GSM Training Final Report

RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING
Chapter 1
Introduction
And History of GSM
Department of E&C 1 2010

Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara
1.1 History of GSM
The idea of the first cellular network was brainstormed in 1947. It was intended to be
used for military purposes as a way of supplying troops with more advanced forms of
communications. From 1947 till about 1979 several different forms of broadcasting
technology emerged. The United States began to develop the AMPS (Advanced Mobile
Phone Service) network, while European countries were developing their own forms of
communication.
1.2 History of GSM Technology
Europeans quickly realized the disadvantages of each European country operating on

their mobile network. It prevents cell phone use from country to country within Europe.
With the emerging European Union and high travel volume between countries in Europe
this was seen as a problem. Rectifying the situation the Conference of European Posts and
Telegraphs (CEPT) assembled a research group with intentions of researching the mobile
phone system in Europe. This group was called Group Special Mobile (GSM).
For the next ten years the GSM group outlined standards, researched technology and
designed a way to implement a pan-European mobile phone network. In 1989 work done
by the GSM group was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards
Institute (ETSI). The name GSM was transposed to name the type of service invented.
The acronym GSM had been changed from Group Special Mobile to Global Systems
Mobile Telecommunications.
By April of 1991 commercial service of the GSM network had begun. Just a year and half
later in 1993 there were already 36 GSM networks in over 22 countries. Several other
countries were on the rise to adopt this new mobile phone network and participate in what
was becoming a worldwide standard. At the same time, GSM also became widely used in
the Middle East, South Africa and Australia.
While the European Union had developed a sophisticated digital cell phone system, the
United States was still operating primarily on the old, analog AMPS network and TDMA.

In the end of October 2001, Cingular was the first to announce their switch to the 3G
GSM network. This involved switching more then 22 million customers from TDMA to
GSM.
In 2005 Cingular stopped new phone activation on the TDMA network and began only
selling GSM service.
1.3 History of GSM in brief
1982: CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications)

establishes a GSM group in order to develop the standards for pan-European
cellular mobile system
1988: Validation of the GSM System.
1991: Commercial launch of the GSM service.

1992: Enlargement of the countries that signed the GSM-MoU> Coverage
of larger cities/airports.
1993: Coverage of main roads GSM services start outside Europe.
1995: Phase 2 of the GSM specifications Coverage of rural areas.

1.4 GSM Frequency Band
There are five major GSM frequencies that have become standard worldwide. They are
following
GSM-1800
GSM850
GSM-1900
GSM-400
1.4.1 GSM-900 and GSM-1800
GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are standards used mostly worldwide. It is the frequency
European phones operate on as well as most of Asia and Australia.
1.4.2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900
GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are primarily United States frequencies. They are also the
standard for Canada GSM service and countries in Latin and South America. Most of the
Cingular network operates on GSM 850, while much of T-Mobile operates at GSM-1900.
T-Mobile however, has roaming agreements with Cingular. Meaning in the case of no
service at GSM-1900, the phone will switch to GSM-850 and operate on Cingulars
network.
1.4.3 GSM-400
GSM-400 is the least popular of the bunch and is rarely used. It is an older frequency that
was used in Russia and Europe before GSM-900 and GSM-1800 became available. There
are not many networks currently operating at this frequency.

1.5 GSM Services
. The GSM services are grouped into three categories:
1. Teleservices (TS)
2. Bearer services (BS)
3. Supplementary services (SS)
1.5.1 Teleservices
Regular telephony, emergency calls, and voice messaging are within Teleservices.
Telephony, the old bidirectional speech calls, is certainly the most popular of all services.
An emergency call is a feature that allows the mobile subscriber to contact a nearby
emergency service, such as police, by dialing a unique number. Voice messaging permits
a message to be stored within the voice mailbox of the called party either because the
called party is not reachable or because the calling party chooses to do so.
1.5.2 Bearer Services
Data services, short message service (SMS), cell broadcast, and local features are within
BS. Rates up to 9.6 kbit/s are supported. With a suitable data terminal or computer
connected directly to the mobile apparatus, data may be sent through circuit-switched or
packet-switched networks. Short messages containing as many as 160 alphanumeric
characters can be transmitted to or from a mobile phone. In this case, a message center is
necessary. The broadcast mode (to all subscribers) in a given geographic area may also be
used for short messages of up to 93 alphanumeric characters. Some local features of the
mobile terminal may be used. These may include, for example, abbreviated dialing,
edition of short messages, repetition of failed calls, and others.

1.5.3 Supplementary Services
Some of the Supplementary Services are as follows:
1. Advice of charge:- This SS details the cost of a call in progress.

2. Barring of all outgoing calls: - This SS blocks outgoing calls.
3. Barring of international calls:- This SS blocks incoming or outgoing
international calls as a whole or only those associated with a specific basic
service, as desired.
4. Barring of roaming calls: - This SS blocks all the incoming roaming calls or
only those associated with a specific service.
5. Call forwarding:- This SS forwards all incoming calls, or only those associated
with a specific basic service, to another directory number. The forwarding may be
unconditional or may be performed when the mobile subscriber is busy, when
there is no reply, when the mobile subscriber is not reachable, or when there is
radio congestion.
6. Call hold: - This SS allows interruption of a communication on an existing call.
Subsequent reestablishment of the call is permitted.
7. Call waiting: - This SS permits the notification of an incoming call when the
mobile subscriber is busy.
8. Call transfer: - This SS permits the transference of an established incoming or
outgoing call to a third party.
9. Completion of calls to busy subscribers: - This SS allows notification of when a
busy called subscriber becomes free. At this time, if desired, the call is reinitiated.
10. Closed user group:- This SS allows a group of subscribers to communicate only
among themselves.
11. Calling number identification presentation/restriction: - This SS permits the
presentation or restricts the presentation of the calling partys identification
number (or additional address information).
12. Connected number identification presentation: - This SS indicates the phone
number that has been reached.

Chapter 2
GSM Identities

2. Classification of GSM IDENTITY NUMBER
Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
Location Area Identity (LAI)
.2.1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)
The MSISDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in

the public switched telephone network numbering plan. According to the CCITT
recommendations, the mobile telephone number or catalogue number to be dialled is
composed in the following way:
MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code
SN = Subscriber Number
E.g. 919822012345 = 91 + 98 + 22 + 012345
A National Destination Code is allocated to each GSM PLMN. In some countries, more
than one NDC may be required for each GSM PLMN. The international MSISDN
number may be of variable length. The maximum length shall be 15 digits, prefixes not
included.

2.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
The IMSI is the information which uniquely identifies a subscriber in a GSM/PLMN.
For a correct identification over the radio path and through the GSM PLMN network, a
specific identity is allocated to each subscriber. This identity is called the International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and is used for all signalling in the PLMN. It will be
stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), as well as in the Home Location Register
(HLR) and in the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR).
The IMSI consists of three different parts:

IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN
MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits)
MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits)
MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (max 10 digits)
e.g.404 + 22 + 0000123456
According to the GSM recommendations, the IMSI will have a length of maximum 15
digits.
All networkrelated subscriber information is connected to the IMSI.

2.3 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
HLR knows in what MSC/VLR Service Area the subscriber is located. In order to provide
a temporary number to be used for routing, the HLR requests the current MSC/VLR to
allocate and return a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the called subscriber
At reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now
route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently
registered.
The interrogation call routing function (request for an MSRN) is part of the Mobile
Application Part (MAP). All data exchanged between the GMSC - HLR - MSC/VLR for
the purpose of interrogation is sent over the No. 7 signalling network.
The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN), according to the GSM recommendations,
consists of three parts:
MSRN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code
SN = Subscriber Number
e.g.: 91 + 98 + 22 + 005XXX where, 005XXX is sent by MSC.
00 is for Pune MSC, 20 is for Nagpur MSC, 10 is for Goa MSC.
Note: In this case, SN is the address to the serving MSC.
2.4 International Mobile station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

The IMEI is used for equipment identification. An IMEI uniquely identifies a mobile
station as a piece or assembly of equipment. (See IMEI, chapter 5.)
IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + sp
TAC = Type Approval Code (6 digits), determined by a central GSM body
FAC = Final Assembly Code (2 digits), identifies the manufacturer
SNR = Serial Number (6 digits), an individual serial number of six digits uniquely
identifying all equipment within each TAC and FAC
sp = spare for future use (1 digit)
e.g.352518 + 00 + 581976 + 3
Where, 35 is for Nokia Handsets
According to the GSM specification, IMEI has the length of 15 digits.
2.5 Location Area Identity (LAI)
LAI is used for location updating of mobile subscribers.
LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC
MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits), identifies the country. It follows the same
numbering plan as MCC in IMSI.
MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits), identifies the GSM/PLMN in that country and
follows the same numbering plan as the MNC in IMSI.
LAC = Location Area Code, identifies a location area within a GSM PLMN network. The
maximum length of LAC is 16 bits, enabling 65 536 different location areas to be defined
in one GSM PLMN.
E.g. 404 +22 + 10000 where 10000 is the LAC for Pune.
2.6 Cell Global Identity (CGI)

CGI is used for cell identification within the GSM network. This is done by adding a Cell
Identity (CI) to the location area identity.
CGI = MCC + MNC + LAC + CI
CI = Cell Identity, identifies a cell within a location area, maximum 16 bits
e.g. 404 + 22 + 10000 + 726
Where,
404 + 22 + 10000 is the LAI for Pune and 726 are the CI of one of the cells
of Pune.CI is different for all the three sectors of the cell.
2.7 Base Station Identity Code (BSIC)
BSIC allows a mobile station to distinguish between different neighbouring base stations.
BSIC = NCC + BCC
NCC = Network Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the GSM PLMN.
Note that it does not uniquely identify the operator. NCC is primarily used to distinguish
between operators on each side of border.
BCC = Base Station Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the Base Station to help distinguish
between BTS using the same BCCH frequencies
e.g. 71
Where 7 is the NCC for IDEA Operator.
and 1 is the BCC.BCC can range from 0 to 7.

Chapter 3
GSM Network
Elements
3. Introduction
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication & is a globally accepted
standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group
established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would
formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900
MHz.
It is estimated that many countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partnership. GSM
provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the
functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The reason
for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the
operators to buy equipment from different suppliers.
The GSM network is divided into three major systems:
The switching system (SS)
The base station system (BSS)
The operation and support system (OSS)
3.1 GSM BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.2 BASIC GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
3.2.1 SWITCHING CENTRE

It consists of following elements which are explained bellow one by one:

Home Location Register
Visitor Location Register
Mobile Switching Centre
Authentication Centre
Equipment Identity Register
The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-
related functions. The switching system includes the following functional units
AUC
VLR HLR EIR
MSC
HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR):

The HLR is a centralized network database that stores and manages all mobile
subscriptions belonging to a specific operator. It acts as a permanent store for a persons
subscription information until that subscription is cancelled. The information stored
includes:
Subscriber identity
Subscriber supplementary services
Subscriber location information
Subscriber authentication information
The HLR can be implemented in the same network node as the MSC or as a stand-alone
database. If the capacity of a HLR is exceeded by the number of subscribers, additional
HLRs may be added.
MOBILE SERVICES SWITCHING CENTRE (MSC):

The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to
and from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll
ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
AUC
VLR HLR EIR
MSC
VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR):

The VLR database contains information about all the mobile subscribers currently located
in an MSC service area. Thus, there is one VLR for each MSC in a network. The VLR
temporarily stores subscription information so that the MSC can service all the
subscribers currently visiting that MSC service area.
The VLR can be regarded as a
distributed HLR as it holds a copy of the HLR information stored about the subscriber.
When a subscriber roams into a new MSC service area, the VLR connected to that MSC
requests information about the subscriber from the subscribers HLR. The HLR sends a
copy of the information to the VLR and updates its own location information. When the
subscriber makes a call, the VLR will already have the information required for call set-
up.
AUTHENTICATION CENTRE (AUC) :
A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters that verify the
user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network
operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world. The AUC is a
database connected to the HLR which provides it with the authentication parameters and
ciphering keys used to ensure network security. that provides functions such as handover,
cell configuration data, and control
EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER (EIR):
The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment
that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and
EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.
3.2.2 THE BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS):

All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of

Base station controllers (BSCs)
Base transceiver stations (BTSs).
BSC The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the MSC
and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base
transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an MSC.
BTS The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio
equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A
group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC
BSC
Base Station
System
(BSS) BTS
MS

3.2.3 THE OPERATION AND SUPPORT SYSTEM:
The operations and maintenance centre (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation
and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network
operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance
activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to
provide a network overview and support the maintenance activities of different operation
and maintenance organizations.
One of the most important tasks in a mobile telephony system is to continuously keep
track of where mobile stations are located. One primary function of the Mobile Services
Switching Centre (MSC) and Visitor Location Register (VLR) is to store information,
such as location area, about different mobile stations.
It is the responsibility of the mobile station to always inform the network about changes
in its location and it must also continuously verify that it is tuned to the strongest
frequency.
3.2.4 MOBILE STATION:
A Mobile Station (MS) is used by a mobile subscriber to communicate with the cellular
system. Several types of mobile stations exist, each allowing the subscriber to make and
receive calls. Manufacturers of mobile stations offer a variety of designs and features to
meet the needs of different markets.
The range or coverage area of a mobile station

depends on, for example, the output power of the mobile station.
Different types of mobile stations have different output power
capabilities and therefore, different ranges. For example, hand-held telephones have a
lower output power, (resulting in a shorter range), than a car installed phone with roof
mounted antenna.

Ranges from different Mobile Station
Ranges for different types of MSs
GSM MSs consist of:

A mobile terminal
A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): Unlike other standards, in GSM the
subscriber is separated from the mobile terminal. Each subscribers information is
stored as a "smart card" SIM. The SIM can be plugged into any GSM mobile
terminal. This brings the advantages of security and portability for subscribers.
For example, subscriber As mobile terminal may have been stolen. However,
subscriber As own SIM can be used in another persons mobile terminal and the
calls will be charged to subscriber A.

Chapter 4
GSM Channels

4. Introduction
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) divides one radio frequency channel into
consecutive periods of time, each one called a "TDMA Frame". The TDMA frame can
be compared to the vehicle in our example. Each TDMA Frame contains eight shorter
periods of time known as Timeslots". These timeslots can be compared to the seats in
the vehicle. The TDMA timeslots are called "Physical Channels" as they are used to
physically move information from one place to another.
The radio carrier signal between
the Mobile Station and the BTS is divided into a continuous stream of timeslots which in
turn are transmitted in a continuous stream of TDMA frames - like a long line of vehicles
with eight seats in each.
If the time slots of the TDMA frame represent the physical
channels, what about the contents? The contents of the physical channels - i.e. the
soldiers and officers traveling in the eight seats of the vehicle, according to their roles, are
called "logical channels". In the example of the army, the soldiers are one type of logical
channel and the officers are other types of logical channels and they exercise some kind
of control depending on their responsibilities.

4.1 GSM CHANNELS

In GSM the logical channels can be divided into two types:
Dedicated Channels
Common Channels
4.2 Bock Diagram of GSM Channels

4.3 Introduction to Logical Channels

There are twelve different types of Logical Channels which are mapped into Physical
Channels in the radio path. Logical channels comprise of Common Channels and
Dedicated Channels. Common Channels are those which are used for broadcasting
different information to mobile stations and setting up of signaling channels between the
MSC/VLR and the mobile station.
Over the radio path, different type of signaling channels are used facilitates the
discussions between the mobile station and the BTS, BSC and MSC/VLR. All these
signaling channels are called Dedicated Control Channels.
Traffic channels are also Dedicated Channels as each channel is dedicated to only one
user to carry speech or data.

4.4 Classification of Logical Channels

The logical channels can be separated into two categories. They are
i. Common channels
ii. Dedicated channels.
4.4.1 Classification of Common Channels

Common Channels are subdivided into three categories:
i. Broadcast Channels (BCH)
ii. Common Control Channels (CCCH)
iii. Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH)
The following sections describe specific channels within these categories.

I. BROADCAST CHANNELS (BCH)
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)

On FCCH, bursts only containing zeroes are transmitted. This serves two purposes:
i. First to make sure that this is the BCCH carrier
ii. Second to allow the MS to synchronize to the frequency. FCCH is
transmitted downlink only.
Synchronization Channel (SCH)

The MS needs to synchronize to the time-structure within this particular cell, and also
ensure that the chosen BTS is a GSM base station. By listening to the SCH, the MS
receives information about the frame number in this cell and about BSIC of the chosen
BTS. BSIC can only be decoded if the base station belongs to the GSM network. SCH is
transmitted downlink only.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

The MS must receive some general information concerning the cell in order to start
roaming, waiting for calls to arrive or making calls. The needed information is broadcast
on the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) and includes the Location Area Identity
(LAI), maximum output power allowed in the cell and the BCCH carriers for the
neighboring cells on which the MS performs measurements. BCCH is transmitted on the
Downlink only. Using FCCH, SCH, and BCCH the MS tunes to a BTS and synchronized
with the frame structure in that cell. The BTSs are not synchronized to each other.
Therefore, every time the MS camps on another cell, it must listen to FCCH, SCH and
BCCH in the new cell.

II. COMMON CONTROL CHANNELS (CCCH)
Paging Channel (PCH)

At certain time intervals the MS listens to the PCH to check if the network wants to make
contact with the MS. The reason why the network may want to contact the MS could be
an incoming call or an incoming short message. The information on PCH is a paging
message, including the MSs identity number (IMSI) or a temporary number (TMSI).
PCH is transmitted downlink only.
Random Access Channel (RACH)

The MS listens to the PCH to determine when it is being paged. When the MS is paged, it
replies on the RACH requesting a signaling channel. RACH can also be used if the MS
wants to contact the network. For example, when setting up a mobile originating call.
RACH is transmitted uplink only.
Access Grant Channel (AGCH)

The networks assign a signaling channel (Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel
(SDCCH)) to the MS. This assignment is performed on the AGCH. AGCH is transmitted
Downlink only.

III. Dedicated Channels

The Dedicated Channels are further subdivided into mainly two categories which are
explained below:-
i. Dedicated Control Channels
ii. Traffics channels
DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS (DCCH)
Stand alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

The MS as well as the BTS switches over to the assigned SDCCH. The call set-up
procedure is performed on the SDCCH, as well as the textual message transmission (short
message and cell broadcast) in idle mode. SDCCH is transmitted both uplink and
downlink. When call set-up is performed, the MS is told to switch to a TCH.
Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)

The SACCH is associated with SDCCH or TCH (i.e. sent on the same physical channel).
On the uplink, the MS sends averaged measurements on its own BTS (signal strength and
quality) and neighboring BTSs (signal strength). On the downlink, the MS receives
information concerning the transmitting power to use and instructions on the timing
advance. SACCH is transmitted both uplink and downlink.
Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

If a handover is required the FACCH is used. FACCH works in stealing mode meaning
that one 20 ms segment of speech is exchanged for signaling information necessary for
the handover. Under normal conditions the subscriber does not notice the speech
interruption because the speech coder repeats the previous speech block.
Cell Broadcast Channel (CBCH)

CBCH is only used downlink to carry Short Message Service
Cell Broadcast (SMSCB) and uses the same physical channel as

the SDCCH.
Traffic Channels (TCH)
These traffic channels further divided into mainly two catogorieswhich are explained
bellow:
I. TCH/F
II. TCH/H
III. TCH/EFR
Full rate TCH (TCH/F) - this channel carries information at a gross rate
of 13 kbit/s.
Half rate TCH (TCH/H) - this channel carries information at a gross rate
of 6.5 kbit/s.
Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) Traffic Channel. The speech coding in EFR
is still done at 13Kbits/s, but the coding mechanism is different than that
used for normal full rate traffic. EFR coding gives better speech quality at
the same bit rate than normal full rate. Traffic channels can transmit both
speech and data and are bi-directional channels.

4.5 CHANNEL COMBINATIONS:

The different channels mentioned above are grouped into what are called channel
combination.
The four most common type of combination are listed below:
Full rate Traffic channel combination TCH8/FACCH
Broad channel combination BCCH + CCCH
Dedicated channel combination SDCCH8+SACCH8
Combined channel combination BCCH + CCCH + SDCCH4 + SACCH4
The channel combination pattern used us:

CELLS with single carrier:
Time slot 0 =BCCH+CCH+SDCCH4+SACCH4
Time slot 1-7 = TCH / FACCH + SACCH
2. CELLS with two carriers:
For BCCH carrier
Time slot 0 =BCCH+CCCH
Time slot 1-7 = TCH / FACCH + SACCH
For non-BCCH carrier
Time slot 0 = SDCCH8 +SACCH8
Time slots 1-7 = TCH / FACCH + SACCH

Chapter 5
Handoff
Or Handover

5. Introduction
American English tends to use the term handoff, and this is most commonly used within
some American organizations such as 3GPP2 and in American originated technologies
such as cdma-2000. In British English the term handover is more common, and is used
within international and European organizations such as ITU-T, IETF, ETSI and 3GPP,
and standardized within European originated standards such as GSM and UMTS. The
term handover is more common than handoff in academic research publications and
literature, while handoff is slightly more common within the IEEE and ANSI
organizations.
5.1 Purpose of handoff

In telecommunications there may be different reasons why a handover might be
conducted:
When the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering
the area covered by another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to
avoid call termination when the phone gets outside the range of the first cell.
When the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an
existing or new call from a phone, which is located in an area overlapped by
another cell, is transferred to that cell in order to free-up some capacity in the first
cell for other users, who can only be connected to that cell;
In non-CDMA networks when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered
by another phone using the same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred
to a different channel in the same cell or to a different channel in another cell in
order to avoid the interference;

In CDMA networks a soft handoff (see further down) may be induced in order to
reduce the interference to a smaller neighboring cell due to the "near-far" effect
even when the phone still has an excellent connection to its current cell;
5.2 Classification of Handoff
Inter-cell handover
Intra-cell handover
5.2.1 Inter-cell handover
The most basic form of handover is when a phone call in progress is redirected from its
current cell (called source) and its used channel in that cell to a new cell (called target)
and a new channel. In terrestrial networks the source and the target cells may be served
from two different cell sites or from one and the same cell site (in the latter case the two
cells are usually referred to as two sectors on that cell site). Such a handover, in which the
source and the target are different cells (even if they are on the same cell site), is called
inter-cell handover. The purpose of inter-cell handover is to maintain the call as the
subscriber is moving out of the area covered by the source cell and entering the area of
the target cell.
5.2.2 Intra-cell handover
A special case is possible, in which the source and the target are one and the same cell
and only the used channel is changed during the handover. Such a handover, in which the
cell is not changed, is called intra-cell handover. The purpose of intra-cell handover is to
change one channel, which may be interfered, or fading with a new clearer or less fading
channel.
In addition to above qualification there are another two types of handoff which are
explained bellow:-
Hard handover
Soft handover

5.2.3 Hard handoff

A hard handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is released and only then
the channel in the target cell is engaged. Thus the connection to the source is broken
before the connection to the target is madefor this reason such handovers are also
known as break-before-make. Hard handovers are intended to be instantaneous in order
to minimize the disruption to the call. A hard handovers is perceived by network
engineers as an event during the call.
5.2.4 Soft handover

A soft handover is one in which the channel in the source cell is retained and used for a
while in parallel with the channel in the target cell. In this case the connection to the
target is established before the connection to the source is broken, hence this handovers is
called make-before-break. The interval, during which the two connections are used in
parallel, may be brief or substantial. For this reason the soft handovers is perceived by
network engineers as a state of the call, rather than a brief event. A soft handovers may
involve using connections to more than two cells, e.g. connections to three, four or more
cells can be maintained by one phone at the same time. When a call is in a state of soft
handovers the signal of the best of all used channels can be utilized for the call at a given
moment or all the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal. The
latter is more advantageous, and when such combining is performed both in the downlink
(forward link) and the uplink (reverse link) the handover is termed as softer. Softer
handovers are possible when the cells involved in the handovers have a single cell site .

5.3 Advantages and Disadvantage of soft and hard handoff or handover
Advantages of hard handoff

1. The hard handover is that at any moment in time one call uses only one
channel. The hard handover event is indeed very short and usually is not
perceptible by the user. In the old analog systems it could be heard as a
click or a very short beep, in digital systems it is unnoticeable.
2. Hard handoff is that the phone's hardware does not need to be capable of
receiving two or more channels in parallel, which makes it cheaper and
simpler.
Disadvantage of hard handoff
A disadvantage is that if a handover fails the call may be temporarily disrupted

or even terminated abnormally. Technologies, which utilize hard handovers,
usually have procedures which can re-establish the connection to the source
cell if the connection to the target cell cannot be made. However re-
establishing this connection may not always be possible (in which case the call
will be terminated) and even when possible the procedure may cause a
temporary interruption to the call.
Advantages of soft handoff
1. The soft handovers is that the connection to the source cell is broken only when a
reliable connection to the target cell has been established and therefore the
chances that the call will be terminated abnormally due to a failed handovers are
lower.
2. Simultaneously channels in multiple cells are maintained and the call could only
fail if all of the channels are interfered or fade at the same time. Fading and

interference in different channels are unrelated and therefore the probability of

them taking place at one the same moment in all channels is very low. Thus the
reliability of the connection becomes higher when the call is in a soft
handover. This advantage comes at the cost of more complex hardware in the
phone, which must be capable of processing several channels in parallel.
3. Soft handovers is use of several channels in the network to support just a single
call. This reduces the number of remaining free channels and thus reduces the
capacity of the network. By adjusting the duration of soft handovers and the size
of the areas, in which they occur, the network engineers can balance the benefit of
extra call reliability against the price of reduced capacity.

Chapter 6
Cells
And Transmission
Problems

6. Introduction of Cell
Area covered by the BTS which transmits and receives signals on Radio Channels Cell
provides the complete coverage for the designed area. Each cell is allocated a number of
Radio Channels. The MS and BTS communicate over these radio channels. Cell is
identified by a number called CGI Cell Global Identification
6.1 Different types of cell

Macro Cells
Micro Cells
Selective Cells
Umbrella Cells
Macro Cell:
Large cells for remotely and scarcely populated area.
Micro Cell:
Cells used in densely populated areas Area is divided into smaller cells hence number of
channels are increased. Capacity is also increased Power level is decreased, thus reducing
interference.
Selective Cell:
Used to define a cell with full coverage. Cells with particular coverage and shape such as
a tunnel are called selective cells.
Umbrella Cell:
An umbrella cell covers several small micro cells Power level of Umbrella Cell is kept
high compared to micro cells forming the umbrella cell. Umbrella cell thus handles high

speed mobiles reducing internal handovers Mobile thus stays longer within the same
Umbrella Cell
6.2 Transmission Problems
In radio communication the transmission quality varies from one place to another.
Two major factors affecting quality of transmission are:
Distance between transmitter and receiver
Reflections or obstructions due to man made or natural structures
General Transmission problems affecting Transmission Quality:

Path Loss
Shadowing
Multi path Fading
6.2.1 Path Loss

As we move away from Base station the signal strength decreases
This decrease in strength is called PATH LOSS.
Power Loss directly proportional to d^2f^2
Whered is the distance from the BTS
f is the frequency
Thus power decreases with distance and frequency. But in the cellular system, due to the
presence of Base Station this problem does not occur as a new transmission path is
established before the previous is broken
6.2.2 Shadowing
More often we observe hills, trees and buildings between MS and the BTS
This environmental attenuation of radio signal is called SHADOWING. Thus signal
strength increases or decreases depending on the presence of obstacles between the Tx
and Rx antenna. Thus a mobile subscriber experiences both PATH LOSS and
SHADOWING

6.2.3 Multipath Fading

Signal transmitted by a BTS may be interfered by:
Trees
Building
Hills
Other vehicles
This produces more than one path between the BTS and MS.Thus some signals may
be cancelled which reduces the signal strength.

Chapter 7
Air interface and

Antenna

7. Introduction to Air Interface

The Air Interface carries the Radio Waves. The Um interface is the interface between the
MS and the BTS. Voice is modulated on a radio frequency carrier and transmitted on the
Air Interface. The frequency used in GSM is in UHF range i.e. 30 -3000 MHz. Ultra high
frequency radio waves are typically generated by oscillating charges on a transmitting
antenna. In the case of a radio station, the antenna is often simply a long wire (a dipole)
fed by an alternating voltage/current source, that is, charge is placed on the antenna by the
alternating voltage source. We can think of the electric field as being disturbances sent
out by the dipole source and the frequency of the oscillating electric field (the
electromagnetic wave) is the same as the frequency of the source.
Each antenna has a
unique radiation pattern. This pattern can be represented graphically by plotting the
received time-averaged power, as a function of angle with respect to the direction of
maximum power in a log-polar diagram. The pattern is representative of the performance
of the antenna in a test environment. However, it only applies to the free-space
environment in which the test measurement takes place. Upon installation, the pattern
becomes more complex, due to the extra factors affecting propagation under field
conditions. Thus, the real effectiveness of any antenna is measured in the field.

7.1 Antenna Basics
An antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated

electromagnetic waves. There are several important antenna characteristics that should be
considered when choosing an antenna for your application as follows:
i. Antenna radiation patterns
ii. Power Gain
iii. Directivity
iv. Polarization
Antenna Radiation Patterns
An antenna radiation pattern is a 3-D plot of its radiation far from the source. Antenna
radiation patterns usually take two forms, the elevation pattern and the azimuth pattern.
The elevation pattern is a graph of the energy radiated from the antenna looking at it from
the side as can be seen in Figure (a). The azimuth pattern is a graph of the energy radiated
from the antenna as if you were looking at it from directly above the antenna as shown in
fig (b). When you combine the two graphs you have a 3-D representation of how energy
is radiated from the antenna as shown in fig (c)

Power Gain
The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the power input to the antenna to the power
output from the antenna. This gain is most often referred to with the units of dBi, which is
logarithmic gain relative to an isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna has a perfect
spherical radiation pattern and a linear gain of one.
Gain (with reference to the isotropic radiator dBi) = Gain (with reference to /2-Dipole
dBd) + 2.15 dB
Directivity
The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power
in a particular direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated
power in a given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to
the average radiation intensity.
Polarization
Polarization is the orientation of electromagnetic waves far from the source. There are

several types of polarization that apply to antennas. They are Linear, which comprises,
Vertical, Horizontal and Oblique, and circular, which comprises, Circular Right Hand
(RHCP); Circular Left Hand (LHCP), Elliptical Right Hand and Elliptical Left Hand.
Polarization is most important to get the maximum performance from the antennas. For
best performance the polarization of the transmitting antenna should be matched to that of
the receiving antenna.
Half-Power-Beam-Width
This term defines the aperture of the antenna. The HPBW is defined by the points in the
horizontal and vertical diagram, which show where the radiated power has reached half
the amplitude of the main radiation direction. These points are also called 3 dB points.

VSWR
An impedance of exactly 75 Ohm can only be practically achieved at one frequency. The
power delivered from the transmitter can no longer be radiated without loss because of
this incorrect compensation. Part of this power is reflected at the antenna and is returned
to the transmitter the forward and return power forms a standing wave with corresponding
voltage minima and maxima (Umin/Umax). This wave ratio (Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio) defines the level of compensation of the antenna.
A VSWR of 1.5 is standard within mobile communications. In this case the real
component of the complex impedance may vary between the following values:
Maximum Value: 50 Ohms x 1.5 = 75 Ohms
Minimum Value: 50 Ohms: 1, 5 = 33 Ohms
VSWR= [1+ (Reflection Coefficient)]/[1-(Reflection Coefficient)]
Since Reflection Coefficient is the magnitude of ratio of the V (Reflected)/V
(Transmitted), its value is always>= 0.
The above implies that VSWR is always >= 1
Ideally, VSWR should be = 1, when Reflection Coeffient is equal to 0, i.e. no signal is
being reflected which is practically not possible.
7.2 Different types of Antenna
Different antennas and their comparison:

7.3 Antenna Tilting
Antenna down tilting
The problem often faced is that the base station antenna provides an over coverage.
If the overlapping area between two cells is too large, increased switching between the
base stations (handover) occurs. There may even be interference of a neighbouring cell
with the same frequency. Down tilting the antenna limits the range by reducing the field
strength in the horizon. Antenna down tilting is the downward tilt of the vertical pattern
towards the ground by a fixed angle measured w.r.t the horizon. with appropriate
downtilt, the received signal strength within the cell improves due to the placement of the
main lobe within the cell radius and falls off in regions approaching the cell boundary and
towards the reuse cell.
There are two methods of downtilting
Mechanical downtilting
Electrical downtilting.

7.3.1 Mechanical down tilting
It consists of physically rotating an antenna downward about an axis from its vertical
position. In a mechanical downtilt as the front lobe moves downward the back lobe
moves upwards. This is one of the potential drawbacks as compared to the electrical
downtilt because coverage behind the antenna can be negatively affected as the back
lobe rises above the horizon. Additionally, mechanical downtilt does not change the
gain of the antenna at +/- 90deg from antenna horizon.

7.3.2Electrical down tilting
Electrical down tilt uses a phase taper in the antenna array to angle the pattern
downwards. This allows the the antenna to be mounted vertically. Electrical downtilt
affects both front and back lobes. If the front lobe is down tilted the back lobe is also
down tilted by equal amount. Electrical downtilting also reduces the gain equally at
all angles on the horizon. .


Chapter 8
Introduction of RF
Optimization
8. INTRODUCTION
Every alive network needs to be under continues control to maintain/improve
the performance. Optimization is basically the only way to keep track of the
network by looking deep into statistics and collecting/analyzing drive test data. It is
keeping an eye on its growth and modifying it for the future capacity enhancements. It
also helps operation and maintenance for troubleshooting purposes.
8.1 RF OPTIMIZATION

GSM network consist of different cells and each cell transmit signals to and receive
signals from the mobile station, for proper working of base station many parameters
are defined before functioning the base station such as the coverage area of a cell
depends on different factors including the transmitting power of the base station,
obstructing buildings in cells, height of the base station and location of base
station etc.The Drive Test (DT) perform in RF optimization GSM network to assure the
availability, integrity, & reliability of the network
.
8.2 Basic Block Diagram of RF Optimization

RF Optimization of GSM network can be done by performing the Drive Test

(DT). Before DT we check the azimuth and Tilt of the antennas mounted on the tower.
In DT, first we locate the site then we connect the TEMS, GPS with PC and start
Software TEMS 6.0. Then we make slogs of the following: TRX, in this we make
20 calls at each section of 20 seconds, the next log is INETR, and we make long drive for
testing hand over to adjacent BTS and coverage. The other log is INTRA, in this we
make round a circle clockwise and counter clock wise to the BTS and check the
handovers between the adjacent cells. In last, we make log of GPRS, in this RF Engineer
checking the GPRS service in all BTS cells.
8.3 RF Optimization Methodology
Hardware Analysis
Analysis of potential hardware problems in the network not detected
by normal fault management methods.
Performance Statistics
Analysis of performance statistics, with standard graphical information sheet for
each cell.
Analysis of potential hardware problem in the network not detected by normal
fault management methods.
Call Trace Analysis
Detects problems with antenna tilts.
Detects problems with Base Transceiver Subsystem (BTS) output power.
Frequency Planning Optimization
Re-definition of handovers and assigned frequencies.
8.4 Objective of Optimization Procedure

To check whether the network meets the customers given requirements, on the
basis of which network was designed.
To check whether the parameters and configurations are defined correctly or not.
To find out and suggest changes in the defined parameters and configurations to
achieve best possible quality of service.
Successful Optimization requires:

Recognition and understanding of common reasons for call failure
Capture of RF and digital parameters of the call prior to drop
Analysis of call flow, checking messages on both forward and reverse links to
establish what happened, where, and why.
Optimization will be more effective and successful if you are aware
of what you are doing. The point is that you should now where to start, what
to do and how to do.
8.5 Purpose and Scope of Optimization
The optimization is to intend providing the best network quality using

available spectrum as efficiently as possible. The scope will consist all below;
Finding and correcting any existing problems after site
implementation and integration
Meeting the network quality criteria agreed in the contract.
Optimization will be continuous and iterative process of improving
overall network quality.
Optimization can not reduce the performance of the rest of the network.
Area of interest is divided in smaller areas called clusters to make
optimization and follow up processes easier to handle.
8.6 Optimization Process

Optimization process can be explained by below step by step description:
Problem Analysis
Analyzing performance retrieve tool reports and statistics for the
worst performing BSCs and/or Sites
Viewing ARQ Reports for BSC/Site performance trends
Examining Planning tool Coverage predictions
Analyzing previous drive test data
Discussions with local engineers to prioritize problems
Checking Customer Complaints reported to local engineers
Checks Prior to Action

Cluster definitions by investigating BSC borders, main cities, freeways,

major roads
Investigating customer distribution, customer habits (voice/data usage)
Running specific traces on Network to categorize problems
Running specific traces on Network to categorize problems
Checking trouble ticket history for previous problems
Checking any fault reports to limit possible hardware problems prior to test
Quality of service can be characterized by factors such as contiguity of coverage,

accessibility to the network, speech quality and number of dropped and blocked
calls. A number of parameters are checked as a measure of quality of service by
using a drive test system.

Chapter 9
Drive Testing
System
9. Introduction of Drive Testing

Preparing Action Plan

Defining drive test routes
Collecting RSSI Log files
Scanning frequency spectrum for possible interference sources
Redriving questionable data
9.1 Optimization using Drive Test Tool
Drive test system comprises of a test mobile phone, software to control and log data from
the phone and a Global positioning system receiver for position information. A drive test
system can only indicate the type of problem in the network that exists, it doesnt indicate
cause of the problem but with the help of knowledge of possible reasons of a problem,
one can trace the cause. Following steps are taken to fulfill the objective of network
optimization using a drive test tool.
1. Collection of Data and extraction of relevant information from it.

2. Analysis of the extracted data.
3. Suggesting changes in the network configurations based on the analysis.
I. Collection of Data and extraction of relevant information:
Drive test involves setting up a call to best carrier and driving along the roads. While
driving the radio parameters and air interference signal data are collected as a log file. In
general following parameters are checked during the drive test for different categories of
terrains like dense urban, sub-urban, rural, highways and for different clutters like in
building, residential areas, commercial areas, industrial areas etc.
Information Checked through drive testing

1. Rx Level.
2. Rx Quality
3. Timing Advance
4. Handover parameters
5. Data of six best neighbor cells.
From the data collected various information can be extracted which depict the
performance of BTS sites and the network as a whole. Following information can be
extracted from this drive test data.
Information extracted from drive test data
1. Coverage edge probability

2. Coverage area probability
3. Speech quality
4. Neighbor cell definition details.
5. Handover details.
Edge Probability:
To get an idea of coverage area, coverage boundary of all the cells based on received
signal level (RXLEV), is obtained and is plotted over the geographical map of the area.
The coverage boundary of a cell is considered to be made up of equal received level
points on the field.
With the help of this coverage plot the edge probability or the
probability of getting a signal level better than a specific value over the boundary of all
cells is obtained which helps in determining the performance of the network with respect
to coverage boundary requirements given by the customer.
Area Probability:
The obtained signal levels from the cells at all the points of the network, are then used to
make, a best server plot. This best server plot is drawn by categorizing it on the basis of
in building coverage, in car coverage and on street coverage. These categories are defined
on the basis of the coverage area where a good quality conversation is required. The

details about threshold defined for these categories are discussed in coverage planning
report.
Speech Quality:
Speech quality is a very important aspect for determining the quality of service for whole
of the network. Speech quality is inferred by the RXQUAL measurements during the
drive test. RXQUAL, is the Bit error rate (BER) derived from the 26 bits midamble on
TDMA burst. Its level characterizes speech quality where 0 indicates the highest quality
and 7 the worst. Thus during drive test, poor quality areas can be found and marked by
looking over the quality on the scale of 0 to 7. RXQUAL can be poor due to poor
RXLEV, Co-channel interference, adjacent channel interference or multipath. RXQUAL
is measured and tested for all the categories of clutter and terrain.
Neighbor cells definition details:

With the help of collected data 6 best serving neighbors of all the cells can be determined.
The drive test window of the antenna system gives details of 6 best neighbors at an
instance.
Handover details:
There are certain other very important parameters which has to be checked during drive
test as these parameters directly reflects on the performance of the network, like handover
margin, handover threshold, values of handover timers, offset and penalty for the
handovers.
With a call established, and measuring on the cell edge, we can display the
phone measurements of serving and neighbor cells. The difference between the RXLEV
of the server and that of neighbors can be monitored on the amplitude and time scale. At
some point on the drive-test route, one of the neighbors RXLEV will become stronger
than the servers signal level and when this difference of the two exceeds the handover
margin, for at least a timing set in the handover required counter in BSS, a handover
will occur. Thus by simultaneously monitoring RXQUAL during the handover, the value

of the handover margin can be determined and a decision can be made whether that value
is appropriate for the quality of service desired.
II. Analysis of extracted data:

The information extracted from the collected data is then analyzed to compare it with the
agreed benchmarks related to coverage, quality, handover success rate etc and is used to
infer the cause of the deviation from given requirements and set benchmarks. It is also
used to infer cause of detected problem in the network if there is any.
There are special coverage requirement which are discussed in coverage planning report
under special coverage category these specific coverage requirements are matched to
find out whether the requirement of customer is taken care of or not.
RXQUAL is also matched with the given requirement. If RXQUAL is poor and RXLEV
is sufficiently good it can reasonably be deducted that the cause is interference. Generally
a test frequency which has no adjacent or Co channel present in that area is used to find
out if interference is because of multipath. If it is not because of multipath then spectrum
analyzer can be used to find out whether it is adjacent channel interference or it can be
deducted that it is Co channel interference.
III. Suggesting changes in the network configurations based on

the analysis:
After detection of the causes of the deviation from the requirement or network related
problems, measures are taken to improve the performance of the network and to match
customers requirement.
Network performance can be influenced by the network parameters. The configuration

parameters can be divided into two groups hard configuration and soft configuration,
depending on the type of control and action required to modify them.
i. Hard configuration
ii. Soft Configuration

I. Hard Configuration:
The hard configuration parameters are aspects of base station configuration and include
antenna type, antenna gain, antenna orientation, and effective height of antenna radiation
centre, use of space diversity, antenna feeder loss and effective isotropic radiated power
(EIRP).
Changes in this configuration are made to meet the requirements and to deal with the
analyzed problems. For an example if certain area is affected by interference resulting in
poor quality then one of the way to reduce interference level is by shrinking the coverage
area. Shrinking of coverage area can be achieved by reducing EIRP that is by replacing
the existing antenna with a lower gain or narrower horizontal beam width antenna system
and by reducing transmitted power under limitation of not loosing the link balance. Most
effective solution used to shrink coverage area is by increasing antenna down tilt and/or
reducing antenna height. Similarly to improve coverage in certain areas the transmitted
power of BTS can be changed, antennas with different gain or beam width can be used
and the height of antenna system can be changed.
For further specific coverage and quality requirements Pico or micro cells can be
installed inside the residential places, commercial buildings, stadiums and car parks etc.
A Pico cell is nothing but a cell with very low EIRP in comparison to a Macro Cell. Note
that the neighbor list for these Pico cells is defined differently than that for normal Macro
cells. Micro cell has also got lesser coverage area than that of Macro cells.
Repeaters can also be used for providing coverage to specific areas. There can be
Channel selective or Band selective Repeaters where band selective repeaters amplifies
the whole GSM band and transmit it towards the area required to be covered while
channel selective repeaters receive power from selected channels of one or more than one
parent cells, amplify it and direct it towards the area required to be covered. In the similar
way if capacity requirement of certain area is more, then the coverage of a cell is needed
to be compressed by any of the means discussed above so that it may cater to lesser
number of customers.

II. Soft Configuration
Soft Configurations: Other parts of the system can be controlled with soft parameters.
These affect operation of algorithms within the system, and include categories such as
common BTS parameters, cell access parameters etc. GSM defines around 150 soft
parameters. For an example if it is found from the BSS statistics details that excessive
handovers hence more utilization of resources is taking place then reduction of overlap of
the cell coverage areas can avoid them.
Defined BSICs for the cells especially for cells transmitting same frequencies are set to
be different otherwise lot of unsuccessful handovers will take place. Even then, if it is
found that number of unsuccessful handover is high then redefining the neighbor list in
BSS can control it. Several neighbors for a serving cell can be defined in GSM. Usually,
we want a handover to be made to the strongest neighbor, but in some cases frequent
handovers to this best neighbor can result in congestion in this cell, affecting the users
initiating calls from that cell. The situation can also occur in reverse, when a handover
required to the best neighbor can result in a rejection due to unavailability of resources,
causing the handover to be attempted to the next best neighbor, which can delay the
process and deteriorate the quality further. Under certain circumstances, we may need to
remove a potential neighbor from the neighbor list and provide alternatives.
Optimization of the network using drive test system is an iterative process thus after
deploying discussed changes in the network drive test is done again and mentioned steps
are repeated until required performance objective is fulfilled.
Drive test is very effective part of the optimization of the network but drive test data
is not very effective to find out some of the very specific problems their cause and
solutions to rectify them. For finding requirement of capacity, exact cause of handover
failures and reduced call success rate one has got to be dependent on statistics obtained
from the BSS. On the other hand drive test is the only medium with the help of which
users perspective of quality of service can be visualized hence simultaneous monitoring
of the BSS statistics and drive test data gives most practical and optimum cause and the
solution of a problem.

9.2 Subjects to Investigate

Nonworking sites/sectors or TRXs
Inactive Radio network features like frequency hopping
Disabled GPRS
C/I, C/A analysis, High Interference Spots Drop Calls
Capacity Problems
Other Interference Sources
Missing Neighbors
Oneway neighbors
PingPong Handovers
Not happening handovers
Accessibility and Retain ability of the Network
Equipment Performance
Faulty Installations g sites coverage overlaps

9.4 Performing the Drive Test (DT)
DT Order & Locating BTS

After successful installation of softwares now we check the DT order and go through
the specification of the BTS and then note the different specification in which we
find the BTS identification Code, Azimuth, Tilt and etc, as in the DT order BTS
location identity is define we note that BTS ID and then we locating the BTS premises by
using the Map Info software and each on that location.
On air the site for testing

After reaching at the BTS site the RF Engineer communicate with BSS Engineer
and check the azimuth and also check the tilting of mounted antenna on the BTS
for the conforming the angled at right coverage area. Then start the BTS system
and on air the site for RF Optimization testing and then start the Drive Test (DT).
Start the Drive Test (DT)

INTRA
In Intra RF Engineer perform drive test to check the handover of Intra cell in which
RF engineer observe the soft and hard handover between the cellss (DT) BTS. He
takes drive clockwise and counter clockwise of the BTS.
INTER
In Inter RF Engineer perform drive test to check the handover between the
neighboring BTS. He observe the soft and hard handover in idle and dedicate mode
between the defined neighbors and also check the SQI, Rx level, call establishing, call
drop, and coverage of the BTS up to the 9 KM in each cell of BTS.

TRX (Transceiver)
In TRX RF Engineer takes 20 calls of 20 seconds duration in the middle of the each cell
of the BTS. In this RF Engineer Analysis the HO (Handover), Hoping Frequency, C/I
(Carrier to Interface), SQI.
GPRS
In this RF Engineer check the GPRS service of the mobile service operator in each
cell at any location of the cell.
Junk
In this log RF engineer store the junk data which he take some pictures which
shows the reason of attenuation in the Rx level at any particular area such as large
buildings, mountain area, and etc.
Dropped Calls
There is a wide range of factors can result in that a subscriber fails to complete a
call satisfactorily. The only problem many subscribers will tolerate in a public network is
a busy tone from the called party. Unfortunately, reality does not always match
expectations when it comes to mobile network, which results in customers
complaining about poor performance of the service.

Chapter 10
Components used in
Drive Testing
System

10. Components used during drive test
Components and instruments:

1. GPS Device
2. laptop
3. TEMS 6.1 a software
4. Mobile
5. Compass
6. MapInfo software
The following equipments used in RF Optimization:-
LAPTOP
In RF Optimization the RF Engineer analysis all parameters during the drive

test and install all the software on the Laptop system.
GPS Device
This GPS device is also connected with the Laptop System with Map Info software
support it used for its basic operation to locate the position of BTS.
COMPASS
It is used to check the Tilt of the antennas mounted on the tower and RF
Engineer make sure the antennas is angled on the right position as it angle is mentioned in
the DT order.

MapInfo software
With the Map info the power of computer mapping is at your complete disposal. You can
display your data as bars, charts, points etc
1. .xls files with the required data and containing the latitude and longitude columns.
Make sure that no column is blank and the values of latitude and longitude are not
mixed
2. Save the text.xls file as .txt file say temp.txt
3. Open MapInfo software
4. Click on open button and select Text Files (Tab-delimited) i.e. .txt files. Locate
the test.txt file created and click on open. Select delimiter as tab and check titles
on the 1st row.
5. A table will be created in MapInfo.
6. Now from the menu select the option Create Points.
7. A box will open and it will ask for X and Y co-ordinates.
8. In the X co-ordinate column select the longitude column & in the Y co-
ordinate select the latitude column. Also select the desired symbol
9. Close MapInfo and open the .tab file created by it.
10. The Points given will be plotted on the map having the desired symbol which has
been already selected.
11. We can add layers also using the MapInfo tool.
12. Click on open and you can open Railways, Roadways etc.
13. Once opened you can change the layer properties by right clicking on it.
14. Hence, clutter can also be added in the similar way. We can manage different sites
shown according to the .xls file which are clearly plotted on the map and
frequency planning and other parameters can be managed.
15. LABELS can also be added by checking the labels box and clicking on the
label. Then the desired label can be selected from the dropdown box.
16. Click on Table Maintenance Table Structure. A dialog box appears showing
a list of fields with their name and type. Check the required boxes which you want
to make searchable.

Chapter 11
TEMs
Investigate Software

11.1 TEMS Information during DRIVE TESTING

Drive testing is the most common and maybe the best way to analyze Network
performance by means of coverage evaluation, system availability, network
capacity, network retainibility and call quality. Although it gives idea only on
downlink side of the process, it provides huge perspective to the service provider
about whats happening with a subscriber point of view.
The drive testing is basically collecting measurement data with a TEMS
phone, but the main concern is the analysis and evaluation part that is done after
completition of the test. Remember that you are always asked to perform a drive test
for not only showing the problems, but also explaining them and providing
useful recommendations to correct them.

11.2 Introduction to TEMS Investigate software

The information provided by TEMS is displayed in status windows. This information includes
cell identity, base station identity code, BCCH carrier ARFCN, mobile country
code, mobile network code and the location area code of the serving cell. There is also
information about RxLev, BSIC and ARFCN for up to six neighboring cells;
channel number(s), timeslot number, channel type and TDMA offset; channel mode, sub channel
number, hopping channel indication, mobile allocation index offset and hopping
sequence number of the dedicated channel; and RxLev, RxQual, FER, DTX down
link, TEMS Speech Quality Index (SQI), timing advance (TA), TX Power, radio
link timeout counter and C/A parameters for the radio environment.
The signal strength, RxQual, C/A, TA, TX Power, TEMS SQI and FER of the serving cell and
Signal strength for two of the neighboring cells can also be displayed graphically in a window.

Layer 2 and 3 messages and SMS cell broadcast messages are displayed in separate scrollable
Windows as can be seen in Figure 2. If desired, specific Layer 3 messages can be displayed. By
connecting an additional TEMS phone to a vacant serial port of the PC, data
from two networks can be monitored and logged at the same time. In this case, the data from the
second mobile phone is serving cell and neighboring cell data and radio environment parameters.
TEMS Investigation also can perform frequency scanning of all significant carrier frequencies.
The information presented is ARFCN, RxLev and, if successfully decoded, BSIC.
11.3 Idle Mode Behavior

A powered on mobile station (MS) that does not have a dedicated channel allocated is
defined as being in idle mode (see Figure 3). While in idle mode it is important that the
mobile is both able to access and be reached by the system. The idle mode behavior is
managed by the MS. It can be controlled by parameters which the MS receives from the
base station on the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH). All of the main controlling
parameters for idle mode behavior are transmitted on the BCCH carrier in each
cell. These parameters can be controlled on a per cell basis. Moreover, to be
able to access the system from anywhere in the network, regardless of where the MS
was powered on/off, it has to be able to select a specific GSM base
station, tune to its frequency and listen to the system information messages
transmitted in that cell. It must also be able to register its current location to the
network so that the network knows where to route incoming calls.
11.4 Wrong Selection and cell reselection

The PLMN selection mechanism, the cell selection and reselection algorithms in addition
to the location updating procedure are the core of the idle mode behavior.
The purpose is to always ensure that the mobile is camped on the cell where it has
the highest probability of successful communication. In idle mode the MS will notify the
network when it changes location area by the location updating procedure. Thus, the
network will be kept updated concerning which location area the MS is presently
in. When the system receives an incoming call it knows in which location
area it should page the MS, and does not need to page the MS throughout
the whole MSC service area. This reduces the load on the system. If the MS does not
respond to the first paging message, then the network can send a second paging message.
Sometimes MS does not camp on the best cell and needs to perform a cell reselection
process before initializing the call (see Figure 4). This could be related to
wrong Cell Reselection parameters like CRO Cell Reselect Offset, Cell
Reselect Hysteresis, Temporary Offset or Penalty Time used in C1C2 criteria
calculation.
11.5 Location Update

There are following steps for location update which are explained bellow:
The MS listens to the system information, compares the Location Area Identity
(LAI) to the one stored in the MS and detects whether it has entered a new
location area or is still in the same location area. If the broadcast LAI differs from
the one stored in the MS, the MS must perform a location update, type normal.
The MS sends a channel request message including the reason for the access.
Reasons other than location updating can be for example, answering a
page or emergency call.
The message received by the BTS is forwarded to the BSC. The

BSC allocates a signaling channel (SDCCH), if there is one idle, and tells the
BTS to activate it. The MS is now told to tune to the SDCCH. The outcome of the
procedure is that a radio resource connection is dedicated to the MS. The
procedure is therefore called RR connection establishment.
The MS sends a location updating request message which contains the identity of
the MS, the identity of the old location area and the type of updating. The
authentication parameter is sent to MS. In this case the MS is already registered in
this MSC/VLR and the authentication parameter used is stored in the VLR. If the
MS is not already registered in this MSC/VLR the appropriate HLR or the
previously used MSC/VLR must be contacted to retrieve MS
subscriber data and authentication parameters. MS sends an answer
calculated using the received authentication parameter.
If the authentication is successful, the VLR is updated. If needed, the old HLR and
old VLR are also updated. The MS receives an acceptance of the location
updating. The BTS is told to release the CCH MS is told to release the SDCCH
and switches to idle mode.

If the MS is moving in a border area between location areas, it might repeatedly

change between cells of different location areas. Each change of location area
would require a location updating to be performed, which would cause a heavy
signaling load and thereby also increasing the risk of paging messages being lost.
Cells bordering a different location area may have lots of location

updating, and cells on a highway probably have many handovers. In order to
calculate the need for SDCCHs the number of attempts for every procedure
that uses the SDCCH as well as the time that each procedure holds the
SDCCH must be taken into account. The procedures are; location updating,
periodic registrations, IMSI attach/detach, call setup, SMS, facsimile and
supplementary services.
Next step will be analyzing Call Setup process. Being the start
point and direct factor to accessibility of the network, call setup has great
importance in GSM performance. Some basic information on the procedure
will be given. As Layer 3 messages will be our reference point when
defining problems during log files analysis, they will also be
explained with their appearance order during and after call setup.
11.6 Call Setup

The cell selection algorithm tries to find the most suitable cell of the selected
PLMN according to various requirements. If no suitable cell is found and all
available and permitted PLMNs have been tried, the MS will try to camp on a cell
irrespective of PLMN identity and enter a limited service state. In this state
the MS will be able to make emergency calls only. If the MS loses
coverage it will return to the PLMN selection state and select another PLMN.
After a cell has been successfully selected, the MS will start the
cell reselection tasks. It will continuously make measurements on its
neighboring cells to initiate cell reselection if necessary. For multiband MSs the
strongest nonserving carriers may belong to different frequency bands. The MS
continuously monitors all neighboring BCCH carriers, as indicated by
the BA list, in addition to the BCCH carrier of the serving cell, to detect if it is
more suitable to camp on another cell. At least five received signal level
measurement samples are required for each defined neighboring cell. A
running average of the received signal level will be maintained for
each carrier in the BA list. Provided that the MS is listening to the system
information in the cell and that it is registered in the MSC/VLR handling this cell,
the MS can attempt to make a call.
First, radio connection between MS and network is established. Then MS

indicates that it wants to set up a call. The identity of the MS, IMSI, is analyzed
and the MS is marked as busy in the VLR. Authentication is performed as
described for location updating. Then ciphering is initiated. MSC receives a setup
message from the MS. This information includes what kind of service the MS
wants and the number (called the B number) dialed by the mobile subscriber.
MSC checks that the MS does not have services like barring of
outgoing calls activated. Barring can be activated either by the subscriber or
by the operator. If the MS is not barred, the setup of the call proceeds. Between
the MSC and the BSC a link is established and a PCM TS is seized. The MSC

sends a request to the BSC to assign a traffic channel (TCH). The BSC checks if
there is an idle TCH, assigns it to the call and tells the BTS to activate
the channel. The BTS sends an acknowledgment when the activation is
complete and then the BSC orders the MS to transfer to the TCH. The BSC
informs the MSC when the assignment is complete. The traffic
control subsystem analyzes the digits and sets up the connection to
the called subscriber. The call is connected through in the group
switch. An alert message is sent to the MS indicating that a ringing
tone has been generated on the other side. The ringing tone generated in the
exchange on the B subscriber side is sent to the MS via the group switch in MSC.
The ringing tone is sent over the air on the traffic channel.
When the B subscriber answers, the network sends a connect message to the MS
indicating that the call is accepted. The MS returns a connect acknowledgment,
which completes the call setup.
The following figure shows the call setup process on TEMS software:-

11.7 Coverage Problems

Low signal level is one of the biggest problems in a Network. The

coverage that a network operator can offer to customers mostly depends on efficiency
of network design and investment plans. This problem usually pops up when
building a new Network or as the number of subscribers increases by the time
resulting in new coverage demands. Low signal level can result in unwanted
situations that could directly lower the network performance. Poor coverage
problems are such problems that are really hard to solve, because it is impossible to
increase coverage by optimizing network parameters. Any hardware
configuration changes might improve the coverage a little.
Lets have a look at some different cases to poor coverage related problems.
11.7.1 Low Signal Level

11.7.2 Lack of Dominant Server

11.7.3 Sudden Appearance and disappearance of neighbor

11.7.4 Fat Moving Mobile

11.7.5 Sudden decrease on Signal Level

11.7.6 Stable Behavior

11.7.7 Same cell in neighbor list


11.7.8 Drop call due to bad coverage
11.7.9 RX levels of many cells are almost same

11.7.10 RX levels too closed to each other

11.8 Solutions to Low Level Problems

Possible solution ways can be listed as below:
New Site Proposal

Sector Addition
Repeater
Site Configuration Change (Antenna Type, height, azimuth, tilt changes)
Loss or Attenuation Check (Feeders, Connectors, Jumpers, etc..)
The best thing to do in case of low signal strength could be recommending new site
additions. A prediction tool with correct and detailed height and clutter
data supported with a reasonable propagation model could be used to identify the
best locations to put new sites. If client is not eager to put new sites because of high
costs to the budget or finds it unnecessary because of low demand on traffic, then
appropriate repeaters could be used to repeat signals and improve the
coverage. Adding repeaters always needs extra attention because they can bring extra
interference load to the network. The received level in the repeater should
be above 80dBm (or desired limits) so that it can be amplified and transmitted
again. The mobile should not receive both the original and the repeated signals
at the same area, cause signal from the repeater is always delayed and it
will interfere with the original signal. A repeater should not amplify frequencies
outside the wanted band.
If none of the above recommendations are accepted by the client, then cheaper and
easier ways should be followed. First things to be checked would be possible
attenuation on the cells. Faulty Feedersjumpersconnectors or other faulty
equipment, high combiner loss, reduced EIRP, decreased output power, the
orientations and types of antennas, unnecessary downtilts, existence of diversity and
height of the site should be deeply investigated. Putting higher gain antennas,
increasing output power, removing attenuations, changing antenna orientations
towards desired area, reducing downtilts, replacing faulty equipment or usage of
diversity gain could improve the coverage.
11.9 Quality Problems

Indicators collected from the network which give information about the speech quality
are:
Dropped calls due to bad quality

Call releases due to bad quality
Handover failures
Handover, quality controlled
Intracell handover, quality controlled
RXQUAL distribution
FER measurements/distributions
11.10 BER and FER

BER Bit error Rate
FER Frame Erasure Rate expressions:
The speech quality is degraded by high BER for the air interface. The BER and frame
erasure ratio (FER) are dependent on a number of factors such as fading and interference.
Therefore a good cell planning is needed to avoid cochannel interference, adjacent
channel interference, time dispersion and other types of radio interference. The BER and
FER caused by the radio network is the most important speech quality degradation factor.
The degradation can be minimized by using the radio network features DTX, Power
control and Frequency hopping. The handovers while moving from cell to cell will also
introduce a speech quality disturbance.

11.11 Bad Quality due to signal strength

11.12 C/I and C/A Aspect

Cochannel interference is the term used for interference in a cell caused
by carriers with the same frequency present in other cells. The GSM
specification states that the signal strength ratio, C/I, between the carrier, C, and the
interferer, I, must be larger than 9 dB. However it is generally recommended to use C/I
>12 dB as a planning criterion. If frequency hopping is implemented, it adds extra
diversity to the system corresponding to a margin of approximately 3 dB.
One must remember that interference does not only appear on the down link, but also on
the uplink. If interference on the downlink is experienced in one cell, there is a risk that
you would have this problem on the uplink well. Not in the same cell, but in the
interfering cell. However, downlink interference is normally a larger problem than uplink
interference.
C/I > 12 dB (without frequency hopping)

C/I > 9 dB (with frequency hopping)
C/A Aspect
The distance between adjacent frequencies on the uplink or the downlink is called
channel separation. The channel separation is 200 kHz, regardless of the standard
chosen from the ones mentioned above. This separation is needed to reduce
interference from one carrier to another neighboring frequency. Adjacent
carrier frequencies (i.e., frequencies shifted 200 kHz) with respect to the
carrier cannot be allowed to have too strong a signal strength either. Even though they are
at different frequencies, part of the signal can interfere with the wanted carriers
signal and cause quality problems. Adjacent frequencies must be avoided in
the same cell and preferably in neighboring cells as well.
The GSM specification states that the signal strength ratio, C/A, between the carrier and
the adjacent frequency interferer, A, must be larger than 9dB. However, adjacent
channel interference also degrades the sensitivity as well as the C/I performance.
During cell planning the aim should be to have C/A higher than 3 dB. C/A > 3
dB

11.13 C/A Interference

11.14 Drop Calls
If the radio link fails after the mobile sends the Service Connect Complete
Message then it is considered a dropped call. Dropped call analysis can
consume a considerable amount of time. Using good postprocessing analysis
tools, the root cause of some of the drops can be determined from mobile data alone.
However, there will be cases where the cause cannot be reliably
confirmed unless system data is also used.
Calls often drop when strong neighbors suddenly appear. When the
mobile is suddenly confronted with a strong new signal, or when the signal it is using
takes a sudden deep fade, it will have poor C /I o and high forward FER. The call will
drop unless it gets help quickly.
Using a post processing tool, display a map of the locations of dropped
calls that exhibit symptoms of poor coverage. Verify this type of drop is not occurring
in good coverage areas. If so, suspect and investigate hardware at the serving site.

11.14.1 General Reasons for Drop Calls are as follows:
Drop Call due to Low Signal Strength

Drop Call due to Missing Neighbor
Drop Call due to Bad RX Quality
Drop Call due to Nothappening Handover
Drop Call due to Interference
Radio Failures
Transcoder Failures.
BTS failures
Failures due to User Actions
Failures due to Radio Network Configuration Action
Channel Activation Failures During Call

11.14.2 Dropping call due to Locked calls

Chapter 12
Network Planning

12. Introduction
In Network Planning we should address the coverage and capacity requirement of area
considered, but also the sufficiently flexible to allow network expansion without major
change of existing sites.
12.1 Block Diagram of Network Planning and Optimization

12.2 Basic Model of Network Planning

12.3 Accuracy of cell planning

Depends on
Accuracy of propagation models
Resolution and accuracy of terrain data
Data bases
Often based on satellite images
Available from several companies
Measurements
When a new planning tool is used for first time in a new country, one needs to adjust
propagation models.
12.4 Parameters considered while Network Planning

Coverage Planning
Capacity Planning
Frequency Planning
Neighbour Planning
In Network Planning the main parameter is considered is Frequency Planning

In this we considered the 890 MHz -915 MHz (Uplink band) and 935 MHz 960 MHz
(Downlink band) and Channel Spacing is 200 KHz and Signal Bandwidth is 400 KHz
In Network planning following aspects to be considered
Propagation Data
Path Loss
Load Traffic data
Fade Margins
Demographic data

Vegetation Density
Bibliography
www.gsmworld.com
www.gsmarena.com
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com
http://www.topbits.com/gsm.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM
http://www.scribd.com
http://www.telecomspace.com
www.filespump.com

ABBREVATIONS
GSM- Global System for Mobile
TS- Teleservices
BS- Bearer Services
SS- Supplementary Services
SMS- Short Message Service
MSISDN- Mobile Station ISDN Number
IMSI- International Mobile Subscriber Identity
MSRN- Mobile Station Roaming Number
IMEI- International Mobile Station Equipment Identity
LAI- Location Area Identity
CGI- Cell Location Identity
BSIC- Base Station Identity Code
SS- The switching system
BSS- The base station system
OSS- The operation and support system
HLR- Home Location Register
VLR- Visitor Location Register
MSC- Mobile Switching Centre
AC- Authentication Centre
MS- Mobile Station
EIR- Equipment Identity Register
BCH- Broadcast Channels
CCCH- Common Control Channels
DCCH- Dedicated Control Channels
FCCH- Frequency Correction Channel

SCH- Synchronization Channel

PCH- Paging Channels
RACH- Random Access Channel
AGCH- Access Grant Channel
SDCCH- Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel
SACCH- Slow Associated Control Channel
FACCH- Fast Associated Control Channel
CBCH- Cell Broadcast Channel
VSWR- Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
DT- Drive Test
DTS- Drive Testing System
RxLEV- Received Signal Level
HO- Handover
TxLEV- Transmitted Signal Level


GSM Training Final Report

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

GSM Training Final Report

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING

And History of GSM

Department of E&C 1 2010

1.1 History of GSM

1.2 History of GSM Technology

Europeans quickly realized the disadvantages of each European country operating on

Department of E&C 2 2010

1.3 History of GSM in brief

1982: CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications)

1991: Commercial launch of the GSM service.

Department of E&C 3 2010

1.4 GSM Frequency Band

1.4.1 GSM-900 and GSM-1800

1.4.2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900

Department of E&C 4 2010

1.5 GSM Services

. The GSM services are grouped into three categories:

2. Bearer services (BS)

3. Supplementary services (SS)

1.5.2 Bearer Services

Department of E&C 5 2010

1.5.3 Supplementary Services

Some of the Supplementary Services are as follows:

1. Advice of charge:- This SS details the cost of a call in progress.

Department of E&C 6 2010

Department of E&C 7 2010

2. Classification of GSM IDENTITY NUMBER

Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

Location Area Identity (LAI)

.2.1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

The MSISDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in

NDC = National Destination Code

E.g. 919822012345 = 91 + 98 + 22 + 012345

Department of E&C 8 2010

2.2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

The IMSI is the information which uniquely identifies a subscriber in a GSM/PLMN.

The IMSI consists of three different parts:

MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits)

MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits)

MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (max 10 digits)

All networkrelated subscriber information is connected to the IMSI.

Department of E&C 9 2010

2.3 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

NDC = National Destination Code

e.g.: 91 + 98 + 22 + 005XXX where, 005XXX is sent by MSC.

00 is for Pune MSC, 20 is for Nagpur MSC, 10 is for Goa MSC.

Note: In this case, SN is the address to the serving MSC.

2.4 International Mobile station Equipment Identity (IMEI)

Department of E&C 10 2010

IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + sp

TAC = Type Approval Code (6 digits), determined by a central GSM body

FAC = Final Assembly Code (2 digits), identifies the manufacturer

sp = spare for future use (1 digit)

Where, 35 is for Nokia Handsets

According to the GSM specification, IMEI has the length of 15 digits.

2.5 Location Area Identity (LAI)

LAI is used for location updating of mobile subscribers.

LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC

2.6 Cell Global Identity (CGI)

Department of E&C 11 2010