Lecture 2

Material Properties
& Material Classes
James Busfield

Density
Density

volume.

- / Mgm-3 is the weight per unit

This

is an increasingly important property

when reducing the CO2 emissions in
transportation.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Linear Elastic Behaviour

Most solid materials are linear elastic at very low strains

(0.001 or 0.1%) they obey Hookes law.
The slope is the
modulus and
both tension and
compression
tests give the
same value.
The shaded
area gives the
stored elastic
energy.
All the energy is recovered if the specimen is unloaded (like a
spring)

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Other Measurements of Modulus

Young's modulus, E, describes tension or compression

Shear modulus, G, describes shear loading

Bulk modulus, K, describes the hydrostatic behaviour

Poisson's ratio, , is dimensionless: it is the negative of

the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain e2/e1, in
axial loading.
Accurate moduli are frequently measured by exciting the
natural vibrations of a beam or wire, or by measuring the
velocity of waves in the material. In an isotropic material,
the moduli are related in the following ways:

3G
E
E
E
G
K
21 v
31 2v
1G
3K
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Linear elastic stored energy

d n
n
el
U n de n n

E
2E

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Non linear elastic

The material is
still elastic but the
relationship
between stress
and strain is not
linear over the
entire range.

Rubbers can exhibit this type of behaviour over very large

extensions -strains of up to 5 (or 500%) are possible.
Most of the energy is recovered on unloading.
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Anelastic Behaviour

The materials are still

elastic so there is no
permanent deflection.
However, the loading
and unloading curves
are not exactly the
same.
Some energy is
dissipated during a
loading cycle.
In some cases this anelastic behaviour is desirable, for
damping out noise (rubber).
In other cases, like bells, damping is bad (use spring steel,
bronze, glass)
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Yielding

If we load a ductile metal (like copper), for example in

tension, then the curve becomes non linear and the metal
plastically deforms.

Force

fracture

Still initially,
the copper
deforms
elastically

Deflection

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Permanent Set

load
unload

Loading past the yield point and then unloading gives a permanent
deflection
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Permanent Extension

Necking instability

The two pieces produced after break have a total length that
is slightly less than the length just before break by the amount
of the elastic extension produced by the maximum force.
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Yield Strength

Yield strength (F/A0 at onset of plastic flow).

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Proof Stress

The proof stress 0.1% characterises the yield of a

material that yields gradually, and does not show a
distinct yield point.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Tensile Strength

TS - Tensile strength (F/A0 at onset of necking).

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Strain after fracture

(Plastic) strain after fracture, or tensile ductility calculated

from (l l0)/l0, where l is the length of the assembled pieces.
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

The hardness test

A pointed diamond or a hardened steel ball is pressing into

the surface of the material to be examined.
The further into the material the indenter sinks, the softer
the material and the lower its yield strength.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Modulus of Rupture

Is

the surface stress in a bent beam at the instant of

failure.

Used
Is

when it is difficult to grip sample.

it the same as the strength measured in tension?

For

ceramics it is larger
(by a factor of about 1.3)
as the volume subjected
to this maximum stress is
small and the probability
of finding a large flaw lying
is reduced.
In

simple tension all flaws

see the maximum stress.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

The toughness and fracture toughness

Toughness measures the energy to create a

new fracture surface Gc, /kJ/m2

1
Gc

K c2

E 1 v

Fracture toughness Kc /MPa m1/2 or MN/m3/2 K c Y c c

Both measure the resistance of the material to
the propagation of a crack.

They are measured by

loading a sample
containing a deliberately
introduced crack of
length 2c.

The tensile stress, c,

is recorded when the
crack propagates.

Y 1

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Thermal Conductivity
Space Shuttle Tiles: Silica

Thermal Conductivity of
Copper decreases when you
add zinc.
Thermal Conductivity
(W/m-K)

fiber insulation offers low heat

conduction.

100 mm

400
300
200
100
0

0
10
20 30 40
Composition (wt% Zinc)

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

How to measure Thermal Conductivity? 1

Thermal conductivity l/ W/mK

is a measure of the rate at
which heat is conducted
through a solid at steady state.

It is measured by recording the

heat flux q (W/m2) flowing from
a surface at temperature T1 to
one at T2 in the material,
separated by a distance X.

dT
T1 T2
q l
l
dX
X
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Thermal Expansion Coefficient

/ K-1 is the thermal strain per degree.

If

the material is thermally isotropic, the

volume expansion, per degree, is ~3.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Electrical Properties

Electrical Resistivity of Copper:

6

(10-8 Ohm-m)

Resistivity,

5
4
3
2
1
0

-200

-100

T (C)

Adding impurity atoms to Cu increases resistivity.

Deforming Cu increases resistivity.
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Magnetic Properties
Recording medium is
magnetized by a recording
head.

Magnetic Permeability versus

Composition:

Adding 3 atomic % Si makes Fe

a better recording medium!

Fe+3%Si
Magnetization

Magnetic Storage:

Fe

Magnetic Field
Adapted from C.R. Barrett, W.D. Nix, and A.S.
Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering Materials

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Optical Properties

Transmittance:

--Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or

opaque depending on the material structure.

single crystal

polycrystal:
low porosity

polycrystal:
high porosity

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Different Material Classes

Mechanical engineering

Metals,
alloys

Ceramics,
glasses

Polymers,
elastomers

Hybrids,
composites

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Aerospace and motorsport

Metals,
alloys

Ceramics,
glasses

Polymers,
elastomers

Hybrids,
composites

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Civil engineering and architecture 1

Metals,
alloys

Ceramics,
glasses

Polymers,
elastomers

Hybrids,
composites

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Bio-engineering

Metals,
alloys

Ceramics,
glasses

Polymers,
elastomers

Hybrids,
composites

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Product & industrial design

Metals,
alloys

Ceramics,
glasses

Polymers,
elastomers

Hybrids,
composites

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Metals
Relatively

high moduli

Strengthened

by:

alloying

deformation

heat treatment

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Metals
Ductile

behaviour so can be formed

Even

high-strength alloys (spring steel

for instance) which have a ductility as
low as 2%, yields enough to ensure that
the failure is a tough, ductile type.

Partly

because of their ductility, prone to

fatigue.

Some

have a poor resistance to

corrosion.
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Ceramics and Glasses

Typically

They

high moduli

are brittle

strength in
tension is the
brittle fracture
strength.

strength in
compression is
the brittle crushing
strength - which is
~10 x larger.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Ceramics and Glasses

Ceramics

and glasses have:

no ductility

a low tolerance for stress concentrations (like holes

or cracks) or for high contact stresses (at clamping
points)

scatter in strength which depends upon the volume

of material under load.

They

are:

harder to design with than metals

abrasion-resistant (bearings and cutting tools)

high temperature capability

corrosion-resistant.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Polymers

Low

moduli roughly
1000x less than
metals
~5x lighter
than metals

some are
nearly as
strong as
metals
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Polymers

Elastic

deflections can be large

Creep easily, even at room temperature,
meaning that a polymer component
under load may, with time, acquire a
permanent set
There is a temperature dependence of
the properties

A polymer that is tough and flexible at

20C may be brittle at the 4C of a
household refrigerator, yet creep rapidly at
the 100C of boiling water

None

have useful strength above 200C

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Polymers

Easy

to shape: complicated parts performing

several functions can be moulded from a
polymer in a single operation
The large elastic deflections allow the design
of polymer components that snap together,
making assembly fast and cheap
Accurately sizing of the mould and precolouring the polymer, no finishing operations
are needed
Polymers are corrosion resistant
Low coefficients of friction
MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Elastomers

Some

polymers can be
cross-linked to become
elastomers.

These

high extensibility

low modulus
~1/100000th of a metal

6
5
Stress / MPa

have many of
the properties of other
polymers including:

4
3
2
1
0
1

5
l

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Elastomers

To

be considered an elastomer a
polymer usually has the following four
requirements:

The temperature is above the glass

transition temperature, Tg.

The forces between the molecules must

be weak, like those in a liquid.

The polymer must not be highly crystalline.

The polymer should be lightly cross-linked.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Composites

Composites

are combinations of 2 materials

exploiting the most attractive properties of the
2 classes of materials while avoiding some of
their drawbacks

Composites

are typically polymer matrix epoxy or polyester, usually - reinforced by

fibres such as glass, carbon fibre or Kevlar

They

are typically:

Light

Stiff

Strong, and

Tough

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design

Composites

Polymer

composites cannot be used

above 250C

Composite

Relatively

components are expensive

difficult to form and join.

The

designer will use them if the added

performance justifies the added cost.

MAT602 Materials Selection In Design