
plate. The major purpose of the training program is to give the welder the skill and
knowledge to be able to do the best job possible. A training program may be broken up
into several areas, depending on the training requirements of the student.
14.1.1 Basic Flux Cored Arc Welding
The basic FCAW training program is used to teach the students the basic skills
necessary to weld plate. This course provides training on how to make quality fillet and
groove welds. The course also gives the students the knowledge of how to set up the
equipment, clean the base metal, basic operating principles, and the difficulties that are
commonly encountered. The training also covers the different welding techniques used
for gas-shielded and self-shielded electrodes. Also covered are the techniques for
welding out-of-position using small diameter electrodes. The training obtained by the
student should give the skill to perform a job welding plate. This course should also
provide the background skill and knowledge required to take an advanced course for a
specific application, such as for welding pipe. The following is an outline for a course
approximately 35 hours long:
Topic
1. Flux Cored Arc Welding Introduction
2. Safety and Health of Welders
3. Stringer Bead, Flat Position and Adjustment of the Welding Equipment for GasShielded Electrodes
4. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Flat Position with a Gas-Shielded Electrode
5. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal Position with a Gas-Shielded Electrode
6. Equipment Set-up, Operation, and Adjustment
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7. Stringer Bead, Flat Position and Adjustment of the Welding Equipment for SelfShielded Electrodes
8. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Flat Position with a Self-Shielded Electrode
9. Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, and Horizontal Position with a Self-Shielded Electrode
10. Joint Preparation and Weld Quality
11. Single-V-Groove Weld, and Butt Joint, Flat Position with a Gas-Shielded
Electrode
12. Single-Bevel-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Position with a Gas-Shielded
Electrode
13. Single-Bevel-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Position, Cut and Etch Test
14. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Vertical Position - Uphill Travel with an All-Position GasShielded Electrode.
15. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Position - Uphill Travel with an AllPosition Gas-Shielded Electrode
16. Single-V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Vertical Position - Uphill Travel, Guided Bend
Test
17. Fillet Weld, Tee Joint, Overhead Position with an All-Position Gas-Shielded
Electrode

he or she must become certified under the code that applies. Many different codes are
in use today, and it is exceedingly important that the specific code is referred to when
taking qualification tests. In general, the following type of work is covered by codes:
pressure vessels and pressure piping, highway and railway bridges, public buildings,
tanks and containers that will hold flammable or explosive materials, cross country
pipeline, aircraft, ordnance material, ships and boats, and nuclear power plants.
Several of the specifications include consideration of the FCAW process. These are:
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX, Welding and Brazing
Qualifications
2. AWS 01.1, Structural Welding Code
3. AWS 05.2, Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Standpipes, and
Reservoirs for Water Storage
4. AWS 010.9, Standard for Qualification of Welding Procedures and Welders for
Piping
5. AWS 014.1, Specification for Welding Industrial and Mill Cranes
6. AWS 014.2, Specification for Metal Cutting Machine Tool Weldments
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7. AWS 014.3, Specification for Welding Earthmoving and Construction Equipment

8. API 1104 Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities
9. Marine Engineering Regulations and Material Specifications (CG 115)
These specifications do not provide qualifications of the FCAW process for all
applications and service requirements. For applications where AWS or other
specifications are not available or do not apply and general criteria for qualification is
desired, AWS B2.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification, is
often used. Qualification is obtained differently under the various codes. Qualification
under one code will not necessarily qualify a welder to weld under a different code. In
most cases, qualification for one employer will not allow the welder to work for another
employer. If the welder uses a different process or the welding procedure is altered
drastically, requalification is required. In most cases, if the welder is continually;
employed, welding requalification is not required, providing the work performed meets
the quality requirements.
Responsible manufacturers or contractors may give qualifications tests. On pressure
vessel work, the welding procedure must also be qualified and this will be done before
the welders are qualified. Under other codes, this is not necessary. To become
qualified, the welder must make specified welds using the required process, base metal,
base metal thickness, electrode type, position, and joint design. For example, in the
AWS Structural Welding Code (D1.1), certain joint designs are considered prequalified
for FCAW. Test specimens must be made according to standardized sizes and under
the observation of a qualified person. For most government specifications, a
government inspector must witness the making of weld specimens. Specimens must be
properly identified and prepared for testing. The most common test is a guided bend
test. In some cases, radiographic examinations, fracture tests, or other tests are used.
Satisfactory completion of test specimens, provided that they meet acceptability
standards, will qualify the welder for specific types of welding. Again, the welding that
will be allowed depends on the particular code. In general, the code indicates the range
of thicknesses that may be welded, the positions that may be used, and the alloys that
may be welded.
You should obtain and study the actual code prior to taking any tests.

safety program and take adequate safety precautions to help protect welders. The
welders should also be made aware of safety precautions and procedures. Employees
who fail to follow adequate safety precautions can cause physical injury to themselves
and others, and damage property. Any of these conditions can result in physical
safety rules and common sense are followed. A set of safety rules is presented in the
American National Standard Z49.1, "Safety in Welding and Cutting," published by the
American Welding Society, which should be followed.
There are several types of hazards associated with FCAW. These hazards do not
necessarily result in serious injuries. They can also be of a minor nature, which can
are:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1. Electrical shock
2. Arc radiation
3. Air contamination
4. Compressed Gases
5. Fire and explosion
6. Weld cleaning and other hazards

There are several precautions that should be taken to prevent an electrical shock
hazard. The first item that should be done before welding is to make sure the arc
welding equipment is installed properly, grounded, and in good working condition. The
electrical equipment should be maintained and installed in accordance with the National
Electrical Code and any state and local codes that apply. Power supplies should be
connected to an adequate electrical ground, such as an approved building ground, cold
water pipe, or ground rod. Power supplies are connected to ground through the cable
that connects the power supply to the electrical system ground. Cables with frayed or
cracked insulation and faulty or badly worn connections can cause electrical short
circuits and shocks. If it is necessary to splice lengths of welding cable together, the
electrical connections should be tight and insulated. The proper size welding cables
should also be used because constantly overloading a welding cable that is too small
can destroy the insulation and create bare spots in the insulation. This occurs because
excessive heat builds up in the cable and destroys the insulation. An improperly
insulated welding cable is both an electrical shock hazard and a fire hazard.
The welding area should be dry and free of any standing water, which could cause
electrical shock. When it is necessary to weld in a damp or wet area, the welder should
wear rubber boots and stand on a dry, insulated platform.

The welding arc of FCAW emits large amounts of invisible ultraviolet and infrared rays.
Skin exposed to the arc, even for a short time, can suffer serious ultraviolet and infrared
burns, which are essentially the same as sunburn, but the burn caused by welding can
take place in a much shorter time and can be very painful. Because of this, the welder
should always wear protective clothing suitable for the welding to be done. These
jackets, capes and bibs, or other similar arrangements to shield the arms, shoulders,
gloves and gauntlets for the welder.
The eyes must also be protected from the radiation emitted by the welding arc. Arc-burn
can result if the eyes are not protected. Arc-burn of the eye is similar to sunburn of the
skin and it is extremely painful for about 24 to 48 hours. Usually, arc-burn does not
permanently injure the eyes, but it can cause intense pain as though several grains of
sand were in your eyes. There are several commercial solutions available to soothe the
skin and eyes during the period of suffering.
Infrared arc rays can cause fatigue of the retina of the eye. The effects of infrared rays
are not nearly as noticeable or immediate as the effects of ultraviolet rays. Infrared rays
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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are probably more dangerous in that their effects can be longer lasting and result in
impaired vision.
The flux-cored welding arc is a relatively high energy arc that is much brighter than
lower current welding arcs. Even though more smoke is given off from the arc area, it
does not shield arc rays effectively.
The best protection for the eyes and face is provided by a headshield that has a window
set in it with a filter lens in the window. Headshields are generally made of fiberglass or
a pressed fiber material that is lightweight. The filter lens is made of a dark glass
capable of absorbing infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, and most visible light coming from
the arc. The type of lens used varies for different welders but it should be dark enough
so the arc can be viewed without discomfort, yet not so dark the welder cannot see what
he or she is doing. Table 11-23 shows the different lenses commonly recommended for
use in shielded metal arc welding. The higher the lens numbers, the darker the lens. A
clear, replaceable glass should be put on the outside of the welding lens to protect it
from spatter and breakage.
Table 11-23 Recommended Filter Lens Shades Used in Shielded Metal Arc
Welding (ANSI/AWS Z49.1)
Welding Current
Range-Amperes
Lens Shade Number
75-200
10 to 11
200-400
12 to 13
Above 400
14

One of the main problems with FCAW is that it gives off more smoke and fumes than
processes such as GTAW, GMAW, and SAW. It even tends to produce higher smoke
and fume levels than SMAW. A hazard warning for fume is placed on the electrode wire
box.
The welding area should be adequately ventilated because fumes and gases, such as
ozone, carbon monoxide, and carbon
dioxide, are hazardous for the welder to
breathe. When welding is done in confined
areas, an external air supply is required.
This is furnished by the use of a respirator
on a special helmet. A second person
should stand just outside the confined area
to lend assistance to the welder, if
necessary. Another method is to use an
exhaust system to remove welding fumes.
Special fume extractor nozzles attached to
the welding gun are popular for use with
FCAW to reduce the smoke levels
produced. These nozzles are connected to
a filter and an exhaust pump, which greatly
Figure 11-117 FCAW with fume
reduce the smoke level as shown in Figure
extractor nozzle.
11-117.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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The shielding gas may displace the air that the welder needs for breathing. Because of
this, welding should not be done in an enclosed area or hole, which can cause
suffocation without the use of a respirator. Welding should never be done near
degreasing and cleaning operations. The fumes from chlorinated solvents used for
cleaning form a very toxic gas, called phosgene, when exposed to an arc. A mechanical
exhaust system should be used when welding metals with lead, cadmium, and zinc
coatings. AWS/ANSI Z49.1 should be consulted for ventilation requirements.
15.4.0 Compressed Gases

The shielding gas used for FCAW is compressed and stored in cylinders. One
advantage of self-shielded flux-cored wire is that compressed gas cylinders are not
required, so this is primarily a safety consideration when gas-shielded electrodes are
used. Improper handling of compressed gas cylinders can create a safety hazard. When
in use, gas cylinders should be secured to a wall or other structural support. The valve
of the cylinder should be opened slowly and the welder should stand away from the face
of the regulator when doing this. The welding arc should never be struck on a
compressed gas cylinder. When not in use, gas cylinders should be stored with their
caps on. Caps should also be on when they are moved. If the valve would get knocked
off, the cylinder acts like a missile because of the escaping gas and can cause injury
and damage. When compressed gas cylinders are empty, the valve should be closed
and they should be marked as empty. This is done by marking the letters, "MT" or
"EMPTY" on the cylinder.

precautions are not taken. The FCAW process produces sparks and spatters which can
start a fire or explosion in the welding area if not kept free of flammable, volatile, or
explosive materials. Welding should never be done near degreasing and other, similar
operations. Welders should wear leather clothing for protection from burns because
leather is fireproof. Fires can also be started by an electrical short or by overheated,
worn cables. In case of a fire started by a flammable liquid or an electrical fire, a CO2 or
dry chemical type of fire extinguisher is used. Fire extinguishers should be kept at
handy spots around the shop and welders should make a mental note of where they are
located.
Other precautions that have to do with explosions are also important. A welder should
not weld on containers that have held combustibles unless it is absolutely certain there
are no fumes or residue left. Welding should not be done on sealed containers without
providing vents and taking special precautions. The welding arc should never be struck
on a compressed gas cylinder. When the electrode holder is set down or not in use, it
should never be allowed to touch a compressed gas cylinder.

Hazards can also be encountered during the weld cleaning process. Precautions must
be taken to protect the skin and eyes from hot slag particles. FCAW produces a
moderate slag covering which much be removed. The welding helmet, gloves, and
heavy clothing protect the skin from slag chipping and grinding of the weld metal. Safety
glasses should also be worn underneath the welding helmet to protect the eyes from
particles that could get inside the welding helmet. Screens should be set up if there are
other people in the area to protect them from arc burn.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1. Make sure your arc welding equipment is properly installed, grounded, and in
3. Always wear proper eye protection when welding, grinding, or cutting.
5. Handle all compressed gas cylinders with extreme care. Keep caps on when not
in use.
6. When compressed gas cylinders are empty, close the valve, and mark the
cylinder EMPTY.
7. Do not weld in a confined space without special precautions.
8. Do not weld on containers that have held combustibles without taking special
precaution.
14. When the welding gun is in use, do not hang it on a compressed gas cylinder.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to the FCAW process, from the types of power
sources, controls, and electrodes to the types of training and qualifications needed. It
also described the industries that use the FCAW process and its applications. Welding
metallurgy, weld and joint design, and welding procedure variables were also
discussed. The chapter finished up with a description of weld defects and how to
identify them, then covered welder training and the common safety precautions
applicable to all welding processes. As always, use the manufacturers operator
manuals for the specific setup and safety procedures of the welder you will be using.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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1.
What type of current is used in flux cored arc welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
What is the main advantage of self shielding flux cored electrodes?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
Horizontal position only

Flat position only
Horizontal and flat positions
Vertical and overhead
What is the largest diameter electrode that can be used for vertical and overhead
welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
E118T-1
E802T-2
E801T-2
E7018-1
A welding electrode that has an AWS classification of E700T should be used for
a metal-arc welding job in what position(s)?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Formation of slag
Prevention of oxidation
Simplified process
All of the above
An electrode that has a minimum tensile strength of 80,000 psi for use in all
positions for low alloy has what designation?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Constant
Indirect
1/16-inch
1/8-inch
3/16-inch
5/32-inch
Which of the following properties is the basic rule for selecting an electrode for a
job?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Great tensile strength

Composition similar to the base metal
The melting temperature
The least expensive
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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7.
When the electrode is positive and the workpiece is negative, the electrons flow
from the workpiece to the electrode. What polarity is being used?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
Which one of the following steps do you take to correct arc blow?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
15 to 20
20 to 45
45 to 60
60 to 90
When using gas shielded electrodes, what angle is used for maximum
penetration?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
It is withdrawn slowly from the crater after the arc has lengthened.
It is held stationary until the crater is filled, then withdrawn slowly.
It is held stationary until the equipment is secured.
It is lowered into the crater until contact is made, then quickly withdrawn.
What drag angle is used for flat and horizontal position welding using self
shielded electrodes?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Change the polarity of the work piece.

Weld toward the edge of the workpiece from the ground clamp.
Reduce the weld current.
All of the above
Of the following practices, which one is correct for breaking an arc with an
electrode?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Straight
Negative
Positive
Reverse
5
10
15
20
For which of the following reasons do you use relatively small electrodes for
overhead butt welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A long arc is needed to penetrate to the root of the joint.

A short arc is needed to develop penetration at the root of the joint.
Reduced current flow through the small electrode is needed to create a
fluid puddle.
Accelerated current flow is needed to control the fluid puddle.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-139
13.
Which of the following mistakes can cause undercutting in welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Which of the following mistakes can cause excessive spatter in welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
Current too low

Current too high
Rigid joints
Faulty postheating
When pipe has _____ wall thickness, only the single U-type of butt joint should
be used.
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
Current too low

Current too high
Welding speed too slow
Rigid joints
Which of the following mistakes can cause brittle welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
Improper welding technique

Improper welder technique
Improper material
All of the above
Which of the following mistakes can cause poor penetration?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Arc too short

Arc too long
Current too low
Rigid joints
Which of the following mistakes can cause cracked welds?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Current too high

Current too low
Faulty preheating
Joints too rigid
1/4-inch or less
1/2-inch or less
1/2-inch or more
3/4-inch or more
You do NOT need to do which of the following procedures when preparing a joint
for welding?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Clean the edges of surfaces to be welded

Adjust the joint surfaces so they are smooth and uniform
Remove slag from flame-cut edges
Remove temper color
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-140
20.
What maximum nominal diameter of electrode should you NOT exceed when
making the root pass of a multilayer weld on pipe?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
The root of a fillet weld is where the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
length of the weld

The throat of a fillet is the shortest distance from the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
junction between the face of the weld and the base metal
rippled surface of the weld
The leg of the weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
25.

separation between the members to be joined
The toe of a fillet weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.

back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces
The face of a fillet weld is the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
3/32-inch
1/8-inch
3/16-inch
1/4-inch
face to the toe

root to the toe
toe to the leg
Welding machine installations should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
installed according to electrical codes

plugged into the nearest receptacle
connected to mobile generators only
simple with no grounding
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-141
27.
Welding machine frames should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
The welding arc gives off ultra-violet rays, which can cause eye injury. Injury can
be prevented by _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
Immediately
After drawing back the electrode
After the weld puddle is formed
Before the formation of slag
When welding over a previously deposited bead, _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
are hazardous
can be ignored
are used as shielding gases
are inert gases
After striking an arc, when should the travel angle start?

A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
do not damage skin

can cause skin damage similar to sunburn.
Vaporized metals, such as zinc, cadmium, lead, and beryllium _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
wearing the proper lens shade in the helmet

using eye drops
closing your eyes
turning your head away from the arc
Ultra-violet rays from the arc _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
grounded electrically
not grounded electrically
rigid and heavy
insulated from ground

At the completion of the weld, the crater should _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
overlap the workpiece

be filled to the height of the bead
remain unfilled
be twice the size it originally was
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-142
34.
Horizontal position fillet welding is done from the_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
In the flat position welding, the face of the weld is approximately _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
36.
Complete range
Middle range
Upper range
Lower range
Tack welds should be _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
Amperage
Voltage
Electrode angle
Electrode diameter
When reading current ranges in a welding schedule, fillet welds use the _____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
10-20
20-30
30-40
45-90
What determines the direction the arc force applies to the weld pool?
A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
perpendicular
at a right angle
horizontal
vertical
At what angle should you hold the electrode when making lap joints with metal of
differing thickness?
A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
upper side of the joint

lower side of the joint
perpendicular to the weld
opposite side of the face of the joint
cleaned before the full weld is made

(True or False) You are responsible for performing all checks and procedure
steps before, during, and after welding.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-143
41.
How do you clean the slag form a weld bead?

A.
B.
C.
D.
42.
(True or False) You must be certified under the code that applies to the type of
welding you will be doing.
A.
B.
43.
True
False
A destructive test is _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
45.
True
False
(True or False) A sound weld can be made over dirt, paint, and grease if the
correct electrode is used.
A.
B.
44.
Hammer
High Pressure air
Mechanical disc
Chemicals
a good way to test workmanship

used to test a break fixture
a type of nondestructive testing
only used for small jobs
It is necessary to know the position in which welding is to be done _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
only when selecting iron powder electrodes

when making any electrode selection
when selecting electrodes that end in EXXT only
to select the proper welding machine to use
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-144

Alloying

elements. For example, brass is the alloy of copper and
zinc.
Austenitic

Ferritic

Ferrous

Nonferrous

NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-145

Appleton, WI.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-146

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
11-147
Chapter 12
Topics
1.0.0
Introduction
2.0.0
Nondestructive Testing
3.0.0
Destructive Testing
Overview
To ensure the satisfactory performance of a welded structure, the quality of the welds
must be determined by adequate testing procedures. Therefore, they are proof tested
under conditions that are the same or more severe than those encountered by the
welded structures in the field. These tests reveal weak or defective sections that can be
corrected before the materiel is released for use in the field.
This chapter is designed to give you an understanding of what to look for and how to
test the finished weld using nondestructive and destructive methods. The weld should
be inspected for undercut, overlap, surface checks, cracks, or other defects. Also, the
degree of penetration and side wall fusion, extent of reinforcement, and size and
position of the welds are important factors in the determination as to whether a welding
job should be accepted or rejected, because they all reflect the quality of the weld.
Always refer to the American Welding Society for guidance.
Objectives
1. Describe nondestructive testing.
2. Describe destructive testing.
Prerequisites
None
the course map.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-1

Rigging
Wire rope
S
T
E
E
L
Fiber Line
R
K

B
A
Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-2

question again.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-3
1.0.0 INTRODUCTION
In the fabrication or repair of equipment, tests are used to determine the quality and
soundness of the welds. There are many different methods of inspection and testing;
the most common methods will be covered in this chapter. The uses of these methods
wiII often depend on the code or specification that covered the welding. Testing of a
weldment may be done nondestructively or destructively. The type of test used depends
upon the requirements of the welds and the availability of testing equipment.
magnetic particle, and liquid penetrant inspection are used to locate surface defects,
where ultrasonic and radiographic inspections are used to locate internal defects.
All testing parameters are located in the American Welding Society, American National
Standards.
2.0.0 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a method of testing that does not destroy or impair the
usefulness of a welded item. These tests disclose all of the common internal and
surface defects that can occur when improper welding procedures are used. A large
choice of testing devices is available and most of them are easier to use than the
destructive methods, especially when working on large and expensive items.
2.1.0 Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is the first method used when inspecting a weld for soundness. It must
take place prior to, during, and after welding. Many standards require its use before
other methods because there is no point in submitting an obviously bad weld to
sophisticated inspection techniques. The ANSI/AWS Structural Welding Code states,
"All welds shall be visually inspected." Visual inspection requires little equipment.
Good eyesight and sufficient light, a pocket rule, a weld size gauge, a magnifying glass,
and possibly a straight edge and square for checking straightness, alignment and
perpendicularity are all that is needed for a sufficient visual inspection.
Before the first welding arc is struck, materials should be examined to see if they meet
specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness, and freedom from defects. Grease,
paint, oil, oxide film, or heavy scale should be removed. The pieces to be joined should
be checked for flatness, straightness, and dimensional accuracy. Likewise, alignment,
fit-up, and joint preparation should be examined. Finally, process and procedure
variables should be verified, including electrode size and type, equipment settings, and
provisions for preheat or postheat. All of these precautions apply, regardless of the
inspection method being used.
During fabrication, visual examination of a weld bead and the end crater may reveal
problems such as cracks, inadequate penetration, and gas or slag inclusions. Among
the weld detects that can be recognized visually are cracking, surface slag in inclusions,
surface porosity, and undercut.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-4
On simple welds, inspecting at the beginning of each operation and periodically as work
progresses may be adequate. Where more than one layer of filler metal is being
deposited, however, it may be desirable to inspect each layer before depositing the
next. The root pass of a multipass weld is the most critical to weld soundness. It is
especially susceptible to cracking, and because it solidifies quickly, it may trap gas and
slag. On subsequent passes, conditions caused by the shape of the weld bead or
changes in the joint configuration can cause further cracking, as well as undercut and
slag trapping. Repair costs can be minimized if visual inspection detects these flaws
before welding progresses.
Visual inspection at an early stage of production can also prevent underwelding and
overwelding. Welds that are smaller than called for in the specifications cannot be
tolerated. Beads that are too large increase costs unnecessarily and can cause
distortion through added shrinkage stress.
After welding, visual inspection can detect a variety of surface flaws, including cracks,
porosity and unfilled craters, regardless of subsequent inspection procedures.
Dimensional variances, warpage, and appearance flaws, as well as weld size
characteristics, can be evaluated.
Before checking for surface flaws, welds must be cleaned of slag. Shot blasting should
not be done before examination because the peening action may seal fine cracks and
make them invisible. The AWS Structural Welding Code, for example, does not allow
peening "on the root or surface layer of the weld or the base metal at the edges of the
weld."
Visual inspection can only locate defects in the weld surface. Specifications or
applicable codes may require that the internal portion of the weld and adjoining metal
zones be examined. Nondestructive examinations may be used to determine the
presence of a flaw, but they cannot measure its influence on the serviceability of the
product unless they are based on a correlation between the flaw and some
characteristic that affects service. Otherwise, destructive tests are the only sure way to
determine weld serviceability.
2.2.0 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is most effective
for the detection of surface or near-surface
flaws in welds. It is used on ferrous metals or
alloys in which you can induce magnetism.
While the test piece is magnetized, a liquid
containing finely ground iron powder is
applied. As long as the magnetic field is not
disturbed, the iron particles will form a
regular pattern on the surface of the test
piece. When the magnetic field is interrupted
by a crack or some other defect in the metal,
the pattern of the suspended ground metal is
also interrupted. The particles cluster around
the defect, making it easy to locate.
You can magnetize the test piece by either
having an electric current pass through it, as
shown in Figure 12-1, or by having an
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 12-1 Circular

magnetization.
12-5
electric current pass through a coil of wire

that surrounds the test piece, as shown in
Figure 12-2. When an electric current flows
in a straight line from one contact point to
the other, magnetic lines of force are in a
circular direction, as shown in Figure 12-1.
When the current flow is through a coil
around the test piece, as shown in Figure
12-2, the magnetic lines of force are
longitudinal through the test piece.
When a defect is to show up as a
disturbance in the pattern of the iron
particles, the direction of the magnetic field
must be at right angles to the major axis of
the defect. A magnetic field having the
necessary direction is established when the
current flow is parallel to the major axis of
Figure 12-2 Longitudinal
the defect. Since the orientation of the defect
magnetization.
is unknown, different current directions must
be used during the test. As shown in Figure
12-1, circular magnetism is induced in the test piece so you can inspect the piece for
lengthwise cracks, while longitudinal magnetism, as shown in Figure 12-2, is induced so
you can inspect the piece for transverse cracks. In general, magnetic particle inspection
is satisfactory for detecting surface cracks and subsurface cracks that are not more than
1/4 inch below the surface.
The type of magnetic particle inspection unit commonly used in the Navy is a portable
low-voltage unit having a maximum magnetizing output of 1,000 amperes, either
alternating or direct current. It is ready to operate when plugged into the voltage supply
specified by the manufacturer. The unit consists of a magnetizing current source,
controls, metering, three 10-foot lengths of flexible cable, and a prod kit. The prod kit
includes an insulated prod grip fitted with an ON-OFF relay or current control switch, a
pair of heavy copper contact prods, and two 5-foot lengths of flexible cable. Cable
fittings are designed so that either end of the cable can be connected to the unit, to the
prods, or to any other cable. The three outlets on the front of the unit make changing
from alternating to direct current or vice versa very easy. The outlets are labeled as
follows: left is ac, the center is COMMON, and the right is dc. One cable will always be
plugged into the COMMON outlet, while the other cable is plugged into either the ac or
dc outlet, depending upon what type of current the test requires. For most work,
alternating current magnetization effectively locates fatigue cracks and similar defects
extending through to the surface. Use direct current when you require a more sensitive
inspection to detect defects below the surface.
You can use the unit with alternating or direct current in either of two ways: (1) with
prods attached to the flexible cable and used as contacts for the current to pass into
and out of a portion of the test piece, setting up circular magnetization in the area
between the prods contact points, as shown in Figure 12-1; or (2) with the flexible cable
wrapped around the work to form a coil that induces longitudinal magnetism in the part
of the workpiece that is surrounded by the coiled cable (Figure 12-2).
Although you can use either of these two methods, the prod method is probably the
easier to apply. In most instances, it effectively serves to detect surface defects. With
the prods, however, only a small area of the test piece can be magnetized at any one
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-6
time. This magnetized area is limited to the distance between prod contact points and a
few inches on each side of the current path. To check the entire surface, you must test
each adjacent area by changing the location of the prod contact points. Each area of the
test piece must be inspected twice once with the current passing through the metal in
one direction, and once with the current passing through the metal in a direction at right
angles to the direction of the first test. One of the advantages of the prod method is that
the current can be easily passed through the metal in any desired direction. Thus, when
a given area is suspect, magnetic fields of different directions can be induced during the
test.
The prod method is accomplished by adjusting the unit for a current output suitable for
the magnetizing and testing of any particular kind of metal. The current setting required
depends on the distance between prod contact points. With the prod kit that is supplied
with the unit, the space between prod contact points is 4 to 6 inches. A current setting
between 300 and 400 amperes is satisfactory when the material thickness is less than
3/4 inch. When the material thickness is over 3/4 inch, use 400 to 600 amperes. When
the prod contact points are closer together, the same magnetic field force can be
obtained with less current. With prods constantly at the same spacing, more current will
induce greater field strength.
After adjusting the unit, place the prods in position. Hold them in firm contact with the
metal and turn on the current. Then apply magnetic particles to the test area with the
duster bulb and look for any indicator patterns. With the current still on, remove the
excess particles from the test area with a blower bulb and complete the inspection. Do
not move the prods until after the current has been turned off. Doing so could cause the
current to arc, resulting in a flash similar to that occurring in arc welding.
When you use magnetic particle inspection,
hairline cracks that are invisible are readily
indicated by an unmistakable outline of the
defect. Large voids beneath the surface are
easier to detect than small voids, but any
defect below the surface is more difficult to
detect than one that extends through to the
surface. Since false indications frequently
occur, you must be able to interpret the
particle indications accurately. The factors
that help you interpret the test results include
the amount of magnetizing current applied,
the shape of the indication, the sharpness of
the outline, the width of the pattern, and the
height or buildup of the particles. Although
these characteristics do not determine the
seriousness of the fault, they do serve to
identify the kind of defect (Figure 12-3).
Figure 12-3 Magnetic particle

inspection.
The indication of a crack is a sharp, welldefined pattern of magnetic particles having a definite buildup. This indication is
produced by a relatively low-magnetizing current. Seams are revealed by a straight,
sharp, fine indication. The buildup of particles is relatively weak, and the magnetizing
current must be higher than that required to detect cracks. Small porosity and rounded
indentations or similar defects are difficult to detect for inexperienced inspectors. A highmagnetizing current continuously applied is usually required. The particle patterns for
these defects are fuzzy in outline and have a medium buildup.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-7
The specifications governing the job determine whether an indicated defect is to be

chipped or ground out and repaired by welding. Surface cracks are always removed and
repaired. The inspector evaluates indications of subsurface defects detected by
magnetic particle inspection. When the indication is positive, the standard policy is to
grind or chip down to solid metal and make the repair. Unless the inspector can
differentiate accurately between true and false indications, the use of magnetic particle
inspection should be restricted to the detection of surface defects, for which this
application is almost foolproof.
After the indicated defects have been repaired, you should reinspect the areas to
ensure that the repair is sound. The final step in magnetic particle inspection is to
demagnetize the workpiece. This is especially important when the workpiece is made of
high-carbon steel.
Demagnetization is essential when you use direct current to induce the magnetic field;
however, it is not as necessary when alternating current was used in the test. In fact,
the usual demagnetization procedure involves placing the workpiece in an ac coil or
solenoid and slowly withdrawing it while current passes through the coil.
Demagnetization can be accomplished with the portable unit if a special demagnetizer
is not available. To demagnetize with the portable unit, form a coil of flexible cable
around the workpiece. Ensure that the cable is plugged into the unit for the delivery of
alternating current. Set the current regulator to deliver a current identical to that used for
the inspection and turn on the unit. Gradually decrease the current until the ammeter
indicates zero. On large pieces, it may be necessary to demagnetize a small portion of
the work at a time.
A check for the presence of a magnetic field may be made by using a small compass. A
deviation of the needle from the normal position when the compass is held near the
workpiece is an indication that a magnetic field is present. In addition, you can use an
instrument called a field indicator to check for the presence of a magnetic field. This
instrument usually comes with the magnetic particle inspection unit.
2.3.0 Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection is one of the oldest, simplest, least expensive, and most
reliable nondestructive examination methods. For welds to perform as intended, they
should be free of flaws, or, if any flaws exist, they are evaluated for their significance.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to detect any surface-connected discontinuities,
such as cracks from fatigue, quenching, and grinding, as well as fractures, porosity,
incomplete fusion, and flaws in joints.
Liquid penetrant inspection is especially suited to weld inspection for the following
reasons:
It can easily be used on small and large surfaces.
It can be used indoors or outdoors.
It can be used in most configurations, i.e., on welded surfaces that are upright,
sideways, or upside down.
It can be used in remote locations.
It can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials, including plastics and

ceramics.
It will detect a wide variety of discontinuities, ranging in size from those readily
visible down to microscopic level.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-8
Liquid penetrant inspection is simple and easy. However, there are several types of
penetrant materials, and it is important to match the materials with the application.
Liquid penetrant inspections involve using a specific dye penetrant material and two or
three related materials. Each one has been formulated to fulfill a specific function in the
inspection process.
The liquid penetrant inspection process consists of six steps, each involving a specific
penetrant product:
1. Precleaning
2. Penetrant application
3. Penetrant removal
4. Developer application
5. Examination
6. Postcleaning
Penetrant removal and developer application are the most critical steps in the process.
Penetrant materials are qualified, approved, and verified according to Aerospace
Material Specifications 2644, Liquid Penetrants and are divided into two types.
Type 1 penetrants are fluorescent, and inspections are done under ultraviolet light.
Type 2 penetrants contain visible dyes, normally red, and inspections are conducted
under white light.
Type 1, fluorescent penetrants, are available in five sensitivities ranging from ultralow,
level , to ultrahigh, level 4.
Type 2, visible penetrants, have no sensitivity classifications.
Both fluorescent and visible penetrants are approved for use in four different penetrant
inspection methods. These methods relate to how excess penetrant material that has
not entered the flaws is removed prior to actual inspection.
Method A is water washable, where water is sprayed or wiped on the part.
Method B is post-emulsifiable lipophilic, where a part is dipped in a lipophilic emulsifier
and then rinsed with water.
Lipophilic emulsifiers are capable of being mixed with penetrants in all

concentrations. However, if the concentration of penetrant contamination in the
emulsifier becomes too great, the mixture will not function effectively as a
remover. AMS 2644 requires that lipophilic emulsifiers be capable of 20%
penetrant contamination without a reduction in performance. AMS 2647A
requires the emulsifier to be replaced when its cleaning action is less than that of
new material.
Since lipophilic emulsifiers are oil based, they have a limited tolerance for water.
When the tolerance level is reached, the emulsifier starts to thicken and will
eventually form a gel as more water is added. AMS 2644 requires that lipophilic
emulsifiers be formulated to function adequately with at least 5% water
contamination, and AMS 2647A requires that lipophilic emulsifiers be replaced
when the water concentration reaches 5%.
Method C is solvent removable, where a solvent is wiped on the part. This is the
process most used in inspecting welds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-9
Method D is post-emulsifiable hydrophilic, where a part is dipped or sprayed with a

hydrophilic emulsifier solution and then rinsed with water.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers have less tolerance for penetrant contamination. The

penetrant tolerance varies with emulsifier concentration and the type of
contaminating penetrant. In some cases, as little as 1% (by volume) penetrant
contamination can seriously affect the performance of an emulsifier. One
penetrant manufacturer reports that 1 to 1.5% penetrant contamination will affect
solutions with a 10% concentration of emulsifier. As the emulsifier concentration
increases in the solution, the penetrant contamination tolerance also increases,
and a solution with a 30% emulsifier concentration can tolerate from 5 to 8.5%
penetrant contamination. The percentage of added penetrant required to destroy
washability of the emulsifier can be measured. An oil tolerance index is
commonly used to compare the tolerance of different emulsifiers to
contamination by penetrants. AMS 2647A requires that the emulsification bath be
discarded if penetrant is noted floating on the surface or adhering to the sides of
the tank.
Water contamination is not as much of a concern with hydrophilic emulsifiers,
since they are miscible with water. However, it is very important that the
emulsifier solution be kept at the proper concentration.
It should also be noted that penetrant dragout and level of possible emulsifier
contamination by the penetrant are dependent on the type of material being
processed. Tests have shown that on both polished and grit-blasted surfaces,
aluminum and stainless steel parts had a greater dragout than titanium parts.
There are six forms of developers, of which the nonaqueous are normally used for
inspecting welds. Nonaqueous developers are white powders mixed with a volatile
solvent. The following are the six developer forms:
Dry developer
Water soluble
Water suspendable
Nonaqueous Type 1 Fluorescent (solvent based)
Nonaqueous Type 2 Visible (solvent based)
Special application
The first step in liquid penetrant inspection is surface preparation. A clean, relatively
smooth surface is needed for successful penetrant inspection. In addition, the surface to
be examined and adjacent areas should be free of contaminants such as flux, weld
spatter, scale, rust, paint, oil, and grease. Contaminants can prevent or delay the
penetrant from entering the flaws, thereby undermining the inspection process.
Organic contaminants, such as oil and grease, can usually be removed with the same
solvent used for penetrant removal. Hence, these materials are often called
cleaner/removers. Other types of contaminants, such as scale and rust, can trap
penetrant, creating false indications, or can prevent penetrant from entering real
discontinuities. These contaminants may require using wire brushes or other methods in
order to remove them. Precleaning is usually done by the customer and should conform
to applicable specifications and codes.
Before the inspection process begins, issues involving ambient and equipment
temperatures must be addressed. The normal specified temperature range for liquid
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-10
penetrant inspection is 40 to 125F. Do not attempt to use the liquid penetrant when this
temperature range cannot be maintained. Do not use an open flame to increase the
temperature because some of the liquid penetrant materials are flammable.
After thoroughly cleaning and drying the surface, coat the surface with the liquid
penetrant. Spray or brush on the penetrant, or dip the entire piece into the penetrant. In
practical terms, under normal ambient conditions, it is hard to let the penetrant stay on
the part too long. The dwell time (how long the penetrant stays on the piece) is
generally specified in the codes and procedures and may depend on the temperature.
At temperatures below 50F, the dwell times are increased up to 20-30 minutes. At high
temperatures, those above 300F, the dwell times are shortened to as low as 30
seconds. You must also follow any temperature and dwell instructions provided by the
penetrant manufacturer.
After keeping the surface wet with the penetrant for the required length of time, remove
any excess penetrant from the surface with a clean, dry cloth or absorbent paper towel.
Then dampen a clean, lint-free material with penetrant remover and wipe the remaining
excess penetrant from the test surface. Next, allow the test surface to dry by normal
evaporation or wipe it dry with a clean, lint-free absorbent material. In drying the
surface, avoid contaminating it with oil, lint, dust, or other materials that would interfere
with the inspection.
After the surface has dried, apply another substance, called a developer. Allow the
developer (powder or liquid) to stay on the surface for a minimum of 7 minutes before
starting the inspection. Leave it on no longer than 30 minutes, thus allowing a total of 23
minutes to evaluate the results.
The following actions take place when using dye penetrants. First, the penetrant that is
applied to the surface of the material will seep into any passageway open to the
surface, as shown in Figure 12-4, View A. The penetrant is normally red in color, and
like penetrating oil, it seeps into any crack or crevice that is open to the surface. Next,
the excess penetrant is removed from the surface of the metal with the penetrant
remover and a lint-free absorbent material. Only the penetrant on top of the metal
surface is removed (Figure 12-4, View B), leaving the penetrant that has seeped into
the defect.
Figure 12-4 Liquid penetrant inspection.

Finally, the white developer is applied to the surface of the metal, as shown in Figure
12-4, View C. The developer is an absorbing material that actually draws the penetrant
from the defect. Therefore, the red penetrant indications in the white developer
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-11
represent the defective areas. The amount of red penetrant drawn from the defective
areas indicates the size and sometimes the type of defect. When you use dye
penetrants, the lighting in the test area must be bright enough to enable you to see any
indications of defects on the test surface.
The indications you see during a liquid penetrant inspection must be carefully
interpreted and evaluated. In almost every inspection, some insignificant indications are
present. Most of these are the result of the failure to remove all the excess penetrant
from the surface. At least 10 percent of all indications must be removed from the
surface to determine whether defects are actually present or whether the indications are
the result of excess penetrant. When a second inspection does not reveal indications in
the same locations, it is usually safe to assume that the first indications were false.
Remove all penetrant inspection materials as soon as possible after the final inspection
has been made. Use water or solvents, as appropriate. Since some of the liquid
penetrant materials are flammable, do not use them near open flames, and do not apply
them to any surface that is at a temperature higher than 100F. In addition to being
flammable, many solvents are poisonous in the vapor form and highly imitating to the
skin in the liquid form.
2.4.0 Radiographic Inspection

Radiographic inspection (RT) is a method of inspecting weldments by the use of rays
that penetrate through the welds. X and gamma radiation are the two types of waves
used for this process. There are also two ways to view the X-ray. The first and oldest
method is on film. The rays pass through the weld and onto a sensitized film that is in
direct contact with the back of the weld. When the film is developed, gas pockets, slag
inclusions, cracks, or poor penetration will be visible on the film. The second method is
using a computer. Instead of exposing a film, a computer X-ray digitizes the radiation
with the use of sensors. You may have been exposed to this type of X-ray at your
dentist. The advantage of digitized images is the computer can analyze the image and
help the inspector identify any defects, making the inspection more accurate.
Because of the danger of these rays, only qualified personnel are authorized to perform
these tests. As Seabees, you will rarely come in contact with these procedures.
2.5.0 Ultrasonic Inspection

Ultrasonic testing (UT) can be used on ferrous and nonferrous materials and is often
suited for testing thicker sections accessible from one side only. In general, it can detect
finer linear or planar defects than can RT.
UT makes use of mechanical vibrations similar to sound waves but of higher frequency.
A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed into the object to be tested. This beam travels
through the object with insignificant energy loss, except when it is intercepted and
reflected by a discontinuity.
The ultrasonic contact pulse reflection technique is used in UT. This system uses a
transducer, which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The transducer is
excited by a high-frequency voltage that causes a crystal to vibrate mechanically. The
crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic mechanical vibration. These vibrations
are transmitted into the test piece through a coupling fluid, usually a film of oil, called a
couplant.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-12
When the ultrasonic waves pulse strikes a discontinuity in the test piece, it is reflected
back to its point of origin. Thus, the energy returns to the transducer. The transducer
now serves as a receiver for the reflected energy.
The initial signal, or main bang; the returned echoes from the discontinuities; and the
echo of the rear surface of the test piece all are displayed by a trace on the screen of a
cathode-ray oscilloscope. The detection, location, and evaluation of discontinuities
become possible because the velocity of sound through a material is nearly constant,
making distance measurement possible, and the relative amplitude of a reflected pulse
is more or less proportional to the size of the reflector.
One of the most useful characteristics of UT is its ability to determine the exact position
of a discontinuity in a weld. This testing method requires a high level of operator training
and competence and depends on establishing and applying suitable testing procedures.
2.6.0 Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current is another type of testing that uses electromagnetic energy to detect faults
in weld deposits and is effective for both ferrous and nonferrous materials. As a
Seabee, you will rarely use this type of testing in the field.
In eddy current testing, a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied across the eddy current probe
or inspection coil. This coil creates an electromagnetic field, which in turn causes
current flow in the surface of the material being inspected. (The circular nature of these
currents has been compared to the eddies in a stream or river, hence the term "eddy
current.") When the coil or probe is scanned across the material surface, changes in the
material's physical properties, i.e., geometry, temperature, conductivity, material type,
flaws, etc., affect the current flow generated by the electromagnetic field induced in the
material by the probe. These changes reflect back to the probe. If the voltage response
of the eddy current probe is monitored, then changes in voltage amplitude and phase
angle shift can be used to show changes in material properties. These changes in
magnitude and phase angle are displayed on what is known as an impedance plane
display.
3.0.0 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

In destructive testing, sample portions of the welded structures are required. These
samples are subjected to loads until they fail. The failed pieces are then studied and
compared to known standards to determine the quality of the weld. The most common
types of destructive testing are: free bend, guided bend, nick-break, fillet-welded joint,
etching, impact, and tensile test. The primary disadvantage of destructive testing is that
an actual section of a weldment must be destroyed to evaluate the weld. This type of
testing is usually used in the certification process of the welder.
Some of the testing requires elaborate equipment that is not available for use in the
field. Three tests that may be performed in the field without elaborate equipment are the
free-bend test, the guided-bend test, and the nick-break test.
Details of destructive tests of welded joints and deposited filler metals can be found in
AWS B4.0, Standard methods for mechanical testing of welds.
3.1.0 Free-Bend Test

The free-bend test has been developed to measure the ductility of the weld metal
deposited in a weld joint. Also, it is used to determine the percentage of elongation of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-13
the weld metal. Ductility, you should recall, is that property of a metal that allows it to be
drawn out or hammered thin.
The first step in preparing a welded specimen for the free-bend test is to machine the
welded reinforcement crown flush with the surface of the test plate. When the weld area
of a test plate is machined, as is the case of the guided-bend as well as in the free-bend
test, perform the machining operation in the opposite direction that the weld was
deposited.
The next step in the free-bend test is to scribe two lines on the face of the filler deposit.
Locate these lines 1/16 inch from each edge of the weld metal, as shown in Figure 12-5,
View B. Measure the distance in inches between the lines to the nearest 0.01 inch and
write down the resulting measurement as (x). Then bend the ends of the test specimen
until each leg forms an angle of 30 degrees to the original centerline.
Figure 12-5 Free-bend test.

With the scribed lines on the outside and the piece placed so all the bending occurs in
the weld, bend the test piece by using a hydraulic press or similar machine. When the
proper precautions are taken, a blacksmiths forging press or hammer can be used to
complete the bending operation. If a crack more than 1/16 inch develops during the test,
stop the bending because the weld has failed; otherwise, bend the specimen flat. After
completing the test, measure the distance between the scribed lines and call that
measurement (y). The percentage of elongation is then determined by the formula:
Requirements for a satisfactory test consist of an area with a minimum elongation of 15

percent and no cracks greater than 1/16 inch on the face of the weld.
The free-bend test is being replaced by the guided-bend test where the required testing
equipment is available.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-14
3.2.0 Guided-Bend Test

Use the guided-bend test to determine the quality of weld metal at the face and root of
a welded joint. This test is made in a specially designed jig. An example of one type of
jig is shown in Figure 12-6.
Figure 12-6 Guided-bend test jig.

The test specimen is placed across the supports of the die. A plunger, operated from
above by hydraulic pressure, forces the
specimen into the die. To fulfill the
requirements of this test, bend the
specimen 180 degreesthe capacity of the
jig. No cracks should appear on the surface
greater than 1/8 inch. The facebend tests
are made in this jig with the face of the weld
in tension (outside), as shown in Figure 127. The root-bend tests are made with the
root of the weld in tension (outside), as
shown in Figure 12-7
Figure 12-8 shows a machine used for
making the guided-bend test. It is used in
many welding schools and testing
laboratories for the daily testing of
specimens. Simple in construction and easy
to use, it works by hydraulic pressure and
Figure 12-7 Guided-bend test
can apply a direct load up to 40,000
specimens.
pounds, and even more on small
specimens. To test the specimen, place it in
the machine as previously stated and start
to pump the actuator. Keep your eye on the large gauge and watch the load increase.
You will know the actual load under which the test piece bends by the position of an
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-15
auxiliary hand that is carried along by the gauge pointer. The hand remains at the point
of maximum load after the pointer returns to zero.
Figure 12-8 Test machine for making guided-bend tests.
3.3.0 Nick-Break Test

A nick-break test involves breaking the weld
joint to examine the fractured surfaces for
internal defects such as:
1. Gas pockets
2. Slag inclusions
3. Porosity.
The test also determines weld ductility and
the degree of fusion.
The test specimen shall be cut through the
welded joint about 1/4 of an inch (6 mm).
The excess weld metal and penetration
bead shall be left intact.
The specimen is then placed upright on two
supports (Figure 12-9) and the force on the
weld is applied either by a press or by the
sharp blows of a hammer until a fracture
occurs between the two slots.
Figure 12-9 Nick-break test of

a butt weld.
A visual inspection of the fractured surfaces

is carried out in order to find defects (as
mentioned earlier), if any. If any defect exceeds 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) in size or the number
of gas pockets exceeds six per square inch, the piece has failed the test.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-16
3.4.0 Impact Test

Impact testing relates specifically to the behavior of metal when subjected to a single
application of a force resulting in multi-axial stresses associated with a notch, coupled
with high rates of loading, and in some cases, being exposed to high or low
temperatures. For some materials and temperatures, the results of impact tests on
notched specimens, when correlated with service experience, have been found to
predict the likelihood of brittle fracture accurately. ASTM E23 is the Standard Test
Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials.
Two kinds of tests are used for impact testing. They are Charpy and Izod (Figure 1210). Both tests require notched metal pieces to be broken in an impact testing machine.
The differences between the two tests are seen in how they are anchored and which
way the notch is facing during the impact.
Figure 12-10 Test pieces for impact testing.

The Charpy piece is supported horizontally between two anvils and the pendulum
strikes opposite the notch, as shown in Figure 12-11, View A. The Izod piece is
supported as a vertical cantilever beam and is struck on the free end projecting over the
holding vise (Figure 12-11, View B).
Figure 12-11 Performing impact test.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-17
3.5.0 Fillet-Welded Joint Test

You use the fillet-welded joint test to check the soundness of a fillet weld. Soundness
refers to the degree of freedom a weld has from defects found by visual inspection of
any exposed welding surface. These defects include penetrations, gas pockets, and
inclusions. Prepare the test specimen, as shown in Figure 12-12. Now apply force
(Figure 12-13) until a break occurs in the joint. This force may be applied by hydraulics
or hammer blows. For required thickness and weld sizes, refer to Fillet weld Soundness
Tests in AWS American National Standards.
In addition to checking the fractured weld for soundness, now is a good time to etch the
weld to check for cracks.
Figure 12-12 Test plate for

fillet weld test.
Figure 12-13 Rupturing fillet

weld test plate.
3.6.0 Etching Test

The etching test is used to determine the soundness of a weld and make the boundary
between the base metal and the weld metal visible.
To accomplish the test, you must cut a test piece from the welded joint so it shows a
complete transverse section of the weld. You can make the cut by either sawing or
flame cutting. File the face of the cut and then polish it with grade 00 abrasive cloth.
Then place the test piece in the etching solution.
The etching solutions generally used are hydrochloric acid, ammonium persulfate,
iodine and potassium iodide, or nitric acid. Each solution highlights different defects and
areas of the weld. The hydrochloric acid dissolves slag inclusions and enlarges gas
pockets, while nitric acid is used to show the refined zone as well as the metal zone.
3.7.0 Tensile Strength Test

The term tensile strength may be defined as the resistance to longitudinal stress or pull
and is measured in pounds per square inch of cross section. Testing for tensile strength
involves placing a weld sample in a tensile testing machine and pulling on the test
sample until it breaks.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-18
The essential features of a tensile testing machine are the parts that pull the test
specimen and the devices that measure the resistance of the test specimen. Another
instrument, known as an extensometer or strain gauge, is also used to measure the
strain in the test piece. Some equipment comes with a device that records and plots the
stress-strain curve for a permanent record.
The tensile test is classified as a destructive test because the test specimen must be
loaded or stressed until it fails. Because of the design of the test machine, weld samples
must be machined to specific dimensions. This explains why the test is made on a
standard specimen, rather than on the part itself. It is important that the test specimen
represents the part. Not only must the specimen be given the same heat treatment as
the part, but it also must be heat-treated at
the same time.
There are many standard types of tensile
test specimens, and Figure 12-14 shows
one standard type of specimen commonly
used. The standard test piece is an
accurately machined specimen. The
diameter and gauge length are critical items,
but the overall length is not. The 0.505-inchdiameter (0.2 square inch area) cross
section of the reduced portion provides an
easy factor to manipulate arithmetically. The
2-inch gauge length is the distance between
strain-measuring points. This is the portion
of the specimen where you attach the
extensometer. In addition, you can use the
gauge length to determine percent
elongation.
Figure 12-14 Standard tensile

The tensile test involves applying a smooth,
test specimen.
steadily increasing load (or pull) on a test
specimen and measuring the resistance
until it breaks. Even if recording equipment is not available, the test is not difficult to
perform. During the test, you observe the behavior of the specimen and record the
extensometer and gauge readings at regular intervals. After the specimen breaks and
the fracturing load are recorded, you measure the specimen with calipers to determine
the percent of elongation and the percent reduction in area. In addition, you should plot
a stress-strain curve. From the data obtained, you can determine tensile strength, yield
point, elastic limit, modulus of elasticity, and other properties of the material.
Summary
This chapter has introduced you to welding quality control. You should now have an
understanding of what to look for and how to test the finished weld using nondestructive
and destructive methods. The weld should be inspected for undercut, overlap, surface
checks, cracks, or other defects. Also, the degree of penetration and side wall fusion,
extent of reinforcement, and size and position of the welds are important factors in the
determination as to whether a welding job should be accepted or rejected because they
all reflect the quality of the weld. The chapter finished up with a description of possible
weld defects and how to identify for them using multiple methods of nondestructive and
destructive tests and inspections. As always, use the manufacturers operator manuals
for the specific setup and safety procedures of the welder you will be using.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-19

1.
How do you know which tests to use on a weld?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
Which of the following is NOT a nondestructive test?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
Ultrasonic
Liquid penetrant
Tensile strength
Visual
Prior to the first welding arc being struck, what visual checks should be made to
the material being welded?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
ANSE
ASTM
AWS
NRTC
What test must occur prior to all other tests?

A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Ultrasonic
Etching
Magnetic particle
Liquid penetrant
In what manual are the testing parameters located?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Experience
Code
Type of metal
Welding method
Type, size, and cleanliness

Heat treatment, tensile strength, and ductility
Density, volume, and mass
Temperature, dimensional accuracy, and ductility
Prior to checking a work piece for surface defects, what cleaning method is NOT
authorized?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Soap and water

Wire brush
Shot peening
Solvents
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-20
7.
Which nondestructive testing process is most effective for detecting surface and
near-surface flaws?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What is the visual indication that a flaw exists when using magnetic particle
testing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Touch it with a like piece of material

Use a magnetron
Wave a compass over it
See if the work piece sticks to the work bench
How many steps are needed to complete the liquid penetration process?
A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
The heat generated at the flaw site

White lights
The shape of the indication
The color of the flaw site
How do you check for the presence of a magnetic field in the work piece?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
Move the prods in circular motions.

Increase the current in the prods.
Lightly tap the prods against the weld.
Change the location of the prod contact points.
What factors help interpret the test results of a magnetic particle test?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
A fluorescent color is present

Bubbles come from the area of the flaw
Particles cluster at the flaw site
The flaw makes a vibrating sound
How do you check the entire surface of the weld using magnetic particle testing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
X-rays
Liquid penetrant
Ultrasonic
Magnetic particle
3
4
5
6
How many different penetrant inspection methods are there?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4
3
2
1
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-21
14.
Method A liquid penetrant is applied to the work piece by what action?

A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What is the normal temperature range for using liquid penetrant?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
Through the air

With a clamp
With a couplant material
With a test fixture
Which of the following tests can be used in the field without elaborate
equipment?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
By Increasing accuracy of defect identification

By using less paper
By increasing portability
By lowering the cost of the process
How are the vibrations from an ultrasonic transducer imparted to the base metal
being tested?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
5
10
15
30
How have computers helped with radiographic inspections?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
32 F to 400F
0 to F 250F
40 F to 125F
98 F to 300F
How many minutes should the developer stay on a work piece?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
Dipping
Spraying
Rolling
Immersing
Fillet-welded joint
Etching
Impact
Free-bend
What is the definition of ductility?

A.
B.
C.
D.
The ability to withstand impact

The ability to be drawn out or hammered thin
The ability to withstand extremely high temperatures
The ability to be stretched by pulling
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-22
21.
What is the maximum surface crack allowable when performing a guided-bend

test on a weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
When performing a nick-break test, how many inches deep should the end cuts
be on the weld?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
1/4
1/2
1
No more than half the thickness of the weld
Which impact test is performed in a horizontal test fixture?

A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
1/32
1/16
1/8
1/4
Charpy
Nike
Izod
Franklin
Which destructive test method does NOT use the actual welded material when
testing?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Etching
Tensile strength
Fillet-welded joint
Impact
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-23

Hydrophilic
Having an affinity for water; readily absorbing or

dissolving in water
Lipophilic
Having an affinity for, tending to combine with, or

capable of dissolving in lipids (fats)
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-24

American Welding Society, AWS B2.1 Specification For welding Procedure and
Performance Qualification, An American National Standard, American Welding Society,
Miami Florida 2009.
American Welding Society, AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code Steel, An American
National Standard, American Welding Society, Miami Florida 2009.
American Welding Society, Welding Inspection Handbook, American Welding Society,
Miami , Florida 2009.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-25

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
12-26
Chapter 13
Layout and Fabrication of Sheet Metal and Fiberglass
Duct
Topics
1.0.0
Tools and Equipment
2.0.0
Sheet Metal Development
3.0.0
Joining and Installing Sheet Metal Duct
4.0.0
Sheet Metal Duct Systems
5.0.0
Fiberglass Duct Systems
6.0.0
Safety
Overview
As a Seabee, you will use many pre-fabricated ducts and fittings. However, not all
situations call for the use off the shelf parts; therefore, you will be called upon to assess
the needs of the job and fabricate the appropriate parts to complete the job.
This chapter introduces you to basic sheet metal and fiberglass ductwork fabrication.
You will be introduced to the tools needed to work the sheet metal; some of the
methods of measuring, marking, cutting; and the correct methods to form parallel,
radial, and triangular sheet metal shapes. These techniques are not limited to ductwork,
so the processes you learn here can be applied to roofing, flashing, and exterior
building siding, to name a few. Remember to keep safety as the main focal point on any
jobsite.
Objectives
1. Describe the tools and equipment associated with fabrication.
2. Describe procedures utilized in sheet metal development.
3. Identify the procedures associated with joining and installing sheet metal duct.
4. Identify the different types of sheet metal duct systems.
5. Identify the different types of fiberglass duct systems.
6. State the safety regulations associated with sheet metal and fiberglass duct
systems.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R
Layout and Fabrication of Sheet Metal and Fiberglass Duct

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-2

NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-3
1.0.0 TOOLS and EQUIPMENT

Numerous types of layout tools, cutting tools, and forming equipment are used when
working with sheet metal. This section will describe the uses of the layout and cutting
tools and the operation of the forming equipment.
1.1.0 Layout Tools

The layout of metal is the procedure of measuring and marking material for cutting,
drilling, or welding. Accuracy is essential in layout work. Using incorrect measurements
results in a part being fabricated that does not fit the overall job. This is a waste of time
and material. In most cases, you should use shop drawings, sketches, and blueprints to
obtain the measurements required to fabricate the job being laid out. Your ability to read
and work from blueprints and sketches is vital in layout work. For more information on
blueprints, go to Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 14040.
Layout tools are used for drawing fabrication jobs on metal. Some of the more common
layout tools are scriber, flat steel square, combination square, protractor, prick punch,
dividers, trammel points, and circumference ruler.
1.1.1 Scriber
Lines are drawn on sheet metal with a
scribe or scratch awl, coupled with a steel
scale or a straightedge. To obtain the best
results in scribing, first cover the area to be
scribed in a very thin layer of layout dye,
then hold the scale or straightedge firmly in
place and set the point of the scriber as
close to the edge of the scale as possible
by angling the top of the scriber outward.
Then exert just enough pressure on the
point to draw the line, tilting the tool slightly
in the direction of movement (Figure 13-1).
For short lines, use the steel scale as a
guide. For longer lines, use a circumference
ruler or a straightedge. To draw a line
between two points, prick punch each point.
Start from one prick punch mark and scribe
toward the other mark, then stop before
Figure 13-1 Scribing a line.
reaching the other point. Complete the line
by scribing from the other prick punch mark in the opposite direction.
1.1.2 Flat Steel Square
A flat steel square is used for making perpendicular or parallel lines. In the method of
layout known as parallel line development, the flat steel square is used to create lines
that are parallel to each other as well as perpendicular to the base line. This procedure
is shown in Figure 13-2. Simply clamp the straightedge firmly to the base line. Slide the
body of the square along the straightedge. Using the leading edge of the square, draw
perpendicular lines at the desired points.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-4
Figure 13-2 Scribing parallel

and perpendicular lines.
Figure 13-3 Checking a square

for accuracy.
Before each use of your square, check it for accuracy. Never assume it is straight. You
can check it for accuracy, as shown in Figure 13-3.
1. Place the edge of your carpenter's square against a straight board.
2. Draw a line using a pencil against the blade of the carpenter's square.
3. Flip the carpenter's square over and draw a second line against the first.
4. Remove the carpenter's square from the board and check the two lines. If they
appear as one (like they were drawn over each other) then your carpenter's
square is accurate. If you see two distinct lines that vary at a given point, then
your carpenter's square is bent or curved and needs replacing.
When the square is off, your work will be off
correspondingly, no matter how careful you
are.
1.1.3 Combination Square
The combination square can be used to
draw a similar set of lines, as shown in
Figure 13-4. An edge of the metal you are
working on is used as the base line, as
shown in the figure. One edge of the head
of the combination square is 90 degrees,
and the other edge is 45 degrees.
Combination squares are sensitive to
mishandling. Store your squares properly
when you have finished using them. Keep
them clean and in proper working order,
and you will be able to construct 90-degree
angles, 45-degree angles, and parallel lines
can be made without error.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-4 Using a

combination square.
13-5
1.1.4 Protractor
To construct angles other than 45 degrees or 90 degrees, you will need a protractor. A
protractor is a semicircular instrument with degree markings from 0 to 180. Mark the
vertex of the angle of your base line with a prick punch. Set the base of the protractor
on the mark and then scribe a V at the desired angle (assume 70). Scribe a line
between the vertex and the V. The resulting is 70 angle from the base.
1.1.5 Prick Punch
A prick punch is used to mark the beginning or end of a desired line or cut. The tip of a
prick punch has a 30-60 angle. The point is placed on the desired spot, and then it is
either pressed or hammered to indent the sheet metal. The prick punch prevents
overdrawing or over-scoring the lines.
1.1.6 Dividers
Use dividers to scribe arcs and circles, to transfer measurements from a scale to your
layout, and to transfer measurements from one part of the layout to another. Careful
setting of the dividers is of utmost importance. When you transfer a measurement from
a scale to the work, set one point of the dividers on the mark and carefully adjust the
other leg to the required length, as shown in Figure 13-5.
Figure 13-5 Setting the

dividers.
Figure 13-6 Scribing an arc

with dividers.
To scribe a circle or an arc, grasp the dividers between the fingers and the thumb, as
shown in Figure 13-6. Place the point of one leg on the center, and swing the arc. Exert
enough pressure to hold the point on center, slightly inclining the dividers in the
direction in which they are being rotated.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-6
1.1.7 Trammel Points

To scribe a circle with a radius larger than your dividers, select trammel points. Two
types of trammel points are shown in Figure 13-7. Both sets are easily adjustable. Once
adjusted, the arc or circle is scribed in the same manner as with the dividers.
Figure 13-7 Different types of trammel points.

Now that you have been introduced to dividers and trammel points let us learn how to
use them.
Constructing a 90-degree, or right, angle is not difficult if you have a true, steel square.
Suppose that you have no square or that your square is off, and you need a right angle
for a layout. Using your dividers, a scriber, and a straightedge, draw a base line similar
to AB in Figure 13-8. Set the dividers for a distance greater than one-half AB; then, with
A as a center, scribe arcs like those labeled C and D. Next, without changing the setting
of the dividers, use B as a center, and scribe another set of arcs at C and D. Draw a line
through the points where the arcs intersect and you have erected perpendiculars to line
AB, forming four 90-degree, or right, angles. You have also bisected or divided line AB
into two equal parts.
Figure 13-8 Creating a 90

angle by bisecting a line.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-9 Creating a 90

angle a given point.
13-7
Constructing a right angle at a given point with a pair of dividers is a procedure you will
find useful when making layouts. Figure 13-9 shows the method for constructing a right
angle at a given point.
Start with line XY, with A as a point to fabricate a perpendicular to form a right angle.
Select any convenient point that lies somewhere within the proposed 90-degree angle.
In Figure 13-9, that point is C. Using C as the center of a circle with a radius equal to
CA, scribe a semicircular arc, as shown in Figure 13-9. Lay a straightedge along points
B and C and draw a line that will intersect the other end of the arc at D. Next, draw a
line connecting the points D and A and you have fabricated a 90-degree angle. This
procedure may be used to form 90-degree corners in stretch-outs that are square or
rectangular, like a drip pan or a box.
Laying out a drip pan with a pair of dividers is no more difficult than drawing a
perpendicular line. You will need dividers, a scriber, a straightedge, and a sheet of
template paper. Once you have the dimensions of the pan to be fabricated: the length,
the width, and the height or depth. Draw a base line (Figure 13-10). Select a point on
this line for one comer of the drip pan layout. Erect a perpendicular through this point,
forming a 90-degree angle. Next, measure off on the base line the required length of the
pan. At this point, erect another perpendicular. You now have three sides of the stretchout. Using the required width of the pan for the other dimensions, draw the fourth side
parallel to the base line, connecting the two perpendiculars that you have fabricated.
Set the dividers for marking off the depth of the drip pan. Use a steel scale to measure
off the correct radius on the dividers. Using each corner for a point, swing a wide arc,
like the one shown in the second step in Figure 13-10. Extend the lines as shown in the
last step in Figure 13-10, and complete the stretch-out by connecting the arcs with a
scriber and straightedge.
Figure 13-10 Laying out a drip pan with dividers.
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13-8
Bisecting an arc is another geometric

construction with which you should be
familiar. Angle ABC (Figure 13-11) is given.
With B as a center, draw an arc, cutting the
sides of the angle at D and E. With D and E
as centers and with a radius greater than
half of arc DE, draw arcs intersecting at F.
A line drawn from B through point F bisects
angle ABC.
Two methods used to divide a line into a
given number of equal parts are shown in
Figure 13-12. When the method shown in
view A is used, you will need a straightedge
and dividers. In using this method, draw line
AB to the desired length. With the dividers
set at any given radius, use point A as
center and scribe an arc above the line.
Using the same radius and B as center,
scribe an arc below the line as shown.
From point A, draw a straight-line tangent to
the arc that is below point B. Do the same
from point B. With the dividers set at any
given distance, start at point A and step off
the required number of spaces along line
AD using tick marks-in this case, six.
Number the tick marks as shown. Do the
same from point B along line BC. With the
straightedge, draw lines from point 6 to
point A, 5 to 1, 4 to 2, 3 to 3, 2 to 4, 1 to 5,
and B to 6. You have now divided line AB
into six equal parts.
Figure 13-11 Bisecting an arc.
When the method shown in view B of

Figure 13-12 is used to divide a line into a
given number of equal parts, you will need
a scale. In using this method, draw a line at
right angles to one end of the base line.
Figure 13-12 Two methods
Place the scale at such an angle that the
used to divide a line into equal
number of spaces required will divide
parts.
evenly into the space covered by the scale.
In the illustration (view B, Figure 13-12), the base line is 2 1/2 inches and is to be
divided into six spaces. Place the scale so that the 3 inches will cover 2 1/2 inches on
the base line. Since 3 inches divided by 6 spaces = 1/2 inch, draw lines from the 1/2inch spaces on the scale perpendicular to the base line. Incidentally, you may even use
a full 6 inches in the scale by increasing its angle of slope from the baseline and
dropping perpendiculars from the full-inch graduation to the base line.
To divide or step off the circumference of a circle into six equal parts, just set the
dividers for the radius of the circle and select a point of the circumference for a
beginning point. In Figure 13-13, point A is selected for a beginning point. With A as a
center, swing an arc through the circumference of the circle, like the one shown at B in
the illustration. Use Bas a point and swing an arc through the circumference at C.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-9
Continue to step off in this manner until you

have divided the circle into six equal parts.
If the points of intersection between the
arcs and the circumference are connected
as shown in Figure 13-13, the lines will
intersect at the center of the circle, forming
angles of 60 degrees.
To obtain an angle of 30 degrees, bisect
one of these 60-degree angles by the
method described earlier in this chapter.
Bisect the 30-degree angle and you have a
15-degree angle. You can construct a 45degree angle in the same manner by
bisecting a 90-degree angle. In all
probability, you will have a protractor to lay
out these and other angles. In the event
you do not have a steel square or
protractor, it is a good idea to know how to
construct angles of various sizes and to
erect perpendiculars.
Figure 13-13 Dividing a circle

into six equal parts
When laying out or working with circles or arcs, it is often necessary to determine the
circumference of a circle or arc. To determine the circumference of a circle, use the
formula C = d, where C is the circumference, = 3.14, and d is the diameter.
1.1.8 Circumference Ruler
Another method of determining
circumference is by use of the
circumference ruler. The upper edge of the
circumference ruler is graduated in inches
in the same manner as a regular layout
scale, but the lower edge is graduated, as
shown in Figure 13-14. The lower edge
gives you the approximate circumference of
any circle within the range of the rule. You
will notice in Figure 13-14 that the reading
on the lower edge directly below the 3-inch
mark is a little over 9 3/8 inches. This
reading is the circumference of a circle with
a diameter of 3 inches and is the length of a
stretch-out for a cylinder of that diameter.
The dimensions for the stretch-out of a
cylindrical object, then, are the height of the
cylinder and the circumference.
1.2.0 Cutting Tools
Figure 13-14 Circumference

ruler.
Various types of hand snips and hand shears are used for cutting and notching sheet
metal. All of the snips, shears, and nibblers are either manual or power operated. Hand
snips are necessary because the shape, construction, location, and position of the work
to be cut frequently prevent the use of machine-cutting tools.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-10
Hand snips are divided into two groups. Those for straight cuts are straight snips,
combination snips, bulldog snips, and compound lever shears. Those for circular cuts
are circle, hawks bill, aviation, and Trojan snips. These snips are shown in Figure 1315. The following is a brief description of each type of snip.
Straight snips (Figure 13-15) have straight jaws for straight-line cutting. To ensure
strength, they are not pointed. These snips are made in various sizes and the jaws may
vary from 2 to 4 1/2 inches. The overall length will also vary from 7 to 15 3/4 inches. The
different size snips are made to cut different thicknesses of metal with 18-gauge steel
as a minimum for the larger snips. These snips are available for right- or left-hand use.
Combination snips (Figure 13-15) have straight jaws for straight cutting, but the inner
faces of the jaws are sloped for cutting curves as well as irregular shapes. These snips
are available in the same sizes and capacities as straight snips.
Bulldog snips (Figure 13-15) are a combination type. They have short .cutting blades
with long handles for leverage. The blades are inlaid with special alloy steel for cutting
stainless steel. Bulldog snips can cut 16-gauge mild steel. The blades are 2 1/2 inches
long and the overall length of the snip varies from 14 to 17 inches.
Compound lever shears (Figure 13-15) have levers designed to give additional leverage
to ease the cutting of heavy material. The lower blade is bent to allow the shears to be
inserted in a hole in the bench or bench plate. This will hold the shear in an upright
position and make the cutting easier. The cutting blades are removable and can be
replaced. The capacity is 12-gauge mild steel. It has cutting blades that are 4 inches
long, with an overall length of 34 1/2 inches.
Circle snips (Figure 13-15) have curved blades and are used for making circular cuts,
as the name implies. They come in the same sizes and capacities as straight snips and
either right- or left-hand types are available.
Hawks bill snips (Figure 13-15) are used to cut a small radius inside and outside a
circle. The narrow, curved blades are beveled to allow sharp turns without buckling the
sheet metal. These snips are useful for cutting holes in pipe, in furnace hoods, and in
close quarters work. These snips are available with a 2 1/2-inch cutting edge, have an
overall length of either 11 1/2 or 13 inches, and a 20-gauge mild steel capacity.
Aviation snips (Figure 13-15) have compound levers, enabling them to cut with less
effort. These snips have hardened blades that enable them to cut hard material. They
are also useful for cutting circles, squares, compound curves, and intricate designs in
sheet metal. Aviation snips come in three types: right hand, left hand, and straight. On
right-hand snips, the blade is on the left and they cut to the left. Left-hand snips are the
opposite. They are usually color-coded in keeping with industry standards-green cuts
right, red cuts left, yellow cuts straight. Both snips can be used with the right hand. The
snips are 10 inches long, have a 2-inch cut, and have a 16-gauge mild steel capacity.
Trojan snips (Figure 13-15) are slim-bladed snips that are used for straight or curved
cutting. The blades are small enough to allow sharp turning cuts without buckling the
metal. These snips can be used to cut outside curves and can also be used in place of
circle snips, hawks bill snips, or aviation snips when cutting inside curves. The blades
are forged high-grade steel. These snips come in two sizes: one has a 2 1/2-inch cutting
length and a 12-inch overall length and the other has a 3-inch cutting length and a 13inch overall length. They both have a 20-gauge capacity.
Pipe & Duct snips (Double Cut) (Figure 13-15) have a straight cut blade pattern. This
style of aviation snip cuts a narrow section equal to the width of the center blade as it
cuts. The material on either side of the cut tends to stay flat, as only the narrow section
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-11
takes a curl as it is cut. This style can be used in stovepipe and downspout work where
distortion on either side of the cut is not desirable.
Nibbler (Figure 13-15) is for cutting sheet metal with minimal distortion. One type
operates much like a punch and die, with a blade that moves in a linear fashion against
a fixed die, removing small bits of metal and leaving a kerf approximately 6 mm wide.
Another type operates similar to tin snips, but shears the sheet along two parallel tracks
36 mm apart, rolling up the waste in a tight spiral as it cuts. Nibblers may be manual
(hand operated) or powered.
Figure 13-15 Cutting tools.

Proper Use and Care of Metal Cutting Snips
It is advisable not to cut exactly on the layout line (to avoid extra finishing work). It is
good practice to leave about 1/32-inch of metal beyond the layout line for final dressing
and finishing.
As the cut is being made, try not to make the cut the full length of the blades if points of
the blades severely overlap. If the points of the blades severely overlap and a cut is
made through the points, the material being cut will have a tendency to tear sideways
as the cut is completed. If points severely overlap, stop the cut about 1/4-inch before
reaching the points of the blades and then take a fresh bite.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-12
When trimming a large sheet of

metal, it is best to cut at the left
side of the sheet if you are right
handed and at the right side of
the sheet if you are left handed.
This way the waste will be
curling up and out of the way
while the rest of the sheet will
remain flat.
When making a straight cut,
place the work over the
workbench so that the layout
line is slightly beyond the edge
of the bench. Hold the snips so
that the blades are at a right
angle to the material being cut
(Figure 13-16). The edges of
the material will bend or burr if
the blades are not at right
angles to the work.
Figure 13-16 Proper cutting technique.

To cut a large circle or disc from
sheet metal or other sheet
materials, start from the outside
of the material and make a cut parallel to the layout line to allow for dressing and
finishing. This way you will always be able to see the layout line and still have material
left over for final dressing and finishing (Figure 13-17).
To cut a large circle or hole in sheet metal or other sheet materials, start by drilling or
punching a small entry hole in the center of the circle and proceed to make a spiral cut
leading out to the desired circumference. Keep cutting away until all unwanted material
is removed (Figure 13-18).
Figure 13-17 Making a circular

cut.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-18 Making an

internal circular cut.
13-13
Keep the blade pivot bolt and nut properly adjusted at all times.
Occasionally oil the pivot bolt.
Before stowing the snips, wipe the cutting edges with a lightly oiled cloth.
The combination ironworker is likely the most valuable and versatile machine in a shop.
The combination punch, shear, and coper (Figure 13-19) is capable of cutting angles,
plates, and steel bars, and it can also punch holes. The size of the angles and plates
handled by the machine depends upon its capacity. It is made in various sizes and
capacities, and each machine has a capacity plate either welded or riveted on it. Strictly
adhere to the capacity on the plate. The pressure and power the machine develops
demand extreme caution on the part of the operator.
Portable power shears make it possible to do production work. They are designed to
make straight or circular cuts (Figure 13-20).
Figure 13-19 Combination iron

worker.
Figure 13-20 Portable power

shears.
A solid punch (Figure 13-21) or a hollow punch (Figure 13-22) makes small diameter
openings. Locate the position of the hole, select the correct size punch and hammer,
then place the metal section on a lead cake or on the end grain of a block of hard wood
(Figure 13-23). Strike the punch firmly with the hammer. Turn the punched section over
so the burred section is up, and then smooth it with a mallet.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-14
Figure 13-21 Solid punch.
Figure 13-22 Hollow punch.
Figure 13-23 Correct method of backing sheet metal for making a hole with a
punch.
Squaring shears are used for cutting and squaring sheet metal. See Figure 13-24. They
may be foot operated or power operated. Squaring shears consist of a stationary blade
attached to a bed and a movable blade attached to a crosshead. To make a cut, place
the work in the desired position on the bed of the machine. Then use a downward
stroke to move the blade. Foot-powered squaring shears are equipped with a spring
that raises the blade when foot pressure is removed from the treadle. A scale graduated
in fractions of an inch is scribed on the bed. Two side guides, consisting of thick steel
bars, are fixed to the bed, one on the left and one on the right. Each is placed so that its
inboard edge creates a right angle with the cutting edge of the bed. These bars are
used to align the metal when square corners are desired. When cuts other than right
angles are to be made across the width of a piece of metal, the beginning and ending
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-15
points of the cut must be determined and

marked in advance. Then the work is
carefully placed into position on the bed with
the beginning and ending marks on the
cutting edge of the bed.
A hold-down mechanism is built into the front
of the movable cutting edge in the
crosshead. Its purpose is to clamp the work
firmly in place while the cut is being made.
This action is quick and easily accomplished.
The handle is rotated toward the operator
and the hold-down lowers into place. A firm
downward pressure on the handle at this
time should rotate the mechanism over
center on its eccentric cam and lock the holddown in place. You should reverse the action
to release the work.
Figure 13-24 Squaring shears.
Three distinctly different operationscutting

to a line, squaring, and multiple cutting to a specific sizemay be accomplished on the
squaring shears. When you are cutting to a line, place the beginning and ending marks
on the cutting edge and make the cut. Squaring requires a sequence of several steps.
First, square one end of the sheet with one side. Then square the remaining edges,
holding one squared end of the sheet against the side guide and making the cut, one
edge at a time, until all edges have been squared.
When several pieces are to be cut to the same dimensions, use the adjustable stop
gauge. This stop is located behind the bed-cutting edges of the blade and bed. The
supporting rods for the stop gauge are graduated in inches and fractions of an inch. The
gauge bar is rigged so that it may be set at any point on the rods. With the gauge set at
the desired distance from the cutting blade, push each piece to be cut against the stop.
This procedure will allow you to cut all pieces to the same dimensions without
measuring and marking each one separately.
Do not attempt to cut metal heavier than the designed capacity of the shears. The
maximum capacity of the machine is stamped on the manufacturers specification plate
on the front of the shears. Check the gauge of the metal against this size with a sheet
metal gauge (Figure 13-25). This figure shows the gauge used to measure the
thickness of metal sheets. The gauge is a disc-shaped piece of metal, having slots of
widths that correspond to the U.S. gauge numbers from 0 to 36. Each gauge number is
marked on the front and the corresponding decimal equivalent is marked on the back.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-16
Ring and circular shears (Figure 13-26) are intended for cutting inside and outside
circles in sheet metal. The clamping is positioned for the desired diameter and the blank
is inserted. Lower the cutting disc and make the cut.
Figure 13-25 Sheet metal

gauge.
Figure 13-26 Ring and circular

shears.
1.3.0 Sheet Metal Bending and Forming Equipment

Sheet metal is given three-dimensional shape and rigidity by bending. Sheet metal can
be formed by hand or with various special tools and machines. Several techniques are
described in the following sections.
1.3.1 Stakes
Metal stakes allow the sheet metal artisan to make an assortment of bends by hand.
Stakes come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The work is done on the heads or the
horns of the stakes. They are machined, polished, and, in some cases, hardened
Stakes are used for finishing many types of work; therefore, they should NOT be used
to back up work when using a chisel. The following is an assortment of the most
common stakes that are used within the NCF and Public Works Departments (Figure
13-27):
Square stakes (Figure 13-27) have square-shaped heads and are used for general work
Three types are used: the coppersmith square stake with one end rounded, the bevel
edge square stake that is offset, and the common square stake. Some of the edges are
beveled, which allows them to be used for a greater variety of jobs.
The conductor stake (Figure 13-27) has cylindrical horns of different diameters and is
used when forming, seaming, and riveting pieces and parts of pipes.
The hollow mandrel stake (Figure 13-27) has a slot in which a bolt slides, allowing it to
be clamped firmly to a bench. Either the rounded or the flat end can be used for
forming, seaming, or riveting. There are two sizes available with an overall length of
either 40 or 60 inches.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-17
The blow horn stake (Figure 13-27) has two horns of different tapers. The apron end is
used for shaping blunt tapers and the slender-tapered end is used for slightly tapered
jobs.
The beakhorn stake (Figure 13-27) is a general-purpose stake. The stake has a roundtapered horn on one end and a square-tapered horn on the other end. This stake is
used for riveting and shaping round or square work.
The double seaming stake with four interchangeable heads (Figure 13-27) has two
shanks and either one can be installed in a bench plate, allowing the stakes to be used
vertically or horizontally. This stake is used for double seaming large work of all types
and for riveting.
The hand dolly (Figure 13-27) is a portable anvil with a handle that is used for backing
up rivet heads, double seams, and straightening.
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13-18
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-27 Metal stakes.
13-19
1.3.2 Other Forming Tools

Stakes are designed to fit in a bench plate (Figure 13-28). The bench plate is a cast-iron
plate that is affixed to a bench. It has tapered holes of different sizes that support the
various stakes that can be used with the plate. Additionally, there is another type of
bench plate that consists of a revolving plate with different size holes that can be
clamped in any desired position.
The setting hammer (Figure 13-29) has a square, flat face and the peen end is singletapered. The peen is for setting down an edge. The face is used to flatten seams.
Setting hammers vary in size from 4 ounces to 20 ounces, and the gauge of the metal
and the accessibility of the work determine their use.
Figure 13-28 Bench and bench

plate.
Figure 13-29 Setting hammer.
A wood mallet (Figure 13-30) provides the

necessary force for forming sheet metal
without marring the surface of the metal.
Figure 13-30 Wood mallet.
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13-20
Narrow sections can be formed with the

hand seamer (Figure 13-31). Its primary
use is for turning a flange, for bending an
edge, or for folding a seam. The width of
the flange can be set with the knurled
knobs on the top of the jaw.
Many forming and bending machines have
been designed to perform precise sheet
metal bending operations. They include the
bar folder, several types of brakes, roll
forming machines, and combination rotary
machines. These machines are described
next.
1.3.2.1 Bar Folder
Figure 13-31 Hand seamer.

The bar folder (Figure 13-32) is designed to
bend sheet metal, generally 22 gauge or lighter. Bar folders are used for bending edges
of sheets at various angles, for making channel shape (doubleright-angle folds), and for
fabricating lock seams and wired edges. Narrow channel shapes can be formed but
reverse bends cannot be bent at close distances. The width of the folder edge is
determined by the setting of the depth gauge (Figure 13-33).
Figure 13-32 Bar folder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-33 Depth gauge.
13-21
The sharpness of the folded edge, whether it is to be sharp for a hem or seam or
rounded to make a wire edge, is determined by the position of the wing (Figure 13-34).
Right angles (90) and 45-degree bends can be made by using the 90-degree and 45degree angle stop.
Figure 13-34 Wing setting determines the tightness of the fold.

Hemmed edges are made in the following manner (Figure 13-35):
1. Adjust the depth gauge for the required size, and position the wing for the
desired fold sharpness.
2. Set the metal in place, setting it lightly against the gauge fingers.
3. With the left hand holding the metal, pull the handle as far forward as it will go.
Return the handle to its original position.
4. Place the folded section on the beveled section of the blade, as close to the wing
as possible. Flatten the fold by pulling the handle forward rapidly.
Figure 13-35 Making a hemmed edge.

1.3.2.2 Brakes
Large sheet metal sections are formed by using bending brakes. These machines
produce more uniform bends than can be made by hand and require significantly less
effort. The two most commonly used brakes are the cornice brake and the finger brake.
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13-22
A cornice brake is shown in Figure 13-36. Two adjustments have to be made before
using the machine.
First, adjust the upper jaw or clamping bar
vertically for the gauge of sheet metal to be
bent. The clamping device holds the work
solidly in position, provided it is correctly
adjusted. For example, if the clamping
device is set for 18-gauge sheet metal and
you bend 24-gauge sheet metal at that
setting, the sheet will slip and the bend will
be formed in the wrong position. When you
try to bend 18-gauge sheet metal and the
machine is set for 24-gauge sheet metal,
you can break the clamping bar handle by
using too much force. With a little practice
you will be able to apply the pressure
correctly.
After you have made the vertical
Figure 13-36 Cornice brake
adjustments, you need to adjust the upper
jaw horizontally to the correct position for the thickness of the metal and for the radius of
the bend to be made.
CAUTION
If the upper jaw is adjusted to the exact thickness of the metal, the bend will be sharp or
it will have practically no bend radius. If it is set for more than the thickness of the metal,
the bend will have a larger radius; if the jaw is set for less than the thickness of the
metal, the jaws of the machine may be sprung out of alignment and the edges of the
jaws may be damaged.
After these two adjustments have been made, the machine is operated as follows:
1. Scribe a line on the surface of the sheet metal to show where the bend will be.
2. Raise the upper jaw with the clamping handle and insert the sheet in the brake,
bringing the scribed line into position even with the front edge of the upper jaw.
3. Clamp the sheet in position. Ensure that the scribed line is even with the front
edge of the upper jaw. The locking motion will occasionally shift the workpiece.
4. Once you are satisfied that the metal is clamped correctly, the next step is to lift
the bending leaf to the required angle to form the bend. If you are bending soft
and/or ductile metal, such as copper, the bend will be formed to the exact angle
you raised the bending leaf. If you are bending metal that has any spring to it,
you will have to raise the bending leaf a few degrees more to compensate for the
spring in the metal. The exact amount of spring that you will have to allow for
depends on the type of metal you are working with.
5. Release the clamping handle and remove the sheet from the brake.
The brake is equipped with a stop gauge, consisting of a rod, a yoke, and a setscrew.
You use this to stop the bending leaf at a required angle. This feature is useful when
you have to fabricate a large number of pieces with the same angle. After you have
made your first bend to the required angle, set the stop gauge so that the bending leaf
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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will not go beyond the required angle. You can now fabricate as many bends as you
need.
The cornice brake is extremely useful for
making single hems, double hems, lock
seams, and various other shapes.
It is impossible to bend all four sides of a
box on a conventional brake. The finger
brake sometimes referred to as a box and
pan brake (Figure 13-37), has been
designed to handle this exact situation. The
upper jaw is made up of a number of
blocks, referred to as fingers. They are
various widths and can easily be positioned
or removed to allow all four sides of a box
to be bent. Other than this feature, it is
operated in the same manner as a cornice
brake.
1.3.2.3 Roll Forming Machine
Figure 13-37 Finger brake.
When forming cylinders and conical

shapes, no sharp bends are required; instead, a gradual curve is formed in the metal
until the ends meet. Roll forming machines were developed to accomplish this task. The
simplest method of forming these shapes is on the slip roll-forming machine (Figure 1338). Three rolls do the forming (Figure 13-39). The two front rolls are the feed rolls and
can be adjusted to accommodate various thicknesses of metal. The rear roll, also
adjustable, gives the section the desired curve. The top roll pivots up to permit the
cylinder to be removed without danger of distortion. Grooves are machined in the two
bottom rolls for accommodating a wired edge when forming a section with this type
edge or for rolling wire into a ring.
Figure 13-38 Slip roll machine.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-39 Forming cylinder.
13-24
Figure 13-40 Combination

rotary machine.
1.3.2.4 Combination Rotary Machine
Preparing sheet metal for a wired edge, turning a
burr, beading, and crimping are probably the most
difficult of sheet metal forming operations to
perform. When production dictates, large shops
will have a machine for each operation. However,
a Combination rotary machine (Figure 13-40) with
a selection of rolls will prove acceptable for most
shop uses.
The wire edge must be applied to tapered shapes
after they are formed. This is accomplished by
turning the edge on the rotary machine. Gradually,
lower the upper roll until the groove is large
enough for the wire. The edge is pressed around
the wire with the rotary machine (Figure 13-41).
The wire edge can be finished by hand if a rotary
machine is not available. The edge is formed on
the bar folder and forced into place around the
wire with a setting hammer or pliers (Figure 13-42).
Figure 13-41 Turning a

wire edge with a rotary
machine.
Figure 13-42 Setting an edge.

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13-25
A burr, in sheet metal language, is a narrow flange turned on the circular section at the
end of a cylinder (Figure 13-43). Before you cut the section, remember that additional
material must be added to the basic dimensions of the object for the burr. Figure 13-44
shows how to calculate the additional material.
Figure 13-43 Burrs on a

cylindrical section.
Figure 13-44 Calculating a

double seam.
After the rotary machine has been adjusted to turn the proper size burr, the work is
placed in position and the upper roll lowered. Make one complete revolution of the
piece, scoring the edge lightly. Lower the upper roll a bit more, creating more pressure,
and make another turn. Continue this operation, raising the disc slightly after each turn
until the burr is turned to the required angle (Figure 13-45).
Figure 13-45 Turning a burred

edge.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-46 Fitting burred

sections together.
13-26
This procedure is also used to turn the burr on the bottom of the cylinder for a double
seam (Figure 13-46). The two pieces are snapped together, the burr set down, and the
seam completed (Figure 13-47).
Figure 13-47 Making a double seam on a cylindrical section.

NOTE
Because turning a burr is a difficult operation, you should turn several practice pieces to
develop your skill before turning the burr on the actual piece to be used.
Beading (Figure 13-48) is used to give added stiffness to cylindrical sheet metal objects
for decorative purposes, or both. It can be a simple bead or an ogee (S-shaped) bead.
They are made on the rotary machine using beading rolls.
Crimping (Figure 13-49) reduces the diameter of a cylindrical shape, allowing it to be
slipped into the next section. This eliminates the need for making each cylinder with a
slight taper.
Figure 13-48 Turning a bead.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-49 Crimped pipe

edge.
13-27

1.
To obtain the best results from scribing, what step should you perform first?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
Insure the work area is quiet

Scribe the lines with firm pressure
Lay a thin layer of layout dye
Make your prick punch points
What snips have short cutting blades with long handles?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Bulldog
Hawks bill
Compound
Aviation
2.0.0 SHEET METAL DEVELOPMENT

Sometimes you will need to layout a one-off project. In this instance, scribe the design
directly on the sheet metal. This process is also known as scratching.
When a single part is to be produced in quantity, a different development procedure is
used. Instead of laying out directly on the metal, you will develop a pattern, or template,
of the piece to be fabricated and then transfer the development to the metal sheet. The
template development process is what we are mainly concerned with in this section.
The three procedures commonly used in developing sheet metal patterns are parallel
line, radial line, and triangular development. We will also discuss the fabrication of
edges, joints, seams, and notches.
2.1.0 Parallel Line Development

Parallel line development is based upon the
fact that a line that is parallel to another line
is an equal distance from that line at all
points. Objects that have opposite lines
parallel to each other or that have the same
cross-sectional shape throughout their
length are developed by this method.
To gain a clear understanding of the
parallel line method, we will develop a
layout of a truncated cylinder (Figure 1350). Such a piece can be used as one half
of a two-piece 0-degree elbow.
Figure 13-50 Truncated
cylinder.
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13-28
A truncated cylinder is developed in Figure 13-51:
Figure 13-51 Parallel line development.

1. Mark out reference lines using a set square.
2. Identify the diameter measurement and draw a circle. In this example the
diameter is 1.5 inches (40 mm).
3. Use the radius of the circle to divide the circumference into 12 equal sectors.
4. Label the marks 1 - 12. Note the numbers begin on the right-hand side and go in
a clockwise direction.
5. Identify and mark the height of the cylinder. Here the height is 2.5 inches (60
mm).
6. Determine the angle of the top of the cylinder and use a setsquare. Here the
angle is 45 degrees.
7. Mark off the radius on both sides of the reference line to construct the sides of
the cylinder. Transfer numbers 1 - 12 from the circle to the base of the cylinder.
Project these points to the top of the cylinder.
8. Calculate the circumference of the cylinder to determine the stretch out length of
the pattern. Use the formula r = D. The diameter here is 1.5 inches (40 mm).
Mark out the circumference on the horizontal base line.
9. Divide the length of the circumference into 12. Draw a reference line and mark on
it 1/12th of the circumference. Use this to set the dividers. Splitting the
circumference into halves and quarters reduces tolerance error.
10. Use the dividers to mark the circumference into 12 equal divisions on the base
line. Mark these divisions 1 to 12. The final division is numbered 1. Project these
divisions upward at 90.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-29
11. Now develop the stretch out pattern. Transfer the length of the lines on the side
View to the corresponding lines on the stretch out. Draw the top line curve of the
pattern by free hand, by using material like packing cord bent to the curve or by
using a flexible curve, as used here.
12. This final shape is the stretch out pattern of the cylindrical shape and can be cut
to shape to use as a template.
When the development is finished, add necessary allowances for rivets and joints, then
cut out your patterns.
2.2.0 Radial Line Development

The radial line method of pattern development is used to develop patterns of objects
that have a tapering form with lines converging at a common center.
The radial line method is similar in some respects to the parallel line method. Evenly
spaced reference lines are necessary in both of these methods. However, in parallel
line development, the reference lines are parallellike a picket fence. In radial line
development, the reference lines radiate from the apex of a conelike the spokes of a
wheel.
The reference lines in parallel line development project horizontally. In radial line
development, the reference lines are transferred from the front View to the development
with the dividers.
Developing a pattern for the
frustum of a right cone is a
typical practice project that will
help you get the feel of the radial
line method. You are familiar with
the shape of a cone. A right cone
is one that, if set big side down
on a flat surface, would stand
straight up. In other words, a
centerline drawn from the point,
or vertex, to the base line would
form right angles with that line.
The frustum of a cone is that part
that remains after the point, or
top, has been removed.
The procedure for developing a
frustum of a right cone is given
below. Check each step of the
procedure against the
development shown in Figure 1352.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-52 Radial line development.
13-30
1. First establish the apex point (H).

2. Draw reference lines using a set square. Mark out the measurements of the:
- base (D) 2.75 in (70 mm)
- apex (H) 4 in (100 mm)
- frustum height (h) 2 in (50 mm)
3. Draw in the reference lines from the apex (H) to the base (D). Check that the
frustum diameter (d) is 1.38 in (35 mm).
4. Develop the half circle representing half the bottom View.
5. Set the dividers at 1.38 in (35 mm) - the radius of the base of the frustum (D).
Divide the half circle into 6 equal sectors.
6. Label the marks 1-12 as indicated.
7. Project each of the sectors up to the base line at 90. Project these lines to the
apex.
8. Developing the stretch out pattern of the frustum.
Place the compass point on the apex. Set the radius to A and seeing an arc as
indicated. Repeat with the radius set to B.
9. Draw a line from the apex to the bottom circumference, away from the base of
the frustum. The intersection point will be the start for marking out the base
circumference into 12 sectors.
10. The frustum circumference is D = 3.14 x 2.75 in =8.67 inches (220 mm) to the
nearest mm. Mark this into 12 equal sectors. Calculate the length of each sector:
= 8.67in (220 mm)
12
= .72 in (18.3 mm)
Draw a reference line and mark out .72 in (18.3 mm). Set the dividers to this
distance. Mark off the 12 divisions along the circumference.
11. Project each of these to the apex to form the radial lines. The radial lines will be
used in the forming process. The shape shaded in orange is the radial line
stretch out pattern for the right cone frustum.
2.3.0 Triangular Development

Triangulation is slower and more difficult than parallel line or radial line development,
but it is more practical for many types of figures. Additionally, it is the only method by
which the development of warped surfaces may be estimated. In development by
triangulation, the piece is divided into a series of triangles, as in radial Line
development. However, there is no one single apex for the triangles. The problem
becomes one of finding the true lengths of the varying oblique lines. This is usually done
by drawing a true, length diagram.
An example of layout using triangulation is the development of a transition piece.
The steps in the triangulation of a warped transition piece joining a large, square duct
and a small, round duct are shown in Figure 13-53. The steps are as follows:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-31
Figure 13-53 Triangular development of a transition piece.

1. First establish the reference lines.
2. Develop the top View. With a set square, mark out the measurements for half the
base, and label each corner (from the top left-hand corner, moving clockwise) A
to D.
3. From the centre of this half base, draw a semicircle with radius 1 in (25 mm).
Check that the diameter (D) is 2 in (50 mm).
4. Divide the half circle into six equal spacing by placing the compass point on the
three points where the semicircle intersects the reference lines and swinging
small arcs (R = 1 in (25 mm)) to intersect the circle.
Number the points 1 to 7 as shown.
5. Using a set square, draw lines from point D on the base of the shape to points 1
through to 4 on the half circle. Next, draw lines from C on the base of the shape
to points 4 through to 7.
This completes (half) the top View.
6. Draw the side View. First, draw a reference line. Remember, the vertical height is
50 mm, and the diameter of the top is 50 mm.
7. The base is 2.75 in (70 mm) square. Draw lines from the base to the top. Label
the base points A and B. Label the top points 1 and 7.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-32
8. Now develop the stretch out pattern for the square to round.
First establish a reference line (extending to the right from point B on the side
View) for the base of the stretch out pattern. Draw the vertical height of the
square to round somewhere to the right of the side View, perpendicular to the
base line.
Now place the compass point on D in the top View. Set the radius to point 2 on
the half circle. Place the compass point at the intersection of the base line and
the vertical height line and swing an arc to mark the base line. Label this point
2D. Note this is the shortest distance from point D to the top of the half circle, the
same length as 3D, 5C, and 6C.
Now place the compass at D and set the radius to point 1 on the half circle.
Transfer the compass to the intersection of the base line and the vertical height
line and swing an arc to mark the base line. Label it 1D. Note this is the longer
distance from point D to the top of the half diameter, the same length as 4D, 4C,
and 7C.
Now draw a line from the top of the vertical height line to point 2D, and then from
the top to point 1D.
This is called the true length diagram.
9. Mark a point on the base line to the right of point 1D.
10. Set the compass at the distance between D and C on the top View (as this is
already true length), then transfer the distance D to C to the base line. Label the
points D and C.
Reset the compass to the length of the line 4D. Placing one point on D, draw an
arc midway between D and C. Shift the compass to C, draw an arc to bisect the
previous one. Label this point 4.
11. Mark out a new short reference line for 1/12th of the circumference of the top of
the square to round shape.
Calculate the circumference of the top of the shape, then divide it by 12.
C= D
C = 3.14 x 2 in (50 mm)
= 6.2 in (157 mm)
1/12th of the circle
= 6.2 in (157 mm) 12
= .5 in (13 mm)
12. Measure and mark out .5 in (13 mm) on the reference line. Set the compass at .5
in (13 mm) (1/12th circumference).
Place the compass on point 4, and swing arcs to mark to the right, and to the left.
Set the compass at the true length of reference line 2D. Place the compass on
point D, and swing an arc to intersect the arc on the left.
Label this point 3. Place the compass on C, and swing an arc to intersect the arc
on the right. Label this point 5.
Reset the compass at .5 in (13 mm), using the measure on the reference line.
Place the compass on point 5 and swing an arc to the right hand side. Swing an
arc to the left of point 3.
Reset the compass at the length of the reference line 2D. Place the compass on
point D, make a mark intersecting the arc, and Label this point 2. Place the
compass on C, make a mark intersecting the arc, and label this point 6.
Repeat the process, swinging an arc R13 to the left of 2 and right of 6. This time,
however, reset the compass to the length of reference line 1D. Place the
compass point on D, make a mark intersecting the arc, and label this point 1.
Place the compass on C and make a mark intersecting the arc. Label this point 7.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-33
13. Develop the half square base from point D to point A.

Using the side view diagram, set the compass at the distance between B and 7.
Place the compass at point 1 on the stretch out pattern, and draw an arc to the
lower left. Repeat the process from point 7 to the lower right.
Reset the compass to the distance between B and C on the top View diagram.
Place the compass on D and make a mark intersecting the arc.
Label this point A. Place the compass on C, make a mark intersecting the arc,
and label this point B.
Using a set square or ruler, draw lines joining 1 and A; A and D; 7 and B; and B
and C. Draw lines from D to 1, 2, 3, and 4. Draw lines from C to 4, 5, 6, and 7.
14. Use a flexible ruler, or freehand to join points 1 to 7.
This completes the stretch out half pattern for a square to round shape, using the
triangulation method.
2.4.0 Fabrication of Edges, Joints, Seams, and Notches

There are numerous types of edges, joints, seams, and notches used to join sheet
metal work. We will discuss those that are most often used.
2.4.1 Edges
Edges are formed to enhance the appearance of the work, to strengthen the piece, and
to eliminate the cutting hazard of the raw edge. The kind of edge that you use on any
job will be determined by the purpose, by the sire, and by the strength of the edge
needed.
The single hem edge is shown in Figure 13-54. This edge can be made in any width. In
general, the heavier the metal, the wider the hem is made. The allowance for the hem is
equal to its width (W).
The double hem edge (Figure 13-55) is used when added strength is needed and when
a smooth edge is required inside as well as outside. The allowance for the double-hem
edge is twice the width of the hem.
Figure 13-54 Single hem edge.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-55 Double hem

edge.
13-34
A wire edge (Figure 13-56) is often specified in the plans. Objects such as funnels,
water troughs, and garbage pails are fabricated with wire edges to strengthen and
Figure 13-56 Development of a wire edge on a cylinder.

stiffen the jobs and to eliminate sharp edges. The allowance for a wire edge is 2 1/2
times the diameter of the wire used. As an example, you are using wire that has a
diameter of 1/8 inch. Multiply 1/8 by 2 1/2 and your answer will be 5/16 inch, which you
will allow when laying out sheet metal for making the wire edge.
2.4.2 Joints
The grooved seamed joint (Figure 13-57) is one of the most widely used methods for
joining light- and medium-gauge sheet metal. It consists of two folded edges that are
locked together with a hand groover (Figure 13-58).
When making a grooved seam on a cylinder, you fit the piece over a stake and lock it
with the hand groover (Figure 13-59). The hand groover should be approximately 1/16
inch wider than the seam. Lock the seam by making prick punch indentions about 1/2
inch in from each end of the seam.
Figure 13-57 Development of a grooved seam joint.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-35
Figure 13-58 Hand groover.
Figure 13-59 Locking a

grooved seam.
The cap strip seam (Figure 13-60, View A) is often used to assemble air-conditioning
and heating ducts. A variation of the joint, the locked corner seam (Figure 13-60, View
B), is widely accepted for the assembly of rectangular shapes.
Figure 13-60 (A) cap strip seam, (B) locked corner seam.
A drive slip joint is a method of joining two flat sections of metal. Figure 13-61 is the
pattern for the drive slip. End notching and dimensions vary with application and area
practice on all locks, seams, and edges.
S joints are used to join two flat surfaces of metal. Primarily these are used to join
sections of rectangular duct. These are also used to join panels in air housings and
columns.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-36
Figure 13-61 Driveslip pattern

connections.
Figure 13-62 S joint slip

pattern and connections.
Figure 13-62 shows a flat S joint. View A is a pattern for the S cleat. View B is a
perspective View of the two pieces of metal that form the flat S joint. In View C, note
the end View of the finished S joint.
Figure 13-63 shows a double S joint. View B is the pattern for the double S cleat.
View A is one of two pieces of metal to be joined. Note the cross section of a partially
formed cleat and also the cross section of the finished double S joint. This is a
variation of the simple flat S and it does not require an overlap of metals being joined.
Figure 13-63 Double S joint

slip pattern.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-37
Figure 13-64 shows a standing S joint. View B is the pattern for the standing S cleat.
View A is one of the two pieces of metal to be joined. Note the cross section of the
finished standing S cleat and standing S joint.
Figure 13-64 Standing S cleat pattern.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-38
2.4.3 Seams
Many kinds of seams are used to join sheet metal sections. Several of the commonly
used seams are shown in Figure 13-65. When developing the pattern, ensure you add
adequate material to the basic dimensions to make the seams. The folds can be made
by hand; however, they are made much more easily on a bar folder or brake. The joints
can be finished by soldering and/or riveting.
When developing sheet metal patterns, ensure you add sufficient material to the base
dimensions to make the seams. Several types of seams used to join sheet metal
sections are discussed in this section.
Figure 13-65 Common sheet-metal seams.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-39
There are three types of lap seams: the plain lap seam, the offset lap seam, and the
corner lap seam (Figure 13-66). Lap seams can be joined by drilling and riveting, by
soldering, or by both riveting and soldering. To figure the allowance for a lap seam, you
must first know the diameter of the rivet that you plan to use. The center of the rivet
must be set in from the edge a distance of 2 1/2 times its diameter; therefore, the
allowance must be five times the diameter of the rivet that you are using. Figure 13-67
shows the procedure for laying out a plain lap and a comer lap for seaming with rivets (d
represents the diameter of the rivets). For comer seams, allow an additional one
sixteenth of an inch for clearance.
Figure 13-66 Lap seams.
Figure 13-67 Layout of lap

seams for riveting.
Grooved seams are useful in the fabrication

of cylindrical shapes. There are two types
of grooved seams-the outside grooved
seam and the inside grooved seam (Figure
13-68). The allowance for a grooved seam
is three times the width (W) of the lock,
one-half of this amount being added to
each edge. For example, if you are to have
a 1/4-inch grooved seam, 3 x 1/4 = 3/4 inch,
or the total allowance; 1/2 of 3/4 inch = 3/8
inch, or the allowance that you are to add to
each edge.
Figure 13-68 Grooved seams.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-40
The Pittsburgh lock seam is a comer lock seam. Figure 13-69 shows a cross section of
the two pieces of metal to be joined and a cross section of the finished seam. This seam
is used as a lengthwise seam at comers of square and rectangular pipes and elbows as
well as fittings and ducts. This seam can be made in a brake but it has proved to be so
universal in use that special forming machines have been designed and are available. It
appears to be quite complicated, but like lap and grooved seams, it consists of only two
pieces. The two parts are the flanged, or single, edge and the pocket that forms the
lock. The pocket is formed when the flanged edge is inserted into the pocket, and the
extended edge is turned over the inserted edge to complete the lock.
Figure 13-69 Pittsburgh lock seam.

The method of assembling and locking a Pittsburgh seam is shown in Figure 13-70 and
Figure 13-71.
Figure 13-70 Assembly of a

Pittsburgh lock seam.
Figure 13-71 Closing a

Pittsburgh lock seam.
The allowance for the pocket is W + W + 3/16 inch. W is the width or depth of the
pocket. The width of the flanged edge must be less than W. For example, if you are
laying out a 1/4-inch Pittsburgh lock seam (Figure 13-72), your total allowance should
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-41
be 1/4 + 1/4 + 3/16 inch, or 11/16 inch for the edge on which you are laying out the
pocket and 3/16 inch on the flanged edge.
Standing seams are used for joining metals where extra stiffness is needed, such as
roofs, air housing, ducts, and so forth. Figure 13-73 is a cross section of the finished
standing seam. Dimensions and rivet spacing will vary with application.
Figure 13-72 layout of a 1/4

inch Pittsburgh lock seam.

a standing seam.
There are different styles of standing seams. The spreader drive cap, the pocket slip,
and the government lock (Figure 13-74) are seams frequently used in large duct
construction where stiffeners are required.
Figure 13-74 Miscellaneous seams.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-42
The dovetail seam is used mainly to join a round pipe/fitting to a flat sheet or duct. This
seam can be made watertight by soldering. Figure 13-75 shows the pattern for forming
a dovetail seam and an example of its use.
Figure 13-75 Dovetail lock seam.

2.4.4 Notches
Notching is the last step to be considered when you are getting ready to lay out a job.
Before you can mark a notch, you will have to lay out the pattern and add the seams,
the laps, or the stiffening edges. If the patterns are not properly notched, you will have
trouble when you start forming, assembling, and finishing the job.
No definite rule for selecting a notch for a job can be given. But as soon as you can
visualize the assembly of the job, you will be able to determine the shape and size of
the notch required for the job. If the notch is made too large, a hole will be left in the
finished job. If the notch is too small or not the proper shape, the metal will overlap and
bulge at the seam or edge. Do not concern yourself too much if your first notches do not
come out as you expectedpractice and experience will dictate size and shape.
A square notch (Figure 13-76) is likely the first you will make. It is the kind you make in
your layout of a box or drip pan and is used to eliminate surplus material. This type of
notch will result in butt comers.
Slant notches are cut at a 45-degree angle across the comer when a single hem is to
meet at a 90-degree angle. Figure 13-77 shows the steps in forming a slant notch.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-43
Figure 13-76 Square notch.
Figure 13-77 Slant notch.
A V notch is used for seaming ends of boxes. You will also use a full V-notch when you
have to construct a bracket with a toed-in flange or for similar construction. The full V is
When you are making an inside flange on an angle of less than 90 degrees, you will
have to use a modification of the full V-notch to get flush joints. The angle of the notch
will depend upon the bend angle. A modified V-notch is shown in Figure 13-79.
Figure 13-78 V-notch.
Figure 13-79 Modified V-notch.
A wire notch is a notch used with a wire edge. Its depth from the edge of the pattern will
be one wire diameter more than the depth of the allowance for the wire edge (2 1/2 d),
or in other words, 3 1/2 times the diameter of the wire (3 1/2 d). Its width is equal to 1
1/2 times the width of the seam (1 1/2 w). That portion of the notch next to the wire edge
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-44
will be straight. The shape of the notch on the seam will depend on the type of seam
used, which, in Figure 13-80, is 45 degrees for a grooved seam.
Most of your work will require more than one type of notch, as shown in Figure 13-80,
where a wire notch was used in the forming of a cylindrical shape joined by a grooved
seam. In such a layout, you will have to notch for the wire edge and seam.
Figure 13-80 Wire notch in a cylindrical layout.

3.
When preparing a single hem edge, what is the allowance for its width?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Equal to its width

Twice its width
2 1/2 times its width
How many times larger than the diameter of the wire should be allowed when
fabricating a wire edge?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Equal to its width

Twice its width
3.0.0 JOINING and INSTALLING SHEET METAL DUCT

After the sheet metal has been cut and formed, it has to be joined together. Most sheet
metal seams are locked or riveted but some will be joined by torch brazing or soldering.
Primarily the forming processes that have already been given make lock seams. Torch
brazing and soldering are discussed in chapter 6. This section deals only with joining
sheet metal seams by either metal screws or rivets.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-45
3.1.0 Metal Screws

Different types of metal screws are
available for sheet metal work. The most
common type in use is the machine screw.
Machine screws are normally made of
brass or steel. They will have either a
flathead or a roundhead and are identified
by their number size, threads per inch, and
length. For example, a 6 by 32 by 1 inch
screw indicates a number 6 screw with 32
threads per inch and 1 inch in length.
Figure 13-81 Self tapping
Self-tapping sheet metal screws are

another common type of screw. Most
screws of this type will be galvanized and
are identified by their number size and
length. These screws form a thread as they
are driven (Figure 13-81), as the name
implies.
Thread cutting screws (Figure 13-82) are
different from self-tapping screws in that
they actually cut threads in the metal. They
are hardened and are used to fasten
nonferrous metals and join heavy gauge
sheet metal.
Drive screws (Figure 13-83) are simply
hammered into a drilled or punched hole of
the proper size to make a permanent
fastening.
Figure 13-82 Thread cutting.
Figure 13-83 Drive screws.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-46
3.2.0 Rivets
Rivets are available in many different materials, sizes, and types. Rivets, made of steel,
copper, brass, and aluminum, are widely used. Rivets should be the same material as
the sheet metal that they join. If you use dissimilar metals, corrosion will occur.
Tinners rivets shown in Figure 13-84 are used in sheet metal work more than any other
type of rivet. Tinners rivets vary in size, from the 8-ounce rivet to the 16-pound rivet.
This size designation signifies the weight of 1,000 rivets. If 1,000 rivets weigh 8 ounces,
each rivet is called an 8-ounce rivet. As the weight per 1,000 rivets increases, the
diameter and length of the rivets also increase. For example, the 8-ounce rivet has a
diameter of 0.089 inch and a length of 5/32 inch, while the 12-pound rivet has a
diameter of 0.259 inch and a length of 1/2 inch. For special jobs that require fastening
several layers of metal together, special rivets with extra-long shanks are used. Table
13-1 is a guide for selecting rivets of the proper size for sheet metal work.
Figure 13-84 TInners rivets.

Table 13-1 Guide for selecting rivet size for sheet metal work.
Gauge of Sheet Metal
Rivet Size (weight in pounds per 1,000 rivets)
26
24
22
2 1/2
20
18
3 1/2
16
When you are joining sheet metal that is greater than two thicknesses, remember that
the shank of the rivet should extend 1 1/2 times the diameter of the rivet. This will give
you adequate metal to form the head.
Rivet spacing is given on the blueprint or drawing you are working from. If the spacing is
not given, space the rivets according to the service conditions the seam must withstand.
For example, if the seam must be watertight, you will need more rivets per inch than is
required for a seam that does not have to be watertight. No matter how far apart the
rivets are, there must be a distance of 2 1/2 times the rivet diameter between the rivets
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-47
and the edge of the sheet. This distance is measured from the center of the rivet holes
to the edge of the sheet.
After you have determined the size and spacing of the rivets, mark the location of the
centers of the rivet holes. Then make the holes by punching or by drilling. If the holes
are located near the edge of the sheet, a hand punch, similar to the one shown in
Figure 13-85, can be used to punch the holes. If the holes are farther away from the
edge, you can use a deep-threaded punch (either hand operated or power driven) or
you can drill the holes. The hole must be slightly larger than the diameter of the rivet to
provide a slight clearance.
Figure 13-85 Hand punch.

Riveting involves three operations: drawing, upsetting, and heading (Figure 13-86). A
rivet set and a riveting hammer are used to perform these operations. The method for
riveting sheet metal follows:
1. Select a rivet set that has a hole slightly larger than the diameter of the rivet.
2. Insert the rivets in the holes and rest the sheets to be joined on a stake or on a
solid bench top with the rivet heads against the stake or bench top.
3. Draw the sheets together by placing the deep hole of the rivet set over the rivet
and striking the head of the set with a riveting hammer. Use a light hammer for
small rivets, a heavier hammer for larger rivets.
4. When the sheets have been properly drawn together, remove the rivet set. Strike
the end of the rivet lightly with the riveting hammer to upset the end of the rivet.
Do not strike too hard of a blow, as this can distort the metal around the rivet
hole.
5. Place the heading die (dished part) of the rivet set over the upset end of the rivet
and form the head. One or two hammer blows on the head of the rivet set will be
enough to form the head on the rivet
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-48
Figure 13-86 Drawing, upsetting, and heading a rivet.

A correctly drawn, upset, and headed rivet is shown in the top part of Figure 13-87. The
lower part of this figure shows the results of incorrect riveting.
Figure 13-87 Correct and incorrect riveting.

An addition to sheet metal rivets are the pop
rivets shown in Figure 2-88. These pop rivets
are high-strength, precision-made, hollow
rivets assembled on a solid mandrel that
forms an integral part of the rivet. They are
especially useful for blind fastening, where
there is limited or no access to the reverse
side of the work.
Pop rivets provide simplicity and versatility.
They are simple and easy to use in
complicated installations. Expensive
equipment or skilled operators are not
required. Just drill a hole, insert, and set the
pop rivet from the same side, and high
riveting quality and strength are easily and
quickly accomplished.
Two basic designs of pop rivets are used:
closed end and open end. The closed-end
type fills the need for blind rivets that seal as
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 13-88 Pop rivets.

13-49
they are set. They are gastight and liquid tight, and like the open-end type, they are
installed and set from the same side. As the rivet sets, a high degree of radial
expansion is generated in the rivet body, providing effective hole-filing qualities.
The open-end type of pop rivet resembles a hollow rivet from the outside. Because the
mandrel head stays in the rivet body, the mandrel stem seals, but it is not liquid tight.
Figure 13-89 shows two of the tools used
for setting the pop rivets. These tools are
lightweight and very easily used. For
example, when using the small hand tool,
you need only to insert the mandrel of the
rivet in the nosepiece, squeeze the handle
(usually three times), and the rivet is set. To
operate the scissors type tool, fully extend
the lever linkage or gate-like mechanism
and insert the rivet mandrel into the
nosepiece of the tool. Insert the rivet into
the piece being riveted. Apply firm pressure
to the tool, ensuring that the nosepiece
remains in close contact with the rivet head.
Closing the lever linkage retracts the
gripping mechanism, which withdraws the
mandrel. The rivet is set when the mandrel
head breaks.
Figure 13-89 Pop rivet tools.
Before inserting another rivet in the tool, be

sure that the broken mandrel has been ejected from the tool. This can be done by fully
extending the lever linkage and allowing the mandrel to fall clear.
The scissors or expandable type of tool is unique because it can reach hard-to-get-at
areas and can set the rivets with ease. This tool is particularly useful for installing
ventilation ducting.
3.3.0 Riveted Seams

Riveted seams are used for joining metals and have numerous applications.
Figure 13-90 shows the pattern of one of two pieces to be joined by lap and rivet. Note
the cross section of the finished seam.
Figure 13-91 shows the patterns for constructing a lapped and riveted comer seam.
View A is the pattern for one piece and View B is the other. Note the cross section
through the completed seam.
Frequent use is made of lapped and riveted seams in joining round pipe sections.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-50
Figure 13-90 Lap seam rivet

pattern.
Figure 13-91 Corner seam

rivet.
4.0.0 SHEET METAL DUCT SYSTEMS

With the increased use of computers and other specialized electronic equipment, airconditioning systems are incorporated more than ever into many Naval Construction
Force (NCF) construction projects. Many of the structures are designed for long-life
usage instead of temporary buildings with a short-time use. There are advanced base
functional components (ABFC) that incorporate heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
systems (HVAC) within the facility design.
HVAC systems require close coordination between ratings. A Utilitiesman normally
installs air conditioning, air handling, and heating units, and the electrical connections
are accomplished by a Construction Electrician. These items must be installed before
the ductwork installation phase begins. The Steelworker must also coordinate with the
Builder assigned to the project to ensure that all openings in walls and floors are
sufficient to accommodate ducts, diffusers, and vents.
Sheet metal HVAC systems require knowledgeable workers to fabricate and install the
various ducts and fittings needed in a complete heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
system. The Steelworker must be very versatile because the most difficult part of sheet
metal work is the installation of a product that has been built in a shop and is installed
on a remote site.
Not all of the variables that occur during the installation process can be covered here;
however, this section will cover some of the different hanging and connecting systems
used by the sheet metal worker. The type of connecting system used depends upon
where the duct system is installed, its size, how many obstructions there are, and what
type of structure the system is hanging from or connected to.
4.1.0 Shop Procedures

The small sheet metal shops in the NCF or in a Public Works Department are normally
tasked with single fabrication jobs for an NCF project or small repair projects. These
shops usually employ a small number of Steelworkers as part of a multi-shop
environment. The senior Steelworker assigned to a shop is tasked with the plan
development and estimating of materials. The layout Steelworker makes up most of the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-51
fittings in the shop and is responsible for stockpiling patterns and tracings on standard
fittings used for sheet metal duct systems.
NOTE
You should fabricate an entire job at the shop, rather than deliver an incomplete system
to the jobsite.
4.2.0 Shop Drawings

A shop drawing is a plan View or an elevation View of a fitting, duct, or other object that
is drawn either by the freehand sketch method or by using drafting instruments. It may
be useful to get assistance from an Engineering Aid for complex duct systems or
fittings. One of the better methods is to draw a complete set of standard fittings and
then add the required dimensions to fit the job.
The dimensions shown on the Views of a shop drawing are finished dimensions. Once
the finished dimensions have been determined, one-half inch must be added to each
end to obtain the raw size of the pattern. This dimension produces a cut size dimension.
The type of material, gauge number, and type of seam may be added to the shop
drawing, if desired. Usually these are specified on the drawings and on the pattern
sheets.
4.3.0 Duct Material

Metal sheets, wire, band iron, and angle iron are the most widely used materials in
sheet metal fabrication. The types of metal sheets are plain, flat sheets and ribbed,
corrugated sheets. The sheets are made of such materials as black iron, galvanized
iron, tin plate, copper, aluminum, stainless steel, or Monel. Galvanized and black iron
sheets are the most commonly used material in sheet metal work.
The thickness of a sheet is designated by a series of numbers called gauges. Iron and
steel sheets are designated by the U.S. standard gauge that is the accepted standard in
the United States.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-52
4.4.0 Reinforcement and Support

The recommended gauge thicknesses of sheet metal used in a standard ventilating and
air-conditioning system with normal pressure and velocities are shown in table 2-2.
Table 13-2 Recommended gauges for sheet metal duct construction.
Aluminum B.& S.
gauge
24
22
20
18
16
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Steel U.S. std.

gauge
26
24
22
20
18
Maximum side,
inches
Type of transverse
joint connections
None
Up to 12
S-drive, pocket, or
bar slips, on 7 ft.
10 in. centers
None
13 to 24
S-drive, pocket, or
bar slips, on 7 ft.
10 in. centers
25 to 30
S-drive, 1 in.
pocket or 1 in. bar
slips, on 7 ft. 10 in.
centers
1 x 1 x 1/8
in. angles 4
ft. from the
joint
31 to 40
Drive, 1 in. pocket

or 1 in. bar slips,
on 7 ft. 10 in.
centers
1 x 1 x 1/8
in. angles 4
ft. from the
joint
41 to 60
1 1/2 in. angle

connections, or 1
1/2 in. bar slips
with 1 3/8 x 1/8 in.
bar reinforcing on
7 ft. 10 in. centers
1 1/2 x 1 1/2
x 1/8 in.
angles 4 ft.
from the
joint
1 1/2 in. angle

connections, or 1
1/2 in. bar slips
with 3 ft. 9 in.
maximum centers
with 1 3/8 x 1/8 in.
bar reinforcing.
1 1/2 x 1 1/2
x 1/8 in.
diagonal
angles, or 1
1/2 x 1 1/2 x
1/8 in. 2 ft.
from the
joint
2 in. angle
connections or 1
1/2 in. bar slips 3
ft. 9 in. maximum
centers with 1 3/8
x 1/8 in. bar
reinforcing
1 1/2 x 1 1/2
x 1/8 in.
diagonal
angles, or 1
1/2 x 1 1/2 x
1/8 in. 2 ft.
from the
joint
61 to 90
91 and up
Bracing
13-53
Where special rigidity or stiffness is required, ducts should be constructed of metal two
gauges heavier than those given in the table. All insulated ducts 18 inches or greater on
any flat side should be cross broken, as shown in Figure 13-92. Cross breaking maybe
omitted if the duct is insulated with approved rigid type of insulation and sheet metal two
gauges heavier is used.
The maximum length of any section of ductwork will not exceed 7 feet 10 inches; this
measurement allows individual sections to be fabricated from an 8-foot sheet of metal
with a 2-inch allowance for connection tabs. If lengths of 7 feet 10 inches are
considered too long for a specific job, it is recommended that the duct system be
constructed with sections of 3-foot 9-inch multiples.
Many duct systems run into unplanned obstructions, particularly in renovation work,
such as electrical connections and wiring, structural members, and piping systems.
These obstructions must be avoided by fabricating the duct system to go around the
obstacles. Do NOT run obstructions through duct systems because it creates turbulence
that reduces the efficiency of the system. When the obstruction is an electrical
obstruction, you should ensure all power is off and safety checked. When running the
duct through an obstruction is unavoidable, the turbulence can be reduced by enclosing
the obstruction in a streamlined collar (Figure 13-93).
Figure 13-92 Cross-broken flat

surfaces.
Figure 13-93 Easement around

an obstruction in ducts.
4.5.0 Flexible Connections

Most duct systems are connected to either a heating or a cooling system. These
systems are generally electric motor driven to move air through the duct system.
Therefore, all inlet and outlet duct connections to all fans or other equipment that may
create vibration should be made with heavy canvas, as shown in Figure 13-94.
The most common method of making connections between duct sections and fittings is
the method of combining two S-slips and two drive slips (Figure 13-95). S-slips are first
placed on two opposite edges of one of the sections or fittings to be joined. These Sslips are applied to the widest dimension of the duct (Figure 13-96). The second section
or fitting is then inserted into the slips, and the two sections are held together by
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-54
inserting drive slips along the opposite sides (Figure 13-97). After the drive slips are
driven home, they are locked in place by bending the ends of the drive slip over the
comer of the S-slips to close the corner and lock the drive slips in place (Figure 13-98),
completing the joint shown in Figure 13-99.
Figure 13-94 Flexible duct

connection.
Figure 13-95 Methods of

connecting ducts.
Figure 13-96 Placing S-clips

for S- and drive connection.
Figure 13-97 Inserting drive

slips.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-55
Figure 13-98 Bending drive

slips to complete the joint.
Figure 13-99 Completed S and

drive connection.
4.6.0 Hanging Duct

Most of the ductwork Steelworkers install, modify, or repair is in pre-engineered
buildings or repairs to more permanent types of ducting in buildings, such as barracks
and base housing.
The most common installation
method is hanging the duct from
purlins or beams in the hidden
area of a roof or below a ceiling.
Figure 13-100 shows one such
system when the duct is running
parallel to the structural
member. These systems
require that angle be installed
between the beams so that the
hanger straps can be installed
on both sides of the duct.
Normally, 2-inch by 2-inch by
1/8-inch angle is sufficient.
However, if the duct is a very
large size, a larger angle may
be required.
Figure 13-100 Duct running parallel to

purlins or beams.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-56
The straps that are used as hangers may be fabricated from 1/8-inch plate. In a normal
installation, a 1-inch by 1/8-inch strap will suffice. All straps must be connected to the
ductwork with sheet metal screws. On all government work, it is required that the
screws be placed 1 1/4 inches from all edges, as illustrated in Figure 13-100, which
shows the duct system hanging from angle rails. All angles should be either bolted or
tack-welded to purlins or beams.
Strap hangers may be hung directly on purlins or beams when the duct is running
transversely or across the purlins or beams, as shown in Figure 13-101. However, the
strap hangers must be twisted to turn 90 degrees onto the flange of the beam or purlin.
Again, the standard 7 feet 10 inches maximum span is required between hangers
applies. Also, the hanger screws standard will apply. The hanger span may be
shortened to fit the job requirements.
Figure 13-101 Strap hangers from purlins.

For heavier or larger systems, an installation similar to that shown in Figure 13-102 may
be required. This system is hung entirely on angle rails and the straps are fabricated
into one-piece units. This system is by far the neatest looking and is normally used
when the duct system is exposed.
Figure 13-102 Duct system with strap hangers from angle rails transverse to
purlin.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-57
Installing a duct system under a built-up steel roof (Figure 13-103) is accomplished by
hanging the duct system with all-thread bolts and 2-inch by 2-inch by 1/8-inch angles.
The all-thread bolt protrudes through the steel decking and is bolted from the top with a
large washer and bolt. The bolts extend down alongside the duct into the 2-inch by 2inch angles which is bolted from under the angle. This system allows for adjustment of
height. Also notice that the all-thread bolt extends into the top flat of the apex of the
steel roof decking. This is required because connecting the all-thread bolt to the bottom
valley of the steel deck will reduce the structural strength of the decking and may also
cause water leaks.
Figure 13-103 Duct installed to a built up steel roof.
5.0.0 FIBERGLASS DUCT SYSTEMS

Throughout the Naval Construction Force (NCF), fiberglass duct is becoming common
on jobsites. It has the advantage of added insulating value and ease of fabrication,
handling, and installation, making it useful where traffic and handling/abuse are
restricted.
5.1.0 Characteristics
Fiberglass ducts are manufactured of molded fiberglass sheets covered with a thin film
coating of aluminum, although thin vinyl or plastic coatings are sometimes used. In the
NCF, we are primarily concerned with aluminum-coated duct. Because it is fabricated of
glass fibers, it is inherently insulated; therefore, it is used where insulation is a
requirement.
Fiberglass ducts can be molded into various shapes for special applications. The
desired shapes can be ordered from the manufacturers stock. In the NCF, for all but
special purposes, the duct is supplied in the flat form of a board that has Vgrooves cut
into the inner surfaces to allow folding to fabricate rectangular sections (Figure 13-104,
View A). The ends of the board are molded so when a rectangular/square duct is
formed, two sections of the same size will fit together in a shiplap joint (Figure 13-104,
View C). This joint ensures a tight connection coupled with a positive alignment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-58
Of extreme importance is the selection of the proper board size to fabricate the duct
before cutting and grooving. In all applications, the inside diameter of the duct is the
determining factor of the board size. Use Table 13-3 to determine board size.
Figure 13-104 Fabricating rectangular/square fiberglass duct from duct

board.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-59
Table 13-3 Duct board length selection chart.

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18
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58
60
62
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88
90
92
94
96
98
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102
20
60
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26
72
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27
74
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34
88
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120
35
90
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120
36
92
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120
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94
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120
38
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50
120
NAVEDTRA 14250A
* For 1 1/2 inch board - add 4 inches to these dimensions

* For 2 inch board - add 8 inches to these dimensions
13-60
NOTE
Within a heating system, the adhesive used to affix the protective outer coating to the
fiberglass restricts the use of fiberglass duct. Check the specifications and ensure that it
will not fail when exposed to heat over 250 degrees.
5.2.0 Fabrication
To fabricate a rectangular/square duct, you must first measure the duct board
accurately. Next, the grooves must be cut. Ensure they are at the proper locations and
cut straight because this allows the board to be folded to create the desired
rectangular/square shape. When cutting the board, you will need to leave an
overlapping tab that is pulled tight and stapled (Figure 13-104, View A). Tape is then
applied and the joint is heat-sealed (Figure 13-104, View B). Joints between sections
are fabricated by pulling the shiplap end sections together and finished by stapling,
taping, and heat sealing the joint (Figure 13104, View C).
5.3.0 Installation
The very nature of fiberglass duct requires that it be supported with 1-inch by 1/16-inch
galvanized steel strap hangers. These must be supplied or fabricated to fit the duct
precisely whether the duct is rectangular/square or round. Rectangular/square ducts up
to 24 inches (span) can be supported on 8-foot centers. Ducts larger than 24 inches
must be supported on 4-foot centers. For round ducts, the supports must not be less
than 6-foot centers.

5.
When using rivets to join sheet metal, what characteristic should the rivets have?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Softer than the metal being riveted

The same material as being riveted
Harder than the material being riveted
Different material as being riveted
What must be the distance between the rivets being used and the edge of the
sheet metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2 1/2 inches
2 1/2 times the diameter of the rivet
2 1/2 times the thickness of the completed joint
2 1/2 times the distance to the next rivet
6.0.0 SAFETY
Some of the safety precautions applicable to sheet metal tools and equipment have
been mentioned throughout this chapter. Here are a few additional precautions that
should be carefully observed when you are working with sheet metal.
1. Sheet metal can cause serious cuts. Handle it with care. Wear steel-reinforced
gloves whenever feasible.
2. Treat every cut immediately, no matter how minor.
3. Remove all burrs from the metal sheet before attempting to work on it further.
4. Use a brush to clean the work area. NEVER brush metal with your hands.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-61
5. Use tools that are sharp.

6. Keep your hands clear squaring shears.
7. A serious and painful foot injury will result if your foot is under the foot pedal of
the squaring shears when a cut is made.
8. Do not run your hands over the surface of sheet metal that has just been cut or
drilled. Painful cuts can be received from the burrs.
9. Get help when large pieces of sheet metal are being cut. Keep your helper well
clear of the shears when you are making the cut.
10. Keep your hands and fingers clear of the rotating parts on forming machines.
11. Place scrap pieces of sheet metal in the scrap box.
12. Always remember to keep a clean shop. Good housekeeping is the key to a safe
shop.
13. Do not use tools that are not in proper working condition: hammer heads loose
on the handle, chisels with mushroomed heads, power tools with guards
removed, and so forth.
14. Wear goggles when in the shop.
Summary
This chapter introduced you to basic sheet metal and fiberglass ductwork fabrication.
You were introduced to the tools needed to work the sheet metal, some of the methods
of measuring, marking, cutting, and the correct methods to form parallel, radial, and
triangular sheet metal shapes. Different types of joints and edges as well as how to
connect the duct work were also discussed.
Always remember to keep your tools and work space clean and in good working order.
Sheet metal is very dangerous to work with so always following prescribed safety
precautions and wearing the proper personal protective equipment is a must.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-62

1.
(True or False) The procedure for measuring and marking material for the
cutting, drilling, and/or welding of metal is known by the term layout.
A.
B.
2.
What type of tool is most frequently used to scribe lines on sheet metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
Six
Two
Three
Nine
Into how many equal parts is the circumference of a circle divided if the lines
intersecting at the center of the circle form angles of 30 degrees?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Its depth
Its length
Its width
Its diagonal cross section
You set dividers for the radius of a circle and strike off this distance on the entire
circumference. Into how many equal arcs have you divided the circumference?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
Prick punches
Trammel points
Scratch awls
Dividers
In a simple drip pan layout, the radius of a corner arc is equal to what dimension
of the pan?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
True
False
4
6
12
18
What is the approximate circumference of a circle that has a diameter of 18

inches?
A.
B.
C.
D.
45.5 inches
56.5 inches
133.0 inches
365.0 inches
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-63
7.
What is the mathematical formula for determining the area of the stretch-out of a
cylinder?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
(True or False) Metal stakes are used to make an assortment of bends by hand
and to finish many types of work.
A.
B.
9.
The clamping device

The balancing weight
The stop gauge
The mold clamps
(True or False) The box and pan brake is often referred to as a finger brake.
A.
B.
13.
One
Two
Three
Four
What feature on the cornice brake enables you to make as many duplicate bends
as required?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
The depth gauge

The bar handle
The wing
The angle stop
A total of how many adjustments must be made on a cornice brake before you
can use the machine to bend sheet metal?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
True
False
What part of the bar-folding machine is used to make right angles and 45-degree
bends?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
A = r
A = rd
A = 2r
A = (d) h
True
False
When forming a curved shape, you can fabricate the most accurate bend by
using what piece of equipment?
A.
B.
C.
D.
A stake
A mandrel
A pipe
A slip-roll forming machine
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-64
14.
The slip-roll forming machine is designed to allow one end of the top front roll to
be released quickly so you can perform what task easily?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
What operation of the combination rotary machine is used to reduce the size of
the end of a cylinder?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
6
12
24
48
What method of pattern development should you use to develop a pattern for an
object that has a tapering form with lines converging at a common center?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
True
False
A patternmaker decides to divide a half plan or top View into 12 equal parts.
What number of divisions will be required for the stretch-out line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
The beading
The burring
The crimping
The clamping
(True or False) Instead of scribing directly on the metal when a single piece is
being made in quantity, you can make a pattern or template and transfer it to the
metal.
A.
B.
17.
Removal of the work

Cleaning operations
Repairs on the machine
Adjustments to the machine
Radial line
Parallel line
Triangulation
Scratching
When fabricating a wired edge to a cylinder, you must add how much edging to a
pattern?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1 1/2 times the thickness of the metal

2 1/2 times the diameter of the wire to be used
Twice the diameter of the upper burring roller
One half of the diameter of the wire to be used
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-65
20.
In the fabrication of rectangular duct, what seam is used most often?

A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
When laying out a pattern, you consider what feature last?

A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
Self-tapping
Machine
Thread-cutting
Drive
(True or False) Drive screws are simply driven into sheet metal.
A.
B.
26.
Dovetail seam
Drive slip
Pocket slip
Standing seam
What type of screw is most often used in sheet metal work?

A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Square
Slant
V
Wire
What type of connection is used to join a flat sheet and a round pipe/fitting?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Seams
Laps
Notches
Edges
What type of notch is used on a corner when a single-hemmed edge is to meet a

90-degree angle?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
Grooved
Pittsburgh lock
Lap
Standing
True
False
(True or False) Tinners are designated by weight per 1,000 rivets.

A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-66
27.
The distance from the center of the rivet to the edge of the sheet must equal how
many rivet diameters?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
(True or False) The correct method for riveting using Tinners rivets is to draw,
upset, and head the rivet.
A.
B.
29.
2 feet on center along the length of the duct

4 feet on center along the length of the duct
2 feet from each joint
4 feet from each joint
The cross breaking of a duct having a flat side of 18 inches or greater can be
omitted under which of the following conditions?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
26
22
18
16
You are to construct a duct of 24-gauge sheet metal. Each section is 7 feet 10
inches long. If the total system length is 60 feet, you should place the bracing
angles at what location?
A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
True
False
What gauge of aluminum sheet metal is required to construct a duct 62 inches

wide at the top and 28 inches high on the sides?
A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
1
1 1/2
2
2 1/2
The duct is installed in the vertical position.

The material used is at least reinforced at the edges of each duct
segment.
The duct is insulated with approved materials.
The duct is insulated with rigid insulation and the sheet metal used is 2
gauges heavier.
When securing duct systems to heating and cooling units, you should use what
material to fabricate the flexible connections?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Light-gauge sheet metal

Asbestos
Heavy canvas
Aluminum
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-67
33.
When S-slips and drive slips are used on a duct system, you lock the joint into
position in what way?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
Fiberglass duct has which of the following advantages?

A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
150F
200F
250F
300F
What are the dimensions of the galvanized steel straps used to support
fiberglass duct?
A.
B.
C.
D.
38.
True
False
Fiberglass duct must not be used in a heating system in which the heat
generated exceeds what temperature?
A.
B.
C.
D.
37.
Added insulating value

Ease of fabrication and handling
Ease of installation
Each of the above
(True or False) In all fiberglass duct applications, the inside diameter is the
determining factor of the duct size.
A.
B.
36.
By bending the S-slip over the drive slip

By bending the drive slip over S-slip
By cutting off the drive slip even with the S-slip and welding each corner
By center punching the S-slip
3/4-inch diameter by 1/8-inch thick

1-inch diameter by 1/8-inch thick
1-inch diameter by 1/16-inch thick
1 1/8-inch diameter by 1/16 inch thick
You have fabricated a fiberglass duct system that has a 30-inch diameter. At
what distance should the supports be placed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8-foot centers
6-foot centers
4-foot centers
2-foot centers
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-68

Apex
The highest point or peak.
Frustum
A truncated cone or pyramid in which the plane cutting off

the apex is parallel to the base.
Monel
Monel is a trademark of Special Metals Corporation for a

series of nickel alloys, primarily composed of nickel (up to
67%) and copper, with some iron and other trace elements.
Vertex
A corner or a point where lines meet.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-69

Blueprint Reading and Sketching, NAVEDTRA 14040, Naval Education Training
Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola FL, 2003.
Budzik Richard, S., Fittings Used Today that Require Triangulation Including the
Theory of Triangulation Practical Sheetmetal Layout, Practical Publications,Chicago,
IL, 1971.
Budzik, Richard, S., "Round Fittings Used Today including Methods and Techniques of
Fabricating Round Work Practical Sheetmetal Layout, Practical Publications, Chicago,
IL, 1971.
Budzik, Richard, S., Todays 40 Most Frequently-Used Fittings, Practical Sheetmetal
Layout, Practical Publications, Chicago, IL, 1971.
Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning and Sheetmetal Work, TM 5-745, Headquarters
Department of the Army, Washington, DC, 1968.
Johnston, Philip, M., Sheet Metal, Volumes 1-4, Delmar Publishers Inc., Albany, NY,
1966.
Tools and Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 14256, Naval Education and Training Program
Management Support Activity, Pensacola, FL, 1992.
Walker, John, R., Modern Metalworking, Goodheart-Wilcox Company Inc., South
Holland, IL, 1993.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-70

be brought to the attention of the Technical ReView Committee. Thank you for your
assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
13-71
Chapter 14
Fiber Line
Topics
1.0.0
Fiber Line
Overview
Steelworkers need tools to hoist and move steel into place to erect a structure of any
scale. This hoisting gear ranges from uncomplicated devices, such as tripods and gin
poles, to complex mechanisms, such as cranes and motor-powered derricks. Whatever
the case, one of the most important components of these hoisting machines is the fiber
line or wire rope that must be attached to and hold the load to be moved. Before you, as
a Steelworker, can become skilled in the supervision of hoisting devices, you must first
understand the use and maintenance of fiber line.
Objectives
1.
Describe Fiber line fabrication and use.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R
Layout and Fabrication of Sheet metal and Fiberglass Duct

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-2

NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-3
1.0.0 FIBER LINE

Fiber line is made from either natural or synthetic fiber. Natural fibers, which come from
plants, include manila, sisal, hemp, coir, and cotton. The synthetic fibers include nylon,
polyester, and polypropylene.
1.1.0 Types of Natural Fiber Line

The principal vegetable fibers are abaca (ab-uh-kah) (known as Manila), agave sisalana
and henequen (hen-uh-kin) (both known as sisal), hemp, sometimes coir, and cotton.
The last two are relatively unimportant in the heavy cordage field. Abaca, agave
sisalana, and henequen are classified as hard fibers. The comparative strengths of the
vegetable fibers, considering abaca as 100, are as follows:
Sisalana
80
Henequen
65
Hemp
100
1.1.1 Manila
This is a strong fiber that comes from the leaf stems of the stalk of the abaca plant,
which belongs to the banana family. The fibers vary in length from 5 to 11 feet (1.5 to
3.5 meters) in the natural states. The quality of the fiber and its length give Manila rope
relatively high elasticity, strength, and resistance to wear and deterioration. The
manufacturer treats the rope with chemicals to make it more mildew resistant, which
increases the ropes quality. It is very popular for public utility construction and repair
because it will not melt on contact with hot wires or equipment like synthetics do. It will
burn, however, if the temperature is very high or if the rope is in contact with the
wires/equipment for an extended period of time. A good grade of manila is cream in
color, smooth, clean, and pliable. Poorer grades of manila are characterized by varying
shades of brown. Manila rope is generally the standard item of issue because of its
quality and relative strength.
1.1.2 Sisal
Sisal (the next best line-making fiber) rope is made from two tropical plants, sisalana
and henequen, that produce fibers 26 to 40 inches (65cm to 1 m) long. Sisalana
produces the stronger fibers yarn. Sisal rope is about 80 percent as strong as high
quality Manila rope and can be easily obtained. The fiber is similar to manila, but lighter
in color. It withstands exposure to seawater very well and is often used for this purpose.
1.1.3 Hemp
This tall plant is cultivated in many parts of the world and provides useful fibers for
making rope and cloth. Hemp was used extensively before the introduction of Manila,
and the term small stuff is used to describe small cordage that a layman may call string,
yarn, or cords, but its principal use today is in fittings, such as ratline, marline (mahrlin), and spun yarn. Since hemp absorbs tar much better than the hard fibers, these
fittings are invariably tarred to make them more water-resistant. Tarred hemp has about
80 percent of the strength of hemp. Of these tarred fittings, marline is the standard item
of issue.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-4
1.1.4 Coir
Coir line is made from the fiber of coconut husks. It is a very elastic, rough line, light
enough to float on water, but at about one-fourth the strength of hemp, coir usage is
restricted to small lines.
1.1.5 Cotton
Cotton makes a very smooth, white line that withstands much bending and running.
However, cotton is very susceptible to the elements and deteriorates very quickly
compared to the other materials used to make rope. Therefore, cotton is only used in
some cases for very small lines.
1.2.0 Types of Synthetic Fiber Lines

Synthetic fiber rope, such as nylon and polyester, has rapidly gained wide use by the
Navy. It is lighter in weight, more flexible, less bulky, and easier to handle and store
than manila line. It is also highly resistant to mildew, rot, and fungus. Synthetic rope is
stronger than natural fiber rope. For example, nylon is about three times stronger than
manila. When nylon line is wet or frozen, the loss of strength is relatively small. Nylon
rope will hold a load even though several strands may be frayed. Ordinarily, the line can
be made reusable by cutting away the chafed or frayed section and splicing the good
line together.
1.3.0 Fabrication of Line

The fabrication of line consists essentially of three progressive twisting operations, each
in the opposite direction of each other.
1.3.1 Fibers
Fibers are a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete,
elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. Fibers are the smallest component of a
rope. The fibers are twisted or spun together. The fibers are twisted to the right.
1.3.2 Yarns
Yarn is produced by the twisting of the
fibers. Two or more yarns are twisted in the
opposite direction (left) of the fibers,
increasing its resilience.
1.3.3 Strands
The result of twisting the yarns is strands.
The strands are twisted in the opposite
direction to the yarns (right) to form the line.
Usually three strands are twisted together
to form a line; however, more can be used
as needed.
1.3.4 Lines
Figure 14-1 shows how the fibers are
grouped to form a three-strand line.
Figure 14-1 Fabrication of line.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-5
The operation just described is the typical line-making procedure, and the resulting
product is known as a right-laid line. When the process is reversed, the result is a leftlaid line. In either instance, the principle of opposite twists must always be observed.
The two main reasons for the principle of opposite twists are to keep the line tight to
prevent the fibers from unlaying with a load suspended on it and to prevent moisture
penetration.
1.4.0 Types of Lays of Line

You need to be familiar with three types of fiber line lays: hawser-laid, shroud-laid, and
cable-laid lines. Each type is illustrated in Figure 14-2.
Figure 14-2 Lays of line.

1.4.1 Hawser-Laid
Hawser-laid line (common/plain rope) generally consists of three strands twisted
together, usually in a right-hand direction.
1.4.2 Shroud-Laid
A shroud-laid line ordinarily is composed of four strands twisted together, usually in a
right-hand direction around a center strand, or core, which is usually of the same
material, but smaller in diameter than the four strands. Shroud-laid line is more pliable
and stronger than hawser-laid line, but it has a strong tendency toward kinking. In most
instances, it is used on sheaves and drums. This not only prevents kinking, but also
makes use of its pliability and strength.
1.4.3 Cable-Laid
Cable-laid line usually consists of three right-hand, hawser-laid lines twisted together in
a left-hand direction. It is especially safe to use in heavy construction work; if cable-laid
line untwists, it will tend to tighten any regular right-hand screw connection to which it is
attached.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-6
1.5.0 Size Designation

Line 1 3/4 inches (44.5 mm) or
less in circumference is called
small stuff. The number of
threads, or yarns, that make up
each strand, usually designates
the size. You may use from 6 to
24 thread strands, but the most
commonly used are 9 to 21
thread strands, as shown in
Figure 14-3. You may hear some
small stuff designated by name
without reference to size. One
such type is marline, a tarred,
two-strand, left-laid hemp.
Marline is the small stuff you will
use most for seizing. When you
need something stronger than
marline, use a tarred, threestrand, left-laid hemp called
houseline.
Figure 14-3 Size designation of a line.
Line larger than 1 3/4 inches in

circumference is generally size
designated by its circumference in inches. A six-inch manila line, for instance, is
constructed of manila fibers and measures six inches in circumference. Twelve inches
is about the largest manila carried in stock. Anything larger is used only on special jobs.
If you have occasion to order line, you may find that the catalogs designate it by
diameter rather than circumference, and you order it by diameter. The catalogs may
also use the term rope rather than line.
You can pull rope yarns for temporary seizing, whippings, and lashings from large
strands of old line that have outlived their usefulness. Pull your yarn from the middle,
away from the ends, or it will get fouled.
1.6.0 Handling and Care of Fiber Line

If you expect the fiber line you work with to give safe and dependable service, make
sure it is handled and cared for properly. Study the precautions and procedures given
here and carry them out properly.
Cleanliness is part of the care of fiber line. Never drag a line over the deck or ground, or
over rough or dirty surfaces. The line can easily pick up sand and grit, which will work
into the strands and wear the fibers. If a line does get dirty, use only water to clean it.
Do not use soap because it will remove oil from the line, which weakens it.
When nylon line is properly handled and maintained, it should last more than five times
longer than manila line subjected to the same use. Nylon line is also lighter, more
flexible, less bulky, and easier to handle and store than manila line. When nylon line is
wet or frozen, it loses little strength. Additionally, nylon line is resistant to mildew,
rotting, and attack by marine borers. If a nylon line becomes slippery because of
grease, it should be cleaned with light oils, such as kerosene or diesel oil.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-7
Avoid pulling line over sharp edges because the strands may break. When you
encounter a sharp edge, place chafing gear, such as a board, folded cardboard,
canvas, or part of a rubber tire between the line and the sharp edge to prevent
damaging the line.
Never cut a line unless you have to. When possible, use knots that you can easily untie.
Fiber line contracts, or shrinks, when it gets wet. If there is not enough slack in a wet
line to permit shrinkage, the line is likely to become overstrained and weakened. If a
taut line is exposed to rain or dampness, make sure the line, while still dry, is slacked to
allow for shrinkage.
Inspect line carefully at regular intervals to determine whether it is safe.
1.6.1 Uncoiling
New line is coiled, bound, and wrapped in
burlap. This protective covering should not
be removed until the line is to be used
because it protects the line during storage
and prevents tangling. To open, remove the
burlap wrapping and look inside the coil for
the end of the line. This should be at the
bottom of the coil. If it is not, turn the coil
over so that the end will be at the bottom.
Pull the end of the line up through the
center of the coil (Figure 14-4). As the line
comes up through the coil, it will unwind in
a counterclockwise direction.
1.6.2 Uncoiling Nylon
Never uncoil new nylon line by pulling the
ends up through the eye of the coil. Avoid
repeatedly coiling nylon in the same
direction or you will unbalance the lay.
Figure 14-4 Uncoiling line.
1.6.3 Making Up
After the line has been removed from the
manufacturers coil, it may be made up
(prepared for storage or use) by winding on
a reel. It may also be made up by cooling
down, faking down, or blemishing down. To
coil down a line simply means to lay it in
circles, roughly one on top of the other
(Figure 14-5). Line should always be coiled
in the same direction as the layclockwise
for right lay and counterclockwise for left
lay. When a line has been coiled down, one
end is ready to run off. This is the end that
went down last and is now on top. If, for
some reason, the bottom end must go out
first, you will have to turn your coil over to
free it for running.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 14-5 Coiling down line

after use.
14-8
1.6.4 Whipping
The term whipping refers to the process of securing the ends of a line to prevent the
strands from unlaying and the yarns from separating or fraying. It will not increase the
size of the line enough to prevent the fitting of the blocks or openings through which it
must pass. Whippings are made with fine twine.
Figure 14-6 shows the steps to
follow in applying a whipping:
1. Make a loop in the end of
the twine and place the
loop at the end of the
line, as shown in the
figure.
2. Wind the standing part
around the line covering
the loop of the whipping.
Leave the small loop
uncovered, as shown.
3. Pass the remainder of the
standing end up through
the small loop and pull
the dead end of the
twine, thus pulling the
small loop and the
standing end back toward
the end of the line
underneath the whipping.
Figure 14-6 Whipping a line.
4. Pull the dead end of the

twine until the loop with the standing end through it reaches a point midway
underneath the whipping.
5. Trim both ends of the twine close up against the loops of the whipping.
Before cutting a line, place two whippings on the line 1 or 2 inches apart and make the
cut between the whippings, as shown in Figure 14-7. This procedure prevents the ends
from untwisting after they are cut.
Figure 14-7 Cutting a line between whipping.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-9
1.6.5 Inspecting
The exterior appearance of fiber line is not always a good indication of its internal
condition. Line softens with use, and dampness, heavy loads, fraying, breaking strands,
and dragging over rough surfaces all contribute to line weakening and failure. Also,
overloading a line can cause it to part, resulting in heavy damage to material,
equipment, and/or serious injury to personnel. For these reasons, line should be
inspected carefully at regular intervals to determine whether it is safe for use.
The interior of a line can be checked by untwisting the strands slightly. Again, line that is
mildewed gives off a musty odor. A trained observer usually can spot broken strands or
yams immediately. Look carefully to ensure there is no dirt or sawdust-like material
inside the line; the presence of dirt or other foreign matter indicates possible damage to
the internal structure of the line. In line having a central core, the core should not break
away in small pieces upon examination. If this occurs, it indicates that the line has been
overloaded. Additionally, a decrease in line circumference is usually a sure sign that an
excessive strain has been applied to the line.
For a thorough inspection, a line should be examined at several places.
CAUTION
Only one weak spot anywhere in a line makes the entire line weak.
As a final check, if the line appears to be satisfactory in all aspects, pull out a couple of
fibers from the line and try to break them. Sound fibers show a strong resistance to
breakage.
If an inspection discloses any unsatisfactory conditions in a line, destroy it or cut it into
small pieces as soon as possible, but save the small pieces for miscellaneous uses on
the jobsite. This precaution will prevent the possibility of the defective line being used
for hoisting purposes.
As with manila, nylon line is measured by circumference. Nylon, as manila, usually
comes on a reel of 600 to 1,200 feet, depending upon the size.
1.6.6 Storing
When fiber line is to be stored, certain precautions must be taken to safeguard the line
against deterioration. A line should never be stored when wet. Always dry the line well
before placing it in storage.
After being used, a line should be coiled down in a clockwise direction (assuming it is a
right-hand lay). Should the line be kinked from excessive turns, remove them by the
procedure known as thorough footing. This is accomplished by coiling the line down
counterclockwise (again assuming it is a right-hand lay) and then pulling the bottom end
of the coil up and out the middle of the coil. If the line is free of kinks as it leaves the
coil, make it up in the correct manner. If the line is still kinked, repeat the process before
making up the line for storage.
Carefully consider where you store line. Line deteriorates rapidly if exposed to
prolonged dampness; therefore, it is important that the storage area is dry, unheated,
and well ventilated. To permit proper air circulation, place the line in loose coils on a
wood grating platform about 6 inches (15 cm) above the floor. You can also hang the
line in loose coils on a wooden peg. Avoid continuous exposure of line to sunlight;
excessive sunlight can damage the line. Do not store nylon line in strong sunlight. Cover
it with tarpaulins.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-10
As a final precaution, do not expose line to lime, acids, or other chemicals, or even store
line in a room containing chemicals. Even the fumes may severely damage the line.
1.7.0 Strength of Fiber Line

Overloading a line poses a serious threat to the safety of personnel, not to mention the
heavy losses likely to result through damage to material. To avoid overloading, you
must know the strength of the line with which you are working. This involves three
factors: breaking strength, safe working load (SWL), and safety factor.
1.7.1 Breaking Strength
Breaking strength refers to the tension at which the line will part when a load is applied.
Rope manufacturers determine breaking strength through tests and provide tables with
this information. In the absence of manufacturers tables, a rule of thumb for finding the
breaking strength of manila line is the formula:
BS = C2 x 900
BS equals the breaking strength in pounds and C equals the circumference in inches.
To find BS, first square the circumference, then multiply the value obtained by 900. For
example, with a three-inch line you will get a BS of 8,100 pounds as follows:
BS = 3 x 3 x 900 = 8,100
If you are OUTCONUS and the supplier uses the metric system, the line is measured in
centimeters, so you can figure breaking strength in kilograms. The same equation is
used with only the constant being changed to 64.8 (vice 900). The breaking strength in
kilograms is figured as follows:
7.5 cm x 7.5 cm x 64.8 = 3,645 kg
The breaking strength of manila line is higher than that of sisal line because of the
difference in the two fibers. The fiber from which a particular line is constructed has a
definite bearing on its breaking strength.
1.7.2 Safe Working Load
Briefly defined, the safe working load of a line is the load that can be applied without
damaging the line. Note that the safe working load is considerably less than the
breaking strength. A wide margin of difference between breaking strength and safe
working load is necessary. This difference allows for such factors as additional strain
imposed on the line by jerky movements in hoisting or bending over sheaves in a pulley
block.
You may not always have a chart available to tell you the safe working load for a
particular line. Here is a rule of thumb that will adequately serve your needs on such an
occasion:
SWL = C2 x 150
In this equation, SWL equals the safe working load in pounds, and C equals the
circumference of the line in inches. Simply take the circumference of the line, square it,
and then multiply by 150. For a 3-inch line:
SWL = 3 x 3 x 150 = 1,350 pounds
The safe working load of a three-inch line is equal to 1,350 pounds.
If you are OUTCONUS using the metric system, use the same formula with a constant
figure of 10.8, the metric constant equivalent to 150 in the decimal system.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-11
In the metric system, the rule is as follows:

SWL = C2 x 10.8
SWL equals the safe working load in kilograms, and C equals the circumference of the
line in centimeters.
Substituting the centimeter equivalent of 3 inches (3 inches = 7.5 cm), the formula
becomes the following:
SWL = 7.5 cm x 7.5 cm x 10.8 = 607.5 kg
Thus, the safe working load of a line 7.5 cm in circumference is equal to 607.5 kg.
If a line is in good shape, add 30 percent to the SWL derived by means of the preceding
rule; if it is in bad shape, subtract 30 percent from the SWL. In the example given above
for the three-inch line, adding 30 percent to the 1,350 pounds gives you a safe working
load of 1,755 pounds. On the other hand, subtracting 30 percent from 1,350 pounds
leaves you with a safe working load of 945 pounds.
Remember, the strength of a line decreases with age; use; and exposure to excessive
heat, boiling water, or sharp bends. Especially with used line, give these and other
factors affecting strength careful consideration and make proper adjustments in
determining the breaking strength and safe working load capacity of the line.
Manufacturers of line provide tables that show the breaking strength and safe working
load capacity of line. Those tables are very useful in your work, but you must remember
that the values given in manufacturers tables apply only to new line used under
favorable conditions. Therefore, you must progressively reduce the values given in
manufacturers tables as the line ages or deteriorates with use.
Keep in mind that a strong strain on a kinked or twisted line can put a permanent
distortion in the line. The kink that could and should have been worked out may now be
permanent, and the line ruined.
1.7.3 Safety Factor
The safety factor of a line is the ratio between the breaking strength and the safe
working load. Usually, a safety factor of four is acceptable, but this is not always the
case. The safety factor will vary, depending on such things as the condition of the line
and circumstances under which it is to be used, but the safety factor should never be
less than three, and often must be well above four, possibly as high as eight or ten. For
the best, average, or unfavorable conditions, the following safety factors may often be
suitable:
Best conditions (new line): four
Average conditions (line used, but in good condition): six
Unfavorable conditions (frequently used line, such as running rigging): eight
1.7.4 Breaking Strength of Nylon Line

The breaking strength of nylon line is almost three times that of manila line of the same
size. The rule of thumb for the breaking strength of nylon line is as follows:
BS = C2 x 2,400
NOTE
The symbols in this rule are the same as those for fiber line in both the English and
metric systems, while the constant for the metric system is 172.8.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-12
Application of the formula: determine the BS for a 2 1/2-inch nylon line in both pounds
and kilograms:
Solution: BS = 2.5 x 2.5 x 2,400 = 15,000 pounds
or
BS = 6.35 cm x 6.35 cm x 172.8 = 6,967 kilograms
Nylon line can withstand repeated stretching to this point with no serious effects. When
nylon line is under load, it thins out. Under normal safe working loads, nylon line will
stretch about one third of its length. When free of tension, it returns to its normal size.
However, when nylon line is stretched more than 40 percent, it is likely to part, and the
stretch is immediately recovered with a snapback that sounds like a pistol shot.
WARNING
The snapback of a nylon line can be as deadly as a bullet. This feature is also
true for other types of lines, but overconfidence in the strength of nylon may lead
one to underestimate its backlash; therefore, ensure that no one stands in the
direct line of pull when a heavy strain is applied to a line.
The critical point of loading is 40-percent extension of length; for example, a 10-foot
length of nylon line would stretch to 14 feet when under load. Should the stretch exceed
40 percent, the line will be in danger of parting.
Nylon line will hold a load even though a considerable number of strands are abraded.
Ordinarily, when abrasion is localized the line may be made satisfactory for reuse by
cutting away the chafed section and splicing the ends.
1.8.0 Knots, Bends, and Hitches

The term knot is usually applied to any tie or fastening formed with a cord, rope, or line.
In a general sense, it includes the words bends and hitches.
1.8.1 Line Parts
A bend is used to fasten two lines together or to fasten a line to a ring or loop. A hitch is
used to fasten a line around a timber or spar, so it will hold temporarily but can be
readily untied. Many ties, which are strictly bends, have come to be known as knots; for
this reason, we will refer to them as knots in this discussion.
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Knots, bends, and hitches are made from three fundamental elements: a bight, a loop,
and a round turn. Observe Figure 14-8 closely and you should experience no difficulty in
making these three elements. Note: the free or working end of a line is known as the
running end, the remainder of the line is called the standing part.
Figure 14-8 Elements of knots, bends, and hitches.

NOTE
A good knot is one that is tied rapidly, holds fast when pulled tightly, and is untied
easily. In addition to the knots, bends, and hitches described in the following
paragraphs, you may need others in steel working. When you understand how to make
those covered in this chapter, you should find it fairly easy to learn the procedure for
other types.
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1.8.2 Overhand Knot

The overhand knot is considered the
simplest of all knots to make (Figure 14-9):
1. Hold a rope or string in your left
hand, about 12 inches from the end.
2. Make a loop (called an eye) in the
rope with your right hand. You will
make an X at the top of the loop
where the rope crosses itself. The
section of rope closest to the end
should pass under the other section,
from the top left to the lower right of
the X.
3. Hold the X with your left hand.
4. Use your right hand to push the end
of the rope into the loop and then
pull on both ends.
Figure 14-9 Overhand knot.

The overhand knot is often used as a part
of another knot. At times, it may also be used to keep the end of a line from untwisting
or to form a knob at the end of a line.
1.8.3 Figure-Eight Knot
The figure-eight knot is used to form a
larger knot than would be formed by an
overhand knot in the end of a line (Figure
14-10). A figure-eight knot is used in the
end of a line to prevent the end from
slipping through a fastening or loop in
another line. To make the figure-eight knot:
1. Make a loop in the standing part.
2. Pass the running end around the
standing part, back over one side of
the loop and down through the loop.
3. Pull tightly.
Figure 14-10 Figure-eight knot.
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1.8.4 Square Knot

The square knot, also called the reef knot,
is an ideal selection for tying two lines of
the same size together so they will not slip.
To tie a square knot:
1. Bring the two ends of the line
together and make an overhand
knot.
2. Form another overhand knot in the
opposite direction, as shown in
Figure 14-11.
NOTE
A good rule to follow for a square knot is left
over right and right over left.
When tying a square knot, make sure the
two overhand knots are parallel. This
means that each running end must come
Figure 14-11 Square knot.
out parallel to the standing part of its own
line. If your knot fails to meet this test, you
have tied what is known as a granny. A granny knot should never be used; it is unsafe
because it will slip under strain. A true square knot, instead of slipping under strain, will
only draw tighter.
1.8.5 Sheepshank
The Sheepshank is generally thought of as
merely a means to shorten a line, but in an
emergency, it can also be used to take the
load off a weak spot in the line. To make a
sheepshank:
1. Form two bights (Figure 14-12, View
1).
2. Take a half hitch around each bight
(Figure 14-12, Views 2 and 3).
In case you are using the sheepshank to
take the load off a weak spot, make sure
the spot is in the part of the line indicated
by the arrow in Figure 14-12, View 2.
Figure 14-12 Sheepshank.
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1.8.6 Bowline
Use the bowline to tie a temporary eye
in the end of a line. A bowline neither
slips nor jams and unties easily. An
example of a temporary use is that of
tying a heaving line or messenger to a
hawser and throwing it to a pier, where
line handlers can pull the hawser to the
pier, using the heaving line or
messenger.
To tie a bowline (Figure 14-13):
1. Hold the standing part with your
left hand and the running end
with your right.
2. Flip an overhand loop in the
standing part, and hold the
standing part and loop with the
thumb and fingers of your left
hand.
Figure 14-13 Bowline.
3. Using your right hand, pass the

running end up through the loop, under the standing part, and down through the
loop. Its strength is 60 percent.
1.8.7 French Bowline
Use a French bowline as a sling for
lifting an injured person. For this
purpose, one loop is used as a seat and
the other loop is put around the body
under the arms, then the knot is drawn
tightly at the chest. Even an
unconscious person can ride up safely
in a properly secured French bowline
because his or her weight keeps the two
loops tight so that he or she will not fall
out. It follows, though, that it is
necessary to take care not to allow the
loop under the arms to catch on any
projections. Also, use the French
bowline where a person is working alone
and needs both hands free. The two
loops of the knot can be adjusted to the
required size. Figure 14-14 shows the
step-by-step procedure for tying the
French bowline.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 14-14 French bowline.
14-17
1.8.8 Spanish Bowline

The Spanish bowline is useful in rescue work, especially as a substitute for the
boatswains chair. It may also be used to give a twofold grip for lifting a pipe or other
round object in a sling. Many people prefer the Spanish bowline to the French bowline
because the bights are set and will not slip back and forth (as in the French bowline)
when the weight is shifted. To tie a Spanish bowline:
1. Take a bight and bend it back away from you (Figure 14-15, View 1), forming two
bights.
2. Lap one bight over the other (View 2).
Figure 14-15 Spanish bowline.

3. Grasp the two bights where they cross at (a) in View 2.
4. Fold this part down toward you, forming four bights (View 3).
5. Pass bight (c) through bight (e) and bight (d) through bight (f) (View 4).
The complete knot is shown in View 5.
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1.8.9 Running Bowline

The running bowline forms a strong running
loop (Figure 14-16). It is a convenient form
of running an eye. The running bowline
provides a sling of the choker type at the
end of a single line. Use it when tying a
hand line around an object at a point that
you cannot safely reach, such as the end of
a limb. The weight of the object determines
the tension necessary for the knot to grip.
To make a running bowline:
1. Make an overhand loop with the end
of the rope held toward you.
2. Hold the loop with your thumb and
fingers and bring the standing part of
the rope back so that it lies behind
the loop.
3. Take the end of the rope in behind
the standing part, bring it up, and
feed it through the loop.
Figure 14-16 Running bowline.
4. Pass it behind the standing part at the top of the loop and bring it back down
through the loop.
1.8.10 Becket Bend
Use a becket bend to tie two lines of
unequal size together or to tie a line to an
eye. The becket bend will draw tightly, but
will loosen when the line is slackened. The
becket bend is stronger than the square
knot, and is more easily untied than the
square knot.
To tie a becket bend (Figure 14-17):
1. Take a bight in the larger of the two
lines.
2. Using the smaller of the two lines,
put its end up through the bight.
Then put it around the standing part
of the larger line first because it will
have the strain on it and then
around the running end of the larger
line.
Figure 14-17 Becket bend.
3. Put the end of the smaller line under

its standing part. The strain on the standing part will hold the end.
Notice in the double sheet or becket bend that the end of the smaller line goes under its
standing part both times.
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1.8.11 Clove Hitch

The clove hitch is one of the most widely used knots (Figure 14-18). You can use it to
fasten a rope to a timber, pipe, or post. You can also use it to make other knots. This
knot puts very little strain on the fibers when the rope is put around an object in one
continuous direction. You can tie a clove hitch at any point in a rope. A clove hitch will
not jam or pull out; however, if a clove hitch is slack, it might work itself out, and for that
Figure 14-18 Clove hitch.

reason, it is a good idea to make a half hitch in the end, as shown in Figure 14-19, View
1. A half hitch never becomes a whole hitch. Add a second one and all you have is two
half hitches, or double half-hitches, as shown in Figure 4-19, View 2.
Figure 14-19 Half hitch.

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1.8.12 Scaffold Hitch

The scaffold hitch is used to support
the end of a scaffold plank with a
single line. To make the scaffold
hitch:
1. Lay the running end across
the top and around the plank,
then up and over the standing
part (Figure 14-20, View 1).
2. Bring a doubled portion of the
running end back under the
plank to form a bight at the
opposite side of the plank
(View 2).
3. The running end is taken back
across the top of the plank
until it can be passed through
the bight (View 3).
4. Make a loop in the standing
part above the plank (View 4).
Figure 14-20 Scaffold hitch.
5. Pass the running end through

the loop and around the
standing part and back through the loop (View 5).
1.8.13 Barrel Hitch
A Barrel hitch can be used to lift a barrel or
other rounded object, either in a horizontal or
vertical position.
To sling a barrel horizontally (Figure 14-21):
1. Start by making a bowline with a long
bight.
2. Bring the line at the bottom of the bight
up over the sides of the bight.
3. Place the two ears thus formed over
the end of the barrel.
Figure 14-21 Barrel hitch.
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To sling a barrel vertically (Figure 14-22):

1. Pass the line under the bottom of the barrel, bring it up to the top, and then form
an overhand knot, (View 1).
2. While maintaining slight tension on the line, grasp the two parts of the overhand
knot and pull them down over the sides of the barrel (View 2).
3. Pull the line snug and make a bowline over the top of the barrel (View 3).
1.9.0 Splicing Fiber Line

When it is necessary to join lengths of line, a splice should be used, rather than a knot.
Figure 14-22 Vertical barrel hitch.

A properly made short splice will retain up to 100 percent of the strength of the line,
while a knot will retain only 50 percent. Splicing means the joining of two separate
lines. It also means the retracing of the unlaid strand of the line back through its own
strands in the standing part of the line. The four general types of splices in fiber line
commonly used in rigging work are: eye, short, long, and back splices. Once you learn
how to make one type, the others should not be difficult.
1.9.1 Eye Splice
The principal use of an eye splice is to make an
eye in the end of a line. The eye is useful in
fastening the line to a ring or hook. It can also
be made up with a thimble. A thimble is a
grooved ring that may be set in the eye of a line
to prevent chafing. The eye splice is estimated
as being 90 percent as strong as the line itself.
To make an eye splice, you unlay (untwist) the
strands in the end of your line about five turns,
and splice them into the standing part of the line
by tucking the unlaid strands from the end into
the standing part. An original round of tucks plus
two additional complete rounds is enough for an
ordinary eye splice.
With large lines, you must whip the ends of your
strands before you start; otherwise, they will
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 14-23 Working the fid.

14-22
frazzle out and cause you trouble. Large lines must also be seized at the point where
unlaying stops or you will have trouble working them. With any lineup to about 2 inches
(50 mm), you can open the strands in the standing part with your fingers.
With larger lines, you use the fid. A fid is a tapered and pointed tool made from maple,
hickory, or other hardwood. Figure 14-23 shows you the knack of working the fid in
making an eye splice.
Lay your line out along the deck with the end to your right. Bend it back until your eye is
the size you want it, and shove the fid through the standing part at the right spot to raise
the top strand. Shove the fid through the rope away from you with your right hand as
you hold the line with your left. Take the raised strand with your left finger and thumb,
and hold it up while you pull out the fid. Drop the fid, pick up the proper strand in the
end, and tuck it through the raised strand from outboard toward you, as shown in Figure
14-23.
Your first round of tucks must be taken in proper order or you will come out all fouled
up. Separate the strands in the end and hold them up, as shown in Figure 14-24, View
1. The middle strand facing you always tucks first. Be sure you keep the right-hand
strand (View 2) on the side of the line that is toward you. You tuck that one next, over
the strand you just tucked the other one under, and under the strand just below it (View
3).
Now turn the whole thing over. You can see (View 4) that you now have only one strand
from the end left untucked, and only one strand in the standing part that does not
already have a strand under it. Be sure you tuck your last strand also from outboard
toward you, as shown in View 5.
The first round of tucks is the big secret. The rest is easy. Simply tuck each strand from
the end over the strand of the standing part, which it is now above, and under the next
strand below that one, until you have tucked each strand twice more besides the
original tuck. Three tucks to each strand in all is enough.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 14-24 Making an eye splice.

1.9.2 Short Splice
In a short splice, the ends of a line are joined together or the ends of two different lines
are joined, causing an increase in the diameter of the line for a short distance. This
splice should NOT be used where the increase in the diameter of the line would affect
operation. One purpose for which you may find the short splice especially useful is in
making endless slings. It is also used for making straps. Slings and straps are made of
pieces of line with their own ends short-spliced together. Where possible, use a short
splice, rather than a long splice; the short splice requires less line and can be fashioned
more quickly than the long splice.
In making a short splice:
1. Unlay both ends of the lines about seven turns (Figure 14-25, View 1) and put a
temporary whipping on each of the loose strands.
2. Marry the ends together. In marrying, the technique is to interlace the loose
strands of one line with the loose strands of the other line. When this is
completed properly, each loose strand should be between the two loose strands
of the other line. With the strands in this manner, start making the tucks, following
the principle of over one and under one (View 2).
3. One side of the splice can be made with three tucks, and then the other side will
be made identically. Three complete tucks of each strand should be sufficient to
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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ensure a safe splice (View 3).

4. As a finishing touch, cut off all loose ends and roll and pound the splice on a hard
surface (View 4).
Figure 14-25 Making a short splice.

1.9.3 Long Splice
In a long splice, either the ends of a line are joined together or the ends of two different
lines are joined without increasing the diameter of the line. The strength of a properly
made long splice will be equal to that of the line itself. The long splice is ideal for joining
two lines where the line will be run over pulleys in a block. A short-spliced line would not
serve this purpose since the diameter of the line at the point of splicing is larger than
that of the remaining portion and may not pass over the pulleys in the block properly.
The long splice also has a neater appearance than the short splice.
To make a long splice:
1. Unlay the ends about 15 turns and arrange the strands as shown in Figure 1426, View 1.
2. Using two opposing strands, begin unlaying one and follow immediately laying its
opposing strand tightly into the left groove (Figure 14-26, View 2). Be sure you
choose the correct pairs of strands for opposites. This is important. To determine
the correct pair, try laying one of the tucking ends into the opposite standing line.
The strand that this tucking end tends to push out and replace will be the correct
opposing strand. In the process of replacing one strand with its opposing tucking
end, keep a close watch on the marriage back at the starting place. If the other
loose tucking ends are allowed too much freedom, they will divorce themselves
from the original marriage. This creates quite a puzzle for the splicer because the
lines do not fit up correctly, and no matter which two strands are chosen, the
splicer seems to end up with a stranger between them, or else the last tucking
ends have two strands between them. Therefore, it is important to keep the
marriage intact when replacing one strand with another. Cut off all the
remainders of the ends close up, then roll and pound the line so the tucks will
settle in tightly. As soon as you have gone far enough with the first tucking end to
have its end left to make an overhand knot and two tucks, stop and tie the ends
together. This procedure must be done in the correct direction; the ends must
stand out away from the standing part, not alongside.
3. Now, select two more opposing strands from the marriage in the same manner
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as before. Be careful to pick the correct two strands. Proceed to unlay and
replace (down tight) as you did the first pair-this time in the opposite direction.
When the proper place is reached, tie a knot (View 3).
4. You now have two opposing strands with which you have nothing to do but make
an overhand knot. If at this point there happens to be a standing strand running
between them, a wrong choice has been made in choosing opposing strands
(pairs) during one of the first two steps. The solution is to bring one or the other
of these first two back and redo it with the correct pair. When completed, the
splice should look similar to the example shown in View 4.
5. After all three overhand knots have been correctly tied, start tucking all the loose
ends over one and under one, twice each.
6. Cut off all the remainders of the ends close up, then roll and pound the line so
the tucks will settle in tightly. When completed, the splice will look like View 4.
Figure 14-26 Making a long splice.

1.9.4 Back Splice
In a back splice, the strands at
the end of a line are spliced
back into its own strands. This
splice is used to prevent a line
from unlaying or unraveling
when an enlargement at the end
of the line is not objectionable.
The back splice starts from a
crown knot. The procedure for
making a back splice is shown
in Figure 14-27.
After you have hauled the crown
down tight by heaving on each
of the three strands, proceed to
lay up the back splice. This
merely requires splicing the
three loose strands back into the
line, following the same principle
as with the eye and short
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 14-27 Making a back splice.
14-26
spliceover one and under one.

Because the back splice leaves a lump in the line, it should not be used where there is a
possibility of the enlarged end hanging up, as might be the case if it were run through
hoisting blocks.
1.10.0 Splicing Nylon Line

Nylon line can hold a load even when many strands are abraded. Normally, when
abrasion is local, the line may be restored for use by cutting away the chafed section
and splicing the ends. Chafing and stretching do not necessarily affect the load-carrying
ability of nylon line.
Splicing nylon line is similar to splicing manila; however, friction tape is used instead of
seizing stuff for whipping the strands and line, and because it is smooth and elastic,
nylon line requires at least one tuck more than does manila. For heavy loads, a back
tuck should be taken with each strand.
Summary
This chapter introduced you to the basics of fiber line. You learned the materials and
characteristics of natural fiber line as well as some calculations to measure the strength
of those lines. You learned some important knots, hitches, and bends that will help you
when you need to move materials. You were introduced to some splices that will help
you mend deteriorated line. These techniques and your ability to assess the material
conditions of the fiber line will help insure a safe and effective project.
Always remember to keep your line clean and in good working order. Poorly maintained
fiber line can be very dangerous to work with, so always follow prescribed safety
precautions.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-27

1.
What is the primary reason manila line is preferred for use as standard issue
line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
The primary reason for the use of nylon line is that it_______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
True
False
Soap is not used to clean fiber line because_____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
7.
Hawser-laid
Shroud-laid
Cable-laid
None of the above
(True or False) You may have to order line by diameter rather than
circumference, and refer to it as rope.
A.
B.
6.
True
False
Which, if any, of the following types of line is formed from three twisting
operations in a right-hand direction?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
is waterproof
is resistant to abrasion
resumes normal length after being stretched
has a breaking strength that is nearly 3 times greater than that of manila
line
(True or False) Fiber line is fabricated in three twisting operations.

A.
B.
4.
It is resistant to wear.
It is waterproof.
It doesnt melt.
It is easy to handle.
it shrinks the line

it creates abrasion
it causes deterioration of fibers
it takes the oil out of the line
When nylon line becomes slippery with grease or oil, it should be cleaned with
what solvent(s)?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Acetone only
Either kerosene or diesel fuel
Alcohol or gasoline
Gasoline only
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-28
8.
Which of the following fabrics should you use to apply whippings to a line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
(True or False) When nylon line is properly handled and maintained, it should
last five times longer than manila line subjected to the same use.
A.
B.
10.
Line direction of fiber

Type of fiber
Length of fiber
Diameter of fiber
The breaking strength of a line is considerably higher than its safe working load
to account for what factor?
A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Maximum tension prior to parting

Minimum tension prior to parting
Maximum shear prior to parting
Minimum shear prior to parting
Why is manila line stronger than sisal line?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Storage room containing chemicals

Lime
Direct sunlight
Each of the above
What does breaking strength refer to when a load is applied to a line?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
True
False
Which of the following agents can cause damage to a line that is hard to detect
by visual examination?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Rope yarn
Marline
Houseline
Twine
The different applications of pressure due to load sizes

The strain imposed by bending over sheaves in a block
Excessive vibration
Exposure to moisture
You are going to use a new 2-inch manila line to hoist a load, and you do not
have tables to use to determine the safe working load (SWL) of the line. This
situation requires you to use the rule of thumb formula to calculate the SWL for
the 2-inch line. By doing so, you determine the SWL for the line is_____.
A.
B.
C.
D.
400 pounds
600 pounds
800 pounds
900 pounds
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-29
15.
What is the breaking strength of a 2 1/2-inch fiber line?

A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
(True or False) The safety factor of a line is the ratio between the breaking
strength and the safe working load.
A.
B.
17.
It is very smooth and slips through the hands easily.

It may part when stretched more than 30%.
The snapback is severe when a heavy strain is released.
Freezing produces a slight loss of stretch.
The free or working end of a line is known as the _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
20%
30%
40%
50%
Although nylon line is superior in many ways to manila line, what characteristic
can cause it to be hazardous?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
7,600 pounds
8,600 pounds
9,600 pounds
10,600 pounds
Nylon line can be stretched what percentage of its length before it will part?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
True
False
Nylon has a breaking strength approximately three times greater than that of
manila line. What is the breaking strength of a 2inch nylon line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
4625 pounds
4825 pounds
5225 pounds
5625 pounds
bight
running end
tag end
open end
What type of knot is best used to tie two lines of the same size together so they
will not slip?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Reef
Figure eight
Overhand
Sheepshank
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-30
22.
Which of the following types of knots is used to take a load off a weak section out
of line and can also be used to shorten a line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
23.
When tying lines together that are unequal in size, you should use what type of
knot?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
Barrel
Clove
Half
Scaffold
(True or False) A properly made short splice will retain up to 50% of the strength
of the line, while a properly tied knot will retain 100% of its strength.
A.
B.
27.
Bowline
Running bowline
Spanish bowline
French bowline
When tying up timber or anything that is round or nearly round, you should use
what type of hitch?
A.
B.
C.
D.
26.
Becket bend
Bowline
Running bowline
Half hitch
A free-running lasso that will not tighten up on the standing part of the line is
provided by what knot?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
Reef
Figure eight
Overhand
Sheepshank
True
False
What type of tape is used for whipping the strands and lines in nylon line instead
of seizing stuff as in manila line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Duct
Aluminum
Friction
Strapping
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-31
28.
Because nylon line is smooth and elastic, at least how many extra tucks are
required when splicing it?
A.
B.
C.
D.
29.
What type of splice should be used to run freely through a block?

A.
B.
C.
D.
30.
Back
Long
Short
Eye
When there is not much overlap for splicing, you should use what type of splice?
A.
B.
C.
D.
31.
One
Two
Three
Four
Back
Long
Short
Eye
(True or False) A back splice should be used to prevent a line from unlaying or
unraveling at the end of a line.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-32

Abraded
To wear down or rub away by friction
Bight
A curved section or slack part in a rope
Cordage
Collective name for rope and other flexible lines used for
such purposes as wrapping, hauling, and lifting
Marline
A light rope (small stuff) made of two of loosely twisted fiber

strands, sometimes tarred, laid up left-handed
Sheaves
A wheel or disk with a grooved rim used as a pulley
Unlaying
To untwist a rope; to separate its strands
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-33

Cargo Specialist Handbook, Department of the Army, Washington DC, 1999
Hoisting and Rigging Safety Manual, Construction Safety Association of Ontario,
Etobicoke, Ontario Canada, 2007
Rigging Techniques, Procedures, and Applications, FM 5-125, Department of the Army,
Washington DC, 2001
Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging, S9086-UU-STM-010/CH-613R3, Naval Ships
Technical Manual, Commander, Naval Sea Systems Command, Washington DC, 1999
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-34

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
14-35
Chapter 15
Wire Rope
Topics
1.0.0
Wire Rope
Overview
As a Seabee Steelworker, you will be tasked, from time to time, with an important
construction task: setting up rigging to hoist loads. You will be expected to perform
these tasks safely. Safety is paramount while doing any job, but it is especially
important when hoisting heavy loads.
This chapter presents information on how to set up and handle wire rope for rigging,
and in addition, it will give you formulas for determining the safe working loads.
Objectives
1.
Describe wire rope fabrication and use.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-2

NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-3
1.0.0 WIRE ROPE

During the course of a project, Seabees often need to hoist or move heavy objects.
Wire rope is used for heavy-duty work.
Wire rope is stronger, lasts longer, and is much more resistant to abrasion than fiber
line, so wire rope is used for hoisting tasks too heavy for fiber line to handle. Also, many
of the movable components on the hoisting devices and attachments are moved by wire
rope.
Wire rope is an intricate device made up of a number of precise moving parts designed
and manufactured to maintain a definite relationship with one another. This relationship
ensures that the wire rope has the flexibility and strength crucial to professional and
safe hoisting operations.
The following paragraphs discuss the characteristics, construction, and use of many
types of wire rope. We will also discuss the safe working load, use of attachments and
fittings, and procedures for the care and handling of wire rope. You can obtain further
information about wire ropes from Naval Ships Technical Manual NSTM Chapter 613,
Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging.
1.1.0 Construction
Wire rope consists of three parts: wires, strands, and core, as shown in Figure 15-1. In
the manufacture of rope, a predetermined number of wires are laid together to form a
strand. Then a specific number of strands are laid together around a core to form the
wire rope.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-4
Figure 15-1 Fabrication of wire rope.

1.1.1 Wires
The basic unit of wire rope construction is the individual wire, which may be made of
steel, iron, or other metal, in various sizes. The number of wires to a strand varies,
depending on the purpose for which the rope is intended. The number of strands per
rope and the number of wires per strand designate wire rope. Thus, a 1/2 inch 6 X 19
rope will have 6 strands with 19 wires per strand; but will have the same outside
diameter as a 1/2 inch 6 X 37 wire rope, which will have 6 strands with 37 wires of much
smaller size per strand. Wire rope made of a small number of large wires is more
resistant to external abrasion and breaking, but is less flexible than a similar size wire
rope made of a large number of small wires.
1.1.2 Strands
The design arrangement of a strand is called the construction. The wires in the strand
may be all the same size or a mixture of sizes. The most common strand constructions
are Ordinary, Seale, Warrington, and Filler (Figure 15-2).
Ordinary strand construction is made of wires all the same size.
Seale construction uses larger diameter wires on the outside of the strand to resist
abrasion, and smaller wires on the inside to provide flexibility.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-5
Warrington construction alternates large and small wires to combine great flexibility with
resistance to abrasion.
Filler construction uses small wires to fill in the valleys between the outer and inner rows
of wires to provide good abrasion and fatigue resistance.
Figure 15-2 Common strand construction.

1.1.3 Core
The core is the element around which the strands are laid to form the rope. It may be a
hard fiber, such as manila, hemp, plastic, paper, or sisal; a wire strand; or an
independent wire rope. Each type of core serves the same purpose: to support the
strands laid around it (Figure 15-3).
A fiber core offers the advantage of increased flexibility. Also, it serves as a cushion to
reduce the effects of sudden strain and acts as a reservoir for the oil to lubricate the
wires and strands to reduce friction between them. Wire rope with a fiber core is used in
places where flexibility is important.
A wire strand core not only resists heat more than a fiber core, but it also adds about 15
percent to the strength of the rope. On the other hand, the wire strand core makes the
rope less flexible than a fiber core.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-6
An independent wire rope is a

separate wire rope over which
the main strands of the rope are
laid. It usually consists of six
seven-wire strands laid around
either a fiber core or a wire
strand core. This core
strengthens the rope more,
provides support against
crushing, and supplies maximum
resistance to heat.
Wire rope may be made by either
of two methods. If the strands or
wires are shaped to conform to
the curvature of the finished rope
before laying up, the rope is
called preformed. If they are not
shaped before fabrication, the
rope is called non-preformed.
The most common type of
manufactured wire rope is
preformed. When cut, preformed
Figure 15-3 Core construction.
wire rope tends not to unlay, and
it is more flexible than nonpreformed wire rope. With non-preformed wire rope, twisting produces a stress in the
wires; and when it is cut or broken, the stress causes the strands to unlay.
WARNING
When non-preformed wire rope is cut or broken, the almost instantaneous unlaying of
the wires and strands can cause serious injury to someone careless or unfamiliar with
this characteristic of non-preformed wire rope.
1.2.0 Grades
Wire rope is made in a number of different grades. Three of the most common are mild
plow steel, plow steel, and improved plow steel.
1.2.1 Mild Plow Steel
Mild plow steel wire rope is tough and pliable. It can stand up under repeated strain and
stress and has a tensile strength, or resistance to lengthwise stress, of from 200,000 to
220,000 pounds per square inch (psi). These characteristics make it desirable for cable
tool drilling and other purposes where abrasion is encountered.
1.2.2 Plow Steel
Plow steel wire rope is unusually tough and strong. It has a tensile strength of 220,000
to 240,000 psi. This wire rope is suitable for hauling, hoisting, and logging.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-7
1.2.3 Improved Plow Steel

Improved plow steel wire rope is one of the best grades of rope available, and most, if
not all, of the wire rope in your work in the NCF will probably be made of this material. It
is stronger, tougher, and more resistant to wear than either plow steel or mild plow
steel. Each square inch of improved plow steel can withstand a strain of 240,000 to
260,000 psi. This wire rope is especially useful for heavy-duty service, such as cranes
with excavating and weight-handling attachments.
1.3.0 Lays
The term lay refers to the direction of the twist of the wires in a strand and the direction
that the strands are laid in the rope. Depending on the intended use of the rope, in
some instances, both the wires in the strand and the strands in the rope are laid in the
same direction; in other instances, the wires are laid in one direction and the strands are
laid in the opposite direction. Most equipment manufacturers specify the types and lays
of wire rope to be used on a specific piece of equipment. Be sure and consult the
operators manual for proper application.
The five types of lays used in wire rope are as follows:
1. Right Regular Lay: In right regular lay rope, the wires in the strands are laid to
the left, while the strands are laid to the right.
2. Left Regular Lay: In left regular lay rope, the wires in the strands are laid to the
right, while the strands are laid to the left. In this lay, each step of fabrication is
exactly opposite from the right regular lay.
3. Right Lang Lay: In right lang lay rope, the wires in the strands and the strands in
the rope are laid in the same direction; in this instance, the lay is to the right.
4. Left Lang Lay: In left lang lay rope, the wires in the strands and the strands in the
rope are also laid in the same direction; in this instance, the lay is to the left
(rather than to the right as in the right Lang lay).
5. Reverse Lay: In reverse lay rope, the wires in one strand are laid to the right, the
wires in the nearby strand are laid to the left, the wires in the next strand are laid
to the right, and so forth, with alternate directions from one strand to the other.
Then all strands are laid to the right.
The five different lays of wire rope are shown in Figure 15-4.
Figure 15-4 Lays of wire rope.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-8
1.4.0 Lay Length

The length of a wire rope lay is the distance
measured parallel to the center line of a
wire rope in that a strand makes one
complete spiral or turn around the rope.
The length of a strand lay is the distance
measured parallel to the centerline of the
strand in that one wire makes one complete
spiral or turnaround the strand. A wire rope
lay length measurement is shown in Figure
15-5.
The main types of wire rope used by the
NCF consist of 6, 7, 12, 19, 24,
or 37 wires in each strand.
Usually, the rope has six strands
laid around a fiber or steel
center.
The two most common types of
wire rope, 6x19 and 6x37 ropes,
are illustrated in views A and B
of Figure 15-6, respectively. The
6x19 type of rope, having six
strands with 19 wires in each
strand, is commonly used for
rough hoisting and skidding work
where abrasion is likely to occur.
The 6x37 wire rope, having six
strands with 37 wires in each
strand, is the most flexible of the
standard six-strand ropes. It is
particularly suitable when small
sheaves and drums are to be
used, such as on cranes and
similar machinery, but will not
stand abrasive wear as well as
the 6x19 wire rope.
Figure 15-5 Lay length of wire

rope.
Figure 15-6 (A) 6x19 wire rope, (B) 6x37

wire rope.
1.6.0 Selection
You must consider several factors when you select a wire rope for use in a particular
type of operation. It is impossible to manufacture a wire rope that can withstand all of
the different types of wear and stresses. Therefore, selecting a rope is often a matter of
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-9
compromise. You must sacrifice one quality to have some other, more urgently needed
characteristic.
1.6.1 Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the strength necessary to withstand a certain maximum load applied
to the rope. Tensile strength is the average strength of new rope under laboratory
conditions. This is determined by wrapping the rope around two large-diameter
capstans and slowly tensioning the line until it breaks. The manufacturer's
recommended working load is determined by taking the tensile strength and dividing it
by a factor that more accurately reflects the maximum load that should be applied to a
given rope. It includes a reserve of strength measured in a so-called factor of safety.
1.6.2 Crushing Strength
Crushing strength is the strength necessary to resist the compressive and squeezing
forces that distort the cross section of a wire rope as it runs over sheaves, rollers, and
hoist drums when under a heavy load. Regular lay rope distorts less in these situations
than lang lay.
1.6.3 Fatigue Resistance
Fatigue resistance is the ability to withstand the constant bending and flexing, such as
wire rope running continuously on sheaves and hoist drums. Fatigue resistance is
particularly important when the wire rope must be run at high speeds. Such constant
and rapid bending of the rope can break individual wires in the strands. Lang lay ropes
are best for service requiring high fatigue resistance. Ropes with smaller wires around
the outside of their strands also have greater fatigue resistance since these strands are
more flexible.
1.6.4 Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance is the ability to withstand the gradual wearing away of the outer
metal as the rope runs across sheaves and hoist drums. The rate of abrasion depends
mainly on the load carried by the rope and the running speed. Generally, abrasion
resistance in a rope depends on the type of metal the rope is made of, and the size of
the individual outer wires. Wire rope made of the harder steels, such as improved plow
steel, has considerable resistance to abrasion. Ropes that have larger wires forming the
outside of their strands are more resistant to wear than ropes having smaller wires that
wear away more quickly.
1.6.5 Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance is the ability to withstand the dissolution of the wire metal that
results from chemical attack by moisture in the atmosphere or elsewhere in the working
environment. Ropes put to static work, such as guy wires, may be protected from
corrosive elements by paint or other special dressings. Wire rope may also be
galvanized for corrosion protection. Most wire ropes used in crane operations rely on
their lubricating dressing to double as a corrosion preventive.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-10
1.7.0 Measuring
The size of wire rope is designated by its
diameter. The true diameter of a wire rope
is the diameter of a circle that will just
enclose all of its strands. Correct and
incorrect methods of measuring wire rope
are illustrated in Figure 15-7. In particular,
the correct way is to measure from the top
of one strand to the top of the strand
directly opposite it; the wrong way is to
measure across two strands side-by-side.
Use calipers to take the measurement, or if
calipers are not available, use an adjustable
wrench and a rule.
To ensure an accurate measurement of the
diameter, always measure the wire rope at
three places, at least 5 feet apart. Use the
average of the three measurements as the
diameter of the rope.
Figure 15-7 Correct and

incorrect methods of measuring
wire rope.
The term safe working load (SWL), in reference to wire rope, defines the load you can
apply and still obtain the most efficient service from and still prolong the life of the rope.
Most manufacturers provide tables that show the safe working load for their rope under
various conditions. In the absence of these tables, you must apply a formula to obtain
the SWL. There are rules of thumb you can use to compute the strength of wire rope.
The one recommended by the Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC) is:
SWL = D x 8
D represents the diameter of the rope in inches, and SWL represents the safe working
load in tons. This particular formula provides an ample safety margin to account for
such variables as the number, size, and location of the sheaves and drums on which
the rope runs. It also includes dynamic stresses, such as the speed of operation and the
acceleration and deceleration of the load. All can affect the endurance and breaking
strength of the rope. Let us work an example. Suppose you want to find the SWL of a
1/2-inch wire rope. Using the formula above and converting the fraction to a decimal,
your figures would be:
SWL = .52 x 8 = .25 x 8 = 2
The answer is 2, meaning that the rope has an SWL of 2 tons.
CAUTION
Do NOT downgrade the SWL of wire rope because it is old, worn, or in poor condition.
Cut up and discarded wire rope in these conditions.
Use the manufacturers data concerning the breaking strength (BS) of wire rope if
available. However, if you do not have that information, one rule of thumb
recommended is:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-11
BS = C x 4
Wire rope is measured by the diameter (D). To obtain the circumference (C) required in
the formula, multiply D by pi (), which is approximately 3.1416. Thus, the formula to
find the circumference is:
C=Dx
so the rule of thumb calculation for the breaking strength of our example is:
BS = (.5 x 3.1416)2 x 4
The answer is 9.87, meaning the wire rope has a BS of 9.87 tons
1.9.0 Failure
The following is a list of conditions that indicate a wire rope should be removed from
service:
1. Nominal rope diameter reduced by more than the amount shown in Table 15-1
for the applicable size rope, or unexpected increase in lay length, as compared to
previous lay length measurements
Table 15-1 Wire rope allowable diameter reduction.
Rope Diameter (Inches)
Maximum Allowable Nominal Diameter

Reduction (Inches)
5/16 and smaller
1/64
3-8 to 1/2
1/32
9/16 to 3/4
3/64
7/8 to 1 1/8
1/16
1 1/4 to 1 1/2
3/32
1 9/16 to 2
1/8
2 1/8 to 2 1/2
5/32
2. Six broken wires in one rope lay length, or three broken wires in one strand lay
length
3. One broken wire within one rope lay length of any end fitting
4. Wear of 1/3 the original diameter of outside individual wires, evidenced by flat
spots almost the full width of the individual wire, extending one lay length or more
5. Pitting due to corrosion, or nicks, extending one lay length or more
6. Severe kinking, crushing, or any other damage resulting in distortion of the rope
structure
7. Evidence of internal corrosion, broken wires on the underside of strands or in the
core
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-12
Wire can fail due to any number of causes. Here is a list of some of the common causes
of wire rope failure:
Using the incorrect size, construction, or grade of wire rope
Dragging rope over obstacles
Applying improper lubrication
Operating over sheaves and drums of inadequate size
Overriding or cross winding on drums
Operating over sheaves and drums with improperly fitted grooves or broken
flanges
Jumping off sheaves
Subjecting it to acid fumes
Attaching and using fittings improperly
Promoting internal wear by allowing grit to penetrate between the strands
Subjecting rope to severe or continued overload
1.10.0 Attachments
Many attachments can be fitted to the ends of wire rope to connect it to other wire
ropes, pad eyes, chains, or equipment.
1.11.0 End Fittings

Some quick and easy-to-change end fittings include wire rope clips, clamps, thimbles,
wedge sockets, and basket sockets. Generally, these attachments permit the wire rope
to have greater flexibility than a more permanent splice would allow. These attachments
allow you to use the same wire rope for multiple purposes in numerous different
arrangements.
1.11.1 Clips
To make an eye in the end of a wire rope, use wire rope clips, such as those shown in
Figure 15-8. The U-shaped part of the clip with the threaded ends is the U-bolt; the
other part is the saddle. The saddle is stamped with the diameter of the wire rope that
the clip will fit. Always place a clip with the U-bolt on the bitter end, not on the standing
part of the wire rope. If you place the clips incorrectly, you will distort or have mashed
spots in the standing part or live end of the wire rope. An easy way to remember this is
Never saddle a dead horse.
You also need to determine the correct number of clips to use and the correct spacing.
Here are two simple formulas:
Remember, D represents the diameter of the wire rope:
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-13
Figure 15-8 Wire rope clips.
Number of clips = 3 x D + 1
Spacing between clips = 6 x D
So, for the -inch wire rope previously used for the examples, the calculations would
be:
Number of clips = 3 x = 1 + 1, or 2 clips. However, always round up for

safety, so 3 clips is correct. Note: 2 clips is the minimum for any of the smaller
sized wire ropes.
Spacing between clips = 6 x = 3-inch spacing between clips.
Another easy to remember rule of thumb is One clip for every inch plus one.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-14
In addition to quantity and spacing, you must ensure that the nuts on the cable clips are
tightened correctly with sufficient torque. Table 15-2 shows the required cable clip
torque for wire rope up to 1-inch diameter.
Table 15-2 Torque for cable clips.
Clip Size (in.)
Rope Size (in.)
Minimum
No. of Clips
Amount of Rope to
Turn Back in Inches
* Torque
in Ft.Lbs.
1/8
1/8
3 1/4
4.5
3/16
3/16
3 3/4
7.5
1/4
1/4
4 3/4
15
5/16
5/16
5 1/4
30
3/8
3/8
6 1/2
45
7/16
7/16
65
1/2
1/2
11 1/2
65
9/16
9/16
12
95
5/8
5/8
12
95
3/4
3/4
18
130
7/8
7/8
19
225
26
225
If a pulley (sheave) is used for turning back the wire rope, add one additional clip.
If a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount of turnback
should be increased proportionately.
*The tightening torque values shown are based upon the threads being clean, dry, and
free of lubrication.
Another type of wire rope clip is the twinbase wire clip, sometimes referred to as the
universal or two-clamp, shown in Figure 159. Since both parts of this clip are shaped to
fit the wire rope, correct installation is
almost certain. This considerably reduces
potential damage to the rope. The twinbase clip also allows for a clean 360 swing
with the wrench when the nuts are being
tightened.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 15-9 Twin-base wire

rope clip.
15-15
1.11.2 Clamps
Wire rope clamps (Figure 15-10) are used to make an eye in the rope with or without a
thimble; however, a clamp is normally used without a thimble. The eye will have
approximately 90 percent of the strength of the rope. The two end collars should be
tightened with wrenches to force the wire rope clamp to a good, snug fit. This squeezes
the rope securely against each other.
Figure 15-10 Wire rope clamp.

1.11.3 Thimble
When the wire rope is terminated with a loop, there is a risk that it will bend too tightly,
especially when the loop is connected to a device that spreads the load over a relatively
small area. A thimble can be installed inside the loop to preserve the natural shape of
the loop, and protect the cable from pinching and abrading on the inside of the loop
(Figure 15-8).
Wire rope eyes with thimbles and wire rope clips can hold approximately 80 percent of
the wire rope strength. After the eye made with clips has been strained, the nuts on the
clips must be retightened, and periodic checks should be made for tightness or damage
to the rope cause by the clips.The use of thimbles in loops is industry best practice. The
thimble prevents the load from coming into direct contact with the wires.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-16
1.11.4 Wedge Socket

The attachment used most often to attach dead ends of wire ropes to pad eyes or like
fittings on earthmoving rigs is the wedge socket, shown in Figure 15-11. Apply the
socket to the bitter end of the wire rope, as shown in the figure.
To configure a wedge socket and attach to wire rope, follow the steps listed below:
1. Remove the pin and knock out the wedge.
2. Pass the wire rope up through the socket and lead enough of it back through the
socket to allow a minimum of six to nine inches of the bitter end to extend below
the socket.
3. Replace the wedge and haul on the bitter end of the wire rope until the bight
closes around the wedge, as shown in Figure 15-11. A strain of the standing part
will tighten the wedge. You need at least six to nine inches on the dead end, the
end of the line that does not carry the load.
4. Place one wire rope clip on the dead end to keep it from accidentally slipping
back through the wedge socket. The clip should be approximately three inches
from the socket. Use a clip one size smaller than normal so that the threads on
the U-bolt are only long enough to clamp tightly on one strand of wire rope. The
other alternative is to use the normal size clip and hop the dead end back, as
shown in Figure 15-11. Never attach the clip to the live end of the wire rope.
Figure 15-11 (A) Wedge socket types, (B)

Parts of a wedge socket.
The advantage of the wedge socket is that it is easy to remove; just take off the wire clip
and drive out the wedge. The disadvantage of the wedge socket is that it reduces the
strength of wire rope by about 33 percent due to the crushing action of the wedge. Of
course, reduced strength means a lower safe working load calculation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-17
1.11.5 Basket Socket

A basket socket is normally
attached to the end of the rope
with either molten zinc or babbitt
metal; therefore, it is a
permanent end fitting. In all
circumstances, dry or poured, the
wire rope should lead from the
socket in line with the axis of the
socket.
1.11.5.1 Dry Method
The basket socket can be
fabricated by the dry method
(Figure 15-12) when facilities are
not available to make a poured
fitting; however, its strength will
be reduced to approximately one
sixth of that of a poured zinc
connection.
1.11.5.2 Poured Method
The poured method or speltering
is the best way to attach a closed
or open socket in the field
(Figure 15-13). "Speltering"
means to attach the socket to the
wire rope by pouring hot zinc
around it. Speltering should be
done by qualified personnel.
Properly fabricated, it is as strong
as the rope itself, and when
tested to destruction, a wire rope
will break before it will pull out of
the socket. When molten lead is
used vice zinc, the strength of the
connection is approximately
three-fourths the strength of a
zinc connection.
Figure 15-12 Attaching a basket socket by

the dry method.
Figure 15-13 Attaching a basket socket by

the pouring method.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-18
1.11.6 Splices
Permanent eyes in wire rope slings can also
be made in 3/8- to 5/8-inch (9.5 to 15.9-mm)
wire rope by using the nicopress portable
hydraulic splicing tool and oval sleeves. The
nicopress portable splicing tool (Figure 5-14)
consists of a hand-operated hydraulic pump
connected to a ram head assembly.
Included as a part of the tool kit are
interchangeable compression dies for wire
sizes 3/8, 7/16, 1/2, 9/16, and 5/8 inch (9.5,
11.1, 12.7, 14.3, and 15.9 mm). The dies
are in machined halves with a groove size to
match the oval sleeve and the wire rope
being spliced. The oval sleeves (Figure 515) are available in plain copper or zincplated copper. To make an eye splice:
1. Pick an oval sleeve equal to the size
of the wire rope being spliced.
Figure 15-14 Nicopress

portable hydraulic splicing tool.
2. Slide the sleeve over the bitter end of

the length of rope, then form an eye and pass the bitter end through the end
again (Figure 5-16).
3. Place the lower half of the
compression die in the ram head
assembly.
4. Place the oval sleeve in this lower
half and drop in the upper half of
the die.
5. Fully insert the thrust pin that is
used to hold the dies in place
when making the swage.
Figure 15-15 Oval sleeve.
6. Start pumping the handle and continue to do so until the dies meet. At this time
the overload valve will pop off, and a 100-percent efficient splice is formed
(Figure 5-17).
7. Retract the plunger and remove the swaged splice.
8. Check the swage with the gauge supplied in each die set (Figure5-18).
This process represents a savings in time over the eye formed by using wire rope clips.
Additionally, lap splices can be made with nicopress oval sleeves (Figure5-19). Usually,
two sleeves are needed to create a full-strength splice. A short space should be
maintained between the two sleeves, as shown. Test the lap splice before placing it in
operational use.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-19
Figure 15-16 Starting an eye

splice.
Figure 15-17 Completed eye

splice.
Figure 15-18 Swage gauge.
Figure 15-19 Lap splice using a

nicopress oval sleeve.

To render safe, dependable service over a maximum period, wire rope must have the
care and upkeep necessary to keep it in good condition. In this section, we will discuss
various ways of caring for and handling wire rope. Not only should you study these
procedures carefully, you should also practice them on your job to help you do a better
job now. In the end, the life of the wire rope will be longer and more useful.
1.12.1 Coiling and Uncoiling
Once a new reel has been opened, to lay
in back down, you can either coil it or
fake it down like line. The proper direction
of coiling is counterclockwise for left lay
wire rope and clockwise for right lay wire
rope. However, because of the general
toughness and resilience of wire, it
occasionally tends to resist being coiled
down. When this occurs, it is useless to
fight the wire by forcing down a stubborn
turn; it will only spring up again. In these
instances, you can throw in a back turn,
as shown in Figure 15-20, and it will lie
down properly. A wire rope when faked
down will run right off as line; however,
when wound in a coil, it must always be
unwound.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 15-20 Throwing a back

turn.
15-20
Wire rope tends to kink during uncoiling or unreeling, especially if it has been in service
for a long time. A kink can cause a weak spot in the rope, which will wear out more
quickly than the rest of the rope.
A good method for unreeling wire rope is to run a pipe or rod through the center and
mount the reel on drum jacks or other supports so the reel is off the ground or deck, as
shown in Figure 15-21. In this way, the reel will turn as you unwind the rope, and the
rotation of the reel will help keep the rope straight. During unreeling, pull the rope
straightforward, as shown in Figure 15-21, and try to avoid hurrying the operation; you
do not want the drum to gain spinning momentum as you pull off the wire rope it may
be hard to stop. As a safeguard against kinking, never remove wire rope from a
stationary reel.
To uncoil a small coil of wire rope, simply stand the coil on edge and roll it along the
ground or deck as with a wheel or hoop, as illustrated in Figure 15-21. Never lay the coil
flat on the deck or ground and uncoil it by pulling on the end; that practice can kink or
twist the rope.
To rewind wire rope back onto a reel or a drum, you may have difficulty unless you
remember that it tends to roll in the direction opposite the lay. For example, a right-laid
wire rope tends to roll to the left.
Figure 15-21 (A) unreeling a wire drum, (B) uncoiling wire rope.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-21
1.12.2 Kinks
One of the most common forms of damage resulting from improperly handled wire rope
is the development of a kink. If any of the improper practices in uncoiling and unreeling
are used, a spiral condition is produced in
the rope that is very difficult to remove.
Usually this condition leads to kinking,
which, if tightened under a strain, is almost
certain to result in the destruction of the
wire rope at that location. It is important to
note that once a kink has been tightened in
a wire rope, permanent and irreparable
damage is done.
A loop may also be formed if an attempt is
made to either lengthen or shorten the rope
lay from its natural position when, at the
same time, sufficient slack is present in the
rope (Figure 15-22). Kinking can be
prevented by proper uncoiling and
unreeling methods and by the correct
handling of the wire rope throughout its
installation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 15-22 Wire rope loop.
15-22
A loop that has not been pulled tight enough to set the wires or strands into a kink can
be removed by turning the rope at either end in the proper direction to restore the lay. If
a wire rope should form a loop, never try to pull it out by putting strain on either part.
As soon as you notice a loop:
1. Uncross the ends by pushing them apart.
See steps 1 and 2 in Figure 15-23. This
reverses the process that started the loop.
2. Turn the bent portion over and place it on
your knee or some firm object and push
downward until the loop straightens out
somewhat. See step 3 in Figure 15-23.
3. Lay the bent portion on a flat surface and
pound it until smooth with a wooden mallet.
See step 4 in Figure 15-23.
If a heavy strain has been put on a wire rope with
a kink in it (Figure 15-24), the rope can no longer
be used. Figure 15-25 shows a permanently
damaged rope that should be replaced.
Figure 15-24 Wire rope kink.
Figure 15-23 The correct

way to remove a loop in a
wire rope.
Figure 15-25 Kink damage.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-23
1.12.3 Reverse Bends

Whenever possible, drums, sheaves, and blocks used with wire rope should be placed
to avoid reverse or S-shaped bends. Reverse bends cause the individual wires or
strands to shift too much and increase wear and fatigue. For a reverse bend, the drums
and blocks affecting the reversal should have a larger diameter than normal and should
be spaced as far apart as possible.
1.12.4 Sizes of Sheaves
The diameter of a sheave should never be less than 20 times the diameter of the wire
rope. An exception is 6x37 wire rope; it can be used with a smaller sheave because this
wire rope is more flexible.
The chart shown in Table 15-3 can be used to determine the minimum sheave diameter
for wire rope of various diameters and construction.
Table 15-3 Suggested minimum tread diameter of sheaves and
drums.
Rope
diameter in
inches
Minimum tread diameter in inches for a given rope

construction*
6x7
6x19
1/4
10 1/2
8 1/2
3/8
15 3/4
12 3/4
6 3/4
9 3/4
1/2
21
17
13
5/8
26 1/4
21 1/4
11 1/4
16 1/4
3/4
31 1/2
25 1/2
13 1/2
19 1/2
7/8
36 3/4
29 3/4
15 3/4
22 3/4
42
34
18
26
1 1/8
47 1/4
38 1/4
20 1/2
29 1/4
1 1/4
52 1/2
42 1/2
22 1/2
32 1/2
1 1/2
63
51
27
39
6x37
8x19
6 1/2
* Rope construction is in strands times wire per strand.
1.12.5 Seizing and Cutting

The makers of wire rope are careful to lay each wire in the strand and each strand in the
rope under uniform tension. When the ends of the rope are not secured properly, the
original balance of tension is disturbed and maximum service cannot be obtained
because some strands can carry a greater portion of the load than others. Before
cutting wire rope, place seizing on each side of the point where you will cut the rope, as
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-24
shown in Figure 15-26. A rule of thumb for determining the size, number, and distance
between seizing is as follows:
1. The number of seizing to be applied equals approximately three times the
diameter of the rope.
Example: 3- x 3/4-inch-diameter rope = 2 1/4 inches. Round up to the next higher whole
number and use three seizings.
2. The width of each seizing should be 1 to 1 1/2 times as long as the diameter of
the rope.
Example: 1- x 3/4-inch-diameter rope= 3/4 inch. Use a 1-inch width of seizing.
3. The seizing should be spaced a distance equal to twice the diameter of the wire
rope.
Example: 2- x 3/4-inch-diameter rope = 1 1/2 inches. Space the seizing 2 inches apart.
A common method used to make a temporary wire rope seizing is as follows:
1. Wind on the seizing wire uniformly, using tension on the wire (Figure 15-26 step
1).
2. After taking the required number of turns, twist the ends of the wires
counterclockwise by hand, so the twisted portion of the wires is near the middle
of the seizing (Figure 15-26 step 2).
3. Grasp the ends with end-cutting nippers and twist up the slack (Figure 15-26 step
3).
4. Do not try to tighten the seizing by twisting; instead, draw up on the seizing
(Figure 15-26 step 4).
5. Twist up the slack again, using nippers (Figure 15-26 step 5). Repeat steps 4
and 5 if necessary.
6. Cut the ends and pound them down on the rope (Figure 15-26 step 6).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-25
Figure 15-26 Seizing wire rope.

When the seizing is to be permanent or when the rope is 1 5/8 inches or more in
diameter, use a serving bar, or
iron, to increase tension on the
seizing wire when putting on the
turns.
A number of methods can cut
wire rope successfully. One
effective and simple method is
to use a hydraulic type of wire
rope cutter, as shown in Figure
15-27, View A.
Remember to seize all wire rope
before you cut it. For best
results in using this method,
place the rope in the cutter so
the blade comes between the
two central seizings. With the
release valve closed, jack the
blade against the rope at the
location of the cut and continue
to operate the cutter until the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 15-27 Types of wire cutters: (A)

hydraulic, (B) hammer.
15-26
blade completely severs the rope.

A second common field method is to use the hammer style cutter (Figure 15-27, View
B), which only requires a large sledgehammer and a solid surface to make the cut.
1.13.0 Inspection
Inspect wire rope at regular intervals, the same as fiber line. In determining the
frequency of inspection, carefully consider the amount of use of the rope and the
conditions under which it is used.
During an inspection, examine the rope carefully for fishhooks, kinks, and worn,
corroded spots. Usually, breaks in individual wires are concentrated in those portions of
the rope that consistently run over the sheaves or bend onto the drum. Abrasion or
reverse and sharp bends cause individual wires to break and bend back. These breaks
are known as fishhooks. When wires are only slightly worn, but have broken off
squarely and stick out all over the rope, the condition is usually caused by overloading
or rough handling. Even if the breaks are confined to only one or two strands, the
strength of the rope may be seriously reduced. When 4 percent of the total number of
wires in the rope have breaks within the length of one lay of the rope, the wire rope is
unsafe. Consider a rope unsafe when three broken wires are found in one strand of 6x7
rope, six broken wires in one strand of 6x19 rope, or nine broken wires in one strand of
6x37 rope.
Overloading a rope also reduces its diameter. Failure to lubricate the rope is another
cause of reduced diameter since the fiber core will dry out and eventually collapse or
shrink. The surrounding strands are thus deprived of support, and the ropes strength
and dependability are correspondingly reduced. Rope with a diameter reduced to less
than 75 percent of its original diameter should be removed from service.
A wire rope should also be removed from service when an inspection reveals
widespread corrosion and pitting of the wires. Pay particular attention to signs of
corrosion and rust in the valleys, the small spaces between the strands. Since such
corrosion is usually the result of improper or infrequent lubrication, the internal wires of
the rope are then subject to extreme friction and wear. This form of internal, and often
invisible, destruction of the wire is one of the most frequent causes of unexpected and
sudden failure of wire rope. The best safeguard is to keep the rope well lubricated and
to handle and store it properly.
1.14.0 Cleaning and Lubricating

Wire rope should always be cleaned carefully before lubrication. Scraping or steaming
removes most of the dirt and grit that has accumulated on used wire rope. Rust should
be removed at regular intervals by wire brushing. The objective of cleaning is to remove
all foreign material and old lubricant from the valleys between the strands as well as the
spaces between the outer wires. This allows the new lubricant to flow into the rope.
Periodic lubrication is required because wire rope is really a mechanical device with
many moving parts. Each time a rope bends or straightens, the wires in the strands and
the strands in the rope slide upon each other. A film of lubricant is needed on each
moving part. Another important reason for lubricating iron and steel wire ropes is to
prevent corrosion of the wires and deterioration of the hemp, synthetic, or steel core.
There is no known method to determine the strength of a corroded rope. A rusty rope is
a liability.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-27
Deterioration from corrosion is more dangerous than deterioration from wear; corrosion
ruins the inside wires a process hard to detect by inspection. Deterioration caused by
wear can be detected by examining the outside wires of the wire rope; these wires
become flattened and reduced in diameter as the wire rope wears.
Both internal and external lubrication protect a wire rope against wear and corrosion.
Internal lubrication can be properly applied only when the wire rope is being
manufactured, and manufacturers customarily coat every wire with a rust-inhibiting
lubricant and lay it into the strand. The core is also lubricated in manufacturing.
Lubrication applied in the field is designed not only to maintain surface lubrication but
also to prevent the loss of the internal lubrication provided by the manufacturer. The
Navy issues asphaltic petroleum oil that must be heated before using. This lubricant is
known as Lubricating Oil for Chain, Wire Rope, and Exposed Gear and comes in two
types:
Type I, Regular: This type of lubricant does not prevent rust and is used where
rust prevention is unnecessary. For example, elevator wires used inside
structures that are not exposed to the weather, but still require lubrication.
Type II, Protective: A lubricant and an anti-corrosive, it comes in three grades:

o Grade A: For cold weather (60F and below)
o Grade B: For warm weather (between 60F and 80F)
o Grade C: For hot weather (80F and above)
Apply the oil (issued in 25-pound or 35-pound buckets, and 100-pound drums) with a
stiff brush, or draw the wire rope through a trough of hot lubricant (Figure 15-28). The
frequency of application depends upon service conditions; as soon as the last coating
has appreciably deteriorated, renew it.
CAUTION
Avoid prolonged skin contact with oils and lubricants. Consult the Materials Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) on each item before use for precautions and hazards.
A good lubricant to use when working in the
field, as recommended by Naval Ships
Technical Manual Chapter 613, is Mil-Spec
lubricant (MIL-G-18458). The NAVFAC P404 contains added information on
additional lubricants that can be used.
Do not lubricate wire rope that works a
dragline or other attachments that normally
bring the wire rope in contact with soils. The
lubricant will pick up fine particles of
material, and the resulting abrasive action
will be detrimental to both the wire rope and
sheave.
As a safety precaution, always wipe off any
excess oil when lubricating wire rope,
especially with hoisting equipment. Too
much lubricant can get into brakes or
clutches and cause them to fail. When
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 15-28 Trough method of

lubricating wire rope.
15-28
machinery is in use, its motion may sling excess oil around, over crane cabs and onto
catwalks, making them unsafe.
NOTE
Properly dispose of wiping rags and used or excess lubricant as hazardous waste. See
your supervisor for details on local disposal requirements.
1.15.0 Storage
Wire rope should never be stored in places where acid is or has been kept. The
slightest trace of acid coming in contact with wire rope damages it at that particular spot.
Many times, wire rope that has failed has been found to be acid damaged. The
importance of keeping acid or acid fumes away from wire rope must be stressed to all
hands.
It is especially important that wire rope be cleaned and lubricated properly before it is
placed in storage. Corrosion of wire rope during storage can be virtually eliminated if the
lubricant film is applied properly beforehand and if adequate protection is provided from
the weather. Bear in mind that rust, corrosion of wires, and deterioration of the fiber core
greatly reduce the strength of wire rope. It is not possible to state exactly the loss of
strength that results from these effects, but it is certainly great enough to require close
observance of precautions prescribed for protection against such effects.
Summary
This chapter discussed the characteristics, construction, and use of many types of wire
rope. We also discussed the safe working load, use of attachments and fittings, and
procedures for the care and handling of wire rope. Further information about wire ropes
can be obtained in NSTM Chapter 613, Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging.
Always remember to keep your tools and work space clean and in good working order.
Wire rope is very dangerous to work with, so always follow the prescribed safety
precautions and wear the proper personal protective equipment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-29

1.
The most common strand constructions are Ordinary, Seale, Warrington, and
_______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
Which of the following wire rope sizes is the most flexible?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
C.
D.
Measure in one place near the middle.

Measure in two places near the middle, 10 feet apart; then average the
results.
Measure in three places, 3 feet apart; then average the results.
Measure in three places, 5 feet apart; then average the results.
The bitter end of a wire rope should extend what minimum distance below a
wedge socket?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Circumference
Diameter
Weight per running foot
Number of wires per strand
To measure the diameter of a wire rope, you should use which of the following
methods?
A.
B.
5.
6 x 14
6 x 19
6 x 21
6 x 37
The size of wire rope is designated by what characteristic?

A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Babbitt
Plow
Filler
Manila
Six inches
Four inches
Three inches
Two inches
Which of the following strand constructions has alternating large and small wires
that provide a combination of great flexibility with a strong resistance to
abrasion?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Ordinary
Seale
Warrington
Filler
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-30
7.
Each square inch of improved plow steel can withstand a strain that is within
what range, in pounds, of pressure?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
What type of wire rope damage starts with the formation of a loop?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Grade A
Grade B
Grade C
Grade D
What term is used to describe the technique of attaching a socket to a wire rope
by pouring hot zinc around it?
A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
10
20
30
40
Type II, Protective A lubricant comes in three grades. Which grade would be
used in temperatures of between 80F and 110F?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Crush spots
Wear spots
Kinks
Broken wires
In wire rope rigging, the diameter of the sheave should never be less than how
many times the diameter of the wire rope?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Between 100,000 and 140,000

Between 240,000 and 260,000
Between 300,000 and 340,000
Between 440,000 and 440,000
Seizing
Speltering
Wedging
Swaging
Which of the following formulas is used to obtain the number of wire clips
required for a wire rope?
A.
B.
C.
D.
6 x wire rope diameter

3 x wire rope diameter
6 x wire rope diameter + 1
3 x wire rope diameter + 1
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-31
13.
Wire rope eyes with thimbles and wire rope clips can hold approximately what
percentage of strength of a wire rope?
A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
Why is deterioration from corrosion more dangerous than that from wear?
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
60
70
80
90
It is quick acting.
It is hard to detect.
It produces toxic gases.
It absorbs into your skin.
Which lay of wire rope has the wires in the strands laid to the left, while the
strands are laid to the right?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Right regular lay

Left regular lay
Right lang lay
Left lang lay
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-32

Babbitt metal
Any of various alloys of tin with smaller amounts of antimony

and copper, used as an antifriction lining for bearings
Fake
Faking down. Line is laid out in long, flat bights, one

alongside of the other instead of in a round coil
Plow steel
A high-strength steel having a carbon content of 0.5 to 0.95

percent and used primarily to make wire rope
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-33

Washington DC, 2001
NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-34

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
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NAVEDTRA 14250A
15-35
Chapter 16
Rigging
Topics
1.0.0
Block and Tackle
2.0.0
Slings
3.0.0
Chains
4.0.0
Additional Lifting Equipment
5.0.0
Other Lifting Equipment
6.0.0
Field Erected Hoisting Devices
7.0.0
Safe Rigging Operating Procedures
Overview
Rigging is the method of handling materials using fiber line, wire rope, and associated
equipment. Fiber line and wire rope were discussed in Chapters 14 and 15. This
chapter will present information on how you can use these materials with additional
equipment in various tackle and lever arrangements to form the fundamental rigging
necessary to move heavy loads. Additionally, it will describe the makeup of block and
tackle, reeving procedures, and common types of tackle arrangements. It also provides
information on other common types of weight-handling equipment, such as slings,
spreaders, pallets, jacks, planks and rollers, blocking and cribbing, and scaffolds.
Safety is paramount in importance. You will be briefed throughout this chapter on safety
measures to be observed as they pertain to the various operations or particular
equipment. In addition, formulas are given for your use in calculating the working loads
of various weight-moving devices, such as hooks, shackles, chains, and so on. SAFE
rigging is the critical link in the weight-handling process. Whenever you are making a
heavy lift, keep the ORM process in mind and use the five step deliberate process:
1. Identify hazards.
2. Assess hazards.
3. Make risk decisions.
4. Implement controls.
5. Supervise (watch for change).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-1
Objectives
1. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of block and tackle.
2. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of slings.
3. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of chains.
4. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of additional lifting equipment.
5. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of other lifting equipment.
6. Describe the purpose, types, and maintenance of field-erected hoisting
devices.
7. State the safety operating procedures for rigging evolutions.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-2
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-3

NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-4
1.0.0 BLOCK and TACKLE

A block consists of one or more sheaves fitted in a wood or metal frame supported by a
shackle inserted in the strap of the block (Figure 16-1). A tackle is an assembly of
blocks and lines used to gain a mechanical advantage in lifting and pulling (Figure 162).
A machines mechanical advantage is the amount the machine can multiply the force
used to lift or move a load. A persons strength determines the weight he or she can
push or pull; this is referred to as the amount of force the individual can exert.
To move any load heavier than the force a person can exert requires the use of a
machine to provide a mechanical advantage. If you use a machine that can produce a
force (push or pull) on an object that is 10 times greater than the force you apply, the
machine has a mechanical advantage of 10. For example, if the downward pull on a
block-and-tackle assembly requires 10 pounds of force to raise 100 pounds, the
assembly has a mechanical advantage of 10.
In a tackle assembly, the line is reeved over the sheave(s) of blocks. The two types of
tackle systems are simple and compound. A simple tackle system is an assembly of
blocks in which a single line is used (Figure 16-2, View A). A compound tackle system is
an assembly of blocks in which more than one line is used (Figure 16-2, View B).
Figure 16-1 Fiber line block.
1.1.0 Terminology
Figure 16-2 Tackles: (A) simple

tackle, (B) compound tackle.
To help avoid confusion in working with tackle, you need a working knowledge of tackle
vocabulary. Figure 16-3 will help you organize the various terms and use a common
language when participating in a rigging operation.
The block(s) in a tackle assembly change(s) the direction of pull, provide(s)

mechanical advantage, or both.
The fall is either a wire rope or fiber line reeved through a pair of blocks to form a
tackle.
The hauling part of the fall leads from the block upon which the power is exerted.
The fixed (or standing) block is the end that is attached to a becket.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-5
The movable (or running) block of a tackle is the block attached to the object or
support being moved or hoisted. When a tackle is being used, the movable block
moves and the fixed block remains stationary.
The frame (or shell), made of wood or metal, houses the sheaves.
The sheave is a round, grooved wheel over which the line runs. Usually the
blocks have one, two, three, or four sheaves, but some blocks have up to eleven
sheaves.
The cheeks are the solid sides of the frame or shell.
The pin is a metal axle that the

sheave turns on. It runs from cheek to
cheek through the middle of the
sheave.
The becket is a metal loop formed at

one or both ends of a block; the
standing part of the line is fastened to
the becket.
The straps (inner and outer) hold the

block together and support the pin on
which the sheaves rotate.
The shallow is the opening in the

block through which the line passes.
The breech is the part of the block

opposite the swallow.
To overhaul means to lengthen a

tackle by pulling the two blocks apart
(without a load).
To round in means to bring the blocks of a tackle toward each other, usually
without a load on the tackle (opposite of overhaul).
The term two blocked means that both blocks of a tackle are as close together
as they can go. You may also hear this term called block and block.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-3 Tackle

nomenclature.
16-6
1.2.0 Block Construction

Blocks are constructed for use with fiber
line or wire rope. Wire rope blocks are
heavily constructed and have a large
sheave with a deep groove. Fiber line
blocks are generally not as heavily
constructed as wire rope blocks and have
smaller sheaves with shallower wide
grooves. Wire rope requires a large sheave
to prevent sharp bending. Since fiber line is
more flexible and pliable than wire rope, it
does not require a sheave as large as the
same size of wire rope.
Blocks fitted with one, two, three, or four
sheaves are often referred to as single,
double, triple, and quadruple blocks,
respectively. Blocks are fitted with a
Figure 16-4 Heavy duty blocks.
number of attachments, the number
depending upon their use. Some of the
most commonly used fittings are hooks, shackles, eyes, and rings. Figure 16-4 shows
two metal frame, heavy-duty blocks; block A is designed for manila line, and block B is
for wire rope.
1.3.0 Block to Line Ratio

The size of fiber line blocks is designated by the length in inches of the shell or cheek.
The size of standard wire rope blocks is controlled by the diameter of the rope. The size
of nonstandard and special purpose wire rope blocks is found by measuring the
diameter of one of its sheaves in inches.
Use care in selecting the proper size line or wire for the block you are using. If you
reeve a fiber line onto tackle whose sheaves are below a minimum diameter, you will
distort the line, and it will soon wear badly.
If you reeve a wire rope too large for a sheave, it will pinch and damage the sheave.
The wire will also be damaged because of too short a radius of the bend. In addition, a
wire rope too small for a sheave lacks the necessary bearing surface, puts the strain on
only a few strands, and shortens the life of the wire.
With fiber line, the length of the block should be about three times the circumference of
the line, but an inch or so either way does not matter too much; for example, a threeinch line may be reeved onto an eight-inch block with no ill effects. As a rule, you are
more likely to know the block size than the sheave diameter, although the sheave
diameter should be about twice the size of the circumference of the line used.
Remember, with wire rope, the diameter of the sheave rather than the size of the block
is what matters. Wire rope manufacturers issue tables that give the proper sheave
diameters used with the various types and sizes of wire rope they manufacture. In the
absence of these, a rough rule of thumb is that the sheave diameter should be about 20
times the diameter of the wire. Also, remember that with wire rope, diameter is the
important dimension, rather than circumference as with line.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-7
1.4.0 Types of Blocks

There are several different types of blocks, each with a particular use. Wooden and
metal blocks are of the same design except for the head or heel block, which is only
metal.
1.4.1 Standing
A standing block is a block that is connected to a fixed object.
1.4.2 Traveling
A traveling (movable/running) block is a block that is connected to the load that is being
lifted. It also moves with the load as the load is moved.
1.4.3 Snatch
A snatch block is a single sheave block
made so that the shell opens on one side at
the base of the hook to permit a rope or line
to be slipped over a sheave without
threading the end of it through the block
(Figure 16-5). Snatch blocks are ordinarily
used where it is necessary to change the
direction of the pull on a line.
Figure 16-6 shows a system for moving a
heavy object horizontally away from the
power source using snatch blocks. This is
an ideal way to move objects in limited
spaces. Note that the weight is pulled by a
single luff tackle, which has a mechanical
advantage of three. Adding snatch blocks to
rigging changes the direction of pull but
does not affect the mechanical advantage.
Figure 16-5 Snatch blocks.
It is, therefore, wise to select the proper
rigging system to use based upon the weight of the object and the type and capacity of
the available power.
The snatch block used as the last block in the direction of pull to the power source is
called the leading block. This block can be placed in any convenient location provided it
is within 20 drum widths of the power source. This is required because the fairlead
angle, or fleet angle, cannot exceed 2 from the center line of the drum; therefore, the
20-drum width distance from the power source to the leading block will assure the
fairlead angle. If the fairlead angle is not maintained, the line could jump the sheave of
the leading block and cause the line on the reel to jump a riding turn.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-8
Figure 16-6 Moving a heavy object horizontally along the ground with limited
access using snatch blocks and fairleads.
1.5.0 Reeving Blocks

In reeving a simple tackle, lay the blocks a few feet apart. Place the blocks down with
the sheaves at right angles to each other and the becket ends (if two) pointing toward
each other.
To begin reeving, lead the standing part of the falls through one sheave of the block that
has the greatest number of sheaves. If both blocks have the same number of sheaves,
begin at the block fitted with the becket. Then pass the standing part around the
sheaves from one block to the other, making sure no lines are crossed, until all sheaves
have a line passing over them. Now, secure the standing part of the falls at the becket
of the block containing the least number of sheaves, using a becket hitch for a
temporary securing or an eye splice for a permanent securing.
With blocks of more than two sheaves, lead the standing part of the falls through the
sheave nearest the center of the block. This method places the strain on the center of
the block and prevents the block from toppling and the lines from being cut by rubbing
against the edges of the block.
Falls are generally reeved through eight- or ten-inch wood or metal blocks in such a
manner as to have the lower block at right angles to the upper block. Two 3-sheave
blocks are the usual arrangement, and the method of reeving these is shown in Figure
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-9
16-7. The hauling part must go

through the middle sheave of the
upper block, or the block will tilt to
the side and the falls jam when
you take a strain.
If you are rigging a 3-sheave and
2-sheave block, use the method
of reeving as in Figure 16-7, but
for the deadman, use the becket
on the lower instead of the upper
block.
1.6.0 Types of Tackle

A block with a line led over the
sheave makes applying power by
changing the direction of the pull
easier. Used with line and
another block, it becomes a
tackle and increases the power
applied on the hauling part.
Figure 16-7 Reeving two three-sheave
Tackles are designated according
blocks.
to their uses and the number of
sheaves in the blocks that are
used to make the tackle. There are various types of tackle with different size blocks and
all have a limited lifting capacity depending on the number of sheaves, the size blocks,
and the size line used. The tackles are named for their use or from their makeup.
This section will introduce you to some of the different types of tackle in common use:
single whip, runner, gun tackle, single luff, twofold purchase, double luff, and threefold
purchase. The purpose of the letters and arrows in Figures 16-8 through 16-14 is to
indicate the sequence and direction in which the standing part of the fall is led in reeving
the blocks. You should refer to these
illustrations when you review how to reeve
blocks in the next sections.
1.6.1 Single-whip
A single whip tackle consists of one single
sheave (tail) block fixed to a support with a
rope passing over the sheave as shown in
Figure 16-8. It has a mechanical advantage
of 1. Lifting a 100-pound load requires a pull
of 100 pounds plus an allowance for friction.
1.6.2 Runner
A runner is a single-sheave movable block
that is free to move along the line on which it
is reeved (Figure 16-8). It has a mechanical
advantage of 2.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-8 Single whip,

runner.
16-10
1.6.3 Gun Tackle

The gun tackle is made up of two single-sheave blocks (Figure 16-9). This tackle got its
name in the old days because it was used to haul muzzle-loading guns back into the
battery after they had been fired and reloaded. A gun tackle has a mechanical
advantage of 2. To lift a 200 pound load with a gun tackle requires 100 pounds of
power, disregarding friction.
By inverting any tackle, you always gain an additional mechanical advantage of 1
because the number of parts at the movable block increases. By inverting a gun
tackle, for example, you gain a mechanical advantage of 3, as shown in Figure 16-10.
When a tackle is inverted, the direction of pull is difficult. You can easily overcome this
by adding a snatch block, which changes the direction of the pull but does not increase
the mechanical advantage.
Figure 16-9 Gun tackle.
Figure 16-10 Inverted gun

tackle.
1.6.4 Single-luff Tackle

Position one single- and one double-sheave
block in the same manner as with the gun
tackle. Run the line through one of the
sheaves of the double-sheave block first
and then to the sheave of the single-sheave
block. Next, run the line through the other
sheave of the double-sheave block and
splice the line to the becket of the singlesheave block (Figure 16-11). This tackle
offers a 3 to 1 mechanical advantage.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-11 Single luff tackle.
16-11
1.6.5 Twofold Purchase

A twofold purchase tackle consists of two
double blocks (Figure 16-12). It has a
mechanical advantage of 4.
1.6.6 Double-Luff
A double-luff tackle consists of a triple block
and a double block (Figure 16-13). It has a
mechanical advantage of 5.
Figure 16-12 Twofold

Purchase.
Figure 16-13 Double luff

tackle.
1.6.7 Three-fold Purchase
Place two triple-sheave blocks 3 feet apart
with the hooks or straps facing outboard,
positioning the blocks so one is face down
and the other is cheek down. Start reeving in
the center sheave of one block and finish in
the center sheave on the other. Then splice
the standing part to the becket. This tackle
offers a 6 to 1 mechanical advantage (Figure
6-14).
Figure 16-14 Threefold

purchase.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-12
1.6.8 Compound Tackle

A compound tackle is a rigging system using more than one line with two or more
blocks. Compound systems are made up of two or more simple systems. The fall line
from one simple system is secured to the hook on the traveling block of another simple
system, which may have one or more blocks.
To determine the mechanical advantage of a compound tackle system, you must
determine the mechanical advantage of each simple system in the compound system.
Next, multiply the individual advantages to get the overall mechanical advantage. As an
example, if there are two inverted luff tackles, each with a mechanical advantage of 4
(luff tackle=3 plus 1 for inverting and increasing the parts at the movable block), the
mechanical advantage of this particular compound system is 4 x 4 = 16.
1.7.0 Allowance for Friction

Because of friction, some of the force applied to tackle is lost. Friction develops in tackle
by the lines rubbing against each other or the shell of the block. It is also caused by the
line passing over the sheaves or by the rubbing of the pin against the sheaves. Each
sheave in the tackle system is expected to create a resistance equal to 10 percent of
the weight of the load. Because of fiction, a sufficient allowance for loss must be added
to the weight being moved in determining the power required to move the load.
As an example, you have to lift a 1,000-pound load with a twofold purchase with a
mechanical advantage of 4. To determine the total force needed to lift the load, you take
10 percent of 1,000 pounds, which is 100 pounds. Multiply this figure by 4 (the number
of sheaves), which gives you 400 pounds. Add this value to the load, making the total
load 1,400 pounds. Once you calculate the total payload, you can then divide the total
weight by the mechanical advantage of the tackle, 4 in this case. Divide 1400 by 4,
resulting in 350 pounds being the force required to move the load. This is a substantial
increase over the calculation you would arrive at without allowing for friction, 250
pounds of force. Always include friction in your calculations, especially if you are using
human power or limited mechanical means as your power source. It will help you save
setup time, keep on schedule, minimize the risk of rigging failure, and maximize rigging
safety.
1.8.0 Block Safety

Safety rules you should follow when using blocks and tackle include the following:
Always stress safety when hoisting and moving heavy objects around personnel.
Always check the condition of blocks and sheaves before using them to make
sure they are in safe working order. See that the blocks are properly greased.
Make sure the line and sheave are the right size for the job.
Remember that sheaves or drums that have become worn, chipped, or

corrugated, must not be used because they will injure the line. Always find out
whether you have enough mechanical advantage with the number of blocks and
calculated friction allowance to make the load as easy to handle as possible.
Do NOT use wire rope in sheaves and blocks designed for fiber line. They are
not strong enough for that type of service, and the wire rope will not properly fit
the sheaves grooves. Likewise, sheaves and blocks built for wire rope should
never be used for fiber line.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-13
2.0.0 SLINGS
The term sling covers a wide variety of configurations for fiber ropes, wire ropes,
chains, and webs. Correct application of slings commonly used in construction will be
explained here.
WARNING
Improper use, maintenance, or application of slings or chokers can be dangerous.
2.1.0 Slings and Rigging Gear Kits

The NCF has slings and rigging gear in the battalion Table of Allowance to support the
rigging operations and lifting of Civil Engineer Support Equipment (CESE). The rigging
kits 80104, 84003, and 84004 must be stored under cover and remain in the custody of
the supply officer in the central tool room (CTR). The designated embarkation staff and
the crane test director monitor the condition of the rigging gear.
2.2.0 Wire Rope Slings

Using wire rope slings to lift materials provides several advantages over other types of
sling; they have good flexibility with minimum weight. Breaking outer wires warn of
failure and allow time to react. Properly fabricated wire rope slings are very safe for
general construction use.
On smooth surfaces, the basket hitch should be snubbed against a step or change of
contour to prevent the rope from slipping as load is applied. The angle between the load
and the sling should be approximately 60 degrees or greater to avoid slippage.
On wooden boxes or crates, the rope will dig into the wood sufficiently to prevent
slippage. On other rectangular loads, the rope should be protected by guards or load
protectors at the edges to prevent kinking.
Loads should not be allowed to turn or slide along the rope during a lift. The sling or the
load may become scuffed or damaged.
2.3.0 Fiber Line Sling

Fiber line slings are preferred for some applications because they are pliant, grip the
load well, and do not mar the loads surface. They should be used only on light loads,
however, and must never be used on objects that have sharp edges capable of cutting
the line, or in applications where the sling will be exposed to high temperatures, severe
abrasion, or acids.
The choice of line type and size will depend on the application, the weight to be lifted,
and the sling angle. Before lifting any load with a fiber line sling, be sure to inspect the
sling carefully. Fiber slings, especially manila, deteriorate far more rapidly than wire
rope slings and their actual strength is very difficult to estimate.
Like other slings, fiber line slings should be inspected regularly. Look for external wear
and cutting, internal wear between strands, and deterioration of fibers.
Open up the line for inspection along the length of the line by untwisting the strands, but
take care not to kink them. The inside of the line should be as bright and clean as when
it was new. Check for broken or loose yarns and strands. An accumulation of powderlike dust indicates excessive internal wear between strands as the line is flexed back
and forth during use.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-14
2.3.1 Synthetic Web Slings

Web slings are available in two materials nylon and polyester (Dacron). Nylon is
resistant to many alkalis, whereas polyester is resistant to many acids. Consult the
manufacturer before using web slings in a chemical environment. Nylon slings are more
common, but polyester slings are often recommended where headroom is limited since
they stretch only half as much as nylon slings.
Synthetic web slings offer a number of advantages for rigging purposes.
Their relative softness and width create much less tendency to mar or scratch
finely machined, highly polished, or painted surfaces, and exhibit less tendency
to crush fragile objects than either fiber rope, wire rope, or chain slings.
Because of their flexibility, they tend to mold themselves to the shape of the load.
They do not rust and thus will not stain ornamental precast concrete or stone.
They are non-sparking and can be used safely in explosive atmospheres.
They minimize twisting and spinning during lifting.
Their light weight permits ease of rigging, their softness precludes hand cuts, and
the danger of harm from a free-swinging sling is minimal.
They are elastic and stretch under load more than either wire rope or chain, so
they help absorb heavy shocks and cushion loads. In cases where sling
stretching must be minimized, a sling of larger load capacity or a polyester sling
should be used.
Synthetic web slings are available in a number of configurations useful in construction.

In place of sewn eyes, web slings are available with metal end fittings. The most
common are triangle and choker hardware. Combination hardware consists of a triangle
for one end of the sling and a triangle/rectangle (choker attachment) for the other end.
With this arrangement, choker and basket as well as straight hitches may be rigged.
Such attachments help reduce wear in the sling eyes and thus lengthen sling life (Figure
16-15, View A).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-15 Synthetic slings.
16-15
Despite their inherent toughness, synthetic web slings can be cut by repeated use
around sharp-cornered objects and abraded by continually hoisting rough-surfaced
loads.
Protective devices offered by most sling manufacturers can minimize these effects
(Figure 16-15, View B).
Buffer strips of leather, nylon, or other materials sewn on the body of the sling protect
against wear. Leather pads are most resistant to wear and cutting, but are subject to
weathering and deterioration. They are not recommended in lengths over six feet
because their stretch characteristics differ from those of webbing. On the other hand,
nylon-web wear pads are more resistant to weathering, oils, grease, and most alkalis.
Moreover, they stretch in the same ratio as the sling body.
Edge guards consist of strips of webbing or leather sewn around each edge of the sling.
This is necessary whenever sling edges are subject to damage.
Sleeve or sliding tube wear pads are available for slings used to handle material with
sharp edges. The pads are positioned on the sling where required, will not move when
the sling stretches, adjust to the load, and cover both sides of the sling.
Reinforcing strips sewn into the sling eyes double or triple the eye thickness and greatly
increase sling life and safety.
Coatings provide added resistance to abrasion and chemicals as well as a better grip on
slippery loads. Coatings can be brightly colored for safety or load rating.
Cotton-faced nylon webbing affords protection for hoisting granite and other roughsurfaced material.
The rated capacity of synthetic web slings is based on the tensile strength of the
webbing, a design factor of 5, and the fabrication efficiency. Fabrication efficiency
accounts for loss of strength in the webbing after it is stitched and otherwise modified
during manufacture. Fabrication efficiency is typically 80 to 85% for single-ply slings but
will be lower for multi-ply slings and very wide slings.
Although manufacturers provide tables for bridle and basket configurations, these
should be used with extreme caution. At low sling angles, one edge of the web will be
overloaded and the sling will tend to tear.
Slings with aluminum fittings should never be used in acid or alkali environments. Nylon
and polyester slings must not be used at temperatures above 194F (90C).
Inspect synthetic web slings regularly. Damage is usually easy to detect. Cuts, holes,
tears, frays, broken stitching, worn eyes and worn or distorted fittings, and burns from
acid, caustics, or heat are immediately evident and signal the need for replacement. Do
not attempt repairs yourself.
2.4.0 Chain Slings

Chain slings are suited to applications requiring flexibility and resistance to abrasion,
cutting, and high temperatures. However, their use should be limited to specific lifts to
meet a particular requirement. This guidance will be repeated in Topic 3.0.0 which
provides additional guidance concerning chains: In the NCF, never use a chain when it
is possible to use wire rope.
Alloy steel chain grade 80 is marked with an 8, 80, or 800; grade 100 is marked with a
10, 100, or 1000. Alloy steel chain is the only type that can be used for overhead lifting.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-16
As with all slings and associated hardware, chain slings must have a design factor of 5.
In North America, chain manufacturers usually give working load limits based on a
design factor of 3.5 or 4. Always check with manufacturers to determine the design
factor on which their working load limits are based.
If the design factor is less than 5, calculate the working load limit of the chain by
multiplying the catalog working load limit by the manufacturers design factor and
dividing by 5.
x Manufacturers D.F. = WLL (based on design factor of 5)
Example 1/2 Alloy Steel Chain
Catalog WLL = 13,000 Ibs.
Design Factor = 3.5
x 3.5=9,100
This chain sling must be de-rated to 9,100 Ibs. for construction applications.
Wherever they bear on sharp edges, chain slings should be padded to prevent links
from being bent and to protect the load. Never tie a knot in a chain sling to shorten the
reach. Slings can be supplied with grab hooks or shortening clutches for such
applications.
Inspect chain slings for inner link wear, and wear on the outside of the link barrels.
Manufacturers publish tables of allowable wear for various link sizes. Many companies
will also supply wear gauges to indicate when a sling must be retired or links replaced.
Gauges or tables from a particular manufacturer should be used only on that brand of
chain since exact dimensions of a given nominal size can vary from one manufacturer
to another.
A competent worker should check chain slings for nicks and gouges that may cause
stress concentrations and weaken links. If nicks or gouges are deep or large in area, or
reduce link size below allowable wear, remove the chain from service. Any repairs must
be done according to manufacturers
specifications.
Never use repair links or mechanical
coupling links to splice broken lengths of
alloy steel chain. They are much weaker
than the chain links. Never use a chain if the
links are stretched or do not move freely.
2.4.1 Metal Mesh Slings
Metal mesh slings, also known as wire or
chain mesh slings, are well adapted for use
where loads are abrasive or hot, or tend to
cut fabric slings and wire ropes. They resist
abrasion and cutting, grip the load firmly
without stretching, and can withstand
temperatures up to 550 (288C). They have
smooth, flat bearing surfaces, conform to
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-16 Metal mesh sling.
16-17
irregular shapes, do not kink or tangle, and resist corrosion.

For handling loads that would damage the mesh, or for handling loads that the mesh
would damage, the slings can be coated with rubber or plastic. Figure 16-16 shows
different mesh configurations.
2.5.0 Using Wire Rope and Fiber Slings

Three types of fiber line and wire rope slings commonly used for lifting a load are the
endless, the single leg, and the bridle slings.
2.5.1 Endless
Endless slings are useful for a variety of
applications. Endless chain slings are
manufactured by attaching the ends of a
length of chain with a welded or mechanical
link. Endless web slings are sewn. An
endless wire rope sling is made from one
continuous strand wrapped onto itself to form
a six-strand rope with a strand core. The end
is tucked into the body at the point where the
strand was first laid onto itself. These slings
can be used in a number of configurations,
as vertical hitches, basket hitches, choker
hitches, and combinations of these basic
arrangements. They are very flexible but
tend to wear more rapidly than other slings
because they are not normally equipped with
fittings and thus are deformed when bent
over hooks or choked. An endless sling is
easy to handle and can be used as a choker
hitch (Figure 16-17).
Figure 16-17 Endless sling.
2.5.2 Single Leg

A single-leg sling, also known as an eye-and-eye sling or just commonly referred to as a
strap or choker, can be made by forming a spliced eye in each end of a piece of fiber
line or wire rope or any of the synthetic webs. Sometimes the ends of a piece of wire
rope are spliced into eyes around thimbles, and one eye is fastened to a hook with a
shackle. With this arrangement, the shackle and hook are removable.
The single-leg sling may be used as a choker hitch in hoisting by passing one eye
through the other eye and over the hoisting hook (Figure 16-18, View A). The single-leg
sling is also useful as a double-anchor hitch (Figure 16-18, View C). The double-anchor
hitch works well for hoisting drums or other cylindrical objects where a sling must tighten
itself under strain and lift by friction against the sides of the object.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-18
Single-leg slings can be used to make up various types of bridles, also commonly called
spreaders. Two common uses of bridles are shown in Figure 16-19. Either two or more
single slings may be used for a given combination.
Figure 16-18 Uses of a single

leg sling.
Figure 16-19 Multi-legged

bridle slings.
2.5.3 Bridle
Two, three, or more single-leg slings with the necessary lifting lugs or attachments can
be used together to form a bridle hitch (spreader) for hoisting an object. Used with a
wide assortment of end fittings, bridle hitches provide excellent load stability when the
load is distributed equally among the legs, the hook is directly over the loads center of
gravity, and the load is raised level. Proper use of a bridle hitch requires that sling
angles be carefully measured to ensure that individual legs are not overloaded.
NOTE
It is wrong to conclude that a three- or four-leg bridle will safely lift a load equal to the
safe load on one leg multiplied by the number of legs. This is because there is no way
of knowing that each leg is carrying its share of the load.
With a four-legged bride sling lifting a rigid load, it is possible for two of the legs to
support practically the full load while the other two legs only balance it. COMFIRSTNCD
strongly recommends that the rated capacity for two-leg bridle slings listed in the NSTM
Chapter 613, Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging be used also as the safe working load
for three- or four-leg bridle hitches.
2.6.0 Sling Inspection

All slings must be visually inspected for obvious unsafe conditions before each use. A
determination to remove slings from service requires experience and good judgment,
especially when evaluating the remaining strength in a sling after allowing for normal
wear. The safety of the sling depends primarily upon the remaining strength.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) provides their recommended
guidance for a sling inspection program in ASME B30.92006, provided here in Topics
2-6-1 through 2-6-5.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-19
The inspection process for slings is one requiring ongoing effort from the time a product
arrives until it has been deemed unfit for use. The following is a breakdown for the types
of inspection required.
Types of Inspection:
Initial Inspection. Before using any new or repaired sling, it should be inspected
to ensure that the correct sling is being used, as well as to determine that the
sling meets ASME standards.
Frequent Inspection. This inspection should be made by the person handling

the sling each day the sling is used.
Periodic Inspection. This inspection should be conducted by designated

personnel, with the frequency of inspection based on the following:
o Frequency of sling use
o Severity of service conditions
o Experience gained from the service life of slings used in similar applications
Periodic inspections should be conducted at least annually with a written record of each
slings condition, utilizing the identification for each sling as established by the user.
Initial and frequent inspections are relatively straightforward in terms of how often they
are done. Periodic inspection is required a minimum of once a year. You may want to
perform written inspections more frequently, and track rejection rates until a baseline
can be established and goals can be set. If a good job is done on the frequent
inspections, you may find that an annual periodic is sufficient.
ASME B30.9 requires tagging of all slings. The inspection process should begin with
making sure that each sling has proper identification. The criteria for inspection can be
found in the following:
2.6.1 Synthetic Web Slings
Inspection: Each day before and during use where service conditions warrant, the sling
and all attachments should be inspected by a competent person and removed from
service if damage or defects such as the following are visible:
1. Missing or illegible rated capacity tag
2. Cuts, snags, holes, punctures, or tears in any part of the webbing
3. Excessive abrasive wear
4. Broken or worn threads in the stitching
5. Melting or charring in any part of the sling
6. Acid or caustic burns
7. Broken, cracked, distorted, pitted, or corroded fittings
8. Any modification or alteration such as knots or tying slings together
9. Other conditions, including visual damage, that cause doubt as to the continued
use of the sling
2.6.2 Synthetic Round Slings
Inspection: Before each lift, inspect the sling for the following signs of damage. If any
are present, remove the sling from service.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-20
1. Missing or illegible identification tag

2. Melting, charring, or weld splatter on any part of the sling
3. Holes, tears, cuts, abrasive wear, or snags that expose the core yarns
4. Knotting
5. Acid or alkali burns
use of the sling
2.6.3 Wire Rope Slings
Inspection: No precise rules can be given for the determination of the exact time for
replacement of a wire rope sling since many variable factors are involved. Safety in this
respect depends largely upon the use of good judgment of an appointed person in
evaluating remaining strength in a used sling after allowance for deterioration disclosed
by inspection. Safety of sling operation depends on this remaining strength. Conditions
such as the following should be sufficient for questioning sling safety and for
consideration of replacement:
1. Ten randomly distributed broken wires in one rope lay, or five broken wires in
one strand in one rope lay
2. Wear or scraping of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires
3. Kinking, crushing, bird caging, or any other damage resulting in distortion of the
rope structure
4. Evidence of heat damage
5. End attachments that are cracked, deformed, or worn
6. For hooks, removal criteria as stated in ASME B30.10
7. Corrosion of the rope or end attachments
8. Missing or illegible tag
use of the sling
2.6.4 Wire Mesh Slings
Inspection: Remove the sling from service if any of the following is visible:
1. A broken weld or brazed joint along the sling edge
2. A broken wire in any part of the mesh
3. Reduction in wire diameter of 25% due to abrasion or 15% due to corrosion
4. Lack of flexibility due to deterioration of the mesh
5. Visible distortion or wear of either end fitting
6. Cracked end fitting
use of the sling
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-21
2.6.5 Alloy Chain Slings

Inspection: It is important to inspect slings regularly. Clean slings so that marks, nicks,
wear, and other conditions can be seen. Each chain link and component should be
individually inspected for the following conditions:
1. Missing or illegible tag
2. Twists or bends
3. Nicks or gouges
4. Excessive wear at bearing points (refer to wear allowance chart)
5. Cracks
6. Stretch
7. Evidence of heat damage
8. Distorted, worn, or damaged master links, coupling links, or attachments,
especially spread in throat opening of hooks
use of the sling
Each link or component having any condition listed above should be marked with paint
to plainly indicate rejection, and removed from service until properly repaired.
To avoid confusion and to eliminate doubt, you must NOT downgrade slings to a lower
rated capacity. A sling must be removed from service if it cannot safely lift the load
capacity for which it is rated. Slings and hooks removed from service must be destroyed
by cutting before disposal. This ensures inadvertent use by another unit.
When a leg on a multi-legged bridle sling is unsafe, you have to destroy only the
damaged or unsafe leg(s). Units that have the capability may fabricate replacement legs
in the field, provided the wire rope replacement complies with specifications. The NCF
has a hydraulic swaging and splicing kit in the battalion Table of Allowance (TOA). Kit
80092 contains the tools and equipment necessary to fabricate 3/8- through 5/8-inch
sizes of wire rope slings. Before use, all fabricated slings must be proof-tested as
outlined in the NSTM Chapter 613, Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging.
2.7.0 Proof Testing Slings

All field-fabricated slings terminated by mechanical splices, sockets, and pressed and
swaged terminals must be proof-tested before placing the sling in initial service.
The NSTM Chapter 613 has rated capacity charts enclosed for numerous wire rope
classifications. You must know the diameter, rope construction, type core, grade, and
splice on the wire rope sling before referring to the charts. The charts provide the
vertical-rated capacity for the sling. The test weight for single-leg bridle slings and
endless slings is the vertical-rated capacity (V. R. C.) multiplied by two, or (V.R.C. x 2 =
sling test weight).
The test load for multi-legged bridle slings must be applied to the individual legs and
must be two times the vertical-rated capacity of a single-leg sling of the same size,
grade, and wire rope construction. When slings and rigging are broken out of the TOA
for field use, they must be proof-tested and tagged before being returned to CTR for
storage.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-22
Check fiber line slings for signs of deterioration caused by exposure to the weather.
Ensure none of the fibers have been broken or cut by sharp-edged objects.
2.8.0 Safe Working Loads of Slings

There are formulas for estimating the loads in most sling configurations. These formulas
are based on the safe working load of the single-vertical hitch of a particular sling. The
efficiencies of the end fittings used also have to be considered when determining the
capacity of the combination.
The formula used to compute the safe working load (SWL) for a bridle hitch with two,
three, or four legs (Figure 16-20) is:
SWL ( Bridle Hitch) = SWL ( Single Vert Hitch) x
H
x2
L
Where:
H (Height) = the vertical height to the bridle
L (Length) = the angled length of the single vertical hitch to the bridle
Figure 16-20 Determining bridle hitch sling capacity.

When the sling legs are not of equal length, use the smallest H/L measurement. This
formula is for a two-leg bridle hitch, but it is strongly recommended it also be used for
the three- and four-leg hitches.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-23
NOTE
Do NOT forget it is wrong to assume that a
three- or four-leg hitch can safely lift a load
equal to the safe load on one leg multiplied
by the number of legs.
Other formulas are as follows:
Single-basket hitch (Figure 16-21):
For vertical legs:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x 2.
For inclined legs:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x H
divided by L x 4.
Double-basket hitch (Figure 16-22):
For vertical legs:
Figure 16-21 Determining

single basket hitch sling
capacity.
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x 4.

For inclined legs:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x H
divided by L x 4.
Single-choker hitch (Figure 16-23):
For sling angles of 45 degrees or more:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x 3/4
(or .75).
Sling angles of less than 45 degrees are not
recommended; however, if they are used,
the formula is as follows:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x A/B.
Figure 16-22 Determining
double basket hitch sling
capacity.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-24
Figure 16-23 Determining single choker hitch sling capacity.

Double-choker hitch (Figure 16-24):
For sling angle of 45 degrees or more:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x 3 divided by 4 x H divided by L x 2.
Sling angles of less than 45 degrees:
SWL = SWL (of single-vertical hitch) x A divided by B x H divided by L x 2.
Figure 16-24 Determining double choker hitch sling capacity.

When lifting heavy loads, you should ensure that the bottoms of the sling legs are
fastened to the load to prevent damage to the load. Many pieces of equipment have
eyes fastened to them during the process of manufacture to aid in lifting. With some
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-25
loads, though, fastening a hook to the eye on one end of each sling leg suffices to
secure the sling to the load.
Use a protective pad when a fiber line or wire rope sling is exposed to sharp edges at
the comers of a load. Pieces of wood or old rubber tires are fine for padding.
2.9.0 Sling Angle

When you use slings, remember that the greater the angle from vertical, the greater the
stress on the sling legs. This factor is shown in Figure 16-25.
The rated capacity of any sling depends on the size, configuration, and angles formed
by the legs of the sling relative to horizontal. A sling with two legs used to lift a 1,000pound object will have 500 pounds of the load on each leg when the sling angle is 90
degrees. The load stress on each leg increases as the angle decreases. For example, if
the sling angle is 30 degrees when lifting the same 1,000-pound object, the load is
1,000 pounds on each leg. Try to keep all sling angles greater than 45 degrees; sling
angles approaching 30 degrees are considered extremely hazardous and must be
avoided.
Figure 16-25 Stress on slings at various vertical angles.
2.10.0 Storage
Wire rope slings and associated hardware must be stored either in coils or on reels,
hung in the rigging loft, or laid on racks indoors to protect them from corrosive weather
and other types of damage, such as kinking or being backed over. Slings are not to be
left out at the end of the workday.
3.0.0 CHAINS
Chains are made up of links fastened through each other. Each link is fabricated of wire
bent into an oval and welded together. The weld usually causes a slight bulge on the
side or end of the link. Chain size refers to the diameter, in inches, of the wire used to
fabricate the chain.
In the NCF, never use a chain when it is possible to use wire rope. Chain does not give
any warning that it is about to fail. Wire rope, on the other hand, fails a strand at a time,
giving you warning before failure actually occurs.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-26
NOTE
Although chain gives no warning of failure, it is better suited than wire rope for some
jobs. Chain is more resistant to abrasion, corrosion, and heat. Additionally, use chains
to lift heavy objects that are hot or have sharp edges that could cut wire. When chain is
used as a sling, it has little flexibility but grips the load well.
3.1.0 Inspection
First, you must be aware that chains normally stretch under excessive loading and
individual links will be bent slightly. Therefore, bent links are a warning that the chain
has been overloaded and may fail suddenly under load. Before lifting with a chain, make
sure the chain is free from twists and kinks. A twisted or kinked chain placed under
stress could fail even when handling a light load. Additionally, ensure that the load is
properly seated in the hook (not on the point) and that the chain is free from nicks or
other damage. Avoid sudden jerks in lifting and lowering the load, and always consider
the angle of lift with a sling chain bridle.
The strength of any chain is negatively affected when it has been knotted, overloaded,
or heated to temperatures above 500F.
3.2.0 Safe Working Loads

To determine the safe working load on a chain, apply a factor of safety to the breaking
strength. The safe working load is ordinarily one-sixth of the breaking strength, giving a
safety factor of 6 (Table 16-1).
Table 16-1 Chain Safe Working Loads.
Size*
Approximate
weight per
linear foot in
pounds
Common
iron
High grade
iron
Soft steel
Special
steel
1/4
0.8
512
563
619
1240
3/8
1.7
1350
1490
1650
3200
1/2
2.5
2250
2480
2630
5250
5/8
4.3
3470
3810
4230
7600
3/4
5.8
5070
5580
6000
10500
7/8
8.0
7000
7700
8250
14330
10.7
9300
10230
10600
18200
1 1/8
12.5
9871
10858
11944
21500
1 1/4
16.0
12186
13304
14634
26300
1 3/8
18.3
14717
16188
17807
32051
Safe working load in pounds
* Size listed is the diameter in inches of one side of a link.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-27
The capacity of an open link chain can be approximated by using the following rule of
thumb:
SWL = 8D2 x 1 ton
Where:
D = Smallest diameter measured in inches
SWL = Safe working load in tons
Example:
Using the rule of thumb, the safe working capacity of a chain with a diameter of 3/4 inch
is as follows:
Converting the fraction to a decimal, SWL = 8D2 = 8 (.75)2= 4.5 tons (or 9,000 lbs)
These figures assume the load is being applied in a straight pull, rather than an impact.
An impact load is when an object is suddenly dropped for a distance and stopped. The
impact load is several times the weight of the load.

When hoisting heavy metal objects using chain for slings, you should insert padding
around the sharp comers of the load to protect the chain links from being cut.
Store chains in a clean, dry place where they will not be exposed to the weather. Before
storage, apply a light coat of lubricant to prevent rust.
Do NOT perform makeshift repairs, such as fastening links of a chain together with bolts
or wire. When links become worn or damaged, cut them out of the chain, then fasten
the two nearby links together with a connecting link. After the connecting link is closed,
welding makes it as strong as the other links, but the welder must be fully qualified to
perform the weld on the link with the available equipment. The safety of all other
personnel within the area of any of the chains future hoisting will depend on it. For
cutting small-sized chain links, use bolt cutters. To cut large-sized links, use a hacksaw.
Inspect the chain to ensure it is maintained in a safe, operating condition. A chain used
continuously for heavy loading should be inspected frequently. Chain is less reliable
than manila or wire rope slings because the links may crystallize and snap without
warning.
Examine the chain closely link by link and look for stretch, wear, distortion, cracks,
nicks, and gouges. Wear is usually found at the ends of the links where joining links rub
together. If you find wear, lift each link and measure its cross section.
NOTE
Remove chains from service when any link shows wear more than 25 percent of the
thickness of the metal.
Replace any link that shows cracks, distortion, nicks, or cuts. However, if a chain shows
stretching or distortion of more than 5 percent in a five-link section, discard and destroy
the entire chain.
Remove chains from service when any link shows signs of binding at juncture points.
This binding condition indicates that the sides of the links have collapsed as a result of
stretching.
Before lifting with a chain, first place dunnage between the chain and the load to provide
a gripping surface. For hoisting heavy metal objects with a chain, always use chaffing
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-28
gear around the sharp comers on the load

to protect the chain links from being cut. As
chafing gear, use either planks or heavy
fabric. In handling rails or a number of
lengths of pipe, make a round turn and
place the hook around the chain as shown
in Figure 6-26.
4.0.0 ADDITIONAL LIFTING

EQUIPMENT
In addition to block and tackle, slings, and
chains, to lift objects and material, you will
also use hooks, shackles, and beam
clamps.
4.1.0 Hooks
Figure 16-26 Chain sling.
The two general types of hooks available

are the slip hook and the grab hook (Figure
16-27).
4.1.1 Slip Hooks
Slip hooks are made so the inside curve of
the hook is an arc of a circle. They are used
with wire rope, chains, and fiber line. Chain
links can slip through a slip hook so that the
loop formed in the chain can tighten under a
load.
4.1.2 Grab Hooks
Grab hooks have an inside curve that is
almost U-shaped so the hook will slip over a
link edgeways and not allow the next chain
link to slip past. Grab hooks have a much
Figure 16-27 (A) slip, (B) grab.
more limited range of use than slip hooks.
They are used exclusively when the loop formed in the chain is not intended to close
around the load.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-29
4.1.3 Mousing a Hook

As a rule, a hook should always be moused
as a safety measure to prevent slings or line
from coming off. Mousing also helps prevent
the straightening of a hook but does not add
to the strength of the hook. To mouse a hook
after the sling is on the hook, wrap wire or
small stuff 8 or 10 turns around the two sides
of the hook, then wind several turns around
the wire or small stuff, and tie the ends
securely (Figure 16-28).
4.1.4 Inspection
Hooks should be inspected at least once a
month, but those used for heavy and
continuous loading should be inspected more
frequently. Pay particular attention to the
Figure 16-28 Mousing a hook.
small radius fillets at the neck of the hooks for
any deviation from the original inner arc. Additionally, examine each hook for small
dents, cracks, sharp nicks, worn surfaces, or distortions. If any of these defects are
present, you must discard the hook.
4.1.5 Hook Strength
Hooks normally fail by straightening. If any deviation of the inner arc of a hook is
evident, it indicates that the hook has been overloaded. Evidence of overloading a hook
is easy to detect, so it is customary to use a hook that is weaker than the chain to which
it is attached. Using this system, distortion of the hook will occur before the hook is
overloaded. Any distorted, cracked, or badly worn hook is dangerous and should be
discarded immediately.
The safe working load of a hook can be formulated by using the following rule of thumb:
SWL = 2/3 x D2 x 1 ton.
Where:
D is the diameter (in inches) of the hook
where the inside of the hook starts to arc
(Figure 16-29).
Below is an example of the safe working
capacity of a hook with a diameter of 5/8
inch:
Converting the fractions to a decimals, D2 =
.625 X .625 = .390
SWL = .666 x .390 x 2,000 lbs.= 519
pounds
In the metric system, the formula for the
safe working load for hooks is as follows:
SWL = .46 x D2 x 1 tonne
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-29 Hook diameter.

16-30
capacity of a hook having a diameter of 1.59 cm.

D = 1.59 cm
D2 = 2.52 cm2
SWL= .046 x 2.52 cm2 x 1 tonne = .116 tonne
4.2.0 Shackles
Shackles should be used for loads too
heavy for hooks to handle (Figure 16-30).
They provide a useful way of attaching,
hauling, and lifting a load without tying
directly to the object with a line, wire rope, or
chain. Additionally, they can be attached to
wire rope, line, or chain.
The formula for computing the safe working
load for a shackle is as follows:
SWL = 3D2 x 1 ton
capacity of a shackle with a diameter of 5/8
inch. (See Figure 16-31.)
Converting the fractions to a decimals,
D2 = .625 X .625 = .390
Figure 16-30 Two types of

shackles :( A) anchor, (B) chain.
SWL = 3 X .390 x 2,000 lbs. = 2340

pounds
In the metric system, the formula for the safe
working load for shackles is as follows:
SWL = .417 X D2 X 1 tonne
Example:
D= 1.59cm
D2= 1.59 X 1.59 = 2.52
SWL = .417 x 2.52 x 1 tonne
SWL = 1.05 tonnes
NOTE
A hook or a shackle can actually lift more
than these formulas allow, but these
formulas give you the safe working load
under any conditions.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-31 Shackle diameter.
16-31
4.2.2 Mousing a Shackle

Mouse shackles whenever there is danger
of the shackles pin working loose or
coming out due to vibration. To mouse a
shackle properly, take several turns with
seizing wire through the eye of the pin and
around the bow of the shackle. Figure 1632 shows what a properly moused shackle
looks like.
4.3.0 Beam Clamps

Steelworkers are required to move and
handle many steel beams and steel
shapes. For off-loading steel from vehicles
and storing for further use or staging for
erection, beam clamps are much more
practical than using slings or chokers,
especially when the flanges are the only
available parts of the load. Figure 16-33
shows three different types of beam
clamps. View A shows a clamp designed for
use on a beam with a flat flange, either an I
or an H. The clamp in View B may be used
on beams with a circular cross-sectional
area or where only one side of the flange is
accessible. View C shows a clamp that is
useful for connection to a column with a
snatch block attached. The clamps shown
can all be fabricated in the shop or field.
Hooks, shackles, and beam clamps must
have the rated capacities and SWL
permanently stenciled or stamped on them.
OSHA identification tags can be acquired at
no cost from Naval Facilities Expeditionary
Logistics Center. Metal dog tags are
authorized providing the required
information is stamped onto the tags
5.0.0 OTHER LIFTING

EQUIPMENT
Figure 16-32 Mousing a

shackle.
Figure 16-33 Types of beam

clamps.
Other devices used for moving equipment include spreader bars, pallets, jacks, planks
and rollers, blocks and cribbing, and scaffolds.
5.1.0 Spreader Bars

In hoisting with slings, spreader bars are used to prevent crushing and damaging the
load. Spreader bars are short bars, or pipes, with eyes fastened to each end. By setting
spreader bars in the sling legs above the top of the load, you change the angle of the
sling leg and avoid crushing the load, particularly in the upper portion (Figure 16-34).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-32
Spreader bars are also used in lifting long or oversized objects to control the sling angle
(Figure 16-35). When spreader bars are used, make sure you do not overload the end
connection. A spreader bar has a rated capacity that is the same as hooks and
shackles. A good rule of thumb is the thickness of the spreaders end connection should
be the same as the thickness of the shackle pin.
Figure 16-34 Using spreader

bars.
Figure 16-35 Spreader bar

used with an oversized load.
5.2.0 Pallets
Cargo pallets coupled with slings are an immense advantage on jobs that involve
moving many small items staged on pallets. Spreader bars can be used often to avoid
damaging the pallet and the load (Figure 16-36). The pallet supplies a small platform on
which a number of items can be placed and then moved as a whole instead of piece-bypiece. Palletizing is clearly easier and faster
than moving each item by itself.
The four basic types of pallets used in
military cargo handling are the stevedore,
general-purpose, sled, and warehouse
pallets.
1. A stevedore pallet, which is
reversible, is used to handle loose
cargo at water terminals. The
standard stevedore pallet is 4 feet
wide, 6 feet long and 8 inches high.
The stringers are made of 3- or 4- by
4-inch lumber. The deck boards are
made of lumber 2 inches thick. The
outside boards may be random
widths. The outside stringers are set
in 4 to 6 inches from the ends so that
a pallet bridle may be inserted. The
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-36 Cargo pallet.

16-33
inside stringers are arranged to permit easy entrance of forks for movement by
forklift trucks.
2. A general-purpose pallet is a four-way-entry wood pallet, 48 inches long, 40
inches wide, and approximately 5 1/2 inches high. This pallet is used mainly for
the shipment of palletized cargo and often accompanies the cargo from shipper
to consignee.
3. The sled pallet is a heavy timbered platform with runners. Supplies and
equipment are normally banded to the pallet.
4. A warehouse pallet is used to handle cargo in warehouses. It is much lighter than
the stevedore pallet. The most common size of warehouse pallet is 48 by 48
inches, but a 40 by 48-inch size is also made. The warehouse pallet can be the
open-end type that is moved by a forklift or hoisted by a pallet bridle, or the
closed end type that is moved by forklift only.
When items of cargo are palletized, the tiers are laid so that one tier ties together with
another to give stability to the unitized load and to keep the cargo from falling off the
pallet while it is being moved. Cargo handlers can obtain greater use of the pallet area
by building the load in a definite pattern whenever possible.
Commonly, packages of the same size are palletized together, and when shipped,
remain on the pallet until they are used up. You may not have the luxury of having
excess pallets at your job site; however, you need to have several to work efficiently.
One can be loaded as the prior loaded one is being lifted, and the landed pallet is being
unloaded (if necessary). After each pallet is unloaded, the hoist will return with the
empty pallet for reloading. With two (or three) pallets, you are able to maintain a steady
flow of material. One set of slings will be able to handle any number of pallets.
5.3.0 Jacks
To be able to place cribbing, skids, and rollers, you need to be able lift a load a short
distance. Jacks are designed and built for this purpose. Jacks are also used for precise
placement of heavy loads, such as beams, or for raising and lowering heavy loads a
short distance. There are a number of different styles of jacks available; however, you
should use only heavy-duty hydraulic jacks or screw jacks. The number of jacks you use
is determined by the weight of the load and the rated capacity of the jacks. Ensure the
jacks have a solid footing and are not susceptible to slipping.
Jacks are available in capacities from 5 to 100 tons. Small capacity jacks are normally
operated through a rack bar or screw, and large capacity jacks are usually operated
hydraulically (Figure 16-37).
The types of jacks typically used by Steelworkers are the following:
1. Ratchet lever jacks are rack bar jacks with a rated capacity of 15 tons. These
jacks have a foot lift by which loads close to the base of the jack can be engaged
(Figure 16-37, View A).
2. Steamboat ratchets (often referred to as pushing and pulling jacks) are ratchet
screw jacks of 10-ton-rated capacity with end fittings that permit pulling parts
together or pulling them apart. They are primarily used for tightening lines or
lashings and for spreading or bracing parts in bridge construction (Figure 16-37,
View B).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-34
3. Screw jacks have a rated capacity of 12 tons. They are approximately 13 inches
high when closed and have a safe rise of 7 inches. These jacks are used for
general purposes, including steel erection (Figure 16-37, View C).
4. Hydraulic jacks are available in many different capacities and are used for
general purposes (Figure 16-37, View D).
Figure 16-37 Jacks.
5.4.0 Planks and Rollers

Planks and rollers provide you with an excellent means of moving heavy loads across
the ground on a jobsite or the floor of a shop (Figure 16-38).
Oak planks are appropriate for most operations involving plank skids. Planks 15 feet
long and 2 to 3 inches thick should be suitable. They distribute the weight of a load and
provide a smooth runway surface on which to skid the load along, or on which to use
rollers to ease the effort required to move the load.
Timber skids (planks) are placed longitudinally under heavy loads to distribute the
weight over a greater area. (Refer again to Figure 16-38.) The angle of the skids must
be kept low to prevent the load from drifting or getting out of control.
Skids can be greased only when horizontal movement is involved. Exercise extreme
care if using grease. In most circumstances, greasing is inherently dangerous; it can
cause the load to drift sideways suddenly, causing injuries to personnel, damage to
equipment, and loss of the load.
Hardwood or pipe rollers can be used in conjunction with plank skids for moving heavy
loads into position. Planks are placed under the rollers to provide a smooth continuous
surface to enable them to roll easily. The rollers must be smooth and round to aid in the
ease of movement, and long enough to pass completely under the load. The load
should be supported by longitudinal wooden members to provide a smooth upper
surface for the rollers to roll on. The skids placed underneath must form continuous
support.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-35
Normal practice is to place four to six rollers under the load to be moved. Place several
rollers in front of the load and then slowly roll the load onto these rollers. As the load
passes, pick up the rollers that are left behind the load and move them in front of the
load, creating a continuous path of rollers. Turns can be made using rollers, but you
must incline the front rollers slightly in the direction of the turn and incline the rear of the
rollers in the opposite direction. You can make this inclination by striking them sharply
with a sledgehammer. In addition, rollers can be fabricated and set on axles in side
beams as a semi-permanent conveyor for lighter loads. Permanent metal roller
conveyors are available and are normally fabricated in sections that can be joined
together (Figure 16-39).
Figure 16-38 Use of planks and

rollers.
Figure 16-39 Permanent metal

roller conveyor.
5.5.0 Blocking and Cribbing

Block timbers are commonly used to provide a foundation for heavy loads or jacks.
Cribbing must be used when a heavy weight must be supported at a height greater than
blocking can provide. Cribbing is made up by aligning timber in tiers that run in alternate
directions (Figure 16-40). Blocking and cribbing are often necessary as a safety
measure to keep an object stationary to prevent accidents and injury to personnel
working near these heavy objects.
When selecting blocking as a foundation for jacks, ensure it is sound and large enough
to support the load safely. It must be thoroughly dry and free from grease. Additionally,
it must be placed firmly on the ground with the load (pressure) distributed evenly.
A firm and level foundation is a paramount requirement where cribbing is used. Equally
as critical, the bottom timbers must be placed so they rest evenly and firmly on the firm
and level foundation.
Cribbing is desirable when lifting loads by jacking stages. This procedure requires
blocking to be placed under the jacks, lifting the load to the maximum height the jacks
can accommodate safely, placing the cribbing under the load in alternating tiers, with
no personnel under the load, and then lowering the load onto the cribbing.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-36
When cribbing is not high enough or at the correct height, build up the blocking under
the jacks until the jacks can bear against the load while in their lowered position. Raise
the jacks again to their maximum safe height and lower onto the added cribbing. This
procedure can be repeated as many times as necessary to build up the cribbing to the
desired height.
Figure 16-40 Examples of the use of

cribbing.
5.6.0 Scaffolds
The term scaffold refers to a temporary
elevated platform used to support personnel
and materials, for immediate usage or for a
particular phase of construction throughout
the course of the work. You will use
scaffolds in performing various jobs that
cannot be done safely from securely placed
ladders. Take a look at a few of the different
types of scaffolds that you may need from
time to time on the job.
5.6.1 Planking and Runway Scaffold
A planking and runway scaffold consists of
single scaffold planks laid across beams of
upper floors or roofs (Figure 16-41). It is
frequently used to provide working areas or
runways. Each plank should extend from
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-41 Planking and

runway scaffold.
16-37
beam to beam, with not more than a few inches of the planks extending beyond the
end-supporting beam. The short overhang is essential to safe practice to prevent
personnel from stepping on an unsupported plank end and falling from the scaffold.
Planks should be thick enough to support the load safely and applied without excessive
sagging. When the planking is laid continuously, as in a runway, make sure the planks
are laid so their ends overlap. Single plank runs may be staggered, with each plank
being offset with reference to the next plank in the run.
5.6.2 Swinging Platform Scaffold
The most commonly used type of swinging
scaffolding is the platform scaffold (Figure
16-42). The swinging platform scaffold
consists of a frame with a deck of wood
slats. The platform is supported near each
end by iron rods, called stirrups, which have
the lower blocks of fiber line fall attached to
them. This tackle arrangement permits the
platform to be raised or lowered as required.
The tackle and platform are supported by
hooks and anchors on the roof of the
structure. The fall line of the tackle must be
secured to a part of the platform when in
final position to prevent it from falling.
Figure 16-42 Platform scaffold.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-38
5.6.3 Needle-Beam Scaffold

A needle-beam scaffold consists of a plank
platform resting on two parallel horizontal
beams, called needle beams, which are
supported by lines from overhead. (Figure 1643.)
Needle-beam scaffolds should be used only for
the support of personnel doing light work. They
are suitable for use by riveting gangs working on
steel structures because of the necessity of
frequent changes of location and the
adaptability of this type of scaffold to different
situations.
Several types of patent and independent
scaffolding are available for simple and rapid
assembly (Figure 6-44). The scaffold uprights
are braced with diagonal members, and the
working level is covered with a platform of
planks. All bracing must form triangles, and the
base of each column requires adequate footing
plates for bearing area on the ground. The
patented steel scaffolding is usually erected by
placing the two uprights on the ground and
inserting the diagonal members. The diagonal
members have end fittings, which permit easy
assembly.
Figure 16-43 Needlebarn scaffold.
Figure 16-44 Assembling

prefabricated independent
scaffolding.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
The first tier is set on steel bases on the

ground, and a second tier is placed in the
same manner on the first tier with the
bottom of each upright locked to the top of
the lower tier. A third and fourth upright
can be placed on the ground level and
locked to the first set with diagonal
bracing. The scaffolding can be built as
high as desired, but high scaffolding
should be tied into the main structure. As
with blocking and cribbing, the steel bases
16-39
used for the foundation to set up independent scaffolding must be set either on a flat,
horizontal surface, or be sufficiently close so adjustable threaded bases can level the
platform.
5.6.4 Boatswains Chair
The boatswains chair also comes under
the heading of scaffolding (Figure 16-45). It
is sometimes used to provide a seat for a
person working above the ground.
The seat of the boatswains chair should be
at least 2 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 1 1/4
inches thick (60 cm long, 30 cm wide, and
3.1 cm thick). Make sure you always wear a
safety belt when using a boatswains chair.
The safety belt should be attached to a
lifeline secured to a fixed object overhead.
Use a bowline to secure the lifeline to the
person in the chair.
NOTE
Use a boatswains chair only if other means
are not available.
Figure 16-45 Boatswains

chair.
5.6.5 Safety
When you are using scaffolds, safety is your number 1 priority. Failure to observe safety
precautions can result in serious injury to yourself or coworkers. Some essential safety
measures applicable to scaffolds are given here. Use each of them habitually.
Structural members, support ropes, and scaffold equipment must be inspected carefully
each workday before using them on the job. The use of makeshift scaffolds is strictly
prohibited.
When personnel are working on a scaffold with other personnel engaged directly above,
either the scaffold must have an overhead protective covering or the workers on the
lower scaffold must wear Navy-approved, protective hard hats to provide protection
against falling material. Where the upper working level is no more than 12 feet (3.6 m)
above the lower, hard hats worn by workers on the lower level will satisfy this
requirement.
An overhead protective covering consists of a roof of lumber, heavy wire screen, or
heavy canvas, depending upon the hazard involved. The covering should extend a
sufficient distance beyond the edge of the scaffold to catch any material that may fall
over the edge. A netting of screen should not be less than No. 18 gauge, U.S. standard
wire, with a mesh not to exceed 1/2 inch. Screens of heavier wire or smaller mesh
should be used where conditions are such that the No. 18 gauge wire or 1/2-inch mesh
will not supply adequate protection. Personnel should NOT be required to work
underneath a scaffold.
Scaffolds erected over passageways, thoroughfares, or locations where persons are
working should be provided with side screens and a protective covering. A side screen
is a screen paneling from the platform to an intermediate railing or from the platform to
the top railing. Screening is formed of No. 16 U.S. gauge wire with 1/2-inch mesh.
Screen is used to prevent materials, loose or piled, from falling off the scaffolds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-40
A safe means of access should be provided to all scaffolds by means of standard stairs
or fixed ladders. Additionally, ensure that a scaffold is properly secured against
swaying.
Personnel should not be permitted on scaffolds covered with ice or snow. In such
instances, clinging ice must be removed from all guardrails, then the planking sanded or
otherwise protected against slipping. Workers should not be permitted on scaffolds
during a storm or high wind.
No scaffold should be used for storing materials, except those required for the
immediate needs of the job. Place tools in containers to prevent their being knocked off,
and secure the containers to the scaffold by line. Always make a special effort to ensure
that tools, equipment, material, and rubbish do not accumulate on a scaffold to the point
where safe movement is jeopardized.
Never throw or drop objects or tools from scaffolds. Hand lines should be used for
raising or lowering objects when they cannot be reached easily and safely by hand.
Such things as jumping or throwing material upon a scaffold platform are to be avoided
at all times.
Never overload a scaffold. Furthermore, whenever possible, see that the scaffold load
is uniformly distributed and not concentrated at the center of the platform.
Wire ropes and fiber lines used on suspension and swinging scaffolds should be of the
best quality steel, manila, or sisal. Manila or sisal line used as lifelines should be 1 7/8
inches (51.2 mm) in circumference.
Lifelines and safety belts must be used when working on unguarded scaffolds at heights
of 10 feet (3 m) and above (as well as on boatswains chairs, as explained earlier). If
working over water, personnel must wear life jackets.
Maintain all scaffolds and scaffold equipment in safe condition. Avoid making repairs or
alterations to a scaffold or scaffold equipment while in use. Rather than take a chance,
NEVER permit personnel to use damaged or weakened scaffolds.
6.0.0 FIELD-ERECTED HOISTING DEVICES

At times, due to the very nature of heavy construction, such as when constructing preengineered buildings, piers, bridges, and many other components related to Advanced
Base Functional Components (ABFC), Steelworkers must erect heavy structural
members. Usually you will hoist these members into position using cranes, forklifts, or
other construction equipment. In contingency/ combat operations, however, this
equipment may not be available because of operational commitments, and structural
members must be hoisted without the heavy equipment. This section will present some
of the methods you can use for the erection process when heavy equipment is
unavailable.
The term field-erected hoisting device refers to a device constructed in the field using
locally available material to hoist and move heavy loads. Essentially, it consists of a
block-and-tackle system arranged on a skeleton structure of wooden poles or steel
beams. The tackle system requires some form of machine power or work force power to
do the actual hoisting. The three most commonly used types of field-erected hoisting
devices are gin poles, tripods, and shears. The skeleton structures these devices are
anchored to are called holdfasts.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-41
6.1.0 Holdfasts
Gin poles, shear legs, and other rigging devices are held in place by means of guy
lines anchored to holdfasts. In fieldwork, the most desirable and economical types of
holdfasts are natural objects, such as trees, stumps, and rocks. When natural holdfasts
of sufficient strength are not available, you will need to field manufacture the holdfasts
for proper anchorage. These include single picket holdfasts, combination picket
holdfasts, combination log picket holdfasts, log deadman, and steel picket holdfasts.
6.1.1 Natural Types
When using trees, stumps, or boulders as holdfasts, always attach the guys near
ground level (Figure 16-46). The strength of the tree, stump, or boulder size is also an
important factor in determining its suitability as a holdfast. With this in mind, NEVER use
a dead tree, a rotten stump, or loose boulders and rocks. Such holdfasts are unsafe;
they are likely to suddenly snap or slip when a strain is placed on the guy. Whenever
possible, make it a practice to lash the first tree or stump to a second one; this will
provide added support for the guy.
Figure 16-46 Using trees as a holdfast.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-42
You can make rock holdfasts by inserting pipes, crowbars, or steel pickets into holes
drilled in solid rock. Keeping them in line with the guy, use a star drill to drill holes in the
rock 1 1/2 to 3 feet apart. Remember to drill the holes at a slight angle so the pickets
lean away from the direction of pull. Make the front hole about 1 1/2 to 3 feet deep and
the rear hole 2 feet deep (Figure 16-47). After driving pickets into the holes, secure the
guy to the front picket, then lash the pickets together with a chain or wire rope to
transmit the load.
Figure 16-47 Rock holdfast.

6.1.2 Single-Picket
The pickets for picket holdfasts may be either wood or steel. A wood picket should be at
least 3 inches in diameter and 5 feet long. A single picket holdfast can be provided by
driving a picket 3 to 4 feet into the ground, and slanting it at an angle of 15 degrees
opposite the pull. In securing a single guy line to a picket, take two turns around the
picket and then have part of the crew haul in on the guy as you take up the slack. When
you have the guy taut, secure it with two half hitches. In undisturbed loam soil, the
single picket is strong enough to stand a pull of about 700 pounds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-43
6.1.3 Combination-Picket
A combination picket holdfast consists of two or more pickets. Figure 16-48 gives you
an idea of how to arrange pickets in constructing a 1-1-1 and a 3-2-1 combination picket
holdfast.
Figure 16-48 Combination pickets.

In constructing the 1-1-1 combination (Figure 16-49), drive three single pickets about 3
feet into the ground, 3 to 6 feet apart, and in line with the guy. For a 3-2-1 combination,
drive a group of three pickets into the ground, lashing them together before you secure
the guy to them. Follow this with a group of two lashed pickets 3 to 6 feet from the first
group and in line, and finish with a single picket, again 3 to 6 feet away and on line. The
1-1-1 combination can stand a pull of about 1,800 pounds, while the 3-2-1 combination
can stand as much as 4,000 pounds.
The pickets grouped and lashed together, plus the use of small stuff secured onto every
pair of pickets, are what make the combination picket holdfasts much stronger than the
single holdfasts.
The reason for grouping and lashing the first cluster of pickets together is to reinforce
the point where the pull is the greatest. The way small stuff links each picket to the next
is what divides the force of pull, so the first picket does not have to withstand all of the
strain.
Using 12- to 15-thread small stuff, clove hitch it to the top of the first picket. Then take
about four to six turns around the first and second pickets, going from the bottom of the
second to the top of the first picket. Repeat this with more small stuff from the second to
the third picket, and so on, until the last picket has been secured.
Then pass a stake between the turns of small stuff between each pair of pickets and
make the small stuff taut by twisting it with the stake. Now drive the stake into the
ground.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-44
If you are going to use a picket holdfast for several days, it is best to use galvanized guy
wire in place of the small stuff. Rain will not affect galvanized guy wire, but it will cause
small stuff to shrink. If the small stuff is already taut, it could break from overstrain. Still,
if you must use small stuff, be sure to slack it off before leaving it overnight. You do this
by pulling the stake up, untwisting the small stuff once, and then replacing the stake.
Figure 16-49 Preparing a 1-1-1 picket holdfast.

6.1.4 Combination Log Picket
For heavy loads or in soft- or wet-earth areas, you can use a combination log-picket
holdfast. With this type, the guys are anchored to a log or timber supported against four
or six combination picket holdfasts (Figure 16-50). The timber serves as beam, and
must be placed so it bears evenly against the front rope of the pickets. Since the holding
power of this setup depends on the strength of the timber and anchor line, as well as
the holdfast, you must use a timber big enough and an anchor line strong enough to
withstand the pull.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-45
Figure 16-50 Combination log picket.
6.1.5 Deadman
A deadman provides the best form of anchorage for heavy loads. It consists of a log,
steel beam, steel pipe, or similar object buried in the ground with the guy connected at
its center (Figure16-51). The deadman is suitable as a permanent anchorage because it
is buried, and when you install a permanent deadman anchorage, it is a good idea to
put a turnbuckle in the guy near the ground to permit slackening or tightening when
necessary.
Figure 16-51 Deadman anchorage for a heavy load.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-46
When you dig the hole to bury the deadman, make sure it is deep enough for good
bearing on solid ground, but the less earth you disturb on the bearing face when
digging, the better the bearing will be. Undercut the bank in the direction toward the guy
at an angle of about 15 degrees from the vertical, and to increase the bearing surface,
you can drive stakes into the bank at several points over the deadman.
Cut a narrow, inclined trench for the guy through the bank and leading to the center of
the deadman. At the outlet of the trench, place a short beam or log on the ground under
the guy. In securing the guy to the center of the deadman, see that the standing part
(that is, the part on which the pull occurs) leads from the bottom of the log deadman.
Thus, if the wire rope clips slip under strain, the standing part will rotate the log in a
counterclockwise direction, causing the log to dig into the trench, rather than roll up and
out. However, to prevent the clips from slipping in the first place, make sure the running
end of the guy is secured properly to the standing part.
6.1.6 Steel Picket
The steel picket holdfast consists of a steel box plate with nine holes, and a steel eye
welded on the end for attaching the guy (Figure 16-52). When you install this holdfast, it
is important to drive the steel pickets through the holes in such a manner that it causes
them to clinch in the ground. The steel picket holdfast is especially useful for anchoring
horizontal lines, such as the anchor cable on a pontoon bridge. Using two or more of the
units in combination provides a stronger anchorage than a single unit.
Figure 16-52 Steel picket holdfast.
6.2.0 Gin Poles

A gin pole consists of an upright mast equipped with suitable hoisting tackle that is
guyed at the top to maintain it in a vertical or nearly vertical position. The vertical mast
can be a timber, wide-flange steel beam section, railroad rail, or similar member of
sufficient strength to support the load being lifted. The load can be hoisted by hand
tackle, or by hand- or engine-driven hoists. The gin pole is predominately used in
erection work because of the ease with which it can be rigged, moved, and operated. It
is suitable for raising loads of medium weight to heights of 10 to 50 feet where only a
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-47
vertical lift is required, and it can be used to drag loads horizontally toward the base of
the pole in preparation for a vertical lift. However, it cannot be drifted (inclined) more
than 45 degrees from the vertical or seven-tenths the height of the pole, nor is it suitable
for swinging a load horizontally.
The length and thickness of the member selected for use as a gin pole will depend on
the purpose for which it is installed. It should not be longer than 60 times its minimum
thickness because of the tendency to buckle under compression. A usable rule is to
allow 5 feet of pole for each inch of minimum thickness. Table 16-2 lists values for using
spruce timbers as gin poles with allowance for normal stresses in hoisting operations.
Table 16-2 Safe Capacity of Spruce Timbers as Gin Poles in Normal
Operations.
Safe capacity in pounds for given length of timber
Size of
timber in
inches
20 feet
25 feet
30 feet
6 dia
5000
3000
2000
11000
24000
8 dia
10 dia
31000
12 dia
6x6
6000
8x8
10x10
40000
12x12
40 feet
50 feet
8000
5000
3000
16000
9000
6000
31000
19000
12000
4000
3000
14000
10000
6000
4000
30000
20000
12000
8000
40000
24000
16000
60 feet
9000
12000
NOTE
For the following text about gin poles, tripods, and shears: The safe capacity of
each length tripod or shears is seven-eighths of the value given for a gin pole.
Use the following guidance when rigging, erecting, and operating a gin pole.
1. Rigging Lay out the pole with the base at the exact spot where it is to be
erected. Place the gin pole on cribbing for ease of lashing, and to make
provisions for the guy lines and tackle blocks. Figure 16-53 shows the lashing on
top of a gin pole and the method of attaching guys. The procedure is as follows:
a. Make a tight lashing of eight turns of fiber rope about 1 foot from the top of
the pole, with two of the center turns engaging the hook of the upper block of
the tackle. Secure the ends of the lashing with a square knot. Nail wooden
cleats (boards) to the pole flush with the lower and upper sides of the lashing
to prevent the lashing from slipping.
b. Lay out guy ropes, each one four times the length of the gin pole. In the
center of each guy rope, form a clove hitch over the top of the pole next to the
tackle lashing, and be sure the guy lines are aligned in the direction of their
anchors.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-48
c. Lash a block to the gin pole about 2 feet from the base of the pole, the same
as was done for the tackle lashing at the top, and place a cleat above the
lashing to prevent slipping. This block serves as a leading block on the fall
line, which allows a directional change of pull from the vertical to the
horizontal. A snatch block is the most convenient type to use for this purpose.
d. Reeve the hoisting tackle and use the block lashed to the top of the pole so
that the fall line can be passed through the leading block at the base of the
gin pole.
e. Drive a stake about 3 feet from the base of the gin pole. Tie a rope from the
stake to the base of the pole below the lashing on the leading block and near
the bottom of the pole. This is to prevent the pole from skidding while it is
being erected.
f. Check all lines to be sure that they are not tangled. Check all lashings to
ensure they are made up properly, and see that all knots are tight. Check the
hooks on the blocks to see that they are moused properly. The gin pole is
now ready to be erected.
Figure 16-53 Lashing for a gin pole.

2. Erecting A gin pole 40 feet long can be raised easily by hand, but longer poles
must be raised by supplementary rigging or power equipment. Figure 16-54
shows such a gin pole being erected. The number of personnel needed depends
on the weight of the pole. The procedure is as follows:
a. Dig a hole about 2 feet deep for the base of the gin pole.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-49
b. Run out the guys to their respective anchorages and assign a person to
each anchorage to control the slack in the guy line with a round turn
around the anchorage as the pole is raised. If it has not been done
already, install an anchorage for the base of the pole.
Figure 16-54 Erecting a gin pole.

c. If necessary, the tackle system used to raise and lower the load under normal
operations can be used to assist in raising the gin pole, but attaching an
additional tackle system to the rear guy line is preferable when raising the gin
pole. Attach the running block of the rear guy line tackle system to the rear
guy line end, which at this point is near the base of the gin pole. The fixed or
stationary block is then secured to the rear anchor. The fall line should come
out of the running block to give greater mechanical advantage to the tackle
system. The tackle system is stretched to the base of the pole before it is
erected to prevent the chocking of the tackle blocks during the erection of the
gin pole.
d. Keeping a slight tension on the rear guy line, and on each of the side guy
lines, haul in on the fall line of the tackle system while eight personnel (more
for larger poles) raise the top of the pole by hand until the tackle system can
take control.
e. The rear guy line must be kept under tension to prevent the pole from
swinging and throwing all of its weight on one of the side guys.
f. When the pole is in its final position, approximately vertical or inclined as
desired, make all guys fast to their anchorages with the round turn and two
half hitches. It is often advantageous to double the portion of rope used for
the half hitches.
g. Open the leading block at the base of the gin pole and place the fall line from
the tackle system through it. When the leading block is closed, the gin pole is
ready for use. If it is necessary to move (drift) the top of the pole without
moving the base, it should be done when there is no load on the pole unless
the guys are equipped with tackle.
3. Operating The gin pole is perfectly suited to vertical lifts. It also is used under
some circumstances for lifting and pulling at the same time so the load being
moved travels toward the gin pole just off the ground. When used in this manner,
you must attach a snubbing line of some kind to the other end of the load being
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-50
dragged and keep it under tension at all times. Use tag lines to control loads
being lifted vertically. A tag line is a light line fastened to one end of the load and
kept under slight tension during hoisting (Figure 16-55).
Figure 16-55 Hoisting with a gin pole.
6.3.0 Tripods
A tripod consists of three legs lashed or secured at the top. The advantage of the tripod
over other rigging installations is its stability, and it requires no guy lines to hold it in
place. The disadvantage of a tripod is that the load can be moved only up and down.
The load capacity of a tripod is approximately 1 1/2 times that of shears made of the
same-size material.
Use the following guidance when rigging and erecting a tripod.
1. Rigging There are two methods of lashing a tripod, either of which is suitable
provided the lashing material is strong enough. The material used for lashing can
be fiber rope, wire rope, or chain. Metal rings joined with short chain sections and
large enough to slip over the top of the tripod legs can be used as well. The
method described below is for fiber rope 1 inch in diameter or smaller. Since the
strength of the tripod is affected directly by the strength of the rope and the
lashing used, more turns than described below should be used for extra heavy
loads, and fewer turns can be used for light loads.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-51
Procedure
a. Select three masts of approximately equal size and place a mark near the top
of each mast to indicate the center of the lashing.
b. Lay two of the masts parallel with their tops resting on a skid or block and a
third mast between the first two, with the lashing marks on all three in line, but
with the butt in the opposite direction. The spacing between masts should be
about one half of the diameter of the spars. Leave the space between the
spars so that the lashing will not
be drawn too tight when the tripod
is erected.
c. With a 1-inch rope, make a clove
hitch around one of the outside
masts about 4 inches above the
lashing mark, and take eight turns
of the line around the three masts
(Figure 16-56). Be sure to
maintain the space between the
masts while making the turns.
d. Finish the lashing by taking two
close frapping turns around the
lashing between each pair of
masts. Secure the end of the rope
with a clove hitch on the center
mast just above the lashing.
Frapping turns should not be
drawn too tight.
Figure 16-56 Lashing for a

tripod.
Alternate procedure
a. An alternate procedure can be
used when slender poles not
more than 20 feet long are being
used or when some means other
than hand power is available for
erection (Figure 16-57).
b. Lay the three masts parallel to
each other with an interval
between them slightly greater
than twice the diameter of the
rope to be used. Rest the tops of
the poles on a skid so the ends
project over the skid
approximately 2 feet and the butts
of the three masts are in line.
c. Put a clove hitch on one outside
leg at the bottom of the position
the lashing will occupy, which
should be approximately 2 feet
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-57 Alternate lashing

for a tripod.
16-52
from the end. Weave the line over the middle leg, under and around the outer
leg, under the middle leg, over and around the first leg, and continue this
weaving for eight turns. Finish with a clove hitch on the outer leg.
2. Erecting The legs of a tripod in its final position should be spread so each leg
is equidistant from the
others (Figure 16-58).
This spread should not
be less than one half or
more than two thirds of
the length of the legs.
Use chain, rope, or
boards to hold the legs in
this position. Lash a
leading block for the fall
line of the tackle to one of
the legs. The procedure
is as follows:
a. Raise the tops of the
masts about 4 feet,
keeping the base of
the legs on the
ground.
b. Cross the two outer
legs. The third or
center leg then rests
Figure 16-58 Tripod assembled for use.
on top of the cross.
With the legs in this
position, pass a sling
over the cross so that it passes over the top or center leg and around the
other two.
c. Hook the upper block of a tackle to the sling and mouse the hook.
d. Continue raising the tripod by pushing in on the legs as they are lifted at the
center. Eight personnel should be able to raise an ordinary tripod into
position.
e. When the legs are in their final position, place a rope or chain lashing
between them to keep them from shifting.
Erecting Large Tripods. For larger tripod installations, it may be necessary to

erect a small gin pole to raise the tripod into position. Tripods, lashed with the
three legs laid together, must be erected by raising the tops of the legs until the
legs clear the ground so they can be spread apart. Use guy lines or tag lines to
assist in steadying the legs while they are being raised. Cross the outer legs so
the center leg is on the top of the cross, and pass the sling for the hoisting tackle
over the center leg and around the two outer legs at the cross.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-53
6.4.0 Shears
Shears, made by lashing two legs together with a rope, are well adapted for lifting heavy
machinery or other bulky loads. They are formed by two members crossed at their tops
with the hoisting tackle suspended from the intersection. The shears must be guyed to
hold them in position. The shears are quickly assembled and erected. They require only
two guys and are adapted to working at an inclination from the vertical. The shear legs
can be round poles, timbers, heavy planks, or steel bars, depending on the material at
hand and the purpose of the shears.
For determining the size of the members to be used, the determining factors you need
to consider are the load to be lifted, and the ratio of the length and diameter of the legs
of the members. For heavy loads, the length-diameter (L/D) ratio should not exceed 60
because of the tendency of the legs to bend rather than act as columns. For light work,
shears can be improvised from two planks or light poles bolted together and reinforced
by a small lashing at the intersection of the legs.
Use the following guidance when rigging, erecting, and operating shears.
1. Rigging Once erected, the spread of the legs should equal about one-half the
height of the shears, with the maximum allowable drift (inclination) of 45 degrees.
Tackle blocks and guys for shears are essential. The guy ropes can be secured
to firm posts or trees with a turn of the rope so the length of the guys can be
adjusted easily. The procedure is as follows:
a. Lay two timbers together on the ground in line with the guys, with the butt
ends pointing toward the back guy and close to the point of erection.
b. Place a large block under the tops of the legs just below the point of lashing
(Figure 16-59), and
insert a small spacer
block between the
tops at the same
point. The separation
between the legs at
this point should be
equal to one third of
the diameter of one
leg to make handling
of the lashing easier.
c. With sufficient 1-inch
rope for 14 turns
around both legs,
make a clove hitch
around one mast, and
take 8 turns around
both legs above the
clove hitch. Wrap the
turns tightly so that
the lashings are made
smooth and without
kinks.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 16-59 Lashing for shears.
16-54
d. Finish the lashing by taking two frapping turns around the lashing between
the legs and securing the end of the rope to the other leg just below the
lashing. For handling heavy loads, increase the number of lashing turns.
2. Erecting Dig holes at the points where the legs of the shears are to stand. In
case of placement on rocky ground, the base for the shears should be level. The
legs of the shears should be crossed and the butts placed at the edges of the
holes. With a short length of rope, make two turns over the cross at the top of the
shears and tie the rope together to form a sling. Be sure to have the sling bearing
against the masts and not on the shears lashing entirely. The procedure is as
follows:
a. Reeve a set of blocks and place the hook of the upper block through the sling.
Secure the sling in the hook by mousing. Fasten the lower block to one of the
legs near the butt so it will be in a convenient position when the shears have
been raised, but will be out of the way during erection.
b. If the shears are to be used on heavy lifts, rig another tackle in the base guy
near its anchorage. Secure the two guys to the top of the shears with clove
hitches to legs opposite their anchorages above the lashing.
c. Several personnel (depending on the size of the shears) should lift the top
end of the shear legs and walk them up by hand until the tackle on the rear
guy line can take effect. After this, the shear legs can be raised into final
position by hauling in on the tackle. Secure the front guy line to its anchorage
before raising the shear legs, and keep a slight tension on this line to control
movement (Figure 16-60).
d. Keep the legs from spreading by connecting them with rope chain or bards. It
can be necessary, under some conditions, to anchor each leg of the shears
during erection to keep them from sliding in the wrong direction.
Figure 16-60 Erecting shears.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-55
3. Operating The rear guy is a very important part of the shears rigging, as it is
under a considerable strain when hoisting. The front guy has very little strain on it
and is used mainly to aid in adjusting the drift and to steady the top of the shears
when hoisting or placing the load. It may be necessary to rig a tackle in the rear
guy for handling heavy loads.
In operation, the drift (inclination of the shears) desired is set by adjustment of
the rear guy, but this should not be done while a load is on the shears. For
handling light loads, the fall line of the tackle of the shears can be led straight out
of the upper block. When heavy loads are handled, you should lash a snatch
block near the base of one of the shear legs to act as a leading block (Figure 1661). The fall line should be run through the leading block to a hand- or poweroperated winch for heavy loads.
Figure 16-61 Hoisting with shears.
7.0.0 SAFE RIGGING OPERATING PROCEDURES

All personnel involved with the use of rigging gear should be thoroughly instructed and
trained to comply with the following practices:
1. Wire rope slings must not be used with loads that exceed the rated capacities
outlined in enclosure (2) of the NSTM Chapter 613, Wire and Fiber Rope and
Rigging. Slings not included in the enclosure must be used only according to the
manufacturers recommendation.
2. Determine the weight of a load before attempting any lift.
3. Select a sling with sufficient capacity rating.
4. Examine all hardware, equipment, tackle, and slings before using them and
destroy all defective components.
5. Use the proper hitch.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-56
6. Guide loads with a tag line when practical.

7. When using multiple-leg slings, select the longest sling practical to reduce the
stress on the individual sling legs.
8. Attach the sling securely to the load.
9. To prevent chaffing, pad or protect any sharp comers or edges the sling may
come in contact with.
10. Keep slings free of kinks, loops, or twists.
11. Keep hands and fingers from between the sling and the load.
12. Start the lift slowly to avoid shock-loading slings.
13. Keep slings well lubricated to prevent corrosion.
14. Do not pull slings from under a load when the load is resting on the slings; block
the load up to remove slings.
15. Do not shorten a sling by knotting or using wire rope clips.
16. Do not inspect wire rope slings by passing bare hands over the rope. Broken
wires, if present, can cause serious injuries. When practical, wear leather palm
gloves when working with wire rope slings.
17. Establish the center of balance. It is very important in the rigging process that the
load is stable. A stable load is a load in which the center of balance of the load is
directly below the hook. When a load is suspended, it will always shift to that
position below the hook, as shown in Figure 16-62. To rig a stable load, establish
the center of balance (C/B). Once you have done this, simply swing the hook
over the C/B and select the length of slings needed from the hook to the lifting
point of the load.
18. When using a multi-legged bridle sling, do not forget it is wrong to assume that a
three- or four-leg hitch will safely lift a load equal to the safe load on one leg
multiplied by the number of legs. With a four-legged bridle sling lifting a rigid load,
it is possible for two of the legs to support practically the full load while the other
two only balance it (Figure 16-63).
Figure 16-62 Example of a load shifting when lifted.

NOTE
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-57
If all the legs of a multi-legged sling are not required, secure the remaining legs out of
the way, as shown in Figure 16-64.
Figure 16-63 Multi-legged

bridle sling lifting a load.
Figure 16-64 Secure sling legs

not being used.
Summary
This chapter discussed the characteristics, construction, and use of many types of wire
rope. It also discussed the safe working load, use of attachments and fittings, and
procedures for the care and handling of wire rope. You can obtain further information
about wire ropes in NSTM Chapter 613, Wire and Fiber Rope and Rigging.
Rigging and hoisting are inherently dangerous elements of construction work, so always
follow the prescribed safety precautions and wear the proper personal protective
equipment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-58

1.
(True or False) The most important operation in rigging is safety.

A.
B.
2.
(True or False) The mechanical advantage of a machine is the amount a

machine can multiply the force used to lift or move a load.
A.
B.
3.
True
False
(True or False) A sheave is a round grooved wheel over which the line runs.
A.
B.
8.
True
False
(True or False) The cheeks are the solid sides of the frame or shell.
A.
B.
7.
Two-block
Fall
Running block
Standing block
(True or False) The becket holds the block together and supports the pins.
A.
B.
6.
Two-blocked
Fall
Running block
Standing block
What is a block called when it is attached to an object to be moved?

A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
True
False
What term is used when blocks of a tackle are as close together as they can go?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
True
False
True
False
(True or False) The breech is the opening through which the line passes.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-59
9.
When rigging a tackle using 1/2-inch wire rope, what diameter sheave should you
use, in inches?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
What type of block should you use to change the direction of pull on a line?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
4
6
8
10
Determine the mechanical advantage of a compound tackle using two inverted

luff tackles.
A.
B.
C.
D.
15.
1
2
3
4
A threefold purchase is made of two triple sheave blocks and provides a

mechanical advantage of what value?
A.
B.
C.
D.
14.
True
False
What is the added mechanical advantage of gun tackle when it is inverted?

A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Snatch
Standard
Leading
Double
(True or False) Adding a snatch block does NOT increase the mechanical
advantage of a tackle system.
A.
B.
12.
10
14
18
20
8
12
16
20
What are the primary advantages of wire rope slings?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Resiliency and strength

Strength and hardness
Flexibility and weight
Flexibility and strength
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-60
16.
(True or False) When compared to wire rope slings, fiber line slings offer the
advantage of protecting the finished material; however, they are not as strong as
wire rope and are easily damaged by sharp edges on material.
A.
B.
17.
Chain slings offer which advantage?

A.
B.
C.
D.
18.
They have less resistance to stress and strain.

They have welded links.
Their links may crystallize and snap without warning.
They cannot be protected from rust.
How many wraps should you make when using rope yarn or wire to mouse a
hook?
A.
B.
C.
D.
22.
1
2
3
4
Why are chain slings less reliable than fiber line or wire rope slings?
A.
B.
C.
D.
21.
Single leg
Endless
Fiber line
Wire rope
When the weight is evenly distributed among the slings, how many 1/2-inch chain
slings will you need to hoist a 5-ton load safely?
A.
B.
C.
D.
20.
Best for resisting abrasion

Best for slinging hot loads
Best for handling loads with sharp edges
All of the above
Strap is the term commonly used when referring to what type of sling?
A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
True
False
10 to 14
8 to 10
5 to 7
3 to 5
What is the safe working load (SWL), in pounds, of a 3/4-inch-diameter hook?

A.
B.
C.
D.
500
750
1,000
1,250
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-61
23.
What term refers to the small platform that is used to store small lot items that
can then be moved as one large item instead of piece by piece?
A.
B.
C.
D.
24.
What jack is used for tightening lines and bracing parts on bridge construction?
A.
B.
C.
D.
25.
C.
D.
14 feet
18 feet 6 inches
22 feet
24 feet 6 inches
(True or False) A boatswains chair should be used only if no other scaffolding

means is available.
A.
B.
29.
True
False
What is the maximum length of a swinging platform equipped with reinforcing

under the rails?
A.
B.
C.
D.
28.
Slightly opposite to the direction of the turn

Front rollers slightly opposite to the direction of the turn and rear rollers
pointing slightly in the direction of the turn
Both slightly in the direction of the turn
Front rollers slightly inclined in the direction of the turn and rear rollers in
the opposite direction
(True or False) Blocking and cribbing are often necessary as a safety measure
to keep an object stationary in position; this action can prevent accidental injury
to personnel who must work near these heavy objects.
A.
B.
27.
Ratchet
Screw
Steamboat
Hydraulic
When making a turn with a load on rollers, you should point the front and rear
rollers in what direction?
A.
B.
26.
Sling
Spreader bar
Bridle
Pallet
True
False
(True or False) If secured properly, the material used by a crew working on a

scaffold can be stored on another scaffold.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-62
30.
(True or False) Hand lines should be used to raise and lower objects from
scaffolding when they cannot be reached easily by hand.
A.
B.
31.
What is the maximum height limit, in feet, for an 8-inch-diameter gin pole?
A.
B.
C.
D.
32.
2
3
4
6
(True or False) When a gin pole is being erected, the rear guy line must be kept
under tension to prevent the pole from swinging and throwing all its weight on
one of the side guys.
A.
B.
36.
30
45
60
75
How many feet deep should you dig the hole for the base of a gin pole?
A.
B.
C.
D.
35.
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
How many feet long should the guy ropes for a 15-foot gin pole be?
A.
B.
C.
D.
34.
20
30
40
50
What is the safe capacity, in pounds, of a 40-foot spruce timber gin pole that has
a 10-inch diameter?
A.
B.
C.
D.
33.
True
False
True
False
What are the primary advantages of using the tripod over other rigging
installations?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Load capacity and stability

Load capacity and cost
Load capacity and no requirement for guy lines
Stability and no requirement for guy lines
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-63
37.
(True or False) The strength of a tripod is directly affected by the strength of the
rope and the lashings used.
A.
B.
38.
When shears are used to lift heavy loads, the length to diameter (L/D) ratio
should not exceed what number?
A.
B.
C.
D.
39.
40
50
60
70
What is the maximum allowable drift (inclination), in degrees, for shears?

A.
B.
C.
D.
40.
True
False
30
35
40
45
When shears are erected, the spread of the legs should equal what proportion of
the length of the legs?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1/5
1/4
1/3
1/2
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-64

Abraded
To wear down or rub away by friction.
Becket
(Nautical)--a grommet or eye on a block to which the

standing end of a fall can be secured.
Fairlead angle or Fleet

Angle
The drum of the winch is placed so that a line from the last
block passing through the center of the drum is at right
angles to the axis of the drum. The angle between this line
and the hoisting line as it winds on the drum is called the
fairlead or fleet angle
Guy lines
A guy-wire or guy rope is a tensioned cable designed to

add stability to structures (frequently ship masts, radio
masts, wind turbines, and tents). One end of the cable is
attached to the structure, and the other is anchored to the
ground at a distance from the structure's base. They are
often configured radially (equally spaced about the structure)
in trios, quads (pairs of pairs) or other sets. This allows the
tension of each guy-wire to offset the others.
Mechanical Advantage
(Mechanics)--the ratio of output force to the input force

applied to a mechanism.
Reeved
To pass (a rope or the like) through a hole, ring, pulley,

block, or the like.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-65

Washington DC, 2001
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-66

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
16-67
Chapter 17
Pre-Engineered Structures
Topics
1.0.0
Pre-Engineered Buildings
2.0.0
K-Span Buildings
3.0.0
Steel Towers
4.0.0
Antenna Towers
Overview
The primary mission tasking of the Seabees is the construction of advanced bases
during the early phases of crises and other emergencies. It is our job to move swiftly to
build temporary facilities and structures to support U.S. military and humanitarian
operations. The most widely used structure is the pre-engineered building. This chapter
covers the process involved with the erection of such buildings, as well as k-spans and
towers.
In this chapter, we will examine the materials and methods used in building and
disassembling pre-engineered structures. We will also discuss the methods and
techniques of using guy lines and anchors for securing towers and antennas.
Objectives
1. Describe the purpose, types, and procedures of pre-fabricated buildings.
2. Describe the purpose, types, and procedures of k-span buildings.
3. Describe the purpose, types, and procedures of steel towers.
4. Describe the purpose, types, and procedures of antenna towers.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-2

NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-3
1.0.0 PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDINGS

The pre-engineered building (PEB) discussed here is a commercially designed structure
fabricated by the civilian industry to conform to armed forces specifications. The
advantage of a pre-engineered structure is that it is designed for erection in the shortest
possible time. Each PEB is shipped as a complete building kit, including all necessary
materials and instructions for erection.
Various types of pre-engineered structures are available from numerous manufacturers,
and all are similar because each is built to military specifications. However, it would be
impractical to try and include all of the structures that each company fabricates, so this
manual will use a description of the basic procedures for erecting and dismantling only a
40-foot by 100-foot building as an example.
The typical PEB is a 40 by 100 foot structure, but a smaller 20 by 48 foot version PEB
uses the same erection principles. Layout and erection of either size PEB is normally
assigned to Builders, working in conjunction with Steelworkers.
The basic pre-engineered metal building shown in Figure 17-1 is 40 feet wide by 100
feet long. Although the unit length of the building is 100 feet, the length can be
increased or decreased in multiples of 20 feet, which are called 20-foot bays. The true
building length will be equal to the number of 20-foot bays plus 6 inches, since each end
bay is 20 feet 3 inches. The building is 14 feet high at the eave and 20 feet 8 inches at
the ridge.
Figure 17-1 Completed pre-engineered building.

Pre-engineered buildings are ideal for use as repair shops or warehouses because they
have a large, clear floor area without columns or other obstructions, as well as straight
sidewalls. This design allows floor-to-ceiling storage of material and wall-to-wall
placement of machinery. The column-free interior also permits efficient shop layout and
unhindered production flow.
After a building is up, it can be enlarged while in use by 20-foot bays, providing
additional space under one roof. If desired, PEBs can be erected side by side in
multiples, and when a building is no longer needed it can be disassembled, stored, or
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-4
moved to another location and re-erected because only bolted connections are used,
with no welding or riveting. The rigid frame is strong, designed for working loads of 20
pounds per square foot load, plus the dead load and the load from a 70-mph wind.
The building can be easily modified to varying lengths and purposes by taking out or
adding bays, or by substituting various foundation and wall sections. A bay is the
distance between two column centers or between the end wall and the first column
center in from the end wall.
Formulas used to determine the number of bays, frames, and intermediate frames in a
building are as follows:
Length divided by 20 = number of bays
Bays + 1 = total number of frames
Total number of frames - 2 = number of intermediate frames
1.1.0 Pre-Erection Work

Extensive pre-erection work is required before you start the actual erection of a building,
and this often includes almost all of the Seabee ratings. After the building site is located
and laid out by the Engineering Aids, it will be cleared and leveled by Equipment
Operators. Batter boards are set up in pairs where each comer of the foundation is
located. Builders fabricate the forms for concrete while Steelworkers are cutting,
bending, tying, and placing reinforcing steel. If this particular building requires under
slab utilities such as plumbing and electrical service, the Utilitiesman and Construction
Electricians will also be on the jobsite. Last, all under slab work must be completed and
pass all Quality Control inspections before concrete is placed and finished.
Most importantly, as far as ease of erection is concerned, before the concrete is placed,
templates for the anchor bolts are attached to the forms, and the anchor bolts are
inserted through the holes in each. Then the anchor bolts and template forms are tied
as necessary to make sure the bolts remain vertical. You will have only a tolerance of
plus or minus one eighth of an inch to work with.
CAUTION
Proper anchor bolt placement is absolutely critical when erecting a PEB.
The threads of the bolts are greased and the nuts placed on them to protect the
threads. Concrete is then poured into the formwork and worked carefully into place
around these bolts, so they remain vertical and in place. Finally, according to the plans
and specifications, the slab is poured.
While the foundation is being prepared, the crew leader will assign personnel/crews to
perform various types of preliminary work, such as uncrating and inventorying all
material on the shipping list, bolting up rigid-frame assemblies, assembling door eaves,
and glazing windows. Box 1 contains the erection manual, the drawings, and an
inventory list; it should be opened first. If all of the preliminary work is done correctly, the
assembly and erection of the entire building is accomplished easily and quickly.
All material, except the sheeting, should be uncrated and laid out in an orderly manner
so the parts can be located easily. Do not uncrate the sheeting until you are ready to
install it. When opening the crates, use care not to cause any damage to the lumber.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-5
This is important since the lumber can be used for sawhorses and various other items
around the jobsite.
In most situations, after the building foundation has been prepared, building materials
should be placed around the building site near the location where they will be used
(Figure 17-2). This action provides the greatest accessibility during assembly.
Figure 17-2 Material layout.

Girts, purlins, eave struts, and brace rods should be equally divided along both sides of
the foundation. Panels and miscellaneous parts which will not be used immediately
should be placed on each side of the foundation on pallets or skids and covered with
tarps or a similar type of covering until needed. Parts making up the rigid-frame
assemblies are laid out ready for assembly and in position for raising.
Always use care in unloading materials. Remember that damaged parts will cause
delays in getting the job done. To avoid damage, lower the materials to the ground
slowly and do not drop them.
Figure 17-3 will help you identify the structural members of the building and their
location. Each part has a specific purpose and must be installed in its designated
location to ensure a sound structure.
CAUTION
Never omit any part called for on the detailed erection drawings.
Each of the members, parts, and accessories of the building is labeled by stencil so it is
not necessary to guess which one goes where. Refer to the erection plans to find the
particular members you need as you work.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 17-3 Location and identity of structural members.
1.2.0 Erection Procedures

When all the pre-erection work is completed, inspected, and passed by Quality Control,
and your inventory is completed, you are ready to start erecting the PEB. To give you a
general guide to follow, this phase of the discussion will introduce you to the basic PEB
erection procedures. However, keep in mind that the drawings provided by the
manufacturer must be followed in all cases, even where they might differ from
information in this training manual. The manufacturers standard practice is to pack an
erection manual and a set of drawings in the small parts box (Box 1) shipped with each
building.
1.2.1 Bolting Rigid Frames
Before bolting up the rigid-frame assembly, clean all the dirt and debris from the top of
the foundation, and then lay out and bolt the base shoes firmly to the concrete. Use
appropriate washers between the shoes and nuts. Lay out an assembled column and
roof beam at each pair of base shoes, using one bolt on each side of each base shoe to
act as pivots in raising the frame (Figure 17-4). Use drift pins if needed to line up the
holes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-7
1.2.2 Frame Erection

You can use a gin pole to raise
the end frame of the building. To
prevent distortion of the frame
when it is being raised, attach a
bridle securely to each side of
the frame below the splice
connection and also to the ridge
on the roof beam. Drop a drift
pin in the frame to prevent the
bridle from slipping up. Set up
the gin pole with a block at the
top. If a gin pole is not available,
nail together three 2 x 6s, 20
feet long, from the longest
shipping crate.
Attach a tag line to the frame
(Figure 17-5). Now, pull the end
frame into the vertical position,
using a crew of four or five
people on the erection line. A
Figure 17-4 Frame assembly.
tag person should have
something to take a couple of
turns around, such as a pole anchored to the ground. Then if the frame should go
beyond the vertical, the tag person would be able to keep it from falling.
To get the frame started from the ground, it should be lifted by several people and
propped up as high as practical. Bolt an eave strut to each column (Figure 17-5). The
eave struts allow the frame to be propped at every stage of the lifting. After the frame is
in a vertical position, install guy lines and props to it so it cannot move.
Figure 17-5 Frame erection.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-8
Now raise the second frame in the same way, and hold it vertically in place by installing
purlins, girts, and brace rods.
You can use a crane or other suitable type of power equipment to hoist the frames into
place where such equipment is available. When power equipment is used, use the
following suggested procedure:
1. Raise the columns, bolt
them to the base shoes,
and brace them in place.
2. Install all sidewall girts to
keep the columns as rigid
as possible.
3. Bolt the roof beams
together, and install the
gable posts and end-wall
header.
4. Secure the guy lines and
tag lines to the roof beams
(Figure 17-6). Attach a
wire rope sling at
approximately the center
of each roof beam.
5. Hoist the roof beams into
position on top of the
columns and bolt them in
place.
Figure 17-6 Using power equipment.

6. When the second rigidframe section is secured
in position, install all the roof purlins, gable angles, and louver angles. Note:
attach the gable clips to the purlins before raising the section into position.
7. Install the brace rods and align the first bay.
CAUTION
The first bay must be aligned before erecting additional bays.
1.2.3 Brace Rods
Brace rods must be installed in the first bay erected (Figure 17-7). These rods are of
paramount importance since they hold the frames in an upright position.
CAUTION
Never omit the brace rods, either sidewall or roof.
The diagonal brace rods are attached to the frames in the roof and sidewall through the
slotted holes provided. Use a half-round brace rod washer and a flat steel washer under
the nuts at each end of the rods. With the rods installed, plumb each frame column with
the carpenters spirit level.
Check the distance diagonally from the upper corner of one frame to the lower corner of
the adjacent frame. When this distance is the same for each rod, the columns will be
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-9
plumb. After the sidewall rods are installed, install the roof rods. The length of the roof
rods can be adjusted by tightening or loosening the turnbuckle. When the two diagonal
measurements are the same, the end bay will be square.
Figure 17-7 Frame erection.

After the two frames have been plumbed and braced square with the diagonal rods, and
the purlins, girts, and eave struts have been installed, the guy lines or props can be
removed and the remaining frames of the building can be erected. Note the following
precautions:
Do not omit the diagonal brace rods that are required in the last bay of the
building.
Be sure to bolt the girts, purlins, and eave struts to the inside holes of the end
frames.
Install the eave struts, girts, and purlins in each bay as soon as a frame is
erected.
Exercise care to see that the diagonal brace rods are taut and do not project
beyond the flanges of the end frame to interfere with end-wall sheeting.
To raise the next frame, attach blocks to the last frame raised and proceed to the
next bay frame.
1.2.4 Sag Rods

Sag rods are used to hold the purlins and the girts in a straight line. First install the sag
rods that connect the two purlins at the ridge of the building. Each rod must be attached
from the top hole of one purlin through the bottom hole of the adjacent purlin. Use two
nuts at each end of the sag rods, one on each side of each purlin. Adjust the nuts on
these rods, so the purlins are held straight and rigid.
Next, install the sag rods between the purlins below the ridge with the rod attached from
the top hole of the upper purlin through the bottom hole of the lower purlin. Use two nuts
on each end, one on each side of each purlin. Follow the same procedure with the
sidewall sag rods.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-10
Remember, the roof purlins should show a straight line from end to end of the building.
Do NOT tighten the sag rods so much that the purlins are twisted out of shape.
1.2.5 Brace Angles and Base Angles
After two or more bays have been erected, part of the erection crew can be assigned to
install the diagonal brace angles. To install the brace angles, lay the notched portion
against the frame flange and bend it into position (Figure 17-8). Diagonal brace angles
are needed to support the inner flange of the frame. Be sure to install them so that they
are taut.
Figure 17-8 Diagonal brace angles.

CAUTION
Never omit diagonal brace angles. They are needed to support the inner flange
of the frame. Install them so they are taut.
While some members of the crew are installing brace angles, other members can be
installing base angles. When assigned this duty, first sweep off the top of the concrete
foundation so the base angles will set down evenly. Bolt the base angles in place with a
flat steel washer under the nut. Leave the nuts loose to permit later adjustments after
the wall sheeting has been applied.
1.2.6 End-Wall Framing/Doors/Windows
Refer to the manufacturers specifications for proper assembly and installation
procedures for end-wall framing, doors (both sliding and roll-up), and windows, as these
procedures will vary with available building options.
1.2.7 Sheeting
Always start the sheeting, both sidewall and roof, at the end of the building toward
which the prevailing winds blow. For example, if the winds are predominately easterlies
(from the east), start your sheeting on the west end of the building to ensure that the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-11
exterior joint in the side laps is away from the blowing of the prevailing winds. When
installing roof sheeting, always use a generous amount of mastic on the upper side of
all roof sheets just before moving them to the roof. Turn the sheet over and put a bead
of mastic on the lip of one side of the corrugation and along one end--near the end but
never more than one 1 inch from the end. Be sure to apply a horizontal bead of mastic
between all sheets in the end laps below the lap holes. The roof sheets must be dry
when mastic is applied. Mastic is extremely important, and you must exercise care
whenever applying it to ensure a watertight seal. Apply generous beads, especially at
the comers of the sheets. Finally, install the ridge cap, ensuring proper watershed. As
previously stated, the information in this manual is general information common to preengineered buildings.
1.2.8 Building Insulation
You can insulate a pre-engineered building by any of several methods. You can install a
blanket type of insulation in 2-foot wide strips to match the width of the roof and wall
sheets between the sheets and structural panels at the same time the sheeting is
installed. Alternatively, you can apply a hardboard insulation directly to the inside
surface of the structural panels, attaching it by helix nails or by sheet metal screws in
holes prepared by drilling the structural panels. A third option is a wood framing
attached to the structural panels, and hardboard insulation nailed to the wood.
1.2.9 Multiple buildings Set Side by Side
Pre-engineered buildings can easily be set up side by side to increase the working area
under one roof. When this is done, the adjacent rigid frames should be bolted back to
back with a channel spacer at each girt location (Figure 17-9).
The eave struts are moved up the roof beam to the second set of holes to provide a
gutter. This arrangement provides a space between eave struts, and you can install a
field fabricated gutter.
Flat, unpainted galvanized steel of 24- to 26-gauge material should be used for the
gutter, with downspouts located as required. Gutter ends should be lapped and brazewelded for watertightness. Note that wall sheets can be used to form a gutter if the
outside corrugations are flattened and all the end laps are braze-welded.
Roof sheets must be cut shorter where they overhang the gutter. The corrugations can
be closed with the continuous rubber closure with mastic applied to the top and bottom
surfaces of the closure. An alternate method is to flatten the corrugations at the gutter
and seal them with a glass fabric stripping set in plastic.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-12
Figure 17-9 Buildings side by side.
1.3.0 Disassembly Procedures

Disassembling a pre-engineered building is not difficult once you are familiar with the
erection procedures. However, when you disassemble a building, be sure to clearly
mark or number all of the parts so you will know where the parts go when reassembling
the building. The following are the main steps of the disassembly procedures:
Remove the sheeting.
Remove the windows, door leaves, and end wall.
Remove the diagonal brace angles and sag rods.
Remove the braces, girts, and purlins.
Let down the frames.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-13
1.3.1 Marking
It is obvious but worth repeating: In disassembling a building, be sure to clearly mark or
number all parts. You will then know where the parts go when reassembling the
building.
Carefully handling the building components during disassembly is very important. You
may have to reuse these same components at another location. As you complete
disassembly, protect those components from damage. Any damaged components will
have to be replaced, and time might not be on your side.
In planning a disassembly, remember, you probably no longer have the original shipping
containers in which to repack. As offered earlier, the shipping material makes good
sawhorses, and sometimes runners for stairs, so it is not likely to be around any longer.
If the disassembled PEB will have significant rehandling or lengthy storage, consider
making secondary shipping crates of available materials for handling ease and parts
accountability.
2.0.0 K-SPAN BUILDINGS

The K-span building has been used in the Seabee community for years (Figure 17-10).
The intended uses of these buildings are as varied as the PEBs. Training key personnel
in the operation of the equipment associated with the K-span is essential. Once trained,
these same personnel can instruct other members of the crew in the safe erection of a
K-span. The following section gives you some, but not all, of the key elements
associated with K-span construction. The ABM 120 and 240 and the UBM 120 and 240
are the machines used in K-span construction. The UBM differs from the ABM in
Figure 17-10 Typical K-span building.

several ways but the two major differences are the computer input system and the
seaming system used by the UBM which eliminates the need for bolting the sections
together saving workers and time needed for construction. All other aspects are the
same when comparing the ABM and the UBM. ABMs will be discussed in detail below.
As with other equipment, always refer to the manufacturers manuals.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-14
2.1.0 ABM 120 System

The K-span building system consists of a self-contained, metal building manufacturing
plant, known as the ABM 120 System/Automatic Building Machine 120. This machine is
mounted on a trailer, forming a type of mobile factory that is easily towed to even the
remotest construction sites (Figure 17-11). An important aspect of this machine is that it
can easily be transported by air anywhere in the world. In fact, the ABM System has
been certified for air transport by the U.S. Air Force in C-130, C-141, C-5, and C-17
Figure 17-11 Automatic Building Machine (ABM) 120.

aircraft. Once the machine is delivered on site, it can be set up in minutes and turn coils
of steel into structural strength arched panels. The panels are then machine seamed
together to form an economical and watertight steel structure.
The final shape and strength of the fabricated materials eliminate the need for columns,
beams, or any other type of interior support. All of the panel-to-panel connections are
joined using an electric automatic seaming machine. Because of this, there are no nuts,
bolts, or any other type of fastener to slow down construction or create leaks.
Once delivered to the jobsite, the on-site manufacturing abilities of the machine give
the ABM operator complete control of fabrication as well as the quality of the building.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-15
2.1.1 Operating Instructions

The main component of the K-span system is the trailer-mounted building machine.
Figure 17-12 shows the primary components of the trailer as well as the general
operational steps.
Figure 17-12 Trailer-mounted machinery.

The key position is the operators station at the rear of the trailer (Figure 17-13). The
individual selected for this station must thoroughly understand the machines operations
and manuals, because from there, the operator controls all the elements required to
form the panels. The operator must remain at the controls at all times; forming panels is
a complex operation that becomes easier with a thorough understanding of the
manuals.
The operator first runs the coil stock through the machine to form the panel shape and
then cuts it off at the correct length. This length is the required length for one arched
panel to run continuously from one footer to the other. After cutting the panel to length,
the operator runs it back through the machine to give it the correct arch. From the
placement of the trailer on site to the completion of the curved panels, attention to detail
is paramount.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-16
Figure 17-13 Rear of K-span trailer.

If you are selected for the operators position, as you operate the panel, you will be
adjusting the various machine operating components. Make adjustments for thickness,
radius, and the curving machine according to the manuals. Do not permit short cuts in
adjustments. Any deviations in adjustments or disregard for the instructions found in the
operating manuals will leave you with a pile of useless material and an inconsistent
building.
2.1.2 Machinery Placement
To avoid setup problems, preplanning of the site layout is important. Uneven or sloped
ground is not a concern as long as the bed of the trailer aligns with the general lay of
the existing surface conditions. Using Figure 17-14 as a guide, consider the following
items when placing the machinery:
Allow maneuvering room for the towing of the trailer, or leave it attached to the
vehicle (A).
The length of the unit is 27 feet 8 inches long by 7 feet 4 inches wide (B).
Allow enough room for run-out stands to hold straight panels. Stands have a net
length of 9 feet 6 inches each (C).
Find point X: From the center of the curve, measure the distance equal to the
radius in line with the front of the curved frame. From point X, scribe an arc equal
to the radius. This arc will define the path of the curved panel. Add 10 feet for
run-out stands and legs (D).
Allocate room for a storage area required to store coil stock and access for
equipment to load it onto the machine (E).
Consider the direction the curved panels must be carried after being formed (F).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-17
Allocate a level area in which to lay the panels on the ground for seaming. The
building will not be consistent if the panels are not straight when seaming is done
(G).
Allocate space required for crane operations (H).
Figure 17-14 Machinery placement calculations.

2.1.3 Foundations
While the design of the foundation for a K-span building depends on the buildings size,
existing soil conditions, and wind load, the foundations are simple and easy to
construct. With the even distribution of the load in a standard arch building, the size of
the continuous strip footing is smaller and more economical than the foundations for
conventional buildings.
The provided concrete forms and accessories to form the foundations are sufficient for a
building 100 feet long by 50 feet wide, and forms are available upon request from the
manufacturer for different configurations.
The actual footing construction is based, as all projects are, on the building plans and
specifications. The location of the forms, placement of steel, and the psi (pounds per
square inch) of the concrete are critical. Since the building is welded to the angle in the
footer prior to the concrete placement, all aspects of the footer construction must be
thoroughly checked for alignment and square. Once concrete is placed, there is no way
to correct mistakes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-18
As mentioned above, forms are provided for the foundation. Using Table 17-1 as a
guide, Figure 17-15 gives you a simple foundation layout by parts designation. As noted
in Figure 17-15, the cross pipes are not provided in the kit. They are provided by the
contractor.
Table 17-1 Concrete Forms Included in Kit.
Description
(Each set of forms is sufficient to erect a building

100 feet long by 50 feet wide.)
Part Number
Side form panels, 1 x 10, 12-gauge steel
F-1
Transition panels, 1 x 12, 12-gauge steel
F-2
Transition panels, 1 x 28, 12-gauge steel
F-3
End wall caps, 1 x 15, 12-gauge steel
F-4
Side wall caps, 1 x 19, 12-gauge steel
F-5
Filler form, 1 x 12, 12-gauge steel
F-6
Sidewall inside stop, 1 x 12, 12-gauge steel
F-7
End wall inside stop, 1 x 12, 12-gauge steel
F-8
Stakes, 1/4 diameter, bar steel
F-9
All-thread rod, 1/2-13 x 18
F-10
Hex nuts, 1/2-13
F-11
Hex bolts, 1/8-16 x 1-1/2
F-12
Hex nuts, 3/8- 6
F-13
Flat washers, 1/8 SAE
F-14
Corner angles, 2 x 2 x 12, steel angle
F-15
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-19
Figure 17-15 Simple form assembly.

2.1.4 Building Erection
With the placement of the machinery and the forming of the building panels in progress,
your next considerations are the placement and the weight-lifting capabilities of the
crane. Check the cranes weight-lifting chart for its maximum weight capacity. This
dictates the number of panels you can safely lift at the operating distance or reach. As
with all crane operations, attempting to lift more than the rated capacity, or extending
beyond a rated operating distance can cause the crane to turn over.
Attaching the spreader bar to the curved formed panels is a crucial step (Figure 17-16).
Failure to clamp the panel tightly can cause the panels to slip and fall, with potential
harm to personnel and damage to the panel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-20
Figure 17-16 Spreader bar attachment.

With guidelines attached as shown in Figure 17-17 and personnel attending the lines, lift
the panels for placement.
When lifting, consider the following points:
Lift only as high as necessary.
Position two crew members at each free end to guide each panel in place.
Remind crew members to keep their feet out from under the ends of the arches.
Never attempt lifting any sets of panels in high winds.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-21
Figure 17-17 Guide rope use.

Place the first set of panels on the attaching angle of the foundation and position it so
there will be room for the end wall panels. After positioning the first set of panels, clamp
them to the angle, plumb them with guidelines, and secure the lines to previously
anchored stakes. Seam each set to standing panels before detaching the spreader bar,
then detach the spreader bar and continue to place panel sets.
After about 15 panels (3 sets) are in place, measure the building length at both ends
just above the forms and at the center of the arch. This measurement will seldom be
exactly one foot per panel, it is usually slightly more, but it should be equal for each
panel. Adjust the ends to equal the center measure. Panels are flexible enough to
adjust slightly. Check these measurements periodically during building construction.
Since exact building lengths are difficult to predict, the end-wall attaching angle on the
finishing end of the building should not be put in place until all panels are set.
After the arches are in place, set the longest end-wall panel in the form, plumb, and
clamp it in place. Work from the longest panel outward and be careful to maintain
plumb.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-22
When all of the building panels are welded to the attaching angle at 12 inches on
center, you are ready to place the concrete (Figure 17-18). When you are placing the
concrete, remember that it is extremely important that it be well vibrated, but not overvibrated to the point of aggregate separation. This action will help eliminate voids
underneath the embedded items. As the concrete begins to set, slope the top exterior
portion of the concrete cap about 5 inches to allow water to drain away from the building
(Figure 17-19). The elevation and type of the interior floor are not relevant as long as
the finish of the interior floor is not higher than the top of the concrete cap.
Figure 17-18 Building foundation concept.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-23
Figure 17-19 Concrete foundation.

The K-span building system is similar to other types of pre-engineered or prefabricated
buildings in that windows, doors, and roll-up doors can be installed only when erection
is completed. When insulation is required, you can install (using clips, as shown in
Figure 17-20) insulation boards (usually 4 by 8 feet) of any semi-rigid material that can
be bent to match the radius of the building.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-24
Figure 17-20 Insulation.

When the integrity of the end-wall panels is continuous from ground to roofline, the end
walls become self-supporting. The installation of windows (Figure 17-21) and aluminum
doors (Figure 17-22) presents no problem because the integrity of the wall system is not
interrupted. The installation of the overhead door (Figure 17-23) does present a problem
in that it does interrupt the integrity of the wall system. This situation is quickly
overcome by the easily installed and adjustable (in height and width) doorframe
package that supports both the door and end wall. This doorframe package is offered by
the manufacturer.
Figure 17-24 shows the fundamental steps in constructing a K-span from start to finish.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
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Figure 17-21 Aluminum window installation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-26
Figure 17-22 Aluminum door installation.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-27
Figure 17-23 Overhead door frame.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-28
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 17-24 Steps in K-span construction.
17-29
2.2.0 ABM 240 System

There is another type of K-span building, actually referred to as a Super Span by the
manufacturer, the ABM 240. Even though it can use heavier coil stock and is a larger
version, the construction of the ABM 240 is the same as that for the ABM 120 (K- span).
Figure 17-25 shows the differences between the two.
Keep in mind that the information provided in this section on the K- span building is
basic. During the actual construction of this building, you must consult the
manufacturers complete set of manuals.
Figure 17-25 ABM 120 and 240 comparison chart.
3.0.0 STEEL TOWERS

Towers are framework structures designed to provide vertical support. They may be
used to support another structure, such as a bridge, or a piece of equipment, such as a
communication antenna, or to serve as a lookout post or weapons mount. Since the
prime purpose of a tower is to provide vertical support for a load applied at the top, the
compression members providing this support are the only ones that require highstructural strength. The rest of the structure is designed to stiffen the vertical members
and to prevent bending under load. Primarily, the bracing members are designed to take
loads in tension and are based on a series of diagonals.
Airfield observation towers, harbor shipping control towers, and radio towers are all
erected by Steelworkers. Like PEBs, these towers are manufactured and packaged
according to military specifications, and shipped with all parts, plans, and specifications.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-30
The framework of the tower is

made up of fabricated structural
shapes that are bolted together.
Anchor angles with base plates
are furnished for setting in the
concrete foundation (Figure 1726). In most cases, the
foundation will be built by the
Builders. The manufacturer also
furnishes square head bolts,
lock washers, and nuts. Spud
wrenches and drift pins are
supplied for each size of bolt.
Field bolts and shipping lists are
prepared and packaged with
each shipment of a tower.
The tower members are
bundled in the most compact
manner possible to keep
shipping space to a minimum,
with erection identification
Figure 17-26 Anchor angles in a concrete
marks and stock list numbers
foundation.
painted on all of the pieces. All
the nuts, bolts, and washers are boxed and identified by painted marks.
When you receive a tower shipment, you must inventory all the parts and packages.
Check them against the shipping list to be sure that no boxes or bundles have been
lost, stolen, misplaced, or damaged in shipment. When all are accounted for, sort the
materials. The drawings tell you what is needed for each section. It is smart planning to
lay out all of the materials for each section from the foundation to the top before any
erection is started; this will save a lot of time later.
3.1.0 Assembly and Erection of Sections

Assemble the first section of the tower on the ground alongside the foundation. Start by
assembling the two-column legs on one side of the tower and bolting them loosely, with
one bolt each, to two foundation stubs (anchor angle irons); these will act as pivot
points. Next, loosely join the angle and the cross braces, and then lift the entire side.
You can use a crane or gin pole to rotate it into a vertical position or, if necessary, lift it
by hand. Two people can start by lifting the far end and walking it up, while two others,
with hand lines, can complete the upward journey.
As the column legs fall into position, use drift pins or spud wrenches to line up the holes
with the holes in the embedded anchor angle irons. Then insert the bolts, place lock
washers under each nut, and tighten them; use spud wrenches for this job. When one
side is standing in the upright position, repeat the process for the opposite legs. Finally,
connect the cross braces on the open sides, and add the cross braces on the inside.
When the whole first section, or bay, is in place, tighten the bolts. Figure 17-27 shows
the correct connection of diagonal and center horizontal members; notice the alternate
connections of the diagonal members at all points.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-31
Figure 17-27 Connection of diagonal and

center horizontal members.
Use a snatch block and line to lift
each piece for the next section.
Do not tighten the bolts until the
entire section is in place. Then
start lifting the pieces for the next
section, shifting the snatch block
as necessary. When the whole
section is in place, tighten the
bolts. Repeat this process until
the whole framework of the
tower is erected. Bolts should be
hoisted by hand lines in buckets
or leather-bottom bolt bags.
Figure 17-28 shows a partially
completed tower.
Assemble the ladder for the
tower on the ground, raise the
sections by hand as the tower is
erected, and bolt them in place.
Figure 17-28 Partially erected tower.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-32
The wooden cabin section shown

in Figure 17-29 was constructed
and raised in place by the
Builders, but Steelworkers will be
called upon to assemble rails and
platforms.
After the tower is complete, one
or two people must go over all of
the nuts to confirm the following:
1. Washers are inserted
under each nut.
2. Nuts are tightened to
specs.
3. Bolts are center punched
to lock them in place.
You can repeat this after a few
weeks as a final check. Refer
again to Figure 17-29, which
shows the top of a completed
tower with control room and guys
in place.
Figure 17-29 Completed tower.
3.2.0 Dismantling a Tower

Like PEBs, you can take steel towers down when no longer needed and re-erect them
at a new location. As the first step, remove the electrical conduit for the aircraft red
warning light atop the tower, the cabin, the platform, and any other accessories, then
the guy lines.
Next, set up your rigging gear so that one leg of the section (preferably the leg that the
ladder is connected to) will serve as the gin pole. Proceed to attach a shackle to the top
vacant hole in the gusset plate and have a snatch block in the shackle. Open the snatch
block and insert the fiber line to be used as a hoist line. Tie a bowline in the end of the
line to keep it from unintentionally slipping through the block. Take the line to be used
as the tag line and secure one end to the bowline. Now secure a snatch block to the
base of the tower and run the hoist line from the top snatch block through this block to
your source of power. Be sure the snatch block at the base of the tower is located in a
straight line to a source of power. The source of power can be a dump truck, a weapon
carrier, or some other vehicle.
NOTE: When using a vehicle as a source of power, you must keep it back far enough
so as it comes forward, it does not arrive at the base of the tower before the load is on
the ground.
The tower is dismantled by sections, and the top and second horizontal braces are the
first members of the section to be removed. Start by tying the hoist line and tag line to
the horizontal braces. Then signal the vehicle operator to back up and take a slight
strain on the hoist line. You are now ready to remove the bolts holding the horizontal
braces in place. After all the bolts are removed, lower the horizontal braces to the
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-33
ground by signaling the power source to come forward. Now remove the diagonal
braces in the same manner.
The next step is to remove the legs of the tower section, except the leg being used as
the gin pole. First, shinny up the leg to be dismantled, and hang a shackle at the top.
Tie the hoist line to the shackle and then come back down the leg. Signal the vehicle
operator to take a slight strain on the hoist line, just enough to take up the slack and
remove the gusset plate from one side. Remove the remainder of the bolts that hold the
leg being removed, leaving the two top bolts in place. Now take the tag line and secure
it with a clove hitch and a half hitch to the bottom of the load. Also, take a turn with the
tag line around the horizontal bracing in the section that will be removed next. Then
remove the two top bolts as you slack off on the tag line and take up on the hoist line
until the leg is hanging straight up and down against the gin pole. Release the tag line to
the personnel on the ground who will guide the load as it is lowered to the ground.
Repeat this process with all of the remaining legs until only the ladder and the leg used
as a gin pole are left. To remove the ladder, secure the hoist line to a rung above the
center. Remove the bolts and then lower the ladder to the ground.
When you are ready to start dismantling the leg used as the gin pole, shinny up it and
remove the hoist line from the snatch block. Secure the hoist line to the shackle, remove
the snatch block and hang it in your safety bit, then come back down the leg to the
spliced connection. (Generally, at all spliced connections there will be horizontal brace
connections that can serve as working platforms.)
Signal the personnel on the ground to remove the hoist line from the base snatch block;
then signal the vehicle operator to take up the slack. Remove the gusset plate from one
side of the splice. Remove the remaining bolts in the leg. After all the bolts are removed,
ensure that all personnel are clear of where the load will land. Remove the top bolt, and
release the nut on the other bolt one-quarter turn. Signal the vehicle operator to back up
slowly. As the operator backs up, the leg will pivot downward on the bolt and fall against
the leg it has been standing upon, and which will be used as the gin pole in dismantling
the next section.
Now insert the shackle in the top hole of the gusset plate and hang the snatch block in
it. Put the hoist line back in both snatch blocks. With the hoist line, throw a half-hitch
below the center of the leg. Now secure the tag line. Next, signal the vehicle operator to
take a slight strain to ease the tension off the bolt. You can then remove the bolt and
lower the leg to the ground. This completes the dismantling of an entire section of the
tower, so you can proceed to the next section.
Repeat the above procedure with each section until the tower is completely dismantled.
If the tower will be put up again rather than scrapped, assign a crew to wire brush each
member of the tower to remove all rust, loose paint, and the like. After the wire brush
cleaning, remark each member and store the tower in an orderly manner.
4.0.0 ANTENNA TOWERS

Modern communications in different parts of the world between ships, shore stations,
and aircraft, including United States aerospace efforts, require transmitting and
receiving facilities be erected all over the globe. Often, Steelworkers from battalion
detachments receive the tasking to erect them. This section will describe some of the
common communications antenna towers that are erected, and the procedures for
erecting them.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-34
4.1.0 Guyed Towers

The most commonly used guyed towers are fabricated from steel in straight sections 10
to 20 feet long. These constant dimensional sections are erected one above the other to
form the desired height. Structural stability for this type of tower is provided by attaching
guy wires from the tower to ground anchors.
Base supports for guyed towers vary according to the type of tower to be installed.
Three commonly used base supports are the following:
1. Tapered tower base concentrates the load from multiple tower legs to a small
area on the foundation.
2. Pivoted tower base used primarily on lightweight structures for ease of tower
erection.
3. Composite base generally used with heavier towers because it affords much
greater supporting strength than the other two types.
All three are shown in Figure 17-30.
Sections for lightweight towers are usually assembled before delivery to expedite final
tower assembly, whereas heavier weight towers must be assembled completely in the
field.
Tower bracing should include diagonal bracing and horizontal struts in the plane of each
tower face for the full tower height.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 17-30 Base support for guyed towers.
17-35
4.2.0 Freestanding Towers

Freestanding, or self-supporting, steel antenna towers are characterized by heavier
construction than guyed towers, and by a shape that tapers in toward the top from a
wide base. Freestanding towers exert much greater weight-bearing pressure on
foundations than most guyed towers. Consequently, deeper foundations are required
(because of the greater size, weight, and spread of tower legs) to provide sufficient
resistance to the load.
Each leg of a freestanding tower must be supported by an individual foundation. Figure
17-31 shows a typical individual foundation for a freestanding tower, and Figure 17-32
shows a foundation plan for a triangular steel freestanding tower. Bracing and material
specifications for these towers are the same as for guyed towers.
Figure 17-31 Square self-supporting tower and base.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-36
Figure 17-32 Base support for guyed towers.
4.3.0 Tower Assembly

For tower assembly and erection, advance planning is absolutely essential to complete
the project safely and correctly. Before commencing, study both the installation plan and
the manufacturers instructions to gain a complete understanding of the tower assembly
and the phased erection methods to be used. Observe the following general procedures
and practices for assembly and erection of towers:
1. Assemble the tower sections on well leveled supports to avoid building in twists
or other deviations. Note: Any deviations in one section will be magnified by the
number of sections in the complete assembly.
2. Check all of the surface areas for proper preservation. Cover all the holes and
dents in galvanized materials with zinc chromate or another acceptable
preservative to prevent deterioration.
3. When high-strength bolts are used in a tower assembly, place a hardened steel
washer under the nut or bolt head, whichever is to be turned. Exercise care that
you do not exceed the maximum torque limit of the bolt. Maximum torque values
of several different sizes and types of bolts commonly used in antenna towers
are listed in Table 17-2.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-37
Table 17-2 Bolt Torques (foot-pounds).

Size
Mild Steel
High-Strength
Steel
Aluminum
24 ST-4
Stainless Steel
18-8
3/8 16
17
12
30
3/4 13
38
105
26
43
5/8 11
84
205
60
92
3/4 10
105
370
82
128
7/8 9
160
530
184
194
1 8
236
850
1 1/8 7
340
1100
1 1/4 7
432
1800
4.4.0 Erection of Guyed Towers

The following paragraphs present methods that have been successfully used to erect
guyed towers. The most practical method for any particular tower will be determined by
the size, weight, and construction characteristics of the tower, and by the hoisting
equipment.
4.4.1 Davit Method
Lightweight guyed towers are frequently erected with a davit hoist anchored to the
previously erected section, which then provides a pivoting hoisting arm. The davit arm is
swung away from the tower in hoisting the added section and swung centrally over the
tower in depositing the section before bolting up the splice plates. Figure 17-33 shows a
ground-assembled unit being hoisted for connection to a previously erected tower
section. A snatch block secured to the tower base transmits the hoisting line to a source
of power or hand winch. A tag line, secured to the base of section being hoisted, avoids
possible contact with the erected portion of the tower.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 17-33 Typical davit installation.
17-38
4.4.2 Gin Pole Method

Light triangular guyed towers
furnished with a pivoted base
may be completely assembled
on the ground and then raised to
a vertical position with the aid of
a gin pole. Figure 17-34 shows
the lower section of a tower that
has an attached pivoted base in
a horizontal position preparatory
to hoisting. The thrust sling
shown counteracts the thrust on
the base foundation from
hoisting operations. Rigging
operations and location of
personnel essential to the raising
of a pivoted base tower are
detailed in Figures 17-35 and 1736.
Light towers in lengths of
approximately 80 feet may be
raised with a single attachment
Figure 17-34 Pivoted tower-hoisting
of the winch line. However,
preparation.
longer towers frequently are too
flexible for a single attachment, and in the case of Figure 17-36, a hoisting sling
furnished with a snatch block allows for two points of attachment.
Figure 17-35 Erection plan for a pivoted tower.

A gin pole with a top sheave to take the winch line is mounted close to the concrete
tower base. Permanent guys attached to the tower at three elevations are handled by
personnel during hoisting operations (Figure 17-35). Temporary rope guys provided with
a snatch block anchored to deadmen furnish the necessary lateral stability. As the mast
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-39
approaches a vertical position, the permanent guys are fastened to the guy anchors,
which were installed before erection.
Figure 17-36 Erection of a pivoted guyed tower.
4.4.3 Hand Assembly

Erection without a davit or gin pole may be accomplished by assembling the individual
members piece by piece. As the assembler, you climb inside the tower and work with
the lower half of your body inside the previously assembled construction. You then build
the web of the tower section around you as you progress upward. As each member is
bolted in place, you tighten all of the connections immediately so you are never standing
on, or being supported by, any loose member.
4.5.0 Guying
Temporary guying of steel towers is always necessary where more than one tower
section is erected. Under no circumstances should the tower be advanced more than
two sections without guying, and always install permanent guys before removing
temporary guys.
4.5.1 Temporary Guying
Several materials, including stranded wire, wire rope, and fiber line, are acceptable for
temporary guying, but new manila line is the most suitable because of its strength and
ease of handling. The size of the guyed material you need will be determined by the
height and weight of the structure to be guyed, and by weather conditions at the
installation site.
Secure the temporary guys to the permanent guy anchors, to temporary type anchors,
or to any nearby structure that provides the required supporting strength. Again, leave
the temporary guys in place until the structure is permanently guyed and plumbed.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-40
4.5.2 Permanent Guying

Antenna structures are permanently guyed to pre-positioned anchors according to the
installation plan with steel cables or fiberglass sections.
Figure 17-37 shows two methods of guying triangular steel towers. Guys A, B, and C
are secured to a single anchor, while guys D, E, and F are secured to individual
anchors. Both arrangements are satisfactory; however, the anchor that terminates guys
A, B, and C must be capable of withstanding much greater stresses than the individual
guy anchor arrangement.
Triangular tower guys are arranged so that three guys are spaced 120 degrees apart at
each level of guying (Figure 17-37). Square towers require four guys spaced 90
degrees apart at each guying level. The following general elevation requirements apply
to guy attachments for towers:
Figure 17-37 Tower guying arrangements.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-41
4.5.2.1 Single-Guy Layer

The cable attachments are placed in position at approximately two thirds of the tower
height.
4.5.2.2 Two-Guy Layers
For towers with two-guy layers, cable attachments are placed in positions at
approximately 30 and 80 percent of the tower height.
4.5.2.3 Three-Guy Layers
For towers with three-guy layers, cable attachments are placed in positions at
approximately 25, 55, and 85 percent of the tower height.
4.5.3 Guy Tension
Setting guy tension and plumbing a tower are done at the same time, and only when
wind forces are light. Guy tension adjustment and tower plumbing are done as follows.
4.5.3.1 Initial Tension
The tension on all of the guys is adjusted after the tower is in a stable, vertical position.
Adjust all of the guys gradually to the approximate tensions specified in the antenna
installation details. If tensions are not specified, adjust guy tension to 10 percent of the
breaking strength of the strand of the guy.
4.5.3.2 Final Tension
In one procedure used for final tensioning of tower guys, the final tension is measured
with a dynamometer (Figure 17-38).
NOTE
Carpenter stoppers or cable grips of the proper skin designed for the lay of the wire
must be used in the tensioning operation. Do not use any cable grip assembly that grips
the wire by biting into the cable with gripping teeth that could penetrate and damage the
protective coating of guy cables.
In Step A of Figure 17-38, the Coffing hoist is shown in series with a dynamometer to
measure the tension. A turnbuckle is shown in position to receive the guy tail.
In Step B, an additional cable grip and hoist or tackle are attached above the cable grip
shown in Step A. The lower end of this tackle is provided with a second cable grip
attached to the guy tail previously threaded through the turnbuckle. The second Coffing
hoist is operated until sufficient tension is applied to cause the reading on the series
dynamometer to fall off.
Step C shows the guy in final position secured in place with clamps. With the tower
properly plumbed to a vertical position, only one guy at a given level need be tested with
the dynamometer.
On some installations, other procedures for tensioning guys may be necessary because
of the type of guys and hardware supplied with the antenna. For example, preformed
wire helical guy grips are sometimes used for attaching guy wires to the adjusting
turnbuckles. In such cases, the techniques used for the guy assembly, the connection of
the guy wire to the anchor, and the tension adjustments must be determined from the
detailed installation plan or the appropriate antenna technical manual.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-42
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 17-38 Final tensioning of guys.
17-43
4.5.4 Guy Anchors

Antenna design and installation
plans specify the required anchor
type, location, and hole depth.
Anchor shafts, or rods, must
project above the grade
sufficiently to keep all the
connecting guy wire attachments
free of vegetation and standing
water. Shafts and connecting
attachments should be
thoroughly cleaned and coated
with a petroleum preservative to
retard the effects of weather.
4.5.4.1 Screw Anchor
The screw anchor shown in
Figure 17-39 may be used to
anchor guys for lightweight
towers, or for temporary guying.
This anchor is installed by
screwing it into the ground in line
with the direction the guy will
take.
Figure 17-39 Typical screw anchor.
4.5.4.2 Expansion Anchor

The expansion anchor shown in
Figure 17-40 is suitable for
practically all guying applications
where the soil is firm. This anchor
is placed with its expanding
plates in the closed position in an
auger-drilled inclined hole, not
less than 3 feet deep. The plates
are expanded into the firm,
undisturbed sides of the hole by
striking the expanding bar at
Point B with a hammer and
thereby forcing the sliding collar
downward the distance D shown
in Figure 17-40. The anchor
installation is completed by
backfilling the hole with
thoroughly tamped backfill.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 17-40 Expansion anchor.
17-44
4.5.4.3 Concrete Anchor

Poured-in-place concrete anchors are normally used for high stress applications and
where multiple guys are attached to a single anchorage.
Summary
This chapter discussed the assembly and disassembly of pre-engineered and K-span
buildings. It also discussed steel towers and antennas, and presented information on
how to secure them with different types of guys and anchors.
Falls and falling objects are the leading cause of injuries in the construction industry.
Working with PEBs, K-spans, and towers always includes working with elevated
heights. Use your situational awareness, remember to follow the prescribed safety
precautions, and use your common sense; dont get under a hoisting load.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-45

1.
For which use is a K-Span building NOT designed?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
What are the two types of K-Span building machines?

A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
True
False
What is the advantage of a pre-engineered building?

A.
B.
C.
D.
7.
size of the building

existing soil conditions
wind load
local construction rules
(True or False) Towers are designed to provide horizontal support.

A.
B.
6.
L spans
Straight panels
Arched panels
Doorframes
The design of the foundation for a K-Span building does NOT depend on the
_______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
ABM 120 and ABM 240

ABM 250 and ABM 260
ABM 360 and ABM 380
ABM 400 and ABM 410
What does the ABM 120 panel-forming machine produce for a K-span building?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
Office space
Hangar
Supply building
Warehouse
Allows floor to ceiling storage of material

Allows wall to wall placement of machinery
Permits unhindered production flow
All of the above
(True or False) A PEB is shipped with all materials and instructions necessary for
erection.
A.
B.
True
False
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-46
8.
The 40 by 100 foot, rigid frame, straight walled building can easily be
disassembled, moved, and erected again without waste or damage because of
what feature?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Which task should you perform before placing concrete for the foundation piers
of a rigid frame building?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Girts
Sheeting
Eave struts
Brace rods
What should you do to ensure building materials are accessible during assembly
of a PEB?
A.
B.
C.
D.
13.
Glaze the windows only.

Bolt the rigid frame assemblies only.
Assemble the door eaves only.
All of the above
Until ready for use, which material should remain crated?

A.
B.
C.
D.
12.
Bolt the frames together only.

Place templates and anchor bolts only.
Uncrate the paneling only.
All of the above
While the foundation is being prepared for a 40 by 100 foot rigid frame building,
which work assignment can you perform?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Pre-stressed concrete pads

Large metal C clamps
Bolted connections
Fiberboard panels
Keep all building materials in one central location.

Keep the building materials on trucks.
Place the materials around the building site where they will be used.
Maintain at least 50 feet of clearance between the stockpiles of building
materials.
How is each of the members, parts, and accessories of the building marked so it
is not necessary to guess which one goes where?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Painted with a mark across the bottom of the part

Notched at the base of each part
Embossed with a mark on each part
Labeled by stencil on each part
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-47
14.
(True or False) Once all the parts have been laid out and checked, erection of a
40 by 100 foot PEB should begin with the center frame member.
A.
B.
15.
Where must brace rods be installed to hold the frames in an upright position?
A.
B.
C.
D.
16.
True
False
What space requirements do you consider for K-span operations?

A.
B.
C.
D.
19.
On the first bay erected

On the last bay erected
At the end of the building toward which the prevailing winds blow
Anywhere
(True or False) Pre-engineered buildings can be set up side by side to increase

the working area under one roof.
A.
B.
18.
In the first bay erected

In the second bay erected
In the center bay of the building
In the last bay erected
Where must sheeting installation be started on the sidewall and roof?

A.
B.
C.
D.
17.
True
False
Maneuvering room for the towing of the trailer

Allocation of space required for crane operations
Room for run-out stands to hold straight panels
All of the above
In a K-span building, installation of which components presents a problem

because it interrupts the integrity of the wall system?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Windows
Aluminum doors
Wood doors
Overhead doors
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-48
Trade Terms Introduced in This Chapter

Guy lines
A guy-wire or guy rope is a tensioned cable designed to

add stability to structures (frequently ship masts, radio
masts, wind turbines and tents). One end of the cable is
attached to the structure, and the other is anchored to the
ground at a distance from the structure's base. They are
often configured radially (equally spaced about the structure)
in trios, quads (pairs of pairs), or other sets. This allows the
tension of each guy-wire to offset the others.
Shinny
American colloquialism--to climb a rope, pole, etc., from the

use of shins and ankles to do so.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-49

Facilities Planning Guide, NAVFAC P-437, Naval Facilities Engineering, Command,
Alexandria, VA, 1990.
Naval Construction Battalion Table of Allowance, TA-01, Department of the Navy, Naval
Facilities Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA, 1987.
MIC-120 ABM (K-Span), Training and Operator Manuals, MIC Industries, Reston, VA,
1993.
Washington DC, 2001
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-50

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
17-51
Chapter 18
Topics
1.0.0
Structural Steel Members
2.0.0
Anchor Bolts
3.0.0
Bearing Plates
4.0.0
Columns
5.0.0
Girders
6.0.0
Beams
7.0.0
Bar Joists
8.0.0
Trusses
9.0.0
Purlins, Girts, and Eave Struts
Overview
This chapter will give you a brief overview of structural steel. Structural steel is used as
the framework for many steel structures such as industrial and commercial buildings,
advanced base structures, and bridges. Many different pieces go into fabricating and
erecting the framework for a steel structure, and as a Seabee Steelworker, you must
have a thorough knowledge of the various structural members. We will discuss the most
common names of the steel members as well as how to fasten and secure the members
to each other and to the concrete foundation they are built upon. We will also discuss
where and how in the structure the steel members are used.
Before any structural steel is fabricated or erected, a plan of action and sequence of
events, or erection, needs to be set up. The plans, sequences, and required materials
are predetermined by the engineering section and drawn up as a set of plans.
This chapter describes the basics of structural steel: the terminology, use of the
members, methods of connection, and basic sequence of events during erection.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-1
Objectives
1. Describe the different types of structural steel members.
2. Describe the purpose and types of anchor bolts.
3. Describe the purpose and types of bearing plates.
4. Describe the purpose and types of columns.
5. Describe the purpose and types of girders.
6. Describe the purpose and types of beams.
7. Describe the purpose and types of bar joists.
8. Describe the purpose and types of trusses.
9. Describe the purpose and types of purlins, girts, and eave struts.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-2
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-3

NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-4
1.0.0 STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS

As a Steelworker, you will use various structural members manufactured in a wide
variety of cross section shapes and sizes. Figure 18-1 shows many of these shapes.
The three most common types of structural members are the W-shape (wide flange),
the S-shape (American Standard I-beam), and the C-shape (American Standard
channel). These three types are identified by the nominal depth, in inches, along the
web and the weight per foot of length, in pounds. As an example, a W 12 x 27 indicates
a W-shape (wide flange) with a web 12 inches deep and a weight of 27 pounds per
linear foot.
Figure 18-2 shows the cross-sectional views of the W-, S-, and C-shapes. The
difference between the W-shape and the S-shape is in the design of the inner surfaces
of the flange. The W-shape has parallel inner and outer flange surfaces with a constant
thickness, while the S-shape has a slope of approximately 17 on the inner flange
surfaces. The C-shape is similar to the S-shape in that its inner flange surface is also
sloped approximately 17.
Figure 18-1 Structural shapes and designations.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-5
Figure 18-2 Closer look at the W, S, and C

structural members.
1.1.0 Terminology
You need to know the industry standard names for every structural member you will be
using to prevent miscommunications between you and the other members on site, so
we will discuss the structural members names and some of their characteristics and
uses.
1.1.1 W-Shape
The W shape is a structural member whose cross section forms the letter H and is the
most widely used structural member. It is designed so that its flanges provide strength
in a horizontal plane, while the web gives strength in a vertical plane. W-shapes are
used as beams, columns, and truss members, and in other load-bearing applications.
1.1.2 Bearing Pile
The bearing pile (HP-shape) is almost identical to the W-shape. The only difference is
that the flange thickness and web thickness of the bearing pile are equal, whereas the
W-shape has different web and flange thicknesses.
1.1.3 S-Shape
The S-shape (American Standard I-beam) is distinguished by its cross section being
shaped like the letter I. S-shapes are used less frequently than W-shapes since the Sshapes possess less strength and are less adaptable than W-shapes.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-6
1.1.4 C-Shape
The C-shape (American Standard channel) has a cross section somewhat similar to the
letter C. It is especially useful in locations where a single flat face without outstanding
flanges on one side is required. The C-shape is not very efficient for a beam or column
when used alone. However, efficient built-up members may be constructed of channels
assembled together with other structural shapes and connected by rivets or welds.
1.1.5 Angle
An angle is a structural shape whose cross
section resembles the letter L. Two types,
as illustrated in Figure 18-3, are commonly
used: an equal-leg angle and an unequalleg angle. The angle is identified by the
dimension and thickness of its legs, for
example, angle 6 inches x 4 inches x 1/2
inch. The dimension of the legs should be
obtained by measuring along the outside of
the backs of the legs. When an angle has
unequal legs, the dimension of the wider
leg is given first, as in the example just
cited. The third dimension applies to the
thickness of the legs, which always have
equal thickness. Angles may be used in
combinations of two or four to form main
members. A single angle may also be used
to connect main parts together.
Figure 18-3 Angles.
1.1.6 Plate
Steel plate is a structural shape whose cross section is in the form of a flat rectangle.
Generally, a main point to remember about plate is that it has a width of greater than 8
inches and a thickness of 1/4 inch or greater.
Plates are generally used as connections between other structural members or as
component parts of built-up structural members. Plates cut to specific sizes may be
obtained in widths ranging from 8 inches to 120 inches or more, and in various
thicknesses. The edges of these plates may be cut by shears (sheared plates) or be
rolled square (universal mill plates).
Frequently, plates are referred to by their thickness and width in inches, as plate 1/2
inch x 24 inches. The length in all cases is given in inches. Note in Figure 18-4 that 1
cubic foot of steel weighs 490 pounds. This weight divided by 12 gives you 40.8, which
is the weight (in pounds) of a steel plate 1 foot square and 1 inch thick. The fractional
portion is normally dropped and 1-inch plate is called a 40-pound plate. In practice, you
may hear plate referred to by its approximate weight per square foot for a specified
thickness. An example is 20-pound plate, which indicates a 1/2-inch plate. (Refer again
to Figure 18-4).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-7
Figure 18-4 Weight and thickness of steel

plate.
The designations generally used for flat steel have been established by the American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). Flat steel is designated as bar, strip, sheet, or plate,
according to the thickness of the material, the width of the material, and (to some
extent) the rolling process to which it was subjected. Table 18-1 shows the designations
usually used for hot-rolled carbon steels. These terms are somewhat flexible and in
some cases may overlap
Table 18-1 Plate, Bar, Strip, and Sheet Designation.
Width (inches)
Over
Thickness (inches)
To
Over 6
Over 8 Over 12
3 1/2
3 1/2 Inclusive To 6
To 8
To 12
To 48
0.2300 and Thicker
Bar
Plate
0.2299 and 0.2031
0.2030 and 0.1800
0.1799 and 0.0449
Strip
0.0448 and 0.0344
0.0343 and 0.0255
Sheet
0.0254 and Thinner
Color Key
Blue ..Bar
Green crisscross..Plate
Orange..Strip
Horizontal lines..Sheet
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Over
48
18-8
1.1.7 Bar
The structural shape referred to as bar has
a width of 8 inches or less and a thickness
greater than 3/16 of an inch. The edges of
bars usually are rolled square, like universal
mill plates. The dimensions are expressed
in a similar manner as that for plates, for
instance, bar 6 inches x 1/2 inch. Bars are
available in a variety of cross-sectional
shapesround, hexagonal, octagonal,
square, and flat. Four different shapes are
illustrated in Figure 18-5. Both squares and
rounds are commonly used as bracing
members of light structures. Their
dimensions, in inches, apply to the side of
the square or the diameter of the round.
You have now been introduced to the
various structural members characteristics
Figure 18-5 Bars.
and uses in steel construction. Next, follow
along with the development of a theoretical building frame from where you, the
Steelworker, would begin the structural phase after the following phases:
1. EOs have completed the earthwork.
2. UTs and CEs have completed the underground rough-in utilities.
3. You (Steelworkers) have placed the rebar for the footings and/or slab foundation,
and set the anchor bolts.
4. BUs have poured and finished the concrete, and have stripped the forms.
Remember, this sequence is theoretical and may vary somewhat, depending on the
type of structure being erected.
2.0.0 ANCHOR BOLTS

Anchor bolts are the first element of the
structural building to be set in place (Figure
18-6). They are set in position by either the
Steelworkers or the Builders using
templates to hold them in place during the
concrete pour. They are designed to hold
the column-bearing plates, which are the
first members of a steel frame placed into
position above the concrete. These anchor
bolts must be positioned very carefully so
that the bearing plates will be lined up
accurately.
Figure 18-6 Anchor bolts.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-9
3.0.0 BEARING PLATES

The column-bearing plates are steel plates
of various thicknesses in which holes have
been either drilled or cut with an oxygas
torch to receive the anchor bolts (Figure
18-7). The holes should be slightly larger
than the bolts so that some lateral
adjustment of the bearing plate is possible.
The angle connections, by which the
columns are attached to the bearing plates,
are bolted or welded in place according to
the size of the column (Figure 18-8).
In many civilian commercial projects, the
bearing plates arrive on the project from
the fabrication shop already welded directly
to the columns. The fabricator may have
used an automatic welder or shop
personnel to do the welding, but in either
case, it saves additional moves in the field
when erectors can set columns and base
plates simultaneously.
Figure 18-7 Column-bearing

plate.
Figure 18-8 Typical column to baseplate

connections.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-10
After the bearing plate has been placed into position, shim packs are set under the four
comers of each bearing plate as each is installed over the anchor bolts (Figure 18-9).
The shim packs are 3- to 4-inch metal squares of a thickness ranging from 1 1/6 to 3/4
inch, which are used to bring all the bearing plates to the correct level and to level each
bearing plate on its own base.
The bearing plates are first leveled individually by adjusting the thickness of the shim
packs. This operation may be accomplished by using a 2-foot level around the top of the
bearing plate perimeter and diagonally across the bearing plate.
Upon completion of the leveling operation, all bearing plates must be brought either up
to or down to the grade level required by the structure being erected. With the advent of
lazar levels, their more common usage, and their subsequent cost reduction, often the
tops of the shims are lazar leveled or shot in (adjusted for base plate thickness) prior
to base plates arriving already welded to the columns.
All bearing plates must be lined up in all directions with each other. One method this
may be accomplished by is using a surveying instrument called a builders level. String
lines may be set up along the edges and tops of the bearing plates by spanning the
bearing plates around the perimeter of the structure, making a grid network of string
lines connecting all the bearing plates. If you use string lines, especially over extended
distances, pay particular attention to eliminate any sag or deflection of the strings that
will distort your elevations and grid lines.
After all the bearing plates have been set and aligned, the space between the bearing
plate and the top of the concrete footing or slab must be filled with grout, a hard, nonshrinking, compact substance (Figure 18-9). When the grout has hardened, the next
step is the erection of the columns. Note: If the system used includes the welded base
plate/column with the shims shot in, the grouting may be done as a collateral event
after the columns are plumbed with guy lines.
Figure 18-9 Leveled bearing plate.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-11
4.0.0 COLUMNS
Typically, wide flange members, as nearly square in cross section as possible, are used
for columns, but sometimes large diameter pipe is used, even though pipe columns can
present connecting difficulties when you are attaching other members (Figure 18-10).
Columns may also be fabricated by welding or bolting together a number of other rolled
shapes, usually angles and plates (Figure 18-11).
Figure 18-10 Girder span on

pipe columns.
Figure 18-11 Built-up column

section.
If the structure is more than one

story high, it may be necessary
to splice one column member on
top of another. If this is required,
column lengths should be such
that the joints or splices are 1
1/2 to 2 feet above the second
and succeeding story levels.
This will ensure that the splice
connections are situated well
above the girder or beam
connections so that they do not
interfere with other second story
work. Notice in Figure 18-12
how the column splice plates
are situated above the
horizontal beam splice plates.
Figure 18-12 Column splice plates.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-12
Column splices are joined together by splice plates which are bolted, riveted, or welded
to the column flanges, or in special cases, to the webs as well. If the members are the
same size, it is common practice to butt one end directly to the other and fasten the
splice plates over the joint (Figure 18-13). When the column size is reduced at the joint,
a bearing plate is used to cap the lower column, and filler plates are used between the
splice plates and the smaller column flanges (Figure 18-14).
Figure 18-13 Spliced column with no size

change.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 18-14 Spliced column with size

change.
18-13
5.0.0 GIRDERS
Girders are the primary horizontal members of a steel frame structure. They span from
column to column and are usually connected on top of the columns with cap plates
(bearing connections) (Figure 18-15). An alternate method is the seated connection
(Figure 18-16). The girder is attached to the flange of the column using angles, with one
leg extended along the girder flange and the other against the column. The function of
the girders is to support the intermediate floor beams.
Figure 18-15 Girder span on a

wide flange column.
Figure 18-16 Seated

connections.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-14
6.0.0 BEAMS
Beams are generally smaller than girders and are usually connected to girders as
intermediate members or to columns. Beam connections at a column are similar to the
seated girder-to-column connection. Beams are used generally to carry floor loads and
transfer those loads to the girders as vertical loads. Since beams are usually not as
deep as girders, there are several alternative methods of framing one into the other
(Figure 18-17). The simplest method is to frame the beam between the top and bottom
flanges on the girder (Figure 18-18). If it is required that the top or bottom flanges of the
girders and beams be flush, it is necessary to cut away (cope) a portion of the upper or
lower beam flange (Figure 18-19).
Figure 18-17 5 beams and I

girder connected to a column.
Figure 18-18 Beam

connections at a girder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 18-19 Coped beam

ends.
18-15
7.0.0 BAR JOISTS

Bar joists form a lightweight, long-span system used as floor supports and built-up
roofing supports (Figure 18-20). Bar joists generally run in the same direction as a beam
and may at times eliminate the need for beams. You will notice in Figure 18-21 that bar
joists must have a bearing surface. The span is from girder to girder (Figure 18-22).
Prefabricated bar joists designed to conform to specific load requirements are
obtainable from commercial companies.
Figure 18-20 Clear span bar joists.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-16
Figure 18-21 Bar joists seat connection.
Figure 18-22 Installing bar joists girder to

girder.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-17
8.0.0 TRUSSES
Steel trusses are similar to bar joists in that they serve the same purpose and look
somewhat alike. They are, however, much heavier and are fabricated almost entirely
from structural shapes, usually angles and T-shapes (Figure 18-23).
Figure 18-23 Steel truss fabricated from angle-shaped members.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-18
Unlike bar joists, trusses can be fabricated to conform to the shape of almost any roof
system and are therefore more versatile than bar joists (Figure 18-24).
The bearing surface of a truss is normally the column. The truss may span the entire
building from outside column to outside column. After the trusses have been erected,
they must be secured between the bays with diagonal braces (normally round rods or
light angles) on the top chord plane (Figure 18-25) and the bottom chord plane (Figure
18-26). After these braces are installed, a sway frame is put into place (Figure 18-27).
Figure 18-24 Styles of trusses.
Figure 18-25 Diagonal braces;

top chord plane.
Figure 18-26 Diagonal braces;

bottom chord plane.
Figure 18-27 Sway frame.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-19
9.0.0 PURLINS, GIRTS, AND EAVE STRUTS

Purlins are generally lightweight, channel-shaped, z-shaped, or top hat-shaped, and are
used to span roof trusses. Purlins are the uppermost element of the erected structural
steel, and they support the decking (steel or otherwise) (Figure 18-28). If the purlins are
channel-shaped, they are installed with the legs of the channel facing outward or down
the slope of the roof.
Figure 18-28 Roof purlin.
Figure 18-29 Ridge struts.
The purlins installed at the ridge of a gabled roof are referred to as ridge struts. The
purlin units are placed back-to-back at the ridge and tied together with steel plates or
threaded rods (Figure 18-29).
The sides of a structure are often framed with girts. These members are attached to the
columns horizontally (Figure 18-30). The girts are also channel-shaped, z-shaped, or
top hat-shaped, generally the same size and shape as the roof purlins. The siding
material is attached directly to the girts.
Figure 18-30 Wall girt.

NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 18-31 Eave strut.

18-20
Another longitudinal member similar to purlins and girts is an eave strut. This member is
attached to the column at the point where the top chord of a truss and the column meet
at the cave of the structure (Figure 18-31).
Summary
This chapter briefly introduced you
to the basics of structural steel:
the terminology, use of the
members, methods of connection,
and basic sequence of events
during erection. They are as valid
for use in the civilian construction
industry as an Ironworker as they
are in the military as a
Steelworker.
However, you will come across
many more steel working terms as
you gain experience. If a term is
used that you do not understand,
ask someone to explain it or look it
up in the manuals and
publications available to you.
Always remember to follow the
prescribed safety precautions and
wear the proper personal
protective equipment--times have
changed since the Ironworkers
had their photo taken in 1932
(Figure 18-32).
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 18-32 Old School ironworkers.
18-21

1.
A piece of steel plate 3 square feet weighs 180 pounds. What is the classification
of this plate?
A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
A 10-foot piece of steel that is 3/8 inch thick and 2 inches wide is classified as a
_______.
A.
B.
C.
D.
3.
To allow for height adjustment

To permit lateral adjustment
To compensate for angle connections
To allow space for welding of columns
Bearing plates are brought to their proper levels by _____.

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Girders, bearing plates, anchor bolts, columns, beams

Anchor bolts, column plates, girders, bearing plates, beams
Anchor bolts, bearing plates, columns, girders, beams
Bearing plates, anchor bolts, columns, girders, beams
When cutting the holes in bearing plates to receive anchor bolts, why do you cut
the holes larger than the bolts?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
bar
strip
sheet
plate
What sequence is the proper order you should follow for the erection of structural
members?
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
20-pound
40-pound
60-pound
80-pound
installing shim packs

welding the plates to the bearing plates
forcing the grout under the bearing plates
using locknuts
What structural shape is most often used for columns?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Standard beam
Tee shape
Pipe
Wide flange beam
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-22
7.
What structural steel member is used primarily to span from column to column
horizontally?
A.
B.
C.
D.
8.
Which member forms a lightweight, long-span system used as floor supports and
built-up roofing supports?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
Angle ties
Sway frames
Diagonal locking bars
Bottom chord extensions
When using channel-shaped purlins to span roof trusses, you should ensure the
legs face in what direction?
A.
B.
C.
D.
11.
Bar joist
Truss
Beam
Girder
Workers have installed diagonal braces between bays of a truss system. Their
next step is to secure the roof system with what structural members?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
Beam
Truss
Girder
Column splices
Up toward the center or apex of the roof

Flat with the face of the channel face directly toward the truss
Downward with both legs welded to the truss
Outward or down toward the slope of the truss system
What structural members are attached to the outside perimeter columns and
used to frame the siding of a building?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Eave struts
Purlins
Girts
Ridge plates
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-23

None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-24

Frankland, Thomas, W., The Pipefitter's and Pipe Welders Handbook,
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Woodland Hills, CA, 1984.
Frankland, Thomas, W., Pipe Trades Pocket Manual, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, Peoria, IL, 1969.
Nelson, Carl, A., Millwrights and Mechanic's Guide, 2d ed., Theodore Audel and
Company, Indianapolis, IN, 1972.
The Oxy-Acetylene Handbook, 2nd ed., Linde Company, New York NY, 1960.
Walker, John, R., Modern Metalworking, Goodheart-Wilcox Company Inc., South
Holland, IL, 1973.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-25

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
18-26
Chapter 19
Topics
1.0.0
Reinforced Concrete
Overview
As a Steelworker, you must be able to cut, bend, place, and tie reinforcing steel in its
proper sequence and configurations. This chapter describes the purpose of reinforcing
steel in concrete construction, identifies the types and shapes of commonly used
reinforcing steel, and explains specific properties of rebar (reinforcing steel). This
chapter begins with a presentation of fundamental information about concrete to help
you understand rebar work fully.
Objectives
1. Describe the different materials, purposes, and types of reinforcing steel.
Prerequisites
None
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-1
the course map.
Rigging
Wire rope
Fiber Line
E
L
W
O
R

B
A
S
I
C

Gas Welding
Gas Cutting
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-2

NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-3
1.0.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE

As a Steelworker you will be primarily concerned with reinforcing steel placement, but
you should to some extent be concerned with concrete as well. Concrete with
reinforcing steel added becomes reinforced concrete. Structures built of reinforced
concrete, such as retaining walls, buildings, bridges, highway surfaces, and numerous
other structures, are referred to as reinforced concrete structures or reinforced concrete
construction. The reinforcement can be as simple as a few continuous bars in a small
foundation (Figure 19-1) or as complex as a pier/footing combination for a bridge
(Figure 19-2).
Figure 19-1 Simple use of

reinforcement bars.
Figure 19-2 Complex use of reinforcement

bars.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-4
1.1.0 Concrete Materials

Concrete is a synthetic construction material made by mixing cement, fine aggregate
(usually sand), coarse aggregate (usually gravel or crushed stone), and water in proper
proportions (Figure 19-3). This mixture hardens into a rocklike mass as the result of a
chemical reaction between the cement and water called hydration. Concrete will
continue to harden and gain strength, in a chemical process known as curing, as long
as it is kept moist and warm. Durable, strong concrete is made by correctly
proportioning and mixing the various materials and additives, and by properly curing the
concrete following placement or the pour.
The correct proportioning of the
concrete ingredients (modern
concrete design may include
retardants, accelerators,
plasticizers, air entraining
agents, etc.) is often referred to
as the mix. The quality of the
concrete is largely determined by
the quality of the cement-water
paste that bonds the aggregates
together. The strength of
concrete will be reduced if this
paste has water added to it. The
proportion of water to cement is
referred as the water-cement
ratio. The water-cement ratio is
the number of gallons of water
per pounds of cement. High
quality concrete is produced by
using the lowest water-cement
mixture possible without
sacrificing workability.
Figure 19-3 Aggregate.
Because concrete is plastic when placed, forms are built to contain and form the
concrete until it has hardened. In short, forms and formwork are described as molds that
hold freshly placed concrete in the desired shape until it hardens. In some cases,
depending on the soil texture and stability, the soil banks of excavated areas act as the
formwork for footings and foundations.
All the ingredients of a mix are placed in a concrete mixer, and after a thorough mixing,
the concrete is transferred by numerous methods (as determined by the projects
conditions), such as bucket, wheelbarrow, chute, transit truck tailgate, pump, and so
forth, into the formwork in which the reinforcing steel has already been placed.
Under normal, moderate weather and temperature conditions, concrete reaches its
initial set in approximately 1 hour, and hardens to its final set (although not fully cured)
in approximately 6 to 12 hours. As the concrete is being placed, and before the initial
set, it must be vibrated in the formwork to ensure complete coverage of all reinforcing
bars, but not vibrated so much that the aggregate and cement separate to form rock
pockets.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-5
Finish operations, such as smooth troweled finishes, must be performed between initial
and final set. After the final set, concrete must be protected from shock, extreme
temperature changes, and premature drying until it cures to sufficient hardness.
Concrete will be self-supportive in a few days and will attain most of its potential
strength in 28 days of moist curing. For further information on concrete, refer to the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American Concrete
Institute (ACI)-318.
1.2.0 Concrete Strength

As stated previously, the strength of concrete is determined by the water-cement ratio.
The strength of ready-mixed concrete ranges from 1,500 to about 5,000 pounds per
square inch (psi) and, with further attention paid to proportioning, it can go even higher.
Under usual construction processes, lower strength concrete will be used in footers and
walls, and higher strength in beams, columns, and floors. The required strength of
concrete on a given project can be found in the project plans and specifications for a
specific project.
NOTE: Quality control is important to ensure specific design requirements are met. If
the design specifications do not meet minimum standards, structural integrity is
compromised and the structure is considered unsafe. For this reason, the compressive
strength of concrete is checked
on all projects.
The strength of the concrete is
checked by the use of
cylindrical molds that are 6
inches in diameter and 12
inches in height. Concrete
samples must be taken on the
jobsite from the concrete that is
being placed. After being cured
for a period that ranges
between 7 to 28 days, the
cylinders are broken to failure
by a laboratory crushing
machine that measures the
force required for the concrete
to fail (Figure 19-4).
For further information on
concrete strength and testing,
refer to FM 5-472 Ch. 2
/NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 321221(I), ASTM, and ACI 318.
Figure 19-4 Concrete testing machine.
1.3.0 Purposes and Types of Reinforcing Steel

Reinforced concrete was designed on the principle that steel and concrete act together
in resisting force.
Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension (Figure 19-5). The tensile
strength is generally rated about 10 percent of the compression strength. For this
reason, concrete works well for columns and posts that are compression members in a
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-6
structure. But when it is used for tension members, such as beams, girders, foundation
walls, or floors, concrete must be reinforced to attain the necessary tension strength.
Steel is the best material for reinforcing concrete because the properties of expansion
for both steel and concrete are considered to be approximately the same, that is, under
normal conditions, they will expand and contract at an almost equal rate.
NOTE
At very high temperatures, steel expands more rapidly than concrete and the two
materials will separate.
Figure 19-5 Various concrete stresses.

Another reason steel works well as a reinforcement for concrete is that it bonds well
with concrete. This bond strength is proportional to the contact surface of the steel to
the concrete. In other words, the greater the surface of steel exposed to the adherence
of concrete, the stronger the bond. A deformed reinforcing bar adheres better than a
plain, round, or square one because it has a greater bearing surface. In fact, when plain
bars of the same diameter are used instead of deformed bars, approximately 40 percent
more bars must be used.
The rougher the surface of the steel, the better it adheres to concrete. Thus, steel with a
light, firm layer of rust is superior to clean steel; however, steel with loose or scaly rust
is inferior. Loose or scaly rust can be removed from the steel by rubbing the steel with
burlap or similar material. This action leaves only the firm layer of rust on the steel to
adhere to the concrete.
NOTE
Reinforcing steel must be strong in tension and, at the same time, be ductile enough to
be shaped or bent cold.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-7
Reinforcing steel can be used in the form of bars or rods that are either plain or
deformed or in the form of expanded metal, wire, wire fabric, or sheet metal. Each type
is useful for different purposes, and engineers design structures with those purposes in
mind.
Plain bars are round in cross section. They are used in concrete for special purposes,
such as dowels at expansion joints, where bars must slide in a metal or paper sleeve,
for contraction joints in roads and runways, and for column spirals. They are the least
used of the rod type of reinforcement because they offer only smooth, even surfaces for
bonding with concrete.
Deformed bars are like plain bars except that they have indentations, ridges, or both in
a regular pattern. Earlier versions of deformed rebar were available as square or with a
spiral twist, and workers may still encounter them during demolition or on remodeling
projects of older structures. Current rebar suppliers deform the bars at the mill with
patterns and markings unique to their mill and to the tensile strength of the material.
Figure 19-6 shows a few of the types of deformed bars available.
In the United States, deformed bars are used almost exclusively, while in Europe, both
deformed and plain bars are used.
There are 11 standard sizes of reinforcing bars (Figure 19-7). Bars No. 3 through No.
18, inclusive, are deformed bars. Bar numbers correspond to bar sizes to the nearest
1/8 in. (3. 175 mm) measured at the nominal diameter but not including any
deformations. At various sites overseas, rebar could be procured locally and could be
metric.
Note: At 13.6 pounds per foot, a #18 bar (#57 metric) of any functional length quickly
becomes too heavy for personnel handling and requires mechanical lifting equipment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-8
Figure 19-6 Sample mill patterns and tensile strength markings.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-9
Figure 19-7 Reinforcing steel sizes and their tensile strength markings.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-10
1.3.1 Reinforcing Bars

Reinforcing bars are hot-rolled from a variety of steels in several different strength
grades. Generally, reinforcing steel bars are either carbon-steel (conforming to ASTM
A615) or low-alloy steel (conforming to ASTM A706). Most reinforcing bars are rolled
from new steel billets, but some are rolled from used railroad-car axles or railroad rails
that have been cut into rollable shapes. An assortment of strengths is available.
The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has established a standard
branding for deformed reinforcing bars. There are a number of important ways to
identify reinforcing bar from the production mill to the fabrication shop to the job site.
This documentation and marking system helps provide a wealth of useful information
about the manufacturing and composition of each bar of reinforcing steel.
Each individual reinforcing bar is manufactured with a series of individual markings.
Refer again to Figure 19-6:
The top letter or symbol identifies the producing mill and deformation pattern.
The next marking is the bar size.
The third marking symbol designates the manufacturing material usually either
"S" for carbon-steel (ASTM A615) or "W" for low-alloy steel (ASTM A706).
Finally, there will be a grade marking (4 or 5, for 420 or 520) or the addition of
one line (420) or two lines (520) that must be at least five deformations long.
The lower strength reinforcing bars show only three marks: an initial representing the
producing mill, bar size, and type of steel.
High strength reinforcing bars use either the continuous line system or the number
system to show grade marks. In the line system, one continuous line is rolled into the
60,000 psi bars, and two continuous lines are rolled into the 75,000 psi bars. The lines
must run at least five deformation spaces, as shown in Figure 19-6.
Reinforcing bars typically come in two primary grades: Grade 60 (minimum yield
strength of 60,000 psi) and Grade 75 (minimum yield strength of 75,000 psi). The metric
equivalents for these are Grade 420 (equivalent yield strength of 420 MPa
(megapascals) and Grade 520 (equivalent yield strength of 520 MPa).
1.3.2 Tension in Steel
Steel bars are strong in tension. Structural grade is capable of safely carrying up to
18,000 psi and intermediate, hard, and rail steel, 20,000 psi. This is the safe or working
stress; the breaking stress is about triple this.
When a mild steel bar is pulled in a testing machine, it stretches a very small amount
with each increment of load. In the lighter loadings, this stretch is directly proportional to
the amount of load (Figure 19-8, View A). The amount is too small to be visible and can
be measured only with sensitive gauges.
At a point during the pull (known as the Yield Point), such as 33,000 psi for mild steel,
the bar begins to neck down (Figure 19-8, View B) and continues to stretch perceptibly
with no additional load.
Then, when it seems the bar will snap like a rubber band, it recovers strength (due to
work hardening). Additional pull is required (Figure 19-8, View C) to produce additional
stretch and final failure (known as the ultimate strength) at about 55,000 psi for mild
steel.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-11
Common specifications are ASTM A 615 for carbon steel rebar, ASTM A 706 for
seismic rebar, ASTM A 955 for stainless steel rebar, and ASTM A 996 for rail steel
rebar and axle steel rebar. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) Specifications M31M / M 31-02, Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel
Bars for Concrete Reinforcement contain more information on reinforcing bar tension
testing.
Figure 19-8 Tension in steel bars.
1.4.0 Additional Types of Reinforcing Steel

Not all concrete reinforcing needs heavy reinforcing bars; some projects require only
lightweight reinforcing. In these cases, expanded metal or welded wire fabric can be
used.
1.4.1 Expanded Metal
Expanded metal is made from
sheets of solid metal that are
uniformly slit and stretched to
create diamond-shaped
openings. As expanded metal is
made, each row of diamondshaped openings is offset from
the next (Figure 19-9). This
product is called standard
expanded metal. The sheet can
be rolled to produce flattened
expanded metal.
The lightweight properties and
open area percentages of
expanded metal allow it to be
easily formed for a variety of
energy-saving applications, such
NAVEDTRA 14250A
Figure 19-9 Expanded metal.
19-12
as light diffusers, screens, grilles, and filters. Expanded metal is also manufactured in
heavy gauges for applications such as reinforcing concrete walkways, ramps, and
catwalks of all types.
1.4.2 Welded Wire Fabric
Welded wire fabric is fabricated from a series of wires arranged at right angles to each
other and electrically welded at all intersections. Welded wire fabric, referred to as WWF
within the NCF, has various uses in reinforced concrete construction. In building
construction, it is most often used for floor slabs on well compacted ground. Heavier
fabric, supplied mainly in flat sheets, is often used in walls and for the primary
reinforcement in structural floor slabs. Additional examples of its use include road and
runway pavements, box culverts, and small canal linings.
Welded wire fabric (WWF or wire mesh) is available in rolls of lighter gauge wire for light
building construction and in sheets of heavier gauge wire for highways and buildings
when roll gauge sizes will not give sufficient reinforcement (Figure 19-10). WWF is
available in square and rectangular patterns in a wide variety of wire gauges welded at
each intersection.
Figure 19-10 Welded wire.

When welded wire fabric in either the old or the new designations is ordered, the wire
spacing (in each direction) comes first followed by the wire gauge (in each direction).
The old designation used number (in inches) for spacing and number (in wire gauge) for
the size of the WWF. The new designation uses number (in inches) for spacing but a
letter and a number (in wire cross section) for size.
For example, in the old designation, 6x6 4x4 mesh would be 6-in. squares with 4gauge wire in each direction, whereas 4x4 6x6 mesh would be 4-in. squares with 6gauge wire in each direction. In the new designation, these would be 6x6 W4xW4,
and 4x4 W2.9xW2.9 respectively. Table 19-1 provides some typical WWF
designations used for structural concrete.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-13
When WWF is used, specifications and designs usually indicate the minimum lap. As a
practical matter, although a minimum lap of 2 in. may be sufficient for nonstructural
concrete, for placement purposes a 1-square lap, regardless of the mesh spacing, is
common to facilitate the installers ability to tie the laps together at intersections.
The unit weight of WWF is designated in pounds per one hundred square feet of fabric
Five feet, six feet, seven feet, and seven feet six inches are the standard widths
available for rolls, while the standard panel widths and lengths are seven feet by twenty
feet and seven feet six inches by twenty feet.
Table 19-1 Common Stock Sizes of Welded Wire Fabric.
Style Designation
Current Designation
(by W-Number)
Previous Designation
(by Steel Wire Gauge)
Weight Approximate
Pounds per 100 Square Feet
Panels/Sheets
6 x 6 W 1.4 x W 1.4
6 x 6 10 x 10
21
6 X 6 W 2.1 X W 2.1
6X68X8
29
6 X 6 W 2.9 X W 2.9
6x66x6
42
6 x 6 W 4.0 x W 4.0
6x64x4
58
4 x 4 W 1.4 x W 1.4
4 x 4 10 x 10
31
4 x 4 W 2.1 x W 2.1
4x48x8
43
4 x 4 W 2.9 x W 2.9
4x46x6
62
4 x 4 W 4.0 x W 4.0
4x44x4
86
Rolls
6 x 6 W 1.4 x W 1.4
6 x 6 10 x 10
21
6 x 6 W 2.9 x W 2.9
6x66x6
42
6 x 6 W 4.0 x W 4.0
6x64x4
58
6 x 6 W 5.5 x W 5.5
6x62x2
80
4 x 4 W 4.0 x W 4.0
4x44x4
86
1.4.3 Sheet-Metal Reinforcement

Sheet-metal reinforcement is used mainly in floor slabs and in stair and roof
construction. It consists of annealed sheet steel bent into grooves or corrugations about
one-sixteenth inch (1.59 mm) in depth with holes punched at regular intervals.
Summary
This chapter discussed the fundamental information about reinforced concrete and the
reasons why it is necessary to use reinforcement steel with concrete. Also discussed
were the different materials, purposes, and types of reinforcing steel. Specifically
discussed was the identification system used on the most common reinforcement bar
used by the Seabees. The mechanical properties of the steel and ASTM specifications
of the steel reinforcement bars were also discussed.
Always remember to follow the prescribed safety precautions and wear the proper
personal protective equipment.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-14

1.
What is the primary factor that determines the strength of concrete?

A.
B.
C.
D.
2.
(True or False) Concrete is strong in tension but weak in compression.

A.
B.
3.
C.
D.
On the round/square where there are no deformations

On the deformations where the diameter is greatest
On the diagonal of its widest section
On the diameter of the deformation plus the height of the deformation
What does the first letter or symbol identify on a reinforcement bar brand?
A.
B.
C.
D.
7.
Clean and smooth

Loose or scaly rust
Painted
Light, firm layer of rust
On what part of rebar are diameter measurements taken?

A.
B.
C.
D.
6.
Steel adds compressive strength.

The expansion properties of both steel and concrete are approximately the
same.
Steel is easily bent to fit all shapes of forms.
Steel adheres well to concrete.
What type of surface condition on rebar provides the best adherence with
concrete?
A.
B.
C.
D.
5.
True
False
Which factor makes steel the best material for reinforcing concrete?
A.
B.
4.
Dryness
Water-to-cement ratio
Age
Type of steel reinforcement
Producing mill
Bar size
Manufacturing material
Grade mark
What is the metric equivalent to a grade 60 reinforcement bar?

A.
B.
C.
D.
220
320
420
520
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-15
8.
At what pounds per square inch will a steel bar begin to neck down?
A.
B.
C.
D.
9.
When the number designation 8x8x10x10 is used, what do these numbers

indicate about a roll of wire mesh?
A.
B.
C.
D.
10.
22,000
33,000
66,000
77,000
The wire gauge is 8 and the crosswise spacing is 10 inches.

The wire gauge is 10 and the crosswise and lengthwise spacing is 8
inches.
The wire gauge is 8 and the length spacing is 8 inches.
The crosswise spacing is 10 inches and the wire gauge is 10.
What is the common spacing, in square laps, on wire mesh fabric that facilitates
the installers ability to tie laps together?
A.
B.
C.
D.
1
2
3
4
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-16

Plasticizer
NAVEDTRA 14250A
An admixture for making mortar or concrete workable with

little water.
19-17

Consolidated Cross-Reference, TA-13, Department of the Navy, Navy Facilities
Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA, 1989.
Concrete and Masonry, FM 5-428, Headquarters Department of the Army, Washington,
DC, 1998.
Concrete Construction Engineering, 2nd ed. Nawy, E.G. Boca Raton, FL, 2008
Construction Print Reading in the Field, TM 5-704, Headquarters Department of the
Army, Washington, DC, 1969.
Placing Reinforcing Bars, 8th ed, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Schaumburg, IL,
2005.
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-18

assistance.
Write:
CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
FAX:
805/982-5508
E-mail:
CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil
Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
NAVEDTRA 14250A
19-19

Curso Marnha Americana

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

Basic Metal Types

Basic Metal Identification

To hear audio, click on the box.

Introduction to Reinforcing Steel

Layout and Fabrication of Sheet-Metal and Fiberglass Duct

Welding Quality Control

Flux Core Arc Welding-FCAW

Gas-Metal Arc Welding-GMAW

Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding-GTAW

Plasma Arc Cutting Operations

Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, Wearfacing

Features of this Manual

1.0.0 BASIC METAL TYPES

1.1.0 Ferrous Metals

Figure 1-1 Example of a Bessemer Converter.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

Medium-Carbon Steel strong and hard but cannot be welded or worked as

Very High-Carbon Steel similar to high-carbon, it responds well to heat

Low-Alloy, High-Strength, Tempered Structural Steel special low carbon steel

Stainless Steel 200-300 series known as Austenitic [aw-stuh-nit-ik]. This type

Stainless Steel 400 series further subdivided according to their crystalline

Tungsten Steel expensive to produce, its use is largely restricted to the

Manganese Steels use depends upon the properties desired:

1.2.0 Nonferrous Metals

Copper-Nickel Alloys nickel adds resistance to wear and corrosion; some

Zinc used on iron or steel in the form of a protective coating called

Tin used as an important alloy adding resistance to corrosion.

K-Monel developed for greater strength and hardness than Monel;

2.0.0 BASIC METAL IDENTIFICATION

2.1.0 Surface Appearance

Table 1-1 Surface Appearance of Some Common Metals

Color and Structure

Newly fractured surface

White: finely crystalline

Brass and Bronze

Reddish-yellow, yellowgreen, or brown

Bright copper color

Light silvery gray

Dark gray: crystalline

Silvery white: crystalline

Light silvery gray

Dark gray: finely crystalline

Light silvery gray

Light gray: crystalline

Bright silvery white

Steel, Cast and

Bright silvery gray

Bright silvery gray

Bright silvery gray

Low-carbon steel often shows forging marks.

High-carbon steel shows either forging or rolling marks.

Stainless steel, in the unfinished state, is slightly rough.

Lead is smooth but has a velvety appearance.

2.2.0 Spark Test

length of the spark stream

form of the sparks

color(s) of the sparks

Figure 1-2 Example