SUKRASNO

SITI KUSMARDIYANI

-- explain --

Authenticity

---explain

KUSMARDIYANI

Kumis kucing, Orthosiphon stamineus

Tekelan, Epatorium reptans

BOTANIC IDENTITY TEST

Morphological,
Microscopical,
Microchemical,
and Genetic Methods

 SK

CRUDE
DRUGS
SIMPLISIA
Dried
Intact
Sliced

Ver. 22SK005

Morphological Method
THE ORGAN COMPOSING CRUDE DRUGS:
Leaves and tops (herbs)
Barks
Woods
Leaves or leaflets
Fruits
Seeds
Subterranean Organs

Morphological Method
LEAVES AND TOPS
Aerial stem

Dimension,
shape,
colour,
herbaceous or woody,
up right or creeping,
smooth or ridged,
Hairs

Position and arrangement

of leaves

Radical or cauline
Adnation
Alternate
Opposite
Decussate
Whorled

LEAF ARRANGEMENTS

ALTERNATE

ALTERNATE,
DISTICHOUS

OPPOSITE

OPPOSITE,
DECUSSATE

Get more types of leaf arrangements and give examples

Alternate = Placed singly along the stem or axis, not opposite or whorled.
Distichous = Arranged in two vertical ranks.
Opposite leaves = With two leaves at a node, one on each side of the stem or axis.
Deccusate = In opposite pairs, each pair at right angles to the next.
Cambridge Glossary of Botanical Terms

TERMS
FOR LEAF
DESCRIPTION

Wallis, 573.

Morphological Method
BARKS / CORTEX

Cinnamomi cortex

Origin of preparation

Trunk, branches, roots.

Whole, inner bark

Inner surface

Colour, striations, furrows

Litseae cortex

Size and shape

Lichens, mosses, lenticels, cracks or furrows,

colour before and after scrapping.

Fracture

Short, fibrous, splintery, granular

Transverse surface

Cinchonae cortex

Smoothed transverse surface after staining with

fluoroglucinol and HCl
SK
Alstoniae cortex

Morphological Method
WOODS
Size and colour

after and before staining

Relative density

Guaiacum 1.33 and Poplar 0.38

Ligustrinae lignum

Hardness and behavior when split

Transverse surface

Distribution of wood fibers and wood parenchyma, annual ring (true or false)
Distance between medullary rays and annual rings

Longitudinal surfaces

Height of medullary rays.

Sappan lignum

STEM
A: primary structure
B: development of a
complete cambial ring
C: beginning of secondary
growth
D: stem after a number of
seasons of growth

Stem structure of dicotyledons

Trease, 517.

Types of vascular bundle

E: collateral
F: bicollateral
G: amphivasal
H: amphicribal

Morphological Method
Leaves or Leaflets
Duration

Deciduous or evergreen

Leave base

Stipulate or exstipulate

Petiole

Petiolate or sessile
Shape, colour, hair

Lamina

Composition, incision, shape, venation,

margin, apex, base, surface, texture

Morphology of leaves
A. Shape

1. acicular
2. elliptical
3. oval
4. oblong
5. round

6. linear
7. lanceolate
8. ovate

9. obovate
10. subulate
11. spatulate
12. diamond shape
13. cuneate

14. cordate
15. auriculate
16. lyrate
17. reniform
Trease, 519.

Morphology of leaves
B. Composition and Incision

1. pinnatifid
2.pinnatripartie
3. pinnatisect,
4.palmatifid
5. imparipinnate

Trease, 519.

Morphology of leaves
C. Apex

D. Margin

E. Base

Trease, 519.

Morphology of Flowers
Inflorescences
Type of inflorescences

Racemose, cymose or mixed

Axis or receptacle of influorescence

Type of flower
Receptacle of the flower
Calyx
Corolla (number of petals, venation, oil glands
Androecium
Gynaecium

Actinomorphic
Radially symmetrical,
a line draw through the middle of the
structure along any plane will produce
a mirror image on either side

FLOWER
TYPES

Zygomorphic
Bilaterally symmetrical,
a line draw through the middle of the
structure along only one plane will
produce a mirror image on either side

Irregular
Bilaterally symmetrical,
a flower in which all parts are not similar in
size and arragemnent on the receptacle

INFLORESCENCE

Trease, 521.

PERIANTH
FORMS
Plant Identification Terminology,
170-171.

PERIANTH
FORMS
Plant Identification Terminology,
170-171.

Morphological Method
FRUITS
Classification:
Simple, Aggregate, Collective

Simple, dry, indehiscent fruits

Achene, nut, caryopis

Simple, dry, dehiscent fruits

Legume, follicle, capsules

Schizocarpic or splitting fruits

Succulent fruits (druppe, berry)

Morphological Method
Piperis nigri fructus

SK

FRUITS

Shape and dimensions

Adhesion
Dehiscence
Pericarp
Placentation
Seeds

Foeniculi fructus

Cardamomi fructus

Capsici fructus

Coriandri fructus

FRUITS
Fruits of the Solanaceae:
A B capsules
A ripe fruit of Datura stramonium
B pyxidia of Hyoscyamus niger
with upper fruit showing calyx
partly removed
C berries of Atropa belladona
D berries of Capsicum sp

Trease, 522.

Morphological Method
SK

SEEDS

Piperis albi semen

Size, shape and colour

Funicle
Hilum and micropyle
Seed coats
Perisperm
Endosperm
Embryo
Myristicae semen

Coffeae arabicae semen

Coffeae robustae semen

Morphological Method
SUBTERRANEAN ORGANS

Morphological nature
Root, rhizome
Condition
Fresh, dry, whole or sliced, peeled or un peeled
Subaerial stems
Part of the crude drug or adulteration
Subterranean stems
Size and shape
Direction of growth and branching
Surface characters
Fracture and texture
Transverse section
Curcumae
domesticae rhizoma
Roots
Kind
Size and shape
Surface characters
Fracture and texture
Transverse section

SK

Languatis rhizoma

Calami rhizoma

Zingiberis rhizoma

Rauwolfiae radix

Unorganized Drugs
Fixed oils, fats, waxes,
volatile oils, resins,
oleoresins, oleo-gumresins, balsam

Physical state
Solid
Liquid

Dried juices

Odour and taste

Latices

Chemical tests

Extracts

Microscopical
Analysis

SK

Trease, 520.

Trease, 528.

Anomocytic

Anisocytic

Diacytic

Paracytic

Actinocytic

Give description for each type of stomata.

Ver. 22SK005

Bidiacytic

BENTUK DAN KONFIGURASI STOMATA yang berlainan dapat

digunakan sebagai patokan analisis mikroskopik serbuk simplisia.
Tipe stomata khusus:
1. Tipe Ranunculaceae
= tipe anomositik
2. Tipe Cruciferae
= tipe aninositik
3. Tipe Caryophyllaceae
= tipe diasitik
4. Tipe Rubiaceae
= tipe parasitik
Ver. 22SK005

Stahl, 54

EPIDERMIS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.

Lower epidermis of Digitalis purpurea

Lower epidermis of Hyoscyamus niger
Upper epidermis of Atropa belladonna
Lower epidermis of Cassia angustifolia
Lower epidermis of Rosmarinus officinalis
Lower epidermis of Mentha piperita
Lower epidermis of Pilocarpus jaborandi
Upper epidermis of Lobelia inflata
Lower epidermis of Digitalis lanata
Lower epidermis of Erythroxylum coca

Type of stomata:

anomocytic

B and C anisocytic
D

paracytic

E and F diacytic
G actinocytic
Trease, 529.

Microscopical Analysis
Epidermal trichomes (hairs)

Leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds may have

trichomes.

Trichomes

Non glandular (clothing)

Unicellular, multicellular
Glandular
Unicellular or multicellular stalk
Unicellular or multicellular head

SK

EPIDERMAL TRICHOMES
A Papillae of lower epidermis of Coca leaf
B G Unicellular hairs
B Papillae epidermal cell with cystolith from leaf
of Cannabis
C Cystolith clothing hair from floral bract of
Cannabis
D Lobelia inflata leaf
E Senna leaf
F Lignified hair of Ailanthus
G Comfrey
H Group of unicellular hairs from Hamamelis
leaf
I T-shaped hair of Artemisia absinthium

Trease, 530.

EPIDERMAL TRICHOMES
A H Uniseriate clothing hairs
I Multicellular branched hair
J Biseriate hair
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J

Datura metel
Datura stramonium
Mentha piperita
Thymus vulgaris
Plantago lanceolata
Hyoscyamus niger
Digitalis purpurea
Xanthium strumarium
Verbascum thapsus
Calendula officinalis

Trease, 531.

GLANDULAR HAIRS
A B Atropa belladonna
C Datura stramonium
D Digitalis purpurea
E Multicellular labiatae
glandular hair
F Hyoscyamus niger
G H Primula vulgaris
I Digitalis lutea
J Cannabis sativa
K Artemisia maritima

Trease, 532.

Phloem
A.sieve tubes with
companion cells,
B and C longitudinal
and transversal
views of sieve
tube,
D. sieve plate in
winter condition,
E. radial
longitudinal view
of laticifers

Xylem
A. tracheid
B. fibre tracheid
C. xylem fibre
D. septate fibre
E. annular
F. spiral vessel
G. scalariform vessel
H. reticulate vessel
I. vessel with round bordered
pits and simple
perforation pits
J. hexagonal pits
K. vessel segment
L.M.N. bordered pit
O.half bordered pit
P. transverse section vessel

Trease, 532.

Microscopical Analysis
Secretory cells
Oil cells
Secretary cavities or sacs
Schizogenous
Lysigenous
Schizolysigenous

Vittae
Schizogenous oleoresin canals

Latex
Cells or tissue containing fluid with milky appearance

SECRETORY CELLS AND DUCTS

Trease, 535.

Ergastic Cell Contents

Microscopically, physically or chemically identified nonliving particles.
Carbohydrate, protein, fixed oils, fat, glycoside, volatile
oil, gum, silica, etc.
Crystal
Calcium oxalate
Calcium carbonate

ERGASTIC CELL CONTENT

Calcium oxalate
crystals
A-D tetragonal system
E-I monoclinic system
A1-A3 rosette crystals of
tetragonal system
D a tetragonal prism
E a monoclinic prism
G raphides
H a single needle crystal
I a sphaerocrystal

Trease, 537.

MICROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Distribution of tissue
Phloroglucinol and HCl
Lignified cells: red

Cinchona bark, moistured with phloroglucinol followed

by adding hydrochloric acid - Kusmardiyani-

Chlor-zinc-iodine solution
Cellulose walls: blue or violet
Lignified or suberized walls: yellow or brown
Starch grains: blue

Granules of wheat starch, stained with iodine,

photographed through a light microscope - Wikipedia -

Clearing, defatting and bleaching

Chloral hydrate
Dissolve chlorophyll, protein, starch, resin, volatile oil, but not sodium oxalate

Solution of potash
Dissolve aleurone, starch, protein, swelling cell walls.

Ether-ethanol
Defatting

NaOCl
Bleaching dark colour sections.

Disintegration and isolation of tissue

Potassium chlorate and nitric acid
Chromic acid and nitric acid or sulphuric acid
Solution of potash or soda

Reagents

Ethanol
Alkanna tinctures
Chloral hydrate and glycerin
Chloral hydrate with iodine
Clove oil (clearing agent for oily powder)
Chlor-zinc-iodine solution (Schultzes solution)
Copper oxide, ammoniacal solution (swelling cellulose)
Corallin, alkaline solution (stain callose, gums and mucilages)
Ferric chloride (tannin)
Glycerin (mountant)
Iodine

Reagents

Lactophenol (clearing)
Mercury-nitric acid (Millons Reagent) for protein containing material
Nitric acid (crude fibre)
Picric acid (aleurone and animal fibres)
Potassium cupri-tartrate (Fehlings solution) for reducing sugars
Potassium iodobismuthate (precipitate alkaloid)
Potassium tetraiodomercurate (Mayers reagent) precipitate alkaloid
Ruthenium red (gums and mucilages)
Sodium carbonate (disintegrating fibres)
Sodium hypochlorite (clearing, defatting)
Sudan III (oils or suberized walls)
Sulphuric acid (charring, dissolve all but little action on suberin)

DNA Profiling
AFLP: Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism
SSR : Simple Sequence Repeat (microsatellite)
Sequencing rDNA, ITS: Internal Transcribed Spacer
and chloroplast genes
RAPD: Random Amplified DNA Polymorphism
RFLP : Restrictive Fragment Length Polymorphism

Method of Choice

Level of polymorphism
Reliability
Robustness

Comparison among Methods

RAPD
Easy to start but difficult to get reliable results

RFLP
Obsolete, low resolution and high cost

AFLP
Highly polymorphic, easier to start but difficult to data base

SSR
Highly polymorphic, expensive to develop, used for intra-specific
analysis or closely related species.

SCAR
Suitable for differentiation of targeted herbs.

Sequencing
Good for differentiating plants from different families and genera, not
polymorphic enough for intervening sequences.

-- get more detail information --

Plant Nomenclature Taxonomy,

In: Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy, 15th ed.,
p.10.
--read and discuss--

addendum

LABORATORY ACTIVITIES

PREPARATION OF STARCH
- ISOLATION OF AMYLUM Read again and discuss related topics from course material of
FA2205 General Pharmacognosy

A procedure for starch production was given in some

detail in a Roman treatise by Cato in 184 BCE. Grain was
steeped in water for ten days and then pressed. Fresh
water was added. Mixing and filtration through linen cloth
gave a slurry from which the starch was allowed to settle.
It was washed with water and finally dried in the sun.
Raven et al., 2009, Starch Chemistry and Technology, p.2.

STARCH
Handbook of Pharmaceutical
Excipients, 5th ed., 2006.

Read and discuss:

STARCH
Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients,
5th ed., 2006.

Handbook of
Pharmaceutical
Excipients,
th
5 ed., 2006,
p.725-726.

Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, 5th ed., 2006, p. 730.

A procedure for starch production was given in some

detail in a Roman treatise by Cato in 184 BCE. Grain was
steeped in water for ten days and then pressed. Fresh
water was added. Mixing and filtration through linen cloth
gave a slurry from which the starch was allowed to settle.
It was washed with water and finally dried in the sun.
Raven et al., 2009, Starch Chemistry and Technology, p.2.

STARCH,
PREGELATINIZED
Handbook of Pharmaceutical
Excipients, 5th ed., 2006.

Read and discuss:

Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, 5th ed., 2006.

TAPIOCA/CASSAVA STARCH PRODUCTION

TAPIOCA/CASSAVA STARCH PRODUCTION

Raven et al., 2009, Starch Chemistry and Technology, p.548.

TAPIOCA/CASSAVA STARCH PRODUCTION

Raven et al., 2009, Starch Chemistry and Technology, p.548.

Compare:

rice starch

corn starch

Handbook of Pharmaceutical
Excipients, 5th ed., 2006.

Pregelatinized Starch

Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, 5th ed., 2006.