SPECIAL VETERINARY

PATHOLOGY
Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

NECROPSY IN MAMMALS. Introduction. Methods of euthanasia. Necropsy report.

Necropsy technique. External inspection and examination of organs. Sampling for
histopathology.
Histology and Pathology. Veterinary Faculty. University of Murcia.

INTRODUCTION
Necropsy is defined as a postmortem visual examination in detail of the animal body. It is the
main source of Pathology and its aims are:
1. Provide information on diseases and determine the cause of death (Diagnostic value).
2. Determine the efficacy of treatments (Therapeutic value).
3. Control of zoonosis (Health value).
4. Help in teaching (Educational value).

The necropsy will be performed as soon as possible because the tissue destruction is
accentuated with the passage of the hours. The high temperature increases the phenomena of
autolysis and putrefaction. The body will be cooled if the autopsy cannot be done
immediately, but even so the thickness of the hair coat will prevent the rapid passage of the
cold. Never freeze!, because ice crystals destroy histological structures.

The necropsy can be performed anywhere, from a table or floor of a farm until
necropsy rooms conveniently equipped.

It is necessary to prepare the material for performing the technique and sampling
before starting the necropsy. Knife, scissors and saw is the essential instrumental, although
there are also a variety of tools: forceps, enterotome to examine the digestive, costotome to
cut ribs, electric saws to open the thoracic, pelvic and cranial cavities, spinal canal and bones.
We must not forget hemp thread for ligatures. Water is an essential element because you have
to wash organs and instruments and disinfect. The disinfectant solution is prepared before
necropsy.

SPECIAL VETERINARY
PATHOLOGY
Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

METHODS OF EUTHANASIA
Euthanasia of animals sometimes has to be practiced prior to necropsy, either for
diagnostic or research purposes.

Euthanasia will be performed with a humane method adapted to each species. There is
no an ideal method of euthanasia, the circumstances are that in each case will determine which
one is the best suited. In general, the method of euthanasia must be reliable, fast, secure,
simple and cheap, avoiding the appearance of artifacts that can mask lesions.

Stun or desensitization is a procedure that causes immediate loss of consciousness

which lasts until death. Sacrifice is the death by bleeding. Stun has to be made prior to
slaughter, to cause unconsciousness to avoid unnecessary suffering. The bleeding has to be
done before the animal recovers consciousness, and to be suitable, the animal must be
unconscious without cardiac paralysis. It is advisable to bleed the animals after euthanasia, not
only to produce death if the stunning method has not been effective, but to prevent widespread
congestion. It must be taken into account in the subsequent examination if the animal was
already dead and has not been bled.

The methods of euthanasia can be of two types, physical and chemical; the former may
be mechanical and electrical, while the latter are compounds administered by injection or
inhalation.

Physical methods
The mechanic physical methods, although are used in sanitation campaigns and
slaughterhouses, can be used in the necropsy room or in the field. Captive bolt pistol,
percussion and cervical dislocation belong to this type. The electronarcosis is an electric
physical method.

Captive bolt pistol. It is used in large and small ruminants, equines and pigs. It is a
metal piston that drills the skull and penetrates the brain tissue, causing an immediate
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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

desensitization. In large animals in placed on the frontal bone on the interfrontal suture, in the
hypothetical intersection of the lines between the medial angle of the eye and the base of the
opposite horn. In small ruminants with horns in placed in the nape.

Percussion. Is used in cattle, pigs and horses. It is a blunt piston causing a loss of
consciousness by concussion by hitting the skull. Causes an effective stun without bone
fracture.

Cervical dislocation / decapitation. It is the disarticulation of the skull and the first
cervical vertebra. Is used in rodents, rabbits and birds. There is pupils dilation, a sign of total
and irreversible insensibility.

Electronarcosis. It is the most used electric physical method. Is used in pigs and small
ruminants. Is applied by a clamp with two electrodes that are adhered to the skull to allow the
electric current passing through the brain, because if not, the animal will be paralyzed or
immobilized without losing consciousness. Wool must be eliminated and skin wet to improve
electrical contact. The time required for the animal to collapse is 2-3 seconds. The voltage
required is variable: 70-90 volts for finishing pigs, 110-120 volts for breeding pigs and 50-55
volts for small ruminants.

Chemical methods
Its use is recommended for euthanasia. They are administered by injection or
inhalation.

Injectable substances. The intravenous route is preferred for its easy implementation
and faster and less painful effect. The intracardiac route is recommended in comatose and in
shock animals, which is difficult to find a vein. A tranquilizer should be applied before when
is a wild, aggressive, excitable animal or may not be hold.

Some of the compounds used are:

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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

T-61. It is a mixture of three products, N-2-(m-methoxy-phenyl)-2-ethyl-butyl-(1)gamma-hydroxybutramide, methylene bis (cyclohexyl iodide trimethyl ammonium)
and tetracaine hydroxychloride.

Barbiturate (pentobarbital sodium).

Chloral hydrate.
Do not use other compounds that do not induce unconsciousness in the animal or
produce adverse reactions in animals as strychnine or curariform drugs (succinylcholine).

Substances by inhalation.
Chloroform and ether. Applicable to small mammals and birds. The animals are placed
in closed containers where they stay long enough or are applied directly in the mouth
and nostrils, through a suitable device.

Carbon dioxide. Is used in cats, laboratory animals and pigs. In pigs the concentration
must be greater than 70% (70-80%). Produces hypoxemia and posterior cerebral
hypoxia. The camera must be designed to prevent injuries and chest compression when
falling. Animals must be 30 seconds in the facility until the implementation of the gas.
They are subjected to the gas between 40 and 50 seconds and remain unconscious until
3 minutes.

The use of these methods of euthanasia can cause lesions in animals that must be taken
into account. Regarding physical methods, the captive bolt pistol produces skull fracture and
destruction of brain tissue. When hitting the ground, blood extravasation and hematomas can
be produced in contact zones. With electronarcosis the violent contraction of the muscles
causes vasoconstriction of superficial capillaries causing widespread congestion; if the
bleeding is not fast superficial petechiae can appear; hemorrhagic areas appear if the electric
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

current is too high or persistent, especially in the spine cord by rupture of vessels and the areas
where the operator touches the animal prior the application to handle it. In pigs there is also a
higher incidence of PSE (pale, soft and exudative) meats since there is greater metabolic
activity and an increased water exudation. Chemical injectable agents such as barbiturates,
and further T-61, originate pulmonary edema and generalized congestion.

DEATH OF THE ORGANISM

Is the disappearance of the cerebral and cardiopulmonary functions. In legal medicine
is considered the death of the organism after 20 minutes of flat electroencephalogram.

Signs of death
They are used to verify death from a practical standpoint.

Cadaveric rigidity (rigor mortis). It is a contractile reaction of antagonistic muscle

masses that occurs by the energy use of ATP existing in cells. Affects skeletal muscle
more than smooth muscle. Appears at 5-8 hours and disappears from 24 to 48 hours
after death, although it can anticipate its appearance in certain conditions (antemortem
violent exercise, low ambient temperature and cachectic states).

Cadaveric coldness (algor mortis). Is the temperature decrease after death, it appears
gradually as the temperature decreases at a rate of approximately 1 C / hour. Appears
from the first 1/2 hour to 24 hours.

Postmortem lividity (pallor mortis) and hipostatic congestion (livor mortis).

Postmortem lividity is due to insufficient blood supply to skin by a drop in the blood
pressure which forces the blood from the veins go back by gravity and store in the
dependent parts of the animal. These accumulations of blood originate cadaveric spots
(hipostatic congestion), reddening in organs that disappears to pressure. This

SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

phenomenon disappears within 4 hours postmortem. Hemolytic imbibition occur by

the hemolysis and autolysis of the vascular endothelium which do not disappear.

Cadaveric eye. Surface drying, corneal haze and decreased turgidity take place in the
eyeball. Appears from 6 to 8 hours after death.

NECROPSY REPORT
A report will be performed for each necropsy. This report consists of introduction,
anamnesis, description of gross pathologic findings and presumptive diagnosis. Additional
tests (microscopic, bacteriological, immunological, etc.) as well as recommendations to the
owner can be included to confirm the pathological diagnosis and etiology. The necropsy report
must include the date of issue and signature of the responsible veterinarian / veterinary
pathologist.

Introduction
The number of necropsy, date of completion, review of the animal (species, breed, sex,
age, coat, special marks, microchip / ear tag) and data of the animal owner data and
veterinarian of the case must be included.

Anamnesis
It is the clinical history of the disease. This part is important because it gives a clear
idea of organs or systems to study carefully and the need to use special techniques.

Description of the findings

The description of the findings and possible alterations of the organs will be detailed
and accurate. We describe the abnormal: we are pathologists no anatomists.

In the description of the organs, parameters such as location, size, weight, shape,
edges, outer surface (smooth, brilliant, transparent), background color and contrast and
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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

consistency are used. On cutting, surface, color, structure and if liquid is oozed and quality
and quantity must be recorded. We know that these parameters are specific to each organ and
can indicate whether there has been any alteration.

We must reflect the exact anatomical location when a lesion is described (lobe and
side of organ where it is, if it is in the capsule or parenchyma) and if the lesion projects on the
surface or not.

In a detailed description of the lesions, the surface is expressed in centimeters, the

weight in grams and liquids in cm3. Although comparisons can be made with the size and
shape of common objects known as chickpeas or lentils. It is advisable to give accurate
measurements. There are exceptions like the blunt cone-shaped heart with hypertrophy. For
describing consistency terms such as viscous, pasty, friable, soft, firm, elastic, hard, very hard
and stony are used.

For filling up the necropsy report microscopic terms characteristics of histopathology

should not be used (i.e. inflammation by enlarged, purulent by whitish in color, hemorrhagic
by reddish in color, steatosis by yellowish in color). You should only describe what you see:
negative judgments do nothing and it takes time to write them.

All organs/systems that do not show evidence of lesions can be grouped to summarize
the report writing without apparent macroscopic alterations.

Special and supplementary exams

They are considered appropriated from the necropsy and the anamnesis, taking the
suitable samples.

Pathological diagnosis, etiological diagnosis and diagnosis of disease

It should be noted that the pathological diagnosis made after the completion of the
necropsy based on gross lesions is always a presumptive diagnosis and must be confirmed by
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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

the histopathological diagnosis (definitive pathological diagnosis) and the results of additional
tests (etiologic diagnosis), if any.

In the end, if possible, indicate the definitive diagnosis of disease and make a
discussion of the case, coordinating the clinical report with the pathological diagnosis and the
results of the special or additional tests.

Recommendations to the owner

According to the final diagnosis, the veterinarian responsible of the case could make
some recommendations and would be relevant in cases of infectious diseases.

NECROPSY TECHNIQUE
The necropsy technique is a procedure that allows open the different body cavities by
places offering less resistance, in order to extract the different organs and systems for their
examination. Continuity of organs and systems will be respected and two abnormally united
organs will not be separated until a careful study.

Before starting the necropsy, the general condition must be valued (weight loss,
wasting or cachexia), also possible postmortem changes which will give an idea of the time
that the animal is dead and an inspection of the skin (elasticity, possible alopecia or erosions,
changes in color, thickness and possible presence of ectoparasites), paying attention to the
interdigital skin and body orifices, that will be examined from the most rostral to the most
caudal (nasal cavity, oral cavity, ocular mucosa, external ear, prepuce, vulva and anus) noting
the possible presence of abnormal contents and mucosal abnormalities (color, moisture,
nodules, foreign bodies, etc.).

The body must be placed in supine position when small animal (dog, cat, goat, sheep,
rabbit, etc). In large animals (cow and horse) we will need a lift machine or gadget that allows

SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

us to fix the position. The right lateral decubitus position can be used in large animals because
it facilitates the removal of the gastrointestinal tract.

Skin removal and review of subcutaneous and superficial organs

A longitudinal incision in the skin is made in the midline from the chin to the back
edge of the pubis, avoiding navel, mammary gland, penis and existing scars. The skin is then
lifted in the cranial part from both sides, cutting the pectoral muscles, which allow us to stand
the front limb on the surface. After that the skin of the caudal half is lifted and the medial
muscles of the back limb are separated by dislocating the hip and allowing the lateral dropping
of the limb. In this way the body of the animal is stabilized. An incision is made on the inner
side of the limbs to the joints of the carpal and metacarpal skin to remove it.

In the subcutaneous tissue thickness is evaluated and postmortem signs as

subcutaneous emphysema, edema and changes in color are discarded. Muscle masses are
examined by deep cuts, assessing color, texture, general appearance, and the fascias, tendons
and insertions. Volume, weight, color and cut surface of glands such as thyroid and
parathyroid are observed. In lymph nodes and thymus volume and cutting surface (change in
color and consistency) are studied. Mammary gland (size, shape, consistency and
characteristics of milk, if in milk production) will be examined.

Opening and examination of joints

Externally the shape and volume must be examined; they will be opened by cutting the
medial and lateral ligaments and making an incision in the joint capsule. Internally the joint
surfaces must be smooth, shiny, whitish in color and synovial fluid must be shiny, stringy and
amber.

Extraction and examination of bone marrow and bone

For the collection and examination of bone marrow a long bone will be chosen, and
after removing the muscles it will be cut longitudinally into two equal halves with a saw.
Inside is the bone marrow that will be examined and depending on age will be more or less
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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

red and yellow. The bone wall must be examined to discard generalized bone diseases that
would force us to study other bones.

Opening, examination and removal of organs of abdominal cavity

It will be performed making a cut by the white line from the xiphoid process of the
sternum to the anterior border of the pubis, then two cuts will be made going along the edge of
the costal arches from the xiphoid process to the vertebrae.

After opening the abdominal cavity the position of the organs and the relationship
between them, situation and surface of the diaphragm will be observed. The presence of fluid
in the abdominal cavity can be evidenced in dependent areas by moving the digestive tract.
The exudate, rich in protein, coagulates on contact with air. The peritoneum will be examined
by observing the color, thickness and possible overgrowths.

The organs that are removed first are omentum and spleen. The omentum is detached
from their insertions with scissors or by soft traction. For removing the spleen the
neurovascular pedicle located in the center of the visceral surface is cut, but in the case of
small ruminants, will be detached from its attachment to the diaphragm by blunt dissection.

There are certain differences to extract the gastrointestinal package between ruminant
(polygastric) and horses, pigs and pets (monogastric). The extraction of the digestive tract in
ruminants is carried out in two stages, making double ligatures with an approximate distance
of 2 cm in cardia, pylorus and rectum (at the level of the apex of the bladder). After cutting
between the ligatures we have the stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) and
the intestine with the mesentery separated, proceeding to remove them. In monogastric are
extracted in one time making double ligatures in cardia and rectum. In horses, due to the large
volume of colon and cecum, the ascending colon and cecum are moved to the left, to make
room for maneuvering, then a double ligature is made in cardia and rectum, proceeding to the
co-extraction of the digestive system, although some authors suggest the removal in two
stages separating colon and cecum from the rest.
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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

When extracting the digestive tract we have to respect the hepatic lymph nodes, which
will be located in the portal hilum and adrenal glands that will be located near the kidneys.

The liver is the last organ that is removed from the abdominal cavity. It will be
performed by cutting the ligaments that attach it to the diaphragm and cava.

Opening of the oral cavity and removal of organs of the neck (trachea and esophagus)
The oral cavity is incised with two parallel cuts to the inner ramus of the jaw to cut the
side walls of it and to allow us to introduce the fingers and remove the tongue pulling back.
Subsequently the union with the soft palate is cut and we will reach the area of the hyoid
apparatus, carrying out its disarticulation between stilohyoid and keratohyoid bones on both
sides. Now, the superficial muscles of the neck will be removed to expose the trachea and
esophagus; and then the tongue is taken and raised to separate trachea and esophagus to the
chest entrance.

Opening, examination and removal of organs of the thoracic cavity

The lateral muscles of the chest wall are removed to uncover the costochondral
junctions since the thoracic cavity is opened through this area. Costochondral junctions on
both sides are cut from the first to the last rib, so that the sternum is left attached to the
diaphragm on one side. In large animals (horses and cattle), placed in lateral decubitus, an
entire chest wall is removed by two parasternal and paravertebral cuts.

After opening, the thoracic cavity is examined, noting its contents (liquid or gas),
position of the organs, possible adhesions between them and state of the parietal and visceral
pleura, contrasting changes in color, opacities, overgrowths or adhesions.

Afterwards the cardiorespiratory package (with tongue and esophagus) is removed by

traction and cutting of the roof of the thoracic cavity.

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SPECIAL VETERINARY
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

Opening, examination and removal of organs of the pelvic cavity

It aims is to remove the genital and urinary tracts together. First the existing
musculature of the pelvic floor will be removed, exposing the obturator foramens and pelvic
symphysis. With the help of a costotome, cuts in the cranial portions of the two holes, parallel
to the symphysis, in the center of the holes are made and two more in the caudal portions
converging toward the midline of the symphysis. Thus the pelvic floor is raised, leaving
enough space to extract the genito-urinary tract.

The kidneys are detached tearing with the finger the subperitoneal fascia. The adrenal
glands are located and can be examined in situ or extracting by removing the perirenal fat. The
ureters are visualized and the surrounding fat from the renal hilum to the urinary bladder is
removed. Cutting renal artery and vein and removing the fat we can find the kidneys, ureters
and bladder.

For females adhesions and ligaments connecting the genital tract to the pelvic cavity
are separated and extracted together with the urinary apparatus. For that the fat of the roof of
the pelvis is separated and we have to raise and pull back up to the skin, where a circle around
the anus and vulva is made, retiring in conjunction with the remaining portion of the rectum.
In males, scrotum and dartos are incised, and in caudo-rostral direction, testis, epididymis and
spermatic cord are separated, then the accessory glands after section of ischiouretral muscle
and urogenital fold, and all together are removed.

Opening, examination and removal of organs of the cranial cavity

To access the cranial cavity is necessary to separate the head from the neck by the
atlanto-occipital joint. Subsequently the head skin and musculature of the area of the temporal
and parietal bones are removed to expose the bone structure in these areas.

The opening of the cranial cavity is performed with a saw. Due to the location of the
brain the opening lines of this cavity varies according to the species in question. In small
ruminants and horses from the inner surface of both occipital condyles, rostrally to the
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

temporal crest at the base of the ear, it continues towards the zygomatic process of the frontal,
and finally the lines join behind the zygomatic process at the interfrontal suture. In small
ruminants with horns the cut toward the zygomatic apophysis will be behind them and will
join them making a triangle at the interfrontal suture. In carnivores the lines will be made as in
horses, although the junction between the lines of both sides is more rostral at the level of the
internal angle of the eye. In cattle the lines start from the internal face of the condyle to the
edge of the bone dowel, subsequently two oblique lines are drawn from the area of the dowel
to the zygomatic processes until the medial angle of the eye, connecting the lines of both eyes.
In pig also the line starts from the inside face of the condyles, with an angle of 45 towards the
temporal line of the parietal bone, subsequently two converging lines to the interfrontal suture
are made, before the medial angle of the eye, passing as a triangle by the next area of the
supraorbital holes of the frontal bone.

Afterwards the bone structure is removed exposing the brain covered with the dura
mater. Finally, for the removal of the brain, the dura mater between the cerebral hemispheres
and covering the cerebellum is cut; then the head is rotated 180 and the cranial nerves and
pituitary stalk (infundibulum) are cut.

In young animals, pigs and small ruminants, for opening the cranial cavity, a
longitudinal section along the midline of the head can be made, separating the dome into two
halves and removing the nervous system.

We have to make a sagittal section that divides the head into two equal halves in order
to expose nasal cavity to study the state of the nasal turbinates (possible parasites, tumor
masses, etc.). In pigs we can make a cross-section between 1-2 premolars to see the state of
the turbinates on suspicion of atrophic rhinitis.

Opening and examination of medullary canal. Removal and examination of the spinal
cord

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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

For the opening of the medullary canal we will remove the muscles of the upper part
between spinous and transverse processes, then the vertebral laminae will be cut on both sides
and the area of the spinous processes can be raised leaving the spinal canal exposed. We can
remove the spinal cord with forceps, after opening the dura mater and cutting the spinal
nerves.

We will analyze the content of the medullary canal and the color and consistency of
the spinal cord, and after making transverse sections we will observe the white and gray
matters relation and their symmetry.

Removal and examination of the eye

For eye enucleation, we separate the masseter and temporalis muscles, cut the
zygomatic arch and zygomatic process of the frontal from their origin and then dissect to the
optic nerve. We have to examine the volume and consistency of periorbital structures,
existence of neoplasms or other abnormality.

EXAMINATION (INSPECTION) OF INTERNAL ORGANS

The inspection of the internal organs is based on the division of membranous organs
(hollow organs) and parenchymal organs (solid organs) and the application of the parameters
discussed in the section of the necropsy report.

In a membranous organ, morphological variations of the serosa, wall, mucosa and

lumen content are inspected. In a parenchymal organ, the morphological changes in their
parietal and visceral surfaces, their edges and on cutting characteristics are studied.

The intestine is separated from the mesentery by the insertion, leaving the mesenteric
fat adjacent to the lymph node chain. Equally, the pancreas will be separated.

For internal examination of the stomach of monogastric it will be opened following the
greater curvature from the cardia to the pylorus; in ruminants starting by the cardia following
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

along the right lateral depression of the rumen to the bifurcation of the ruminal dorsal and
ventral sacs, then entering by the pylorus and following by the lesser curvature of the
abomasum, the greater curvature of the omasum and the greater curvature of the reticulum

The intestine is open on the opposite side to the junction of the mesentery to the
serosa; if we open it by the junction to the mesenteric fat we cannot see the edges properly. It
must be opened completely from the duodenum to the rectum. The intestine will be previously
spread out forming hairpins. The straight portions are opened and the curve portions left
without open. These not opened portions will remain not contaminated and unaltered and will
be chosen for sampling.

For external study of the kidneys, they must be decapsulated by making an incision on
the lateral edge from pole to pole and using forceps the capsule will be removed to the hilum,
observing if part of the organ surface is swept along with the capsule or not and the
characteristics of the surface. To complete the examination of the kidneys we must cut them
until divide them into two halves, observing cortex and medulla.

To examine the heart we must separate it from the respiratory tract. Before that we will
examine the pericardium and the pericardial cavity, in order to avoid leakage of its contents.
For that, the pericardium is held by the apex of the heart and an incision of 2 cm is made in its
apex to observe the cavity and possible content. After removing the pericardium the heart is
held and separated by cutting the large vascular trunks, respecting the atria.

For internal review cuts that allow us to rebuild it at any moment and expose the
maximum area for examination are performed. It is made following the blood circulation:
starting by the caudal cava vein, following by the right atrium, following parallel to the
interventricular septum and going out by the pulmonary artery; the left side will be opened
starting by the pulmonary vein passing to the left atrium, following to the left ventricle,
leaving the tip of the heart to the right of the scissors and going out by the aorta.

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Endocardial surfaces, atrial and ventricular stringing and atrioventricular and

semilunar valves will be observed, paying attention to changes in color and overgrowths. The
internal surface of the great vessels at their origin and the content of the heart are examined.

To examine the myocardium a sagittal section is performed in the interventricular

septum observing the surface. If ventricular hypertrophy or atrophy is suspect a transversal
section of the ventricles under the atrioventricular valves is made.

On inspection of the brain volume, color, consistency, weight, blood vessels and brain
slits (injected or not) are examined. For in-depth examination perpendicular sections to the
longitudinal fissure will be made, observing the ventricular cavities, their contents,
appropriate proportions of gray and white matters and absence of asymmetries.

SAMPLING FOR HISTOPATHOLOGY

Samples are taken from all organs, although the lesion is unique and remains confined
to a particular organ, as there are diseases that do not manifest gross lesions or go unnoticed
by our eyes.

We must include apparently damaged areas, adjacent areas with normal appearance
and transition areas. For capsulated organs we have to take the samples perpendicularly to the
capsule.

When samples of membranous organs are taken, as intestine or uterus, several

segments of approximately 3 cm in length and opened lengthwise are selected.

Very important!, the thickness of the samples submitted should not exceed 0.5 cm for
allowing the formalin to fix the samples before autolysis begins.

The samples should be placed into jar containing 10% formalin (one part of
formaldehyde at 35-40% and nine parts of water) and the volume of fixative will be 10 times
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Histologa y Anatoma Patolgica Veterinaria. Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia

higher than the sample introduced. Before placing the samples the jar should contain fixative
to prevent them from sticking to the bottom and do not get fixed.

If we have no formaldehyde the samples will be cooled and sent to the pathology
laboratory as soon as possible, avoiding desiccation. The samples never must be frozen
because freezing can cause ice crystals that disrupt the tissue structures and may obscure
lesions.

REFERENCES
ALUJA, A. S. 1985. Necropsia en animales domsticos. Ed. continental. Mxico.
ANDREWS, J. J., VAN ALSTINE, W. G., SCHWARTZ, K. J. 1990. Tcnicas de necropsia:
consideraciones bsicas sobre la necropsia de animales de consumo. Clnicas veterinarias de
norteamerica. Ed. Inter-Mdica S.A.I.C.I. Buenos Aires.
BLACKMORE, D. K. 1993. Euthanasia; not always. Australian Veterinary Journal. 70: 409413.
GZQUEZ, A. 1988. La necropsia en los mamferos domsticos. Ed. Interamericana. Madrid.
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