Power Rectification

1. Introduction
Basic rectification is associated with the diode. This is not a controlled device, and it
only conducts when either the forward voltage exceeds about 0.6 V (Si) or conduction
through it is maintained by some other means. A suitable controlled device is the
thyristor or SCR which can be turned on or off by the application of an external
signal. The forward volt-drop and reverse leakage currents of the devices will be
ignored, and they will be considered as ideal switches. Also, any ancillary circuits to
control or protect the device will be omitted from the rectifier circuits. Equally, all
loads will be considered as having a predominantly inductive nature, as is appropriate
to most power electronic switching applications.

Fig. 1
2. Single-Phase Half-Wave (Uncontrolled) {See Figure 2}
At turn-on (i.e. when Vs goes +ve) the diode and hence load current will have a
transient response dependent on the relative values of L & R. Due to stored energy in
L, the current will be maintained through the diode even when Vs goes -ve.
Eventually, the current will decay to zero before the start of the next cycle when the
diode will turn off. This is the "discontinuous conduction mode" and is undesirable
due to the high harmonic content in the supply current, and from the point of view of
the load. Equally, the half-wave circuit is noticeably inefficient.
3. Freewheel Diodes {See Figure 3}
The addition of diode D2 permits load current to be continuous since, when Vs goes ve, D2 will be forward biased and can take up conduction from D1 which then turns
off. If L is large enough then the circuit will be in "continuous conduction mode". D2
is referred to as a "freewheel", "flyback" or "bypass" diode. Note that D1 and D2
cannot be on or off simultaneously. If the load is virtually totally inductive, then the
load current will be constant, and the supply (D1) current will consist of periodic
rectangular pulses, as will the current in D2. This assumption is often made in power
switching applications, but a judgement has to be made when considering any

individual specific circuits. Note also that the load voltage no longer goes -ve. The
circuit shown below with a freewheel diode is often known as a "half bridge".

Fig.2
NOTE: - for all circuits shown real components have been used in the
computer simulations of the circuits. In other words, the forward volt drops of
diodes and thyristors and their on-state resistances have not been ignored. For
the purposes of mathematical analysis, however, ideal devices can be assumed,
and this will be illustrated during the lecture programme. You are expected to
take your own notes, along with the associated waveforms, for the ideal cases.

Fig.3
4. Full-Wave Bridge (Uncontrolled) {See Figure 4}
By connecting a +ve half bridge to a -ve half bridge, full-wave rectification is
obtained as shown below. If the two supplies are identical, the anode of D1 can be
joined to the cathode of D3 producing the classic "bridge" connection. Note that this
circuit has greater utilisation of the supply, and that there will be no dc component in
the supply current, unlike the half bridge. This has ramifications if the supply is being
provided via a transformer, preventing dc magnetisation of the transformer core.
Since the full bridge is made from two half bridges complete with their freewheel
diodes, no additional diodes are required and the full bridge is capable of maintaining
continuous current mode if the load inductance is high enough.

Fig.4

5. Uncontrolled Rectifier Analysis

The usual parameter required will be the mean or dc value of the output voltage. This
can be obtained by integrating across one cycle of the input waveform. Thus show
that for the half and full bridges, the mean output voltage will be given by:Vs/ and 2.Vs/ respectively.
For the half wave without a freewheel diode, the mean voltage will obviously be
reduced to:Vs.(1 + cos )/2..
Current waveform analysis will depend on the nature of the load.
6. Controlled Rectification
The basic characteristics of the thyristor are:- (a) it can be turned on into its
conduction or "on state" by the application of a suitable gate signal; (b) once on and
conducting, the gate signal can be removed, and it will then behave like a diode; (c) it
can only be turned off into its "blocking state" when the current is reduced to zero
and, ideally, a reverse voltage applied to assist charge recovery during the "turn-off
time".
As for the uncontrolled circuits, the thyristor will be taken as a perfect switch, but
with the instant of switching "on" under external control. However, the instant of
turn-off will be determined by the current through the device decaying to zero, either
naturally or due to some other circuit taking up the load current. This is the process of
"commutation".

7. Controlled Half-Wave {See Figure 5}

Waveforms will be similar to those for the uncontrolled cases, with and without a
freewheel diode, except that the start of conduction can be delayed by the "firing
delay angle" (). However, with a highly inductive load and no freewheel diode, the
thyristor remains conducting. Addition of the diode prevents -ve load voltage but also
commutes the load current away from the thyristor and allows it to regain its blocking
state.
Show that the mean output voltage of the controlled half bridge (i.e. with a freewheel
diode) is given by:Vs.(1 + cos )/2.

Fig.5
8. Half-Controlled Full-Wave {See Figure 6}
Two thyristor half bridges (with commutating diodes) joined together create a "half
controlled" full wave bridge, since only two of the four "switches" are controlled. T1
can conduct via the load and D1 during +ve half cycles of the supply. During -ve half
cycles (with an inductive load) current will continue to flow in T1 but will be
commuted from D1 to D2. If T2 is now fired it can take up the load current and at the
same time place a reverse voltage across T1. Thus T1 will turn off and assume a
reverse blocking state. However, it is usual to provide a separate freewheel diode for a
preferential, parallel commutating path.

Fig.6

9. Fully-Controlled Full-Wave Bridge {See Figure 7}

All four "switches" are now able to be turned on externally. Pairs of thyristors (T1 &
T2 or T3 & T4) must be fired simultaneously to ensure conduction. If T1 and T2 are
conducting via an inductive load into the -ve half cycles of the supply, then when T3
and T4 are fired, they can take up the load and at the same time apply reverse voltage
to T1 and T2, so turning them off. If a freewheel diode is connected, then any -ve
voltages will be eliminated. If the delay angle is increased beyond 90 then the mean
load voltage will be -ve. However, current is still flowing into the circuit during the ve half cycles of the supply i.e. a net transfer of power into the supply! This is the
basis of inverter operation, ultimately allowing ac generation from dc.

Fig.7

10. Controlled Bridge Analysis

The magnitude of the mean output voltage will depend on whether a freewheel diode
is employed or not, and whether the load current is continuous or not. For the circuits
shown below, show that the mean output voltages will be:Vs.(1 + cos)/ and 2.Vs.(cos)/ when the current is continuous.

11. Dis-continuous Current mode

For the controlled half & full bridges in sections 8 and 9, the load current was
assumed to be continuous due to the highly inductive nature of the load. Under these
conditions natural commutation will occur at the next firing of the bridge, and any
conducting thyristors will be turned off without recourse to any auxiliary circuits.
If the load inductance is small then the load current can be dis-continuous and may
become zero before the next firing of the bridge. If the load is purely resistive, then
any conducting thyristors will naturally turn off when the current reaches zero at the
same time as the voltage. However, if there is some inductance present, then the
current will reach zero after a voltage zero. For this condition the conducting
thyristors will try to turn off naturally before the next firing of the bridge. Any
consequent di/dt and/or dv/dt produced by the sudden switching of an inductive
circuit could turn on the other half of the bridge, producing uncontrolled switching. In
this case turn-off snubbers will be required.
Circuits incorporating snubbers are shown in figures 8 and 9 of these notes. Note that
real components are in use in the simulation, and that there are consequent
oscillations in the output voltage during the turn-off interval.

Vout
0.1 uF

Iout

10 Ohms
a = 54 0
2N3670

10 Ohms

a = 2340
T2

T1

2N3670

120 V rms, 50 Hz
10 mH
D2

BA223

BA223

D1

HALF-CONTROLLED BRIDGE, DIS-CONTINUOUS CURRENT, WITH TURN-OFF SNUBBERS

Fig. 8

10

Fig. 9

11

12. Effect of Line Side Inductance

It will usually be necessary to supply the rectifier circuits via a transformer which will
exhibit leakage inductance. This "line-side" inductance will cause the main load
switches to continue conducting even when any freewheeling diodes or other
commutating elements are in operation. This inductance is often referred to as the
"commutating reactance", Xc, and the period in which two switches are conducting
simultaneously are known as "overlap".
In the single phase fully controlled bridge shown in Figure 9, when T3 and T4 are
fired, any line side inductance will keep the line current flowing in T1 and T2. Thus
during overlap, all four thyristors will be conducting.
Instead of instantaneous transfer of current, the current will decay in T1 and T2 and
rise in T3 and T4. Even if a freewheel diode is employed, the same effect will occur
between, say, T1 and T2, and the freewheel diode. The magnitude of the overlap will
be additive to any delay angle and will clearly effect the mean voltage level.
For the full controlled bridge during overlap, all the supply voltage will appear across
the line side inductance whilst the line current is changing from its maximum +ve
value to its maximum -ve value i.e. 2.Is. Thus for an overlap angle of u it can be
shown that the mean output voltage will be given by:Vs. [cos(a) + cos(a + u)]/

2.Vs/[ cos(a) - Xc.Is/Vs]

It is usual to assume, as stated before, that the load is highly inductive so that the load
current is constant and therefore the supply current consists of rectangular pulses.
The problem of overlap can apply to all power switching circuits when line side
inductance is present, and each circuit will need to be analysed on its own merits.
13. Converters with Active Loads
Examples of these might be battery chargers, or when a dc motor is being controlled
from a variable dc source. The resulting output waveform depends on the nature of
the load and whether the load current is continuous or not. If the current is continuous
then the waveforms will be the same as before. If the current is dis-continuous then,
when the current falls to zero, the load voltage will be equal to the voltage of the
active load (i.e. the open-circuit battery voltage or the e.m.f. generated from the dc
motor).
The simulation in Figure 10 shows a half controlled bridge with active load, also
showing the transient behaviour when the conducting switches try to turn off. Any
analysis will require knowledge of when the load current reaches zero.

12

Vout
0.1 F

Iout
7 Ohms
0

= 54
2N3670

10 Ohms

= 234

T2

T1

2N3670

E = 80 V
120 V rms, 50 Hz
50 mH
D2

BA223

BA223

D1

HALF-CONTROLLED BRIDGE, DIS-CONTINUOUS CURRENT, ACTIVE LOAD

Figure 10

T1 is fired during the +ve half cycles of the supply at firing angle.
T2 is fired during the -ve half cycles of the supply at firing angle.
(a) With T1 fired, D1 is forward biased and current flows via T1 and D1 only
when vL is greater than E;
(b) When the supply voltage reverses, D1 is reversed biased, D2 forward
biased;
(c) Due to the inductive load, current continues to flow via T1 and D2;

to E;
via

(d) If the current reaches zero at an angle after a voltage zero and before the
next firing of the bridge then the load current will be zero and vL will be equal
(e) When T2 is now fired, D2 is still forward biased and load current will flow
T2 and D2 when vL is greater than E.

For this case, the expression for the mean (dc) voltage at the output of the bridge will
be:-

13

Vmean

V.sin . d

.E

If the current is continuous then there will be no E term. Note that and will need
to be in radians for the second term in E, otherwise replace by 180 degrees.
For a fully controlled bridge without a free wheel diode the waveform of vL will have
negative segments for as long as the current continues above zero. If a free wheel
diode is employed, then the voltage waveform will be the same as for the half
controlled bridge

14