1

PAKISTANS SECURITY POLICY IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA: THE

SHIFT FROM EXTERNAL TO INTERNAL PRIORITIES AND CONCERNS
Lt Col Abd Hafiz bin Ahmad
ABSTRACT
This study is about Pakistans security policy in the Post-Cold War era by comparing
before and after the 9/11 incident. Specifically, it seeks to explain the shift from
external to internal priorities after the 9/11 incident. The balance of power and the
enemy of my enemy is my friend concepts have been used to explain Pakistans
relations with the United States, China and India. These dynamic relations show that
every country does put its own national interest upfront while maintaining ties with
other strategic nations. The 9/11 incident became a turning point for changes in
Pakistans security policy. Before the incident,struggle for balance of power with
rival India and alliances with other nations were at the forefront of Pakistans security
policy. However, the sectarian, extremist and other militant groups based in the tribal
areas became a threat to Pakistans internal security, social peace and national
stability. In addition, problems with India and interest in Afghanistan also facilitated
Pakistans search for allies. However, the United States and Chinas involvement was
also positioned to safeguard their respective vital interests in the region. The studys
main finding is that Pakistans security policy in the post-Cold War era, especially
after 9/11 is influenced more by internal factors such as sectarian, extremist and
religious militancy rather than external factors such as the perceived threat from
India.As Pakistan still requires support from major powers to ensure its continuity, the
country has to diplomatically and strategically resolve the changing security landscape
it faces in order to maintain its sovereignty. The study also concludes that the shift of
focus from external security to internal security priorities and concerns is more serious
and remains pivotal to Pakistans future stability and security.
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan since its foundation has faced numerous national security issues. Pakistan
was born as a result of the partitioning of British India in August 1947. 1 Throughout
the years, Pakistan and India had battled each other in many uncontrolled wars over
territorial claims. In total, Pakistan and India have gone to war four times 2against each
other since independence. The Line of Control (LoC) 3 between the two nations is
constantly contested, combined with sectarian tensions that continuously divide both
1 S. Wolpert, India and Pakistan, Continued Conflict or Cooperation? University of California
press, London, England, 2010, p.7.
2 S. Ganguly,Conflict Unending, India-Pakistan Tensions since 1947, Columbia University
Press,New York, 2001, p.1.
3 The term Line of Control (LoC) refers to the military control line between the Pakistan and
Indian controlled parts of the former princely state of Kashmir and Jammu.

nations.4 Security concerns with India in the east combined with Afghanistans
instability in the west contributed to the instability in Pakistan.
Pakistan and Afghanistan have much in common. They not only share the
same frontier but also historical, cultural and religious traditions.5 Since 1947, both
countries have interfered in each others internal affairs. Pakistan has raised numerous
Islamist militant groups to prosecute its policies in Afghanistan and India. Pakistan
had promoted multinational jihadist movements and attended to its most strategic task
of destabilising India by conducting proxy-wars and exporting jihadist movements. 6
Since the end of Cold War, Pakistan continued its policy in Afghanistan through the
support of several Mujahideen groups and later, the Taliban. Pakistans prime security
interest remains in having a Pakistani-friendly government in Kabul. It is believed that
by having a friendly government in Kabul, it will provide itself with strategic depth 7
against possible threats from India. Therefore, Pakistan has traditionally relied on
violent extremists to accomplish its national interest in both Afghanistan and India.
Before the 9/118 incident, Pakistan supported and recognized Talibans rule in
Afghanistan. Pakistan viewed the Taliban as their best chance to achieve its own
national interest in the region. Pakistan also believed that the international community
would eventually accept Talibans rule in Kabul as inevitable. Even during the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan, Pakistan had supported the Afghanistan Mujahideen and
allowed them to function from Pakistani territory. 9 Pakistan continued to support the
Taliban into the late 1990s. However, the tragedy of 9/11 had prompted Pakistan to
undergo important security changes. 9/11 had provoked the United States to react
against Afghanistan because the Taliban government had refused to hand over Osama

4M. J. Cheema, Pakistan-India Conflict With Special References to Kashmir, South Asian
Studies, A research Journal of South Asian Studies, Vol.30, No.1, January-June 2015, pp. 55-60.
5 The Hollings Center for International Dialogue, Afghanistan and Pakistan: Cultural Heritage
and Current Reality, Conference Report, the American Institute of Pakistan Studies and the Hollings
Center for International Dialogue, Istanbul, Turkey, May 2005, pp.3-7.
6Sreedhar, Pakistan After 9/11, Manas Publications, New Delhi, India, 2003, p.180.
7 The Pakistani military doctrine behind the concept of strategic depth suggests transforming
Afghanistan into a client or subservient state that is beholden to the Pakistanis security establishment.
8 The worst international terrorist attack ever-involving four separate but coordinated aircraft
hijackings occurred in the United States on September 11,2001. More than 3,000 persons were killed in
these four attacks. One of these incidents had brought to the collapse of the United States World Trade
Center.
9H. A. Rizvi, Pakistans Foreign Policy: An Overview 1947-2004, Briefing Paper for Pakistani
Parliamentarians, Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development and Transparency, Lahore, Pakistan,
April 2004, p.19.

bin Laden10, the alleged perpetrator of the attacks. Since the attack, Pakistan has
emerged as a conflicted partner in countering terrorism or as an ally in the Global War
on Terror (GWOT).
Pakistans security policy is shaped primarily by its sense of insecurity within
the regional context. During the Cold War, Pakistan concentrated mainly on traditional
threats that took shape in the fight for territory with neighbouring India and the
strategic alignment with allies, most notably the United States. Pakistan experienced
coup dtat three times and was ruled by four military leaders since independence.
Furthermore, Pakistan is considered as a military state or military controlled state
due to the nuclear arsenal under its possession.
However, 9/11 changed Pakistans security landscape as it had to then battle
with non-traditional threats in the form of terrorism in the region. This had caused
Pakistan to realign its focus more towards internal threats as many of the militant
groups allegedly involved in the attacks were likely born in the country. It was
observed that there were some variations in how Pakistan deals with its security issues
before and after 9/11. This raised questions as to why Pakistan was unable to deal with
its internal security issues despite being a military state or military controlled state.
Therefore, Pakistans security policy in the Post-Cold War era, especially after 9/11 is
influenced more by internal factors such as sectarian, extremist and religious militancy
than by external factors such as the perceived threat from India.
AN OVERVIEW OF PAKISTANS SECURITY ENVIRONMENT
IN COLD WAR PERIOD
Ever since its creation, Pakistan has been through turbulence and disorder. The
country was under military rule for nearly half of its existence. It had also gone to war
three times with India during the Cold War. As the leaders focused on building its
defence, the countrys economy was largely ignored. Religious extremists were also
given free reign of its societies. As a weak state, Pakistan has always sought stronger
allies. United States is a useful example in particular, where the major power had
pumped in economic and military aid while taking the chance to have a base in the
region. At the same time, Soviet invasion of Afghanistan made Pakistan a front line
state during the Cold War period, hence attracting the interest of many major powers.
Pakistans geo-strategic location provided an important link for countries in the
East, Central and North Asia to travel to South Asia and the Persian Gulf. The country
is also surrounded by countries that possess nuclear weapons, hence attracting the
attention of major powers on Pakistan. Based on its historical background, India
remains as Pakistans main threat. The situation became more complicated as
Pakistans internal politics were not given full attention. This had invited external
10
The founder and head of the Islamist group Al-Qaeda. He is the prime suspect in the New York
and Washington terrorist attacks. FBI branded him as an international terrorist for his role in the
African US Embassy bombings. He was born in Saudi Arabia and was recruited during the SovietAfghan war "ironically under the auspices of the CIA, to fight Soviet invaders".

factors such as the United States, Iran and Afghanistan to interfere and influence the
internal security and stability of Pakistan.

Figure 3.1 Graph Pakistan and India military expenditure before 9/11 (1988-2001)
Source: Data from the world bank on military expenditure (% of GDP)
In 1965, Pakistans PM Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had stated If India builds the bomb,
we will eat grass or leaves; even go hungry, but we will get one of our own.11News of
nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan and India in 1998 reverberated throughout the
world.12 The precise number and yield of the nuclear tests remain uncertain. This
factor had largely contributed to the Kargil War in 1999. Due to the nuclear testing,
both countries were pressured by the United States and many other major powers to
reduce bilateral tensions in South Asia. The seriousness of the situation proved that
Pakistan had considered India as its biggest security concern before the 9/11 incident.
As Pakistan was the principal country assuming a defensive stance, its military
expenditure before the incident was 6.14% as compared to India at only 2.89%. The
above data shows the annual military expenditure of Pakistan, proving the Pakistani
stigma against India as its main threat.
Figure 4.1 Graph Pakistan and India missiles tests since 1998 to 2012
Source: The Carnegie Paper on Understanding The Arms Race in South
Asia,September 2012.13
From a regional standpoint, it is clear that Pakistan has been in a continuous
state of conflict against India since both countries independence. In total, four wars
were bitterly fought against each other, including the infamous Kargil war which had
sparked after nuclear tests by both countries in 1998. The wars are hard evidence that
Pakistan had concentrated on its traditional rival as its biggest security challenge
before 9/11. The balance-of-power concept that Pakistan subscribes to drove most of
its decisions pre-9/11. Thus, the neighbouring country remained Pakistans regional
rival and most powerful neighbour in the Cold War era up to the 9/11 incident.
PAKISTANS SECURITY CHALLENGES IN POST-COLD WAR ERA
11 O.B. Jones, Pakistan Eye of the Storm, Yale University Press, New Haven, London, 2002, p.
187.
12 S. Ganguly&D.T. Hagerty, Fearful Symmetry, India-Pakistan Crises in The Shadow of
Nuclear Weapons, University of Washington Press, Seattle, United States, 2005, pp. 126-127.
13 D. Toby, T. Jaclyn, Understanding The Arms Race in South Asia, Nuclear Policy, The
Carnegie Paper, September 2012, pp. 22-24.

Pakistan had faced multi-directional security challenges Post-Cold War. Since its
inception, the country had constantly struggled with its limited resources to adequately
provide for both its defence requirements and economic development needs. This
prompts the nation to join various alliances and align its foreign policies with other
nations to ensure a viable security environment. Political changes in Iran and
Afghanistan, growing tensions with India, and the rise of a unipolar world have
radically changed Pakistans security scenario.14 The collapse of Soviet Union brought
about numerous changes at the global level and transformed regional politics. Pakistan
no longer enjoyed the status of a frontline state after the collapse of the Soviet Union,
as it apparently no longer serves any vital interest in the region.
Figure 3.5 Graph numbers of suicide attacks and fatalities in Pakistan
Source: Conflict Monitoring Center, Islamabad, Annual Report 201115

Figure 3.6 Graph number of suicide attacks in reference to the provinces of Pakistan
Source: Afghanistan to 2015 and beyond, the International Institute for Strategic
Studies.16
9/11 was the turning point of Pakistans change in security policies. Its
renunciation of ties with the Taliban quickly turned into a threat on its internal
security. As such, suicide attacks and fatalities increased drastically after the
declaration of GWOT by General Musharraf. This proves the overwhelming negative
response by the extremist and militant groups in Pakistan. However, many of the
Pakistani army and political leaders saw this as a double-game played by its
government. This can be seen by Pakistans simultaneous decisions to fight against the
militants in the tribal areas which at the same time is hedged with a continued covert
support for the Taliban that it had helped create. Thus, Pakistan faced difficulties in
containing the rampant militancy due to its ties to it in the first place.
In the period between the end of the Cold War and 9/11, India remained as
Pakistans major security concern. The rivalry between both nations became more
pronounced with the threat of nuclear proliferation, which culminated in the Kargil
war. However, 9/11 became Pakistans turning point as it shifter focus from traditional
(external) threats to non-traditional (internal) threats. The internal security
14 M. Iftikhar, Indian Attitude towards Her Neighbours, The Scalpel Society, Islamabad, 2005,
p.29.
15 A. Khan,Suicide Attacks in Pakistan, Conflict MonitoringCenter, Islamabad, Annual Report
2011,
16 A. Khan,Suicide Attacks in Pakistan, Conflict Monitoring Centre, Islamabad, Annual Report
2011,

environment was dominated by sectarianism, extremism, militancy and terrorism

movements. Pakistan decided to join the world in the GWOT led by the United States.
The situation became more challenging when ISI continued to maintain linkages with
the Taliban and also Al-Qaeda. The ISI was aptly described as a state within the
state. Therefore, Pakistan faces two sets of internal security challenges Post-9/11 in
the form of the Pakistani Taliban and other militant Islamic groups based in the tribal
areas and the involvement of ISI with groups that pose a threat to the security, social
peace and stability of Pakistan.
Another issue that plagued Pakistans internal politics is the lack of
commitment to democracy. The thirst for power has made the military manipulative of
all political leaders. All military leaders, once in command of the state had tried their
level best to divide the political parties to weaken the opposition. After the successful
divisions, they then strived to reduce the fragmented oppositions ability to challenge
the military government. Military coup dtats were also common due to the military
background of the leadership. Therefore, Pakistan can be categorised as a military
state. However, the military might that the Pakistani leadership try to portray is still
not enough to ensure the nations security. Hence, its leaders knew that the country
could not survive alone without the support from major powers, hence the country can
also be labelled as a weak state.
PAKISTANS RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES,
CHINA AND INDIA AFTER 9/11
The South Asia region continues to be of paramount importance to the global society
as it serves major powers economic interests in terms of its strategic location and
geopolitical significance. The addition of nuclear capability in the region has further
heightened tensions Post-9/11. While India continues its aspiration to be South Asias
sole power, Pakistans rising status as a frontline state in the GWOT and the only
Muslim nation to possess nuclear facilities meant that Indias aspiration was under
threat. In maintaining Pakistans balance of power to ensure its national security,
relations with the United States, China and India Post-9/11 were strengthened.
The global security landscape had drastically altered post-9/11. The United
States GWOT had added dimensions to Pakistans security concerns. The acceptance
of United States presence in the country not only helped combat the rising terrorism
in the region, but also in the country itself. Pakistans active role in the War against
Terrorism has brought its status to become a major Non NATO member and a valuable
the United States ally. This opportunity should be exploited by Pakistan to maintain its
strategic importance and anchoring on its military partnership with the United States.
Pakistan sees China as a powerful defense and economic partner as well as
important for balance of power in the South Asia region. Pakistan feels victimized by
the world community after United States discovery of bin Laden in Pakistan. This has
changed the relationship dynamics of Pakistan-United States, as mistrust had
blossomed with the development, thus Pakistan could not depend solely on the United
States for its military and financial support. As China grows to be a more powerful
world leader, Pakistan has invested in its interest to side and capitalize on this

relationship. In relation to that, Pakistan has stepped up its defence ties with China and
participated more actively in multilateral organizations where China is a main player.
Improvement in Pakistan-India relations could be achieved by more trade
agreements and further political-friendly actions. India cannot extend its trade to
Central Asia without a friendly Pakistan, and Pakistan cannot become a stable and
viable state without less pressure from India especially on the issues of Kashmir and
terrorism. Therefore, the need to have a good working relationship with India is of
utmost importance. As trade relations are more people driven, it is beneficial to exploit
the mutual dependencies between both countries populations. Once the economic
logic of Pakistan- India trade establishes itself, normalizing ties will become a lot
easier.
As a nation bordering with many countries and overshadowed by many bigger
forces, it is natural that Pakistan relies on strategic alliances to safeguard its
sovereignty. Its internal and external threats had led the country to seek protection
from major powers, such as the United States and China to counter the offensive
tactics employed by both militants at home and India as its rival neighbour. It was
found Pakistan played a double game in the issue of GWOT and cooperation with
major powers. The dynamics of the triangular relationship between Pakistan, India
and China can be further elaborated using the concept of 'the enemy of my enemy is
my friend'. The relationship described above will be similar with the relationship
between the United States, China and India; China, India and Pakistan; or India, China
and the United States. These dynamic relationships show that every country does put
its own national interest upfront while maintaining ties with other strategic nations. As
Pakistan struggles to break free from its underdeveloped status and security conflict, it
accepts that concerted regional and international efforts may ensure success of its own
goals rather than working individually. It is therefore crucial that a greater interest in
regional integration and the formation of a South Asia regional bloc is sustained and
promoted.
CONCLUSION
In general, Pakistans security hinges on internal and external factors affecting the
nation as well as its political leadership and military fighting abilities. A thorough
review of Pakistans historical background from independence to the Cold War era
until the present revealed an extensive understanding that helped in the analysis of the
directions taken by the leadership in shaping the countrys security policies. The
global environment coupled with regional situations and internal dynamics have all
played a hand in steering Pakistans course. The security issues had started since back
in 1947, when the British had partitioned India into two separate sovereign states.
Immediately after the separation, Kashmir became the bone of conflict between India
and Pakistan. Tensions ran high between both nations, culminating in a total of four
wars, with three wars centred largely on the issue of Kashmir. Resolving the Kashmir
dispute remain pivotal to the relationship between the two nations, but the emphasis
on regional rivalry was significantly lesser Post-9/11.

Pakistans security landscape had drastically changed in the wake of 9/11.

From focusing on its rival, the country had to change its policies to looking into its
own borders where sectarian, extremist and militant groups threaten to overthrow the
countrys survival. The issues were further compounded by the lack of political
maturity conflict between political leadership, poor law and order, and involvement of
military, specifically the ISI with the extremist and militant group. The paper
highlights how monetary aid allocated by the United States for Pakistans efforts in
the war against terror was misappropriated by the local authorities. With a highly
unstable government, political maturity is particularly non-existent in the nation.
These were the push factors for Pakistan to remain as a weak state.
9/11 marked a watershed event that had changed the direction of Pakistans
security policy. Before the incidents, the nation had faced a vastly different security
threat in the form of rival India. However, the attacks brought the Pakistanis to focus
back onto its own internal conflicts. The Taliban and other militant groups based in
Pakistani tribal areas became a threat to the countrys internal security, social peace
and national stability. The incompetence of Pakistani leaders further worsened the
situation for the relatively inexperienced nation. The country knew that the alliance
and support from major powers are still paramount to its survival, thus had
diplomatically and strategically worked to resolve the challenges it faces in order to
maintain its sovereignty. The shift of focus from external security to internal security
priorities mirror Pakistans efforts in the face of changing security challenges.
Therefore, it is agreed Pakistans security policy in the Post-Cold War era, especially
after 9/11 is influenced more by internal factors such as sectarian, extremist and
religious militancy than by external factors such as perceived threat from India.
It is acknowledged that there are gaps remained unfulfilled by this study. Thus,
further studies should be conducted on the topic of Pakistans security challenges,
specifically from the point of views of the military dictatorship and military coup
dtat. It is also proposed that Pakistans internal struggle should be studied using the
weak state theory to further highlight the countrys quest for survival.

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