Hydropower

Since the early 20th century, the term has been used
almost exclusively in conjunction with the modern development of hydroelectric power. International institutions such as the World Bank view hydropower as a
means for economic development without adding substantial amounts of carbon to the atmosphere,[2] but dams
can have signicant negative social and environmental
impacts.[3]

1 History
The Three Gorges Dam in China; the hydroelectric dam is the
worlds largest power station by installed capacity.

Directly water-powered ore mill, late nineteenth century

Saint Anthony Falls, United States; hydropower was used here to
mill our.

In India, water wheels and watermills were built; in

Imperial Rome, water powered mills produced our from
grain, and were also used for sawing timber and stone;
in China, watermills were widely used since the Han dynasty. In China and the rest of the Far East, hydraulically
operated pot wheel pumps raised water into crop or irrigation canals.

Hydropower or water power (from the Greek: ,

water) is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed for
useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from
many kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable
energy source for irrigation and the operation of various
mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile
mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore
mills. A trompe, which produces compressed air from
falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance.

The power of a wave of water released from a tank was

used for extraction of metal ores in a method known as
hushing. The method was rst used at the Dolaucothi
Gold Mines in Wales from 75 AD onwards, but had been
developed in Spain at such mines as Las Mdulas. Hushing was also widely used in Britain in the Medieval and
[4]
In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for later periods to extract lead and tin ores. It later evolved
generating electricity. Cragside in Northumberland was into hydraulic mining when used during the California
the rst house powered by hydroelectricity in 1878[1] and Gold Rush.
the rst commercial hydroelectric power plant was built In the Middle Ages, Islamic mechanical engineer Alat Niagara Falls in 1879. In 1881, street lamps in the city Jazari described designs for 50 devices, many of them
of Niagara Falls were powered by hydropower.
water powered, in his book, The Book of Knowledge of
1

Ingenious Mechanical Devices, including clocks, a device

to serve wine, and ve devices to lift water from rivers
or pools, though three are animal-powered and one can
be powered by animal or water. These include an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered shadoof, and
a reciprocating device with hinged valves.[5]
In 1753, French engineer Bernard Forest de Blidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described verticaland horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. By the late nineteenth century, the electric generator was developed by a
team led by project managers and prominent pioneers of
renewable energy Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd
and could now be coupled with hydraulics.[6] The growing
demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well.[7]
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain,
water was the main source of power for new inventions
such as Richard Arkwright's water frame.[8] Although the
use of water power gave way to steam power in many of
the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the
18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such
as driving the bellows in small blast furnaces (e.g. the
Dy Furnace)[9] and gristmills, such as those built at Saint
Anthony Falls, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the
Mississippi River.

HYDROPOWER TYPES

Kingdom. A hydraulic power network was also developed in Geneva, Switzerland. The world-famous Jet
d'Eau was originally designed as the over-pressure relief
valve for the network.[11]

1.2 Compressed air hydro

See also: Trompe
Where there is a plentiful head of water it can be made to
generate compressed air directly without moving parts.
In these designs, a falling column of water is purposely
mixed with air bubbles generated through turbulence or
a venturi pressure reducer at the high level intake. This
is allowed to fall down a shaft into a subterranean, highroofed chamber where the now-compressed air separates
from the water and becomes trapped. The height of the
falling water column maintains compression of the air in
the top of the chamber, while an outlet, submerged below
the water level in the chamber allows water to ow back
to the surface at a lower level than the intake. A separate
outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the compressed
air. A facility on this principle was built on the Montreal
River at Ragged Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and
supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.[12]

In the 1830s, at the early peak in US canal-building, hydropower provided the energy to transport barge trac
up and down steep hills using inclined plane railroads.
2 Hydropower types
As railroads overtook canals for transportation, canal systems were modied and developed into hydropower systems; the history of Lowell, Massachusetts is a classic ex- Main article: Hydroelectricity
ample of commercial development and industrialization,
built upon the availability of water power.[10]
Hydropower is used primarily to generate electricity.
Technological advances had moved the open water wheel Broad categories include:
into an enclosed turbine or water motor. In 1848 James
B. Francis, while working as head engineer of Lowells
Locks and Canals company, improved on these designs
to create a turbine with 90% eciency. He applied scientic principles and testing methods to the problem of
turbine design. His mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed condent design of high eciency
turbines to exactly match a sites specic ow conditions.
The Francis reaction turbine is still in wide use today. In
the 1870s, deriving from uses in the California mining industry, Lester Allan Pelton developed the high eciency
Pelton wheel impulse turbine, which utilized hydropower
from the high head streams characteristic of the mountainous California interior.

1.1

Hydraulic power-pipe networks

Hydraulic power networks used pipes to carrying pressurized water and transmit mechanical power from the
source to end users. The power source was normally a
head of water, which could also be assisted by a pump.
These were extensive in Victorian cities in the United

Conventional hydroelectric, referring to hydroelectric dams.

Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity, which captures
the kinetic energy in rivers or streams, without a
large reservoir and sometimes without the use of
dams.
Small hydro projects are 10 megawatts or less and
often have no articial reservoirs.
Micro hydro projects provide a few kilowatts to a
few hundred kilowatts to isolated homes, villages,
or small industries.
Conduit hydroelectricity projects utilize water
which has already been diverted for use elsewhere;
in a municipal water system, for example.
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores water
pumped uphill into reservoirs during periods of low
demand to be released for generation when demand
is high or system generation is low.

3
A conventional dammed-hydro facility (hydroelec- metres per second squared and with a net head of 145 m
tric dam) is the most common type of hydroelectric (480 ft).
power generation.
In SI units:
Hongping Power station, in Hongping Town,
Shennongjia, has a design typical for small hydro stations in the western part of Chinas Hubei (W) Power = 0.85 1000 80 9.81 145
Province. Water comes from the mountain behind
In English units, the density is given in pounds per cubic
the station, through the black pipe seen in the photo
foot so acceleration due to gravity is inherent in the unit
Chief Joseph Dam near Bridgeport, Washington, of weight. A conversion factor is required to change from
U.S., is a major run-of-the-river station without a foot lbs/second to kilowatts:
sizeable reservoir.
(W) Power = 0.8562.528004801.356
Micro hydro in Northwest Vietnam
which gives 97 MW (130,000 horsepower)
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity the upper reservoir (Llyn Stwlan) and dam of the Ffestiniog
Pumped Storage Scheme in north Wales. The lower
power station has four water turbines which generate
360 megawatts (480,000 hp) of electricity within 60
seconds of the need arising.

Calculating the amount of available power

Operators of hydroelectric stations will compare the total

electrical energy produced with the theoretical potential
energy of the water passing through the turbine to calculate eciency. Procedures and denitions for calculation
of eciency are given in test codes such as ASME PTC
18 and IEC 60041. Field testing of turbines is used to validate the manufacturers guaranteed eciency. Detailed
calculation of the eciency of a hydropower turbine will
account for the head lost due to ow friction in the power
canal or penstock, rise in tail water level due to ow, the
location of the station and eect of varying gravity, the
temperature and barometric pressure of the air, the density of the water at ambient temperature, and the altitudes
above sea level of the forebay and tailbay. For precise
calculations, errors due to rounding and the number of
signicant digits of constants must be considered.

A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available

power. Power is a function of the hydraulic head and rate
of uid ow. The head is the energy per unit weight (or
unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the
dierence in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Some hydropower systems such as water wheels can draw
Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its power from the ow of a body of water without necessarweight times the head.
ily changing its height. In this case, the available power is
The power available from falling water can be calculated the kinetic energy of the owing water. Over-shot water
from the ow rate and density of water, the height of fall, wheels can eciently capture both types of energy.
and the local acceleration due to gravity. In SI units, the The water ow in a stream can vary widely from season
power is:
to season. Development of a hydropower site requires
analysis of ow records, sometimes spanning decades,
P = Qgh
to assess the reliable annual energy supply. Dams and
where
reservoirs provide a more dependable source of power
by smoothing seasonal changes in water ow. However
reservoirs have signicant environmental impact, as does
P is power in watts
alteration of naturally occurring stream ow. The design
is the dimensionless eciency of the turbine
of dams must also account for the worst-case, proba is the density of water in kilograms per cubic metre ble maximum ood that can be expected at the site; a
spillway is often included to bypass ood ows around
Q is the ow in cubic metres per second
the dam. A computer model of the hydraulic basin and
rainfall and snowfall records are used to predict the max g is the acceleration due to gravity
imum ood.
h is the height dierence between inlet and outlet in
metres

4 Hydropower sustainability

To illustrate, power is calculated for a turbine that

is 85% ecient, with water at 1000 kg/cubic metre As with other forms of economic activity, hydropower
(62.5 pounds/cubic foot) and a ow rate of 80 cubic- projects can have both a positive and a negative environmeters/second (2800 cubic-feet/second), gravity of 9.81 mental and social impact, because the construction of a

dam and power plant, along with the impounding of a

reservoir, creates certain social and physical changes.
A number of tools have been developed to assist projects.
Most new hydropower project must undergo an
Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. This
provides a base line understand of the pre project
conditions, estimates potential impacts and puts in place
management plans to avoid, mitigate, or compensate for
impacts.
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol is
another tool which can be used to promote and guide
more sustainable hydropower projects. It is a methodology used to audit the performance of a hydropower
project across more than twenty environmental, social,
technical and economic topics. A Protocol assessment
provides a rapid sustainability health check. It does not
replace an environmental and social impact assessment
(ESIA), which takes place over a much longer period of
time, usually as a mandatory regulatory requirement.[13]
The World Commission on Dams nal report describes a
framework for planning water and energy projects that is
intended to protect dam-aected people and the environment, and ensure that the benets from dams are more
equitably distributed.[14]
IFC's Environmental and Social Performance Standards
dene IFC clients responsibilities for managing their environmental and social risks.[15]

6 References
[1] Cragside Visitor Information. The National Trust. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
[2] Howard Schneider (8 May 2013). World Bank turns to
hydropower to square development with climate change.
The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
[3] Nikolaisen, Per-Ivar . "12 mega dams that changed the
world (in Norwegian)" In English Teknisk Ukeblad, 17
January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
[4] Hunt, Robert (1887). British Mining: A Treatise in the
History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future
Prospects of Metalliferous Mines of the United Kingdom
(2nd ed.). London: Crosby Lockwood and Co. p. 505.
Retrieved 2 May 2015.
[5] Al-Hassani, Salim. 800 Years Later: In Memory of AlJazari, A Genius Mechanical Engineer. Muslim Heritage.
The Foundation for Science, Technology, and Civilisation.
Retrieved 30 April 2015.
[6] History of Hydropower. US Department of Energy.
[7] Hydroelectric Power. Water Encyclopedia.
[8] Kreis, Steven (2001). The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England. The history guide. Retrieved 19 June
2010.

The World Banks safeguard policies are used by the Bank [9]
to help identify, avoid, and minimize harms to people and
the environment caused by investment projects.[16]
[10]
The Equator Principles is a risk management framework,
adopted by nancial institutions, for determining, as[11]
sessing and managing environmental and social risk in
[17]
projects.
[12]
Reservoirs accumulate plant material, which then decomposes, emitting methane in uneven bursts.[18][19][20]

See also
Deep water source cooling
Hydraulic ram
International Hydropower Association
Low head hydro power
Marine energy
Marine current power

REFERENCES

Gwynn, Osian. Dy Furnace. BBC Mid Wales History.

BBC. Retrieved 19 June 2010.
Waterpower in Lowell (PDF). University of Massachusetts. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
Jet d'eau (water fountain) on Geneva Tourism
Maynard, Frank (November 1910). Five thousand
horsepower from air bubbles. Popular Mechanics: 633.

[13] Hydropower Sustainability - Home.

hydrosustainability.org. Retrieved 2015-10-01.

www.

[14] Dams and Development Project. www.unep.org. Retrieved 2015-10-01.

[15] Environmental and Social Performance Standards and
Guidance Notes. www.ifc.org. Retrieved 2015-10-01.
[16] Safeguard Policies.
2015-10-01.

web.worldbank.org.

Retrieved

[17] Home. www.equator-principles.com. Retrieved 201510-01.

Osmotic power

[18] Hundreds of new dams could mean trouble for our climate. Science - AAAS. Retrieved 2016-10-11.

Ocean thermal energy conversion

[19] Empty citation (help)

Tidal power
Wave power

[20] http://bioscience.oxfordjournals.org/content/50/9/766.
full

External links
International Hydropower Association
International Centre for Hydropower (ICH) hydropower portal with links to numerous organizations related to hydropower worldwide
IEC TC 4: Hydraulic turbines (International Electrotechnical Commission - Technical Committee 4)
IEC TC 4 portal with access to scope, documents
and TC 4 website
Micro-hydro power, Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group. Retrieved 1
January 2005
Microhydropower Systems, US Department of Energy, Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy,
2005

8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

Hydropower Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower?oldid=749830603 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, BlckKnght, Rmhermen,

William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, Maury Markowitz, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Fred Bauder, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Tango, CesarB,
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8.2

Images

Xiiophen, Saul2003451, Simondavidhoward, Bradley 244, Qzd, CoconutPaste, Kaykay12345678910, Timlammc, Marianna251, KGirlTrucker81, ThatBEATER27, Mincraft420 Gaming, Maika.raine47, Chalisa jirutchok, Sameerai11, Athos Daniel Fernandes, Hadesisral
and Anonymous: 1091

8.2

Images

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Tkgd2007
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