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Core-Log Integration
EDITED BY
P. K. H A R V E Y & M. A. L O V E L L
University of Leicester, UK
1998
Published by The Geological Society London
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Contents
Preface
vii
HARVEY,P. K., BREWER,T. S., LOVELL,M. A. & KERR,S. A. The estimation of modal
mineralogy: a problem of accuracy in core-log calibration
25
39
53
AHMADI,Z. M. & COE, A. L. Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density
wireline logs from measurements on outcrop exposures and samples: examples from
the Upper Jurassic, England
65
81
97
115
129
Petrophysical relationships
BASTOS, A. C., DILLON, L. D., VASQUEZ,G. F. & SOARES,J. A. Core-derived acoustic,
porosity & permeability correlations for computation pseudo-logs
14I
DENICOL, P. S. & JING, X. D. Effects of water salinity, saturation and clay content on
the complex resistivity of sandstone samples
147
159
173
vi
CONTENTS
185
197
213
225
237
249
JACKSON,P. D., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., GUNN, D. A., WILLIAMS,C. G. &
FLINT, R. C. Measurement scale and formation heterogeneity: effects on the integration
of resistivity data
261
273
MAJOR, C. O., PIRMEZ, C., GOLDBERG, D. & LEG 166 SCIENTIFICPARTY High-resolution
core-log integration techniques: examples from the Ocean Drilling Program
285
297
311
327
341
363
375
391
Index
413
Preface
Core and log measurements provide crucial information about subsurface formations. Their usage,
either for integration or calibration, is complicated by the different measurement methods employed,
different volumes of formation analysed, and in turn, the heterogeneity of the formations. While the
problems of comparing core and log data are only too well known, the way in which these data can
be most efficiently combined is not at all clear in most cases. In recent years there has been increased
interest in this problem both in industry and academia, due in part to developments in technology
which offer access to new types of information, and in the case of industry, pressure for improved
reservoir models and hydrocarbon recovery. The application of new numerical methods for
analysing and modelling core and log data, the availability of core scanning facilities, and novel core
measurements in both two and three dimensions, currently provide a framework for the development
of new and exciting approaches to core-log integration.
This Special Publication addresses some of the problems of core-log integration encountered by
scientists and engineers from both industry and academia. The diverse nature of the contributions in
this volume are an expression of the value and need to understand core and log measurements, and
the way in which they can be combined to maximum effect. Contributions range geologically from
hydrocarbon-bearing sediments in the North Sea to the volcanic rocks that form the upper part of
the oceanic crust. In order to constrain this diversity for presentation the volume has been divided
into five sections and starts with 'Measurement, scaling and calibration', 6 papers concerned purely
with aspects of core and,or log measurements themselves including cross-correlation, upscaling,
measurement uncertainty and accuracy. Subsequent sections include (2) 'Physical and chemical
p r o p e r t i e s ' - 5 papers, (3) 'Petrophysical relationships'-8 papers, (4) 'Integration of core and
borehole i m a g e s ' - 5 papers and (5) 'Applications and case s t u d i e s ' - 7 papers. All papers were
submitted in response to an open call for contributions so, within the constraints of work loads and
other factors, may be considered to represent a fair snapshot of recent developments in Core-Log
Integration.
The volume arises from a meeting of the Borehole Research Group of the Geological Society and
the London Petrophysical Society (London Chapter of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts) held in London in September 1996. The editors are particularly grateful to Gail
Williamson both for the organization of the meeting and for persistence in coaxing authors,
reviewers, and editors; also to Jo Cooke at the Geological Society Publishing House for her
continuous support in the production of this volume. We also wish to thank all those who undertook
the often arduous job of reviewing the manuscripts, and without whose help this volume would have
been that much poorer.
Peter K. Harvey & Michael A. Lovell
Leicester University
Spectral gamma ray logs: core to log calibration, facies analysis and
correlation problems in the Southern North Sea
C. S. B R I S T O W 1 & B. J. W I L L I A M S O N 2
1Research School of Geological and Geophysical Sciences, Birbeck College and UCL, Gower
Street, London WC1E 6BT
2 Present address." Department of Mineralogy, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell
Road, London S W7 5BD
Abstract: The aim of this study is to test the usefulness of spectral gamma ray logs in
subsurface correlation, lithofacies description and the interpretation of depositional
environments of Namurian and Dinantian sandstones in the southern North Sea.
Lithofacies and depositional environments were identified from core descriptions and
compared with spectral gamma ray logs from thirteen boreholes. The results show that
lithofacies and sedimentary environments can be discriminated within single wells. However,
there is too much variation between wells to make an unequivocal assessment of
depositional environment on the basis of spectral gamma ray logs alone. Comparison of
stratigraphically correlated sandstones shows that variations between wells are often greater
than variations between lithofacies. The differences between correlated sandstones using
spectral gamma ray logs are largely attributed to changes in the logging environment,
mainly mud characteristics, borehole quality and contractor. In addition, the occurrence of
negative numbers for uranium and potassium in some wells indicates that the algorithm
used to calculate elemental concentrations may be in error. For sandstones with a low total
gamma ray response, small errors associated with tool calibration and data processing make
a comparatively large difference to results, which has made detailed correlation of
sandstones untenable. The most significant problem is the correction factor for potassium in
KC1 drilling mud.
BRISTOW,C. S. & WILLIAMSON,B. J. 1998. Spectral gamma ray logs: core to log calibration, facies
analysis and correlation problems in the Southern North Sea In. HARVEY,P. K. LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 1-7
Well
number
Logging
contractor
Drilling
mud
Correlated
sandstone
A
KC1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
1
2
2
1
!
1
1
Oil
KC1
Oil
Oil
Oil
KC1
Oil
Oil
A
B
10
KC1
11
12
13
2
1
1
polymer
KC1
Oil
B
B
B
Methods
Fig. 1. Potassium and thorium cross plot for Well 1 showing good discrimination of lithofacies with limestones in
the lower left corner and fine-grained claystone and siltstones in the top right.
Fig. 2. Potassium and thorium cross plot for Well 5 showing good discrimination of lithofacies. The lithofacies
have similar relative values to those in Welt 1 (Fig. 1) although absolute values for each lithofacies are slightly
different.
Fig. 3. Cross plots of cross-stratified sandstones between wells showing a loose grouping of all the data in the
lower left hand corner of the cross plot. Measurements from individual wells tend to be tightly grouped and the
difference between wells appears to be greater than the differences within a well.
Fig. 4. Cross plot of potassium against thorium for the correlated sandstone Unit A shows the same sandstone in
three different wells plotting in slightly different areas, note the lack of overlap between wells with lower
potassium values in Well 1 which was drilled with a KC1 mud.
Unit A.
This has been correlated stratigraphically between three wells. The cross plot of potassium
against t h o r i u m (Fig. 4) shows the same
sandstone in three different wells plotting in
slightly different areas. There is almost no
overlap between the three data sets and although
the trends appear to be similar in each well, there
is a clear difference in the absolute values. Some
Fig. 5. Cross plot of potassium against thorium for Unit B showing a consistent trend in the data for Wells 9, 10,
12 and 13. Well 11 appears to lie off trend with significantly higher potassium and thorium content which can be
attributed to an error in the correction factor for KCI in the drilling mud..
Unit B.
Fig. 7. Cross plot of K/Th against K/U for three correlated sandstones (Unit A) shows lower potassium values
and an exceptionally good correlation of thorium and uranium in Well I which are attributed to correction
factors which have over-compensated for KC1 in the drilling mud.
Conclusions
Lithofacies for Carboniferous deltaic sequences
from the Southern N o r t h Sea have been
identified from core descriptions and compared
with spectral gamma ray logs. The results show
References
ARCHARD, G. & TRICE, R. 1990. A preliminary
investigation into the spectral radiation of the
Upper Carboniferous marine bands and its
stratigraphic application. Newsletters on Stratigraphy, 21, 167-173.
CANT, D. J. 1992. Subsurface facies analysis. In:
WALKER R. G. JAMES, N. P. (eds)Facies
Models, Geological Association of Canada, pp.
27-45.
DAVIES, S. J. 8~ ELLIOT, T. 1995. Spectral gamma ray
characterisation of high resolution sequence
stratigraphy: examples from upper Carboniferous
fluvio~leltaic systems, County Clare, Ireland. In:
HOWELL, J. A. 8z AITKEN, J. F. (eds) High
CORBETT,P. W. M. JENSEN, J. L. & SORBIE,K. S. 1998. A review of up-scaling and cross-scaling issues
in core and log data interpretation and prediction In: HARVEY,P. K. LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 9-16
10
P . W . M . CORBETT E T AL.
Definitions
In this paper, we define the terms up-scaling and
cross-scaling as follows (Fig. 2):
Up-scaling: The determination of an effective
(or pseudo) property at a scale larger than
that of the original measurement. An example would be using the arithmetic average of a
set of layer permeabilities as an estimator of
the horizontal permeability of the composite
layered media (Jensen et al. 1997, pp. 137139). Comparing probe to plug to well test
permeabilities is an up-scaling problem (Corbett et al. 1996a).
The issue of measurement scale for the same
petrophysical property is the process of upscaling. Reservoir engineers are familiar with the
up-scaling of permeability for reservoir simulation. Cross-scaling is a much less familiar
concept and may be defined as follows:
Cross-scaling: The determination of a relationship between two different physical prop-
11
Case studies
We consider three examples of the cross-scaling
between permeability and resistivity which have
been carried out and which have been reported
in the literature.
Laboratory study
Jackson et al. (1994) measured permeability and
resistivity with probe devices for an aeolian
sample that was saturated with brine in the
laboratory (Fig. 3). The resistivity probe was
carefully designed to investigate a volume
similar to that of a steady state probe permeameter and both volumes were comparable to the
sample's scale of sedimentary variation. A
strong relationship was observed (Fig. 4) and
this can be related to the fundamental physical
control.
As-Sarah study
Ball et al. (1997) carried out a probe permeameter study on a fluvial sandstone. They found
that averaged probe data (at 10cm spacing)
correlated reasonably well with microresistivity
(Fig. 5a) and provided the basis of a permeability predictor which was a considerable
improvement over methods based on the density
log and core plugs (Fig. 5b).
12
Up-scaling permeability
In two of the cases presented above, the
permeability was up-scaled for comparison with
some larger scale dynamic data.
In the As-Sarah study, the permeability
predictor developed from the microresistivity
was used to predict permeability in the uncored
sections of several wells. With a continuous
permeability log, the cumulative permeabilitythickness product, the transmissivity, was compared with a production log spinner survey. A
good comparison was found supporting the
appropriateness of the predictor (Fig. 7). This
predictor continues to form the basis for
permeability models in the field (von Winterfeld,
pers. comm.).
13
-11900
-11950" ~
-12025" ~ P r o b e
~~
Probe
PLT
Cum. Prob~
~ -12125
-12000- ~i
-12050 -
~LT
-12175'
-12225
, ,
, ~ 9 ,
9 , , ,
, ,
9 ,
-12150
'
9 ,
9 ,
Permeability (mD)
Fig. 7. Validation of probe/MSFL predictor (refer to Fig. 5a) against production log data (PLT) in two wells from
the As-Sarah Field. The intervals picked out by the predictor over a 250 ft interval correlate well with the
productive intervals seen with the PLT. Refer to Ball et al. (1997) for more details.
Bed Scale
Bedset Scale
'~
I~T ~
enrlda~:; % o P ~ : 2 a ttimates
~. 0.001t
o
10
15
14
4"
~3;~
. .ii
9 '.
2"
i,iii.
2-047
...
J
~-.
9 ]
-1
'
;0
~0
3'0
Porosity (%)
Fig. 9. Core plug porosity and permeability relationship for the PUC-B Sandstone. This type of relationship is typical in texturally heterogeneous fluvial
reservoirs. Clay content and cementation variations
at plug scale due to clay drapes and rhizocretions also
impact these data. These factors combine adversely to
make a complex relationship between permeability and
porosity, one which cannot be used with any
confidence for permeability prediction. A more texturally sensitive surrogate property is needed and was
provided (in this study) by the MSFL resistivity 9Refer
to Brayshaw et al. (1996) for more discussion on the
textural controls on permeability and to Ball et al.
(1997) for more details of the PUC-B study.
Genetic petrophysics
The Morecambe Bay example shows the power
(for prediction) of scale-compatible cross-scaling
and geologically-assisted up-scaling. Fig. 8
shows that the effective property (in this case,
k v / k h ) varies at certain geological length scales.
There is a significant and abrupt change at the
bed scale (4ft) and the bedset scale (12ft). Above
the bedset scale, there appears to be less
variability in the estimates and close agreement
with the Modular Dynamic Tool (MDT) response. While the cost implications of MDT
versus image log have to be considered, image
log based predictors, calibrated by MDT measurements at carefully selected intervals, hold
potential for improved anisotropy estimates in
the future. Anisotropy in sediments is strongly
affected by bedding, so it is only appropriate
that a predictor based on a log that 'sees' the
bedding will be better than estimates from small
volume, plug measurements.
The length scales (i.e. the geological architecture) provide important guidance for the petrophysicist--the length scales for combining or
comparing appropriate measurements and also
the length scales to be avoided for sampling
intervals. Sampling close to the frequency of the
data (volume or wavelength) is a notoriously
poor procedure in geophysical measurements.
Unfortunately, the 1-inch plug size and 1-foot
sampling interval are close to the Nyquist
frequency of lamina and beds!
Conclusions
Cross-scaling between petrophysical properties
is best achieved when the scales and density of
measurements are comparable.
Up-scaling of petrophysical properties benefits when the geological architecture is accounted
for.
Probe data and image logs can be jointly used
to predict permeability (horizontal and vertical
in the subsurface), demonstrating that consistent-volume cross-scaling and geologically-constrained up-scaling can be effective.
The tools, understanding, and techniques are
now available for the development of a more
geologically-based petrophysics m e t h o d - - w h i c h
we refer to as genetic petrophysics--that is fit for
the purposes of reservoir modelling. It is understood that improved modelling prepares the way
for improved oil recovery--the ultimate motivation behind this work.
The authors acknowledge the support of Wintershall
and British Gas in the studies discussed above. They
also wish to acknowledge the support of EPSRC and
industrial co-sponsors (Amerada Hess, Amoco, BHP
Petroleum, British Gas, Chevron, Fina, Saga, Schlumberger, Shell, Statoil, Texaco) for continued work in
this area under the PEGASUS project. The authors
also acknowledge the contributions of the various
authors of the case studies from which this overview
has been drawn L. Ball, J. Lewis, S. Thomas, D.
Bowen and M. Jackson. Their insights while working
with the data have helped to formulate and illustrate
these concepts.
15
References
BALL, L. D., CORBETT,P. W. M., JENSEN,J. L. & LEWIS,
J. M. 1997. The role of geology in the behavior
and choice of permeability predictors. SPE
Formation Evaluation, 12, 32-39.
BRAYSHAW,A. C., DAVIES,G. W. CORBETT,P. W. M.
1996. Depositional controls on primary permeability and porosity at the bedform scale in fluvial
reservoir sandstones. In CARLING, P. A. &
DAWSON, M. R. (eds) Advances influvial dynamics
and stratigraphy, John Wiley & Sons, 373-394.
CORBETT, P. W. M., RINGROSE,P. S., JENSEN, J. L. &
SORBIE,K. S. 1992. Laminated clastic reservoirs-The interplay of capillary pressure and sedimentary architecture. SPE 24699. Proceedings of the
67th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, October, Washington, 365-376.
--,
PINISETTI, M., TORO-RIVERA, M. & STEWART,
G. 1996a. The comparison of plug and well test
permeabilities, Dialog, 4-8.
--,
GOOD, T., JENSEN, J. L., LEWIS, J. J. M.,
PICKUP, G., RINGROSE, P. S. & SORBIE, K. S.
1996b. Reservoir description in the 1990s: A
perspective from the flow simulation through
layercake parasequence flow units. In: GLENNIE,
K. & HURST, A. (eds), AD 1995: N W Europe's
Hydrocarbon Industry, Geological Society, London, 169-178.
COWAN, G. & BRADNEY,J. 1997. Regional diagenetic
controls on reservoir properties in the Millom
accumulation: implications for field development.
In: MEADOWS,N. S., TRUEBLOOD,S. P., HARDMAN,
M. & COWAN,G. (eds) Petroleum Geology of the
Irish Sea and Adjacent Areas. Geological Society,
London, Special Publications, 124, 373-386.
DOYEN, P. M. 1988. Permeability, conductivity, and
pore geometry of sandstone. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93, 7729-7740.
HALDORSEN, H. H. 1986. Simulator parameter assignment and the problem of scale in reservoir
engineering. In: LAKE, L. W. & CARROLL, H. B.
(eds), Reservoir Characterisation, Academic Press,
Orlando.
HOGG, A. J. C., MITCHELL,A. W. & YOUNG, S. 1996.
Predicting well productivity from grain size
analysis and logging while drilling. Petroleum
Geoscience, 2, 1-15.
HUANG, Y. RINGROSE, P. S. & SORBIE, K. S. 1995.
Capillary trapping mechanisms in water-wet
laminated rocks. SPE Reservoir Engineering, 10,
287-292.
JACKSON,M. A., BOWEN,D. G., JENSEN,J. L. & TODD,
A. C. 1994. Resistivity and permeability mapping
at the lamina scale. Proceedings of the International Symposium of the Society of Core Analysts, Stavanger, 12-14 Sept., paper SCA-9415,
163-172.
JENSEN, J. L., LAKE, L. W., CORBETT, P. W. M. &
GOGGIN, D. J. 1997. Statistics for Petroleum
Engineers and Geoscientists, Prentice-Hall, New
Jersey.
KATZ, A. J. & THOMPSON, A. H. 1987. Prediction of
rock electrical conductivity from mercury injec-
16
P. W. M. CORBETT ET AL.
Field: a numerical approach using probe permeametry. In: OAKMAN, C. D., MARTIN, J. H.
CORBETT, P. W. M. (eds) Coresfrom the Northwest
European Hydrocarbon Province." An illustration of
geological applications from exploration to development. Geological Society, London, 197-203.
& JENSEN,J. L. 1996. Permeability and
permeability anisotropy characterization in the
near well-bore: a numerical model using probe
permeability and formation micro-resistivity data,
Transactions of The Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts Thirty-Seventh Annual Logging
Symposium, New Orleans, 16-19 June, paper JJJ.
WARREN,J. E., SK1BA,F. F. & PRICE, H. S. 1961. An
evaluation of the significance of permeability
measurements. Journal of Petroleum Technology,
13, 739-744.
-
DUNCAN, A. R., DEAN, G. & COLLIE,D. A. L. 1998. Quantitative density measurements from X-ray
radiometry In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 17-24
17
A. R. DUNCAN ET AL.
18
Section B
The sediments within Section B are also assigned
to Piper Formation Depositional Unit 4b and
similarly consist of relatively clean, fine grained
sandstones interbedded with siltier, argillaceous
sediments which are moderately to highly
bioturbated. The finer material is frequently
micaceous and carbonaceous debris is locally
recorded. Some of the coarser units show
development of calcareous cement which is
locally nodular. Thin section analysis indicates
that the predominant cement is calcite (4-40%)
with subordinate quartz (1-12%). No authigenic
clays are recorded from the two samples
analysed.
Section C
The sediments analysed from Section C are
Methodology
Production of the X-ray scan images
A schematic representation of the scanning
system is shown in Fig. 1.
Although the imaging system has been developed to operate with core material of various
forms and dimensions, the present investigations
employed 3 ft resinated archive slabs for the
imaging and quantitative density measurements.
This presents a thickness of rock material for
analysis which is relatively constant, both across
the core diameter and along its length, and for
which the 3-D inhomogeneities are reduced. In
this way, differences in the core thickness and
variability due to the curvature of the core are
reduced and interpretation can be simplified to
essentially 2-D.
The X-rays passing through the rock create an
inverted image of the material on an electronic
image intensifier. This visible image of the X-ray
field is picked up by a CCD camera and
subsequently digitized. This image may be
viewed in real time (i.e. the 'live' image on
screen moves as the rock is transported along the
gantry) and approximately 6-7in of core are
observed at any one time within the camera
image frame. These frames may be enhanced by
a dedicated image processing computer and can
be combined to produce a composite image of
the 3 ft section.
After positioning the core, each 'live' frame is
frozen and a digital filter, which enhances the
edge and structure information, is used to
sharpen the image. Once the optimum image
has been captured it is electronically transferred
to a PC computer terminal and stored as a TIFF
format file. Overlaps of approximately lin
between neighbouring frames are used in order
to ensure the optimum matching in the composite. The individual images are manipulated on
the PC, using conventional image processing
software, to produce the composite image,
which is similarly stored in TIFF format. 'Hard
19
20
A. R. DUNCAN E T AL.
Fig. 2. Example X-ray image frame. The included grid is of '/2 in mesh.
Fig. 3. (a) Correlation plot of luminance values from slabbed material and bulk density data from wireline logs.
Core depth to log depth correction is shown schematically by tie lines. (b) Luminance data after depth correction
to log depth; with wireline bulk density data overlaid. Arbitrary luminance and density scales. Luminance: solid
line, Density: dashed line.
21
Ox x
190
i
i
x o ox
Luminance
Corrected
Luminance
170
~'~ 150
_~
"
~
e
~ ' x x
~ ~ o :! o
~, j
o
F~
x
o~
t~
~ x|
x
~ ~- ~$ ' ~ ' ~ ~x I ~,
--Luminance
R2=0.6445
'- .....
Corrected
Luminance
t30
e=
C
110
E
,-1
,-I
9O
50
2.35
2.4
2.45
2.5
Bulk
2.55
2.6
2.65
2.7
2.75
2.8
Fig. 4. Cross plot of luminance values from slabbed material and bulk density values derived from wireline logs.
Luminance values shown both uncorrected and corrected for variations in thickness of core material.
'noise' is reduced by using a moving average
filter (i.e. each measurement is made on an
image comprising the average of 20 scans of the
stationary rock). This is done automatically, and
in 'pseudo real time', using the image processing
computer.
Measurements of the thickness of the slab at
each luminance recording point are noted. In
addition, luminance values for an aluminium
block 'standard' placed at the top and base of
each 3ft section are measured. Where necessary
the scanner controls can be adjusted prior to
scanning to ensure that the observed luminance
from these calibration standards remains consistent. These data, along with the luminance
values are entered into a spreadsheet and stored
on the PC for subsequent analysis
Discussion
The luminance values indicate the penetrability
of the rock material to X-rays and are, therefore,
related to the density of the rock. Higher
luminance values represent greater penetration
of the rock by the X-rays and, therefore, lower
density. Conversely, lower luminance represents
areas of rock with higher density and therefore
greater 'stopping ability' of the X-radiation. The
luminance values are, therefore, inversely related
to the rock density.
A comparison of this luminance data, representing density, with traditional wireline log
density measurements is presented in Figs 3(a
and b). Figure 3(a) shows the correlation of the
luminance data with the FDL trace. The tie lines
indicate the core to log depth shifts appropriate
for this core material. Clearly excellent correlation between the luminance profile and wireline
log is observed, with Fig. 3(b) showing the
luminance data depth shifted and superimposed
on the FDL trace. The luminance values are
smoothed (using a simple 5 point moving
average filter) but are otherwise unprocessed.
A cross plot of luminance against bulk density
(from the wireline log) is shown in Fig. 4.
Luminance values are shown both uncorrected
and corrected for slab thickness variations. The
correction is performed assuming a simple
reciprocal relationship between thickness and
luminance value: this is considered to adequately
22
A. R. DUNCAN E T AL.
190
. . . . . . .
170
io
........
...... ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~1~01
130 . . . .
~o
~ .......
oo o~
~ . . . . . . . . .
I
"~
_1
!~
I..IU~
o~
~ _
9o
i oel
o
oo .~o o
70 ._0 0 O0 o;
:
,,
~9
'~
o 2v
i o
_~
~
,
~. . . . . . . . . .
i
i
!
:
,
i
o
--
oo
~ = - - L
'
!
~
:
'
O 0
o
o
o.
-. -
o~..~f
~o_
......
. . . . .
o Corrected
~
Luminance
'
i
t ~C~
i
Luminance
1
R2=0.6135
....
i
0
10
Porosity
(plug)
12
14
16
18
(%)
Fig. 5, Cross plot of luminance values from slabbed material and porosity values from conventional core analysis
of core plugs taken prior to slabbing. Luminance values corrected for slab thickness variations.
190
i
i
170
---4
.......
D BD1
,, B D 2
i__
BD3
BD4
BD5
BD6
'
ii - - A l l
~.~ 150
~Nxx
data
R2=0.88
m
.Q
=" 130
0
C
(~
e"
"-%
;
x
110
'
__
E
--I
90
1.80
1.90
2.00
2.10
2.20
Bulk
2.30
Density
2.40
2.50
2,60
2.70
2.80
(g/cc)
Fig. 6. Cross plot of luminance values and bulk density values, both from analysis of selected core plugs, Data
differentiated by lithological unit. (Independent plug set).
Detailed conventional core analysis and sedimentological analysis has been carried out on
the core sections analysed for this project; this
data has been c o m p a r e d with the luminance data
measured from the slabbed section close to the
Development
Technically, the performance of the scanner is
excellent. Quantitative investigations of the
physical performance of the scanner, for example of the effects of variations in X-ray power
output or the influence of 'burn-out' around
unshielded plug holes etc., could potentially lead
to direct calibration of the luminance values in
terms of physical properties of the core material.
Improvements in the operating procedures, in
23
Conclusion
Linear X-ray scanning has an established role in
non-destructive imaging of core, with the variation in image reflecting the density variation in
the core section. The techniques described here
allow not only the qualitative X-ray image to be
produced, but also quantitative luminance values to be extracted. These correlate very well
with physical core properties, for example bulk
density and porosity, derived from wireline or
conventional core analysis techniques. These
luminance values thus provide a valuable core
to log correlation tool which may be of
particular value where traditional Gamma Ray
or Core Analysis techniques are unavailable or
relatively unreliable due to poor response or
sparse data. The possibility of improving the
operating procedures, in particular the sampling
interval and processing methods, as well as
ultimately providing full density maps of the
core section promise to yield even greater
benefits, and confirm the importance of X-ray
imaging as a core analysis tool.
24
A . R . DUNCAN ET AL.
References
ALGEO, T. J., PHILLIPS,M., JAM1NSKI,J. & FENWlCK,M.
1994. High resolution X-radiography of laminated sediment cores. Journal of Sedimentary
Research A: Sedimentary Petrology and Processes,
A64, 665-668.
Abstract: In the case study described here the quantitative modal mineralogy of a number of
core samples was determined with the objective of using these modes to calibrate
geochemical logs. Modal estimates were obtained for the core samples by quantitative X-ray
diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, point counting of thin sections, and indirectly by
calculation from a complete chemical analysis of the samples. In the case of calculated
modes, three different algorithms were applied. A by-product of this particularly complete
dataset is the possibility of evaluating the most accurate method of modal analysis, and
although no certain conclusion is reached on this point the analysis of these data does
demonstrate the difficulty of obtaining accurate modal estimates. The core samples, taken at
regular intervals through a sand, sandy-shale sequence, capped by a carbonate unit, have a
mineralogy which, although dominated by quartz, includes feldspars, carbonates, and clays
(illite, kaolinite) together with minor phases. There was generally good agreement between
methods in the estimation of quartz, total carbonate, albite, kaolinite, total clay and pyrite.
The results for illite and K-feldspar were poor, a reflection of their relatively low
concentrations (< 10%), and problems of compositional co-linearity in the calculated
modes.
A useful way of presenting data from geochemical logging tools is to transform the raw oxide
curves into mineralogy logs. In a recent exercise
aimed at calibrating geochemical logs in a UK
borehole a number of core samples (103) were
taken and analysed extensively in the laboratory
for both chemistry and mineralogy, to provide a
database to support the log calibration. For all
103 core plugs quantitative mineralogy was
determined by X-ray diffraction at the British
Petroleum laboratories in Sunbury and by
infrared spectroscopy (MINERALOG) at Core
Laboratories. In addition a petrographic examination was carried out, and a minimal point
count made (200 points per thin section) on
approximately half the samples to provide
approximate modal data. All core plugs were
also chemiclly analysed by X-Ray Assay Laboratories (XRAL) in Ottawa for all major and
all potentially significant trace elements (a total
of 69 elements per sample). From the chemical
data, estimates of the modal mineralogy were
calculated using a selection of different algorithms. Together these analyses result in a range
of modal estimates and the purpose of this
contribution is to compare these estimates in an
attempt to evaluate the accuracy of the different
methods. Apart from the petrographic work, all
Background
Through the use of pulsed neutron devices,
direct activtion of the formation by appropriate
isotopes, and the natural gamma spectra it is
possible to obtain an almost complete, and
continuous log of the major element chemistry
of a formation. These techniques were pioneered
by Schlumberger (Hertzog & Plasek 1979;
Hertzog et al. 1987a, 1987b, 1989; Galford et
al. 1988; Rupp et al. 1989) with their Geochemical Logging Tool (GLT) offering measurements
of Si, A1, Ti, Fe, Ca, K, S, the minor elements
Gd, Th, and U, together with H and C1. Other
tools are now available (Wyatt & Jacobson et al.
1993; Odom et al. 1994; Jacobson & Wyatt 1996,
Herron & Herron 1998). Transformation of the
major elements into the more conventional oxide
form gives virtually complete major element
oxide analysis at each measured depth interval,
HARVEY,P. K., BREWER,T. S., LOVELL,M. A. & KERR, S. A. 1998. The estimation of modal
mineralogy: a problem of accuracy in core-log calibration In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 25-38
25
26
P. K. HARVEY E T AL.
27
Clays/Micas
Minor phases
Quartz
Albite
K-feldspar
Calcite
Ankerite
Dolomite
Siderite
Muscovite
Illite
Smectite
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Zircon
Barite
Pyrite
Apatite
XRD
MINERALOG
Petrography
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* mineral detected in at least one of the core samples. Anhydrite and chlorite were not detected in
any of the samples by the infrared (MINERALOG) technique. See report for further comments.
28
Fig. 1. Computed mineralogy log (Model A) for the section under study and showing the stratigraphic units
discussed in the text. For clarity only, the major mineral groups are shown. The depth scale in arbitary.
infrared. Of the other three minerals barite was
detected by infrared, but both apatite and zircon
were too low for the spectral methods.
29
Table 2.
Assemblage
10
11
12
Silica
Feldspars
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Quartz
Albite
K-feldspar
Carbonates Calcite
Dolomite +
Siderite
Clays/Micas Illite
Kaolinite
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
13
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* mineral detected in at least one of the core samples. Anhydrite and chlorite were not detected in any of the
samples by the infrared (MINERALOG) technique. See report for further comments.
+ dolomite or ankerite. See text for explanation.
apatite which has been identified petrographically. TiO2 poses a problem, and in the first
instance is best calculated as rutile, though there
is no evidence that this mineral actually occurs
in any of the samples. TiO2 may also be present
in one of the clay phases, and this problem is
discussed later where there is good evidence that
it actually occurs in different minerals in
different parts of the section.
Sulphur is assumed to be present only as a
component of pyrite. Other minerals, such as
gypsum or anhydrite are possibilities, though
there is no evidence for any sulphates being
present, and pyrite is the only identified sulphide.
Manganese, which is only present at a very
low level (maximum 0.75% MnO, 90% of
measurements less than 0.18% MnO), was
a d d e d to iron (as FeO) for purposes of
computation. Manganese often substitutes for
iron, and the significant correlation (at a = 0.05;
r = 0.58) between the two elements in these data
is consistent with this occurring here. Removing
MnO leaves a total of 14 possible mineral phases
and 15 chemical components to consider.
Of the several strategies employed in the
modelling of the mineral assemblages in this
case history three simple methods are presented
here. In each case the data were pre-processed to
remove the minor phases rutile, apatite, barite,
zircon and pyrite which were calculated out of
each core analysis assuming ideal stoichiometric
compositions. Provided the chemical analyses of
the core samples are accurate this procedure
gives excellent estimates for these minerals which
cannot be matched by any direct measurement.
Although treated here as a minor phase, pyrite
does reach significant concentrations in a few
samples; the variation in pyrite downhole is
shown in Fig. 2, and is discussed later.
With extraction of these minor minerals TiO2,
P. K. HARVEY ET AL.
30
.....
360
'
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
Unit
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
360
370
370
Pyrite
380
.~so
390
390
Quartz
4O0
.......
_: _~:~
"'~-~ ....
].... :--
~i~--~_~.:
,.
4O0
.:_
~_
........
410
41o
3
420
420
.........
~z-~,
430
Py-/a)
Py-(b)
9
440
'
430
Py-(m)
Py-(x)
_
........
440
450
450
20
40
60
8O
'
20
100
360
'
"
'
40
'
60
'
80
'
460
'
1O0
. ..
360
370
370
380
380
390
390
400
400
410
410
420
Unit4
420
430
430
440
440
I
450
Uni|5
450
460
460
0
20
40
60
80
100
20
40
60
80
tOO
Fig. 2. Pseudo-log showing the mineralogical variation of the core samples downhole for quartz, K-feldspar,
albite and pyrite. Qtz-(a): quartz computed from Model A, Qtz-(b): ditto, for Model B, Qtz-(m): MINERALOG
measurement of quartz, Qtz-(x): XRD measurement of quartz. Coding as for quartz for: pyrite (Py), K-feldspar
(Kf) and albite (Ab).
iterative removal o f n e g a t i v e
31
79.81
0.21
5.42
0.01
-0.21
0.22
12.13
0.00
1.29
0.011
79.97
0.12
5.47
-0.12
80.05
0.00
5.30
0.21
12.35
1.14
1.22
0.057
0.13
12.44
0.81
0.96
0.067
XRD
MINERALOG
88
0
3
0
0
0
7
0
0
80
0
7
0
0
0
5
7
0
32
P. K. HARVEY ET AL.
,
360
370
Unit2
380
380
Umt
390
390
400
400
Ankerite / Dolomite
Siderite
4.10
41o
42O
420
..............
430
i
Sid-(a) 71
Sid- ( b) i
430
Dol-(a)
Dol-(b)
440
44O
iI
Sid-(m) [
[ .....
Sid-(x)
- -
Dol-(m) :
- - - Ank-(x)
450
f!
4(30
20
40
60
80
.............
I ,
20
40
450
.
'
'
460
80
60
1(30
36O
360
2%.~_
370
370
~ "
380
39O
4OO
411)
Total carbonates
Calcite
4~o
420
420
;.m
Cal-(a)
.................
9 Carb-(a)
Cal.(b)
43O
9
9
- -
Cal.(m)
.....
Cal-(x)
450
20
40
60
80
20
40
430
Carb-(b)
440
- -
Carb-(m)
.....
Carb-~x)
60
80
450
460
10CI
Fig. 3. As Fig. 2 for the carbonates: siderite (Sid), Dolomite (Dol, but reported as Ankerite (Ank) for the XRD
analysis); calcite (Cal) and total carbonate (Carb) which is taken as the sum of (siderite+ankerite/
dolomite + calcite).
33
.,.,..,,...,...,
360
. . .
On, I
370
:~':.;
~80
:,(,...~:
Kaolinite
. L
4304204,040039~
i'~~;
_
Total clays
Umt3
!;-'<; "
thai,4
umt4
Unit
~ , ~
:y~.j
UnitZ
u.*,3
450
) .....
Kaoi-(x)
Ill-(b)
- - Ill-(m)
:":. -. .....
. . . Ill-(x)
- ~
Y~.
20
40
6o
8o
u,~l 5
Ioo
20
40
60
80
10o
Fig. 4. As Figure 2 for the clay phases: kaolinite (Kaol); Illite (Ill); and total clay (Clay) which is taken as the sum
of (kaolinite + illite + smectite).
Table 4. Correlations between computed modes and infrared (MINERALOG) estimates (top table) and between
computed modes and XRD (lower table).
Mineral
A/Mlg
Quartz
Albite
K-feldspar
Kaolinite
Illite
Calcite
Siderite
Dolomite
E carbonates
E clays
Pyrite
0.987
0.865
0.193
0.928
0.025
0.976
0.869
0.901
0.998
0.911
0.975
B/Mlg
0.980
0.837
0.431
0.916
0.512
0.975
0.852
0.587
0.998
0.888
0.975
C/MIg
Mlg/XRD
0.954
0.662
0.192
0.973
0.760
0.975
A/XRD
0.962
0.712
0.515
0.785
0.587
0.994
0.848
0.953
0.994
0.856
0.968
0.966
0.847
0.146
0.809
-0.071
0.983
0.836
0.904
0.993
0.875
0.972
B/XRD
0.953
0.862
0.433
0.784
0.227
0.979
0.802
0.529
0.994
0.821
0.972
C/XRD
0.948
0.586
0.274
0.978
0.771
0.972
34
35
SiO2
A1203
FeO
MgO
CaO
Na20
K20
H20
CO2
Qtz
Ab
K-f
Cal
Dol
Sid
100.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
68.74
19.44
0.00
0.00
0.00
11.82
0.00
0.00
0.00
64.76
18.32
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
16.92
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
56.03
0.00
0.00
0.00
43.97
0.00
0.00
0.00
30.41
21.86
0.00
0.00
0.00
47.73
0.00
0.00
62.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
37.98
Kaol
45.48
39.29
0.65
0.14
0.41
0.00
0.00
14.04
0.00
Ill
57.28
18.55
5.11
2.07
1.59
0.43
5.11
8.86
0.00
Smec
51.14
19.76
0.83
3.22
1.62
0.11
0.04
22.80
0.00
Qtz: quartz, Ab: albite, K-f: K-feldspar, Cal: calcite, Dol: dolomite, Sid: siderite, Kaol: kaolinite, Ill: illite, Smec:
smectite.
Oxide concentrations are in weight percent oxide.
is a poor predictive relationship; Model B has
the highest correlation of the computed models
(r=0.512), with the infrared estimates, though
its correlation with the X R D data is nonsignificant (at a level of 0.05). Depending upon
which set of data is believed illite is present
throughout most of the section (Fig. 4) with the
highest values (10-20%) in Units 2 and 3. It is
difficult quantify using the physical methods
because of poor sensitivity and spectral variation, and to compute because of uncertainty
about the mineral chemistry and chemical
variation in these rocks. Despite these problems
the total clay curve shown in Fig. 4 shows
surprisingly good agreement over the range of
methods.
Discussion
The results described here came from a study of
mineral inversion methods to determine the way
in which the most accurate mineralogy log could
be obtained from a suite of geochemical logging
data. The chosen method would have to involve
calculation from the geochemistry, and validation of these results would need to be by
comparison with some independent method.
For the samples used in this validation a
particularly comprehensive dataset was available
from X R D and infrared ( M I N E R A L O G ) analyses made on the same samples. The latter, and
the geochemical analyses upon which the modal
calculations were based, were all measured on
aliquots of the same homogenized powder for
each sample. All measurements were, hence,
made on essentially the same material, and on
very similar volumes of the same material in
each case. In the comparisons made here there
is, therefore, no real problem of heterogeneity or
scaling (up or down) involved; just a simple
36
Conclusions
(1) There was generally good agreement between methods in the estimation of quartz,
total carbonate and pyrite. It is reasonable
to assume, but cannot be proven, that these
estimates are close to the 'true' values. It is
significant that those minerals which do
show good agreement between widely differing methods have fairly simple and limited
compositions (i.e. are stoichiometric).
(2) Agreement for the clay minerals and the
feldspars is much more variable due to
problems of sensitivity and spectral interference for the two physical methods of
analysis, and problems of uncertain mineral
composition and compositional co-linearity
for the computed models. Good agreement
is seen between methods for albite, even at a
low level, and kaolinite. The results for illite
and K-feldspar were comparatively poor
and it is considerably more difficult here to
judge which figures, if any, are close to the
correct values.
(3) Despite the problems with illite, excellent
agreement is seen between the methods for
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
References
ADAM,H. G., HARVILLE,D., MEER, D. & FREEMAN,D.
1989. Rapid mineral analysis by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Society of Core
Analysts, Annual Technical Conference Reprints,
v. 1 (198%1989), part II, Society of Professional
Well Log Analysts, paper SCA-8809, I.
ALBAREDE, F. & PROVOST,A. 1976. Petrological and
geochemical mass-balance equations: an algo-
37
P. K. HARVEY ET AL.
38
and application of rapid mineral analysis provided by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPE 18120, 141150.
HASTINGS, A. F. 1988. Using the derived elemental
concentrations to improve the accuracy of fluid
saturations determined from well logs. Transactions Spectroscopy and Geochemistry Symposium, Schlumberger-Doll Research, Ridgefield,
CT. Paper T.
HERRON, M. M. 1986. Mineralogy from geochemical
well logging. Clays and Clay Minerals, 34, 204213.
1987a Estimating the intrinsic permeability of
clastic sediments from geochemical data. SPWLA
28th Annual Logging Symposium. paper HH.
1987b. Future applications of elemental concentrations from geophysical logging. Nuclear
Geophysics 1, 197-211.
1988. Geochemical classification of terrigenous
sands and shales from core or log data. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, 58, 820-829.
& GRAU, J. A. 1987. Clay and framework
mineralogy, cation exchange capacity, matrix
density and porosity from well logging in Kern
County, California. American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, 71, 567 575.
HERFtON, M. M. & HERRON, S. L. 1998. Quantitative
lithology: open and cased hole application derived
from integrated core chemistry and mineralogy
data base. In." HARVEY, P. K. & LOVELL, M. A.
(eds) Core-Log Integration. Geological Society,
Special Publication 136 (this volume).
HERRON, S. L. & CHIARAMONTE,J. M. 1993. Impact of
element-to-mineral matrix concentration errors
on geochemical log interpretation. Nuclear Geophysics, 7, 375-381.
HERTZOC, R. C. & PLASEK,R. E. 1979, Neutron excited
gamma-ray spectrometry for well logging. IEEE
Transactions on Nuclear Science, NS-26, 11581563.
, COLSON,L. SEEMAN,B. O'BRIEN, M. SCOTT,H.
MCKEON, D. WRAIGHT, P. GRAU, J. A. ELLIS, D.
SCHWEITZER, J. ~ HERRON, M. 1987a, Geochemical logging with spectrometry tools. SocieO'of
Petroleum Engineers, SPE 16792, 447-460.
, SORAN, P. D. ~ SCHWEITZER, J. S. 1987b.
Detection of Na, Mg, A1 and Si in wells with
reactions generated by 14 MeV neutrons. Nuclear
Geophysics, 1,243-248.
- - ,
COLSON,L. SEEMAN, B. O'BRIEN, M. SCOTT,H.
McKEON, D. WRAmHT, P. GRAU, J. A. ELLIS, D.
SCHWEWZER,J. & HERRON, M. 1989. Geochemical
logging with spectrometry tools: SPE Formation
Evaluation, 4, 153-162.
IMBRIE, J. & POLDERVAART,A. 1959. Mineral compositions calculated from chemical analyses of sedimentary rocks. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
588-595.
-
29,
P. D. J A C K S O N , 2 T. S. B R E W E R , 1 G.
1 & C. G. W I L L I A M S 1
measurements. Measurement process, resolution, scale and quality must be appreciated for
each dataset. Calibration of measurements involves the use of standards to enable
quantitative comparisons locally or globally; this may involve inter-dataset comparison and
the process of equalization with the modification of one dataset in preference for another.
Calibration should not be confused with integration which aims to maximize the
information in an optimal manner and may require the selective choice of data. The clear
recognition of the aims of the study at the earliest opportunity enables the best choice of
strategy from measurement acquisition through to integration. The final interpretation
should realize the original aims but must be compatible with all observations.
The integration of core and log data represents
one of the many attempts to utilize geological
data obtained by measurements at different
scales. This use of data from different sources
involves the reconciliation of different observations which may be inter-related through their
inherent property or physical basis (e.g. laboratory and in situ velocities or porosities), or
through their similar volumes of interrogation
(e.g. porosity and permeability measurements on
core plugs). Alternatively the data to be integrated may not be related in either of these ways
(e.g. core descriptions and FMS images).
Integration involves the reconciliation of such
data in a way which is defined by the overall
aims and objectives of the study. It may involve
the calibration of one dataset through some
equalization procedure, whereby one dataset is
assumed to be correct. Another scenario is
where the two or more datasets are integrated
through the selective addition of components to
enhance the overall picture of the formation
represented both downhole and in the recovered
core. These datasets may be multiple measurements of the same physical parameter by
different techniques or measurements of completely different parameters, In this latter approach each dataset is respected for both its
inherent fundamental nature and scale, both
datasets are assumed to be correct, neither
dataset is defined as superior in preference to
the other, and the interpreter attempts to extract
the maximum information from the total data
available.
Today we are faced with core and log data in
increasing quantity and sophistication. Integration of core and log data concerns the combina-
LOVELL,M. A., HARVEY,P. K., JACKSON,P. D. BREWER,T. S., WILLIAMSON,G. & WILLIAMS,C. G.
1998. Interpretation of core and log data--integration or calibration? In."HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,
M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 39-51
39
40
~ AIMS/OBJECTIVES ~
If
MEASUREMENT
scale - resolution ~
quality ~
~-
'
'
'
'
'
precision / a c c u r a c y / bias
J
800
I000
1200
1400
16IX)
18(l(I
20(~)
(CALIBRATION1
absolute - relative
equalisation
"(INTEGRATION~/
-"--~ 1
k
selective addition
reconciliatiotl
Measurement
Measurements are made to determine the value
of some parameter. Unfortunately the parameter we are often interested in (for example
porosity) cannot be measured directly but is
obtained indirectly through the subsequent
processing of raw measurements of a related
parameter(s). The relationship between the
measured parameter(s) and the derived parameter may have a well-constrained physical
basis (for example density estimates from
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION?
41
Fig. 3. Averaged estimates of matrix density at the boundary of a calcite dogger in the North Sea (after Lofts
1993). The shaded area represents the difference between averaged log (line) and actual core estimates (dots).
Resolution
Resolution concerns the minimum separation
between two features such that the two features
can be identified individually rather than as one
combined feature (see for example Sheriff &
Geldart 1982). In terms of log measurements this
relates to the physical separation of two features
along the length of the well (usually in a vertical
sense assuming a vertical drillhole). With respect
to core measurements this definition equally
applies, although it may be complicated by the
consideration of lateral variations or heterogeneities visible in the core sample. While the
concept of resolution is easily described, the
strict numerical definition of it varies. Theys
(1991) provides a theoretical definition of log
vertical resolution: 'The full width at half
maximum of the response of the measurement
to an infinitesimally short event'. He then
includes other non-attributable definitions from
elsewhere in the literature: qualitative: vertical
resolution is the minimum distance, x such that
the logging tool is able to resolve distinct events
separated by this distance; quantitative: vertical
42
M. A. LOVELL E T AL.
Fig. 4. Comparison of three different imaging measurements on a single core and their inherent sampling volumes.
Given the different nature of the measurements the similarity of images is unusual, and this is probably due
primarily to the orientation of the fabric perpendicular to the length of the sample and the simplicity of the pore
structure.
(e.g. frequency) and the actual physical dimensions over which the measurement is made (e.g.
size and shape). Typically, scale may be defined
quantitatively with precise descriptions of the
size and shape of the measurement (see for
example Clark 1979 or H o h n 1988). It is linked
to the measurement technique and hence the
design of the tool. Except in isotropic, homogenous media the different aspects of scale will
be important and will contribute to the measurement data value. Scale may also be linked to the
resolution of the measurement. A simple example of the effect of scale concerns the measurement of porosity on core plugs. Doveton (1994)
shows how for two porosity datasets extracted
by Baker (1957), respectively from whole core
and plugs, the mean values may be the same but
the variability of the whole core is less than that
of the plugs. There is an apparent rotation of the
relationship between the two porosity determinations in which the extremes in the smaller
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION?
samples are averaged out. Doveton (1994)
emphasizes that this core-based example is
equally applicable to the different volumes
sampled by core and log measurements.
As an example of the importance of scale,
consider a series of different measurements in the
laboratory on a sample of Penrith Sandstone
(Fig. 4). In addition, the role of orientation of
the measurement is also considered. Orientation
becomes important where the rock is not both
homogeneous and isotropic (i.e. for most
measurement scenarios in nature). In this
specific experiment the sandstone is an aeolian
deposit, comparable to the Rotleigendes of the
North Sea, of Permian age. It is characterized as
a clean reservoir-type sandstone with rounded
quartz grains, quartz overgrowths, and an
absence of clay phases. Generally the quartz
overgrowths reduce the porosity and increase
resistance to both electrical and fluid flow
(Harvey et al. 1995). The three images in Fig. 4
were obtained through the application of measurements at the same spacing to the upper
surface of the slab (see Jackson & Lovell 1991;
Lovell & Jackson 1991; Harvey et al. 1995).
Porosity was measured using image analysis of
the essentially 2-D surface visual texture, whilst
permeability was determined using minipermeametry measurements which involve transient
pressure impulses at point locations, again on
the upper surface. Conductivity refers to the
electrical conductivity (inverse of resistivity) and
was measured by an array of surface mounted
potential electrodes with remote electrodes
passing a uniform current through the full
volume of rock. The three comparable images
relate to very different volumes of rock: the
porosity data is restricted to the surface, whilst
the permeability investigates a hemispherical
volume of rock (in homogenous isotropic
material); in contrast the conductivity is an
average value integrated over a vertically orientated rectangular prism. Given these significant
differences in both scale and orientation the
images may not always show good correlation
although as the figure demonstrates, for the
Penrith Sandstone, with its relatively simple
structure, there is a reasonable relationship
between the different properties. This is in part
because the sands that we have studied are
relatively uniform, but perhaps more importantly the primary fabric of the samples is
perpendicular to the longest axis. In less homogeneous materials the different sample volumes
investigated would lead to greater disparity
between the images. In this way different
measurements may perceive different degrees of
homogeneity as a function of the sample volume
43
44
accurate but
imprecise
accurate and
precise
parameter value
)
parameter value
parameter value
inaccurate and
imprecise
inaccurate but
precise
L
parameter value
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of the concepts of accuracy and precision (after Kimminau 1994).
Calibration
Calibration is the process by which measurements are compared with known standards for
the purpose of enabling the quantitative comparison of measurements. Thus, calibration
requires samples for which supposedly 'true'
values are known in order that accuracy may be
defined (Ruth & Pohjoisrinne 1993). This
calibration procedure may involve recourse to
local standards in which case the calibrated
measurements may be termed relative. Locally
calibrated data can be easily compared and used
without knowledge of their relationship to
world-wide measurements of the same parameter. These local standards may, in turn, be
INTEGRATION
i
16
OR CALIBRATION?
' I
45
i
9
i
i
d
17
9
Leg 154
Hole 926B
19
Ceara Rise
20
9 iI
i
J
i
22
5
% CaCO 3
Fig. 6. CaCO3 estimates by two different methods, b o t h with c o m p a r a b l e precision, for O D P Hole 926B, Ceara
Rise. There is no reason to d o u b t either o f the datasets (mbsf: metres below sea floor).
46
Fig. 7. Reconciliation of different measurements of electrical resistivity formation factor (FF) at different scales
(the formation factor is the rock resistivity normalized with respect to the resistivity of the saturating fluid). The
horizontal bar is from a standard industry minicore measurement, the continuous plots are derived from
resistivity imaging. Averaging the high resolution log provides a lower resolution log (dots) which approaches the
value of the minicore.
are the standards by which in situ log measurements are compared (e.g. nuclear spectroscopy
logs), each method must be examined carefully
to determine experimental limitations, accuracy
and precision in testing, as well as potential
mineral alteration processes that can occur when
a rock is sampled.
Given a satisfactory understanding of our
measurement base we can proceed to analyse the
data. Often we are concerned with combining
two datasets of the same parameter with the aim
of producing one, more complete dataset. In this
way core data may supplement sections of log
data, or indeed duplicate it. The normal
procedure here is to assume that one of the
datasets is correct and to adjust the other to
create a best fit. This equalization can create
better coverage of the total borehole section but
will inevitably involve manipulation of at least
one dataset and the loss of inherent absolute
values. This is a standard approach to so-called
core-log integration. Unfortunately it does not
consider discrepancies between the two measurement sets created by different measurement
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION?
the length of the minicore; in this way the
smoothed log (dots) is effectively a stepwise
integration over the image. As with the CaCO3
estimates shown in Fig. 6, neither dataset is
incorrect: both have supporting calibration data
referenced to standard materials, but each
dataset provides the interpreter with a different
perspective of the sample, effectively a different
representation of the truth. The image data
provides fine detail relating to the structure
whilst the minicore provides an average value
(though not a simple arithmetic or statistical
average). Through correct averaging of the high
resolution log there is a remarkable match with
the minicore measurement at a similar resolution.
A related problem occurs when we are trying
to predict petrophysical properties from unrelated logs. Often we derive statistical models or
empirical relationships which have no physical
foundation but which satisfactorily estimate the
parameter of interest at each log depth. Effectively we calibrate our model or algorithm to
give answers which are compatible with laboratory or borehole experiments of an unrelated
nature.
These data demonstrate that the problems of
data integration are present at all scales, and
whilst this contribution refers explicitly to log
and core data the principles remain true for
integrating these data with smaller scale (thin
section, SEM) and larger scale (VSP, seismic
reflection) data.
Integration
Integration involves the reconciliation of datasets with or without the equalization involved in
calibration procedures. Often this will include
the selective addition of data. Different datasets
may relate to the same measurement, the same
scale, or either or both of these attributes may be
different. The overall aim of integration is to
maximize the i n f o r m a t i o n available in an
optimal manner. Towards this aim, the objective
is not simply to compare data but to constrain
and characterize some geological process or
effect.
The effects of sample size and tool resolution
in core-log integration is easily demonstrated by
a simple Monte Carlo experiment which could
go some way to explaining the variation seen in
the CaCO3 estimates shown in Fig. 6. In this
particular experiment (Fig. 8) a 30 m section of
oceanic sediment, with basaltic lava flows, was
simulated to evaluate the suitability of core
measurements as guides to the accuracy of
geochemical log measurements. The section,
47
48
interpretation
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION?
resistivity
(ohm-m)
smoothed pixel
value
mean pixel
value
49
permeability
(roD)
porosity
(%)
i j
0
-4
o , .t-_.
........ 9
JO
.... 0"2 4
O. . . . . . .
Ik
e-..t
--|ii.
11
"lP.
e..
i~ 9i:e
e r e ....
:,
.!
ie
k
3
165
175
185
160
170
180
2000
4000
i 2
k
20
i
40
Fig. 10. Electrical resistivity data and optical data for an aeolian sandstone. There is a remarkable correspondence
between the two datasets for this clean sandstone, yet the raw optical data provide a higher resolution dataset
than the resistivity data, enabling inference of the fine-scale resistivity structure of the sample.
phy derived solely from core and that derived by
integrating core and log information.
Here the problem may initially be seen as one
of constraining the downhole data through
selected core observations, knowing that the
recovered core is present in the drilled section,
and utilizing the downhole data to extend the
interpretation to the full depth of the hole.
However, the core data are inherently biased,
due possibly to preferential sampling of some
lithologies, incomplete recovery, and the defined
criteria and procedures used to identify and
extrapolate recovered material over the total
depth drilled. Thus whilst the core does indeed
represent the truth, its allocation to a particular
lithology, distribution with depth and continuity
may be questioned. In contrast the FMS images
are relatively new and lack precise calibration in
terms of textural detail and lithological responses. They are usually continuous and are
based on electrical, not visual, properties which
may or may not be equable, and whose equality
may vary within the hole. These images proba~ contain bias in addition to that within the
core. Thus, rather than accept one dataset in its
entirety as the truth and reject the other, it
would be better to use the ground-truth of the
recovered and described core as calibration
points for the interpretation of the downhole
images. This would ideally include the measure-
50
M. A. LOVELL ET AL.
INTEGRATION OR CALIBRATION?
MURPHY, R. B. 1969. On the meaning of precision and
accuracy. In. Ku, H. H. (ed.) Precision Measurement and Calibration. Statistical Concepts and
Procedures. United States Department of Commerce National Bureau of Standards Special
Publication 300, 1, 357-360.
OWENS~J. 1994. Fit-for-purpose data during field life.
The Log Analyst, 35, 58-60.
RUTH, D. & POnJOISRINNE, T. 1993. The precision of
grain volume porosimeters. The Log Analyst, 34,
29-36.
SHERIFE, R. E. & GELDARX, L. P. 1982. Exploration
Seismology volume 1. history, theory and data
acquisition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
SIES, H. 1988. A new parameter for sex education.
51
& M. S. S A M S 1
Methods have been developed for the quantification of the errors arising from the sampling of
one site, by either a single or multiple samplers.
For a single sampler, the methods have been
applied both to the use of a single sampling
protocol (Ramsey 1993) or comparisons between several protocols (Ramsey et al. 1995b).
For the case of multiple samplers, different
m e t h o d s have been devised d e p e n d e n t on
whether all samplers were applying the same
protocol (Ramsey et al. 1995a) or different
protocols (Argyraki et al. 1995). Applications
of these methods were made for the estimation
of heavy metals on contaminated land, but the
methodologies are equally applicable, in principle, to the measurement of elemental variation
within a borehole using a GLT.
This paper considers how estimates of measurement uncertainty can be derived, particularly for the case of a single sampler using a
single protocol, utilizing a previously published
case study (Sams et al. 1995). The objectives of
RAMSEY,M. H., WATKINS,P. J. & SAMS,M. S. 1998. Estimation of measurement uncertainty for in situ
borehole determinations using a geochemical logging tool In: HARVEY,P. K. 8~; LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 53-63
53
M. H. RAMSEY ET AL.
54
the work are therefore:
55
farm in Northumberland have been given elsewhere (Sams et al. 1995). In brief, GLT
measurements were made on a 40m length of
borehole drilled through a single Namurian
cyclothem, with varied lithologies (Fig. 1).
The GLT has been described in detail by
Hertzog et al. (1987) and uses three different
measurement techniques:
(i) The natural radioactivity of K, Th and U
is used for their determination with a
N a t u r a l G a m m a Ray Spectrometer
(NGS; Mark of Schlumberger). The count
rates obtained are directly proportional to
the mass per cent of the element, providing a borehole correction factor is applied.
(ii) A neutron source of 252Cf, emitting
neutrons at about 2.3MeV is used to
activate A1, which is determined using an
AACT; Mark of Schlumberger. Results
obtained are proportional to the weight
per cent of A1 after an environmental
correction is applied.
(iii) After neutron capture from a burst of 14
MeV neutrons, Si, Fe, Ca, Ti, S and Gd
are determined using a tau-gated thermal
neutron capture spectrometer with a
Gamma Spectrometer (GST; Mark of
Schlumberger). This procedure only provides relative concentrations of these
elements, and they have to be converted
to absolute values by imposing a closure
relationship on the results obtained.
An oxide closure relationship is imposed on
the results, in order to derive element concentrations from the raw GLT data It is assumed that
each element occurs as a single oxide or
carbonate in the formation and that the sum of
the oxide and carbonate fractions is unity. This
assumption is known to be in error, but it is
considered that the errors involved will be small
(< 5%) for most lithologies. The equation to be
solved is (Hertzog et al. 1987):
F(~,Xi Yi/Si) + XK WK -[- XA1WA1 = 1.0
where:
F is a calibration factor to be determined at each
depth point;
Yi is the fraction of the measured prompt
gamma rays attributed to element i;
Si is the tool sensitivity for element i;
Xi is the ratio of the mass of the associated oxide
or carbonate to the mass of element i.
The mass fractions of potassium and aluminium
(WK and WA1) must be first corrected for
56
Fig. 1. Variation with depth of concentrations of Si and Fe determined by the GLT (solid lines) and by ICP-AES
(solid circles). Plot (a) represents original data and plot (b) represents ICP-AES data depth-averaged (smoothed)
using a 1.4m square window. Sulphur was not determined by ICP-AES but demonstrates that the coal bands
(shown at 150 and 154.3m in the stratigraphic log) can be detected with by the GLT even with an estimated
random error of 71%.
57
Sampling design
25:1:5 cm
ca. 60cm
//
/
/ /
(1)
(2)
c+ Ur : C(1 + 2 0 ) + Uo
(3)
Ur% = 200Sc/C
(4)
c+ Ur=c(l + Ur%/lOO)+ Uo
(5)
58
Table 1. Estimates of uncertainty in concentration measurements made using the GLT, in the specified ranges of
concentration.
Element
Range
(mass-%)
Si
AI
Fe
Ca
K
Ti
S
044
0-12.5
0-13
0-38
0.5 2.8
0.1-2.7
0.6-5
Random
Error, Ur %
Uo
(mass-%)
2.7
7.6
12.1
5.0
n.d.
n.d.
71
1.80
0.62
0.18
1.28
0.48
n.d.
0.56
Translational
Bias, (mass-%)
- 1.53"
1.12"
0.34*
0.38
0.20*
0.003
n.d.
Rotational
Bias, %
3.5
- 10.1"
- 54.6*
4.3*
- 13.6
11.1
n.d.
Detection
limit (mass-%)
Si
A1
Fe
Ca
K
S
2.70
0.92
0.26
1.92
0.71
0.56
High-level
Precision,% (Is)
1.35
3.83
6.05
2.51
n.d.
35.45
(a)
59
(b)
1.4-
1.2"
o.
1.0-
.o
3.0
0.8-
0.6-
2.0
0.4-
0.2-
.o'o
o.
0.0
10
(A)
20
30
'
40
I
1
I
2
'
GLT Si (mass %)
I
3
I
4
'
I
5
I
6
'
I
7
i
8
l
9
GLT Fe (mass %)
(a)
(b)
100
80
60
60
"
,m~
"0
zo "
"
10
(U)
20
'
"
30
0
40
GLT Si (mass %)
GLT Fe (mass %)
Fig. 3. Random component of uncertainty as a function of concentration for Si and Fe. (A) expanded uncertainty
Ur; and (B) relative expanded uncertainty Ur%. For Si the Ur% values tend toward a low asymptotic value
(2.7%) but for Fe this value is much higher (12.1%).
60
Silicon
Iron
25
4O
20.
E~
~r
15'
10"
I'--
(5
5.
9 .~':.':d'.'-..' ":'
, ' , '
i , , , ,
10
~ , , , ,
20
L,,,
,i,
30
40
,,,
50
10
15
20
25
Fig. 4. Graphical representation of systematic uncertainty (i.e. bias) between measurements made by the GLT and
ICP-AES. The solid line represents the line of equality for zero bias, and Fe measurments in particular show a
distinct deviation from this line.
+ BR/100 )
Uo + BT (7)
61
Discussion
The calculations used to estimate the overall
uncertainty of Si and Fe are equally applicable
for the other elements measured by the GLT,
but there are a number of limitations which may
mean the values obtained are under-estimates.
There are other causes of 'random' error in
the measurement system that have not been
investigated. In contaminated land measurements it has been shown that multiple applications of the same measurement protocol, on
different occasions, by different operators,
causes appreciable increases in the uncertainties
(Ramsey et al. 1995b). When different measurement protocols are selected to measure the same
quantity and applied by different operators then
the uncertainty increases even further (Argyraki
et al. 1995). This suggests that a more rigorous
estimate of the uncertainty for the GLT measurements would require the use of similar interorganization trials with both multiple users of
one technique, the comparison of a number of
probes in the same borehole, and the use of
closely spaced duplicate boreholes to investigate
lateral sampling errors, and small scale geochemical variability.
A further limitation of the method reported
here is that it assumes that the ICP-AES analysis
provides an 'accepted reference value' as required by ISO for the detection of bias (ISO
1993b). Although the ICP-AES was calibrated
using ten certified reference materials this does
not ensure zero bias. This partially because the
recommended values for these reference materials also have specified uncertainties, but more
especially due to the problems of matching the
sample volume. A better solution to the second
62
M. H. RAMSEY ET AL.
Conclusions
1. Methods are available to estimate the
uncertainty of measurements made with
the GLT.
2. The random component of the uncertainty
can be estimated at a basic level, from a
replicate set of measurements from the
same borehole.
3. The random component of the uncertainty
can be estimated from the chemical analysis of core material by a technique such as
ICP-AES, which can be linked directly to
'accepted reference values' of concentration
as required by ISO. The uncertainties in the
analyses by the method used for comparison (in this case ICP-AES) need to be
assessed, but for the ICP-AES method they
were much smaller than differences between the measurement techniques. There
are also problems with this approach in
allowing for the effects of different volumes
of rock sampled.
4. Progressively more realistic estimates of
uncertainty would require the use of
different operators, on different occasions,
even with different probes in inter-organization trials.
5. There is a financial need to derive acceptable levels of uncertainty for particular
applications, but further case studies reporting uncertainties must be examined
before this will be feasible.
We would like to thank D. Filmer who performed the
ICP-AES analyses. We would also like to thank Agip,
Amoco, BP, Elf, Mobil, NERC, Schlumberger and
Statoil who funded the Imperial College borehole test
site. The third author also acknowledges assistance
given by Petronas Research and Scientific Services to
enable this work to be completed.
References
ANALYTICAL METHODS COMMITTEE 1995. Uncertainty
of measurements: implications of its use in
analytical science. Analyst, 120, 2303-2308.
ARGYRAK1,A., RAMSEY,M. H. & THOMPSON,M. 1995.
Proficiency testing in Sampling: Pilot study on
Contaminated Land. Analyst, 120, 2799-2804.
63
Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density wireline logs
from measurements on outcrop exposures and samples: examples from
the Upper Jurassic, England
Z. M. A H M A D I 1 & A. L. C O E 2
AHMADI,Z. M. & CoE, A. L. 1998. Methods for simulating natural gamma ray and density wireline
logs from measurements on outcrop exposures and samples: examples from the Upper Jurassic, England
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-LogIntegration,Geological Society, London,
Soecial Publications, 136, 65-80
65
66
VALEOF PEWSEY
SUB-BASIN
~'~'-"""-.,~
Ashdown 1
ST DORSET
"l~
IV
7o
CENTRAL CHANNEL
SUB-BASIN
s*o
10 km
'
'
9L0
!-8o
'~.,~ c '7
i ~'-"
,'
.'~
~"~-'~-~
/\ ( / - - Q
~/:-~~
~"~-
""
9 '
encomoe
l
9
80
I
~-7~-
B~YJ
t . . -. > . ". . ~ '
-70
'~
L,-~
90
I
9>
~,~
(
~v
' 3-11 / 89
98/11 4
.~~-
lb
DORSET
W E
. .Y. M
. .f ). I .I T
. .I -. - I
70
SY0'0sz
Hamcliff Blackhead
~ Redcliff/
ran Point
Y ~ I S" 2raRingstead Bay
7"---.~ (
WESSEX BASIN
WEALD SUB-BASIN
-s,,)
90
9
"~
Detention 1 ~ /..._-f
"~-~"--,,.,.~
~0
9 BletchingleyI ~
Collendean
Farm 1
80-
SWANAGE
St.Alban's
Head
70Sy00LSZ
10
I
Fig. 1. Maps showing the main structural features of the Wessex Basin (after Whittaker 1985) and the location of
boreholes and Upper Jurassic exposures. (a) Boreholes in the Weald Sub-basin and position of Fig. l(b). (b)
Details of the location of boreholes and outcrops in the Dorset area.
between Weymouth and Swanage, which is at
the edge of the Central Channel Sub-basin.
Boreholes Encombe 1 (SY 9446 7785), 98/11-1
(SZ 1187 8386) and 98/11-3 (SZ 1329 8459) are
on the up-thrown northern edge of the Central
Channel Sub-basin, and borehole 98/11-4 (SZ
1187 8084) is in the Central Channel Sub-basin.
Winterbourne Kingston 1 (SY 8470 9796) borehole is in the Dorset Sub-basin and Marchwood
1 (SU 3991 1118) is in the Mere Sub-basin. All of
the other boreholes mentioned are from the
Weald Sub-basin, a moderately deep graben in
the eastern part of the Wessex Basin (Fig. 1).
The Oxfordian Stage is represented in the
lower part by mudstones of the Upper Oxford
Clay Formation and in the upper part by the
67
68
a)
Mass of effective
sample = 49 kg
assuming a density
of 2.8 g/cm3
)ept~ =
b)
'
Diameter = 84 c)C
m.
~"
Cliff face
Borehole
Fig, 2. Sampled volume for a portable gamma ray
spectrometer compared to a wireline gamma ray
sonde. (a) Dimensions of the sampled volume for a
portable spectrometer (modified from Lovborg et al.
1971). (b) Typical orientation and position of the
sampled volume for the portable gamma ray spectrometer as used in this study. (c) Spherical sampled
volume for a wireline gamma ray sonde in a borehole.
This depends on the speed at which the tool is drawn
up the hole, as well as the density of the rocks, but
typically has a radius of 30 cm (Rider 1991). The
sampled volume tends to a more ellipsoidal shape
when the tool is drawn up the borehole faster.
Fig. 3. Composite field gamma ray log for the Upper Jurassic succession exposed between Furzy Cliff and St.
Alban's Head, Dorset, measured using the geoMetrics GR310 portable gamma ray spectrometer, plotted against
the wireline gamma ray log from borehole 98/11-4 (SZ 1187 8084). Gaps in the composite field log are due to lack
of exposure or non-accessibility of the section with a portable gamma ray tool. See Fig. 1 for location of borehole
and outcrop sections.
69
70
Z . M . A H M A D I & A. L. COE
Density logging
Wireline density logs record the bulk density of
rocks, by emitting gamma rays into the formation and recording the number of back-scattered
gamma rays at a fixed distance from the source.
The bulk density is a function of the density of
the matrix and the density of the fluids in the
pore space. Therefore any attempt to construct a
field density log with the same character and
resolution as the wireline density log has to take
into account the density of the matrix and the
density of the pore fluid. The vertical resolution
for older single-detector tools is 40 cm and for
more modern two-detector tools is 25 cm (Serra
1984).
71
Fig. 4. Comparison of the field gamma ray logs measured using the Exploranium GR320 and the geoMetrics
GR310 portable gamma ray spectrometers, for that part of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation exposed between
Hobarrow Bay and Chapman's Pool, Dorset (SY 896 790-SY 955 771). For detailed sedimentological and
stratigraphical log of the section, for the definition of the bed group numbers which have partly been derived from
the literature and for formalization of the following beds; Clavell's Hard Stone Band, Little Stone Band and
Pectinatus Nodules, see Coe (1992). See Fig. 1 for location of outcrop sections.
72
Z.M.
AHMADI
& A. L. C O E
,~- o " o
~,..o
~-~o
~.~
~'~u~
~ ~
~.~=~
~'~_
>
0.j o*-~
.-~-~ .~ . ~
::s ~ " 0 ,,z=
0,.0
~9
~,. ~
~.~
.,..~
r~
~- .
~ ~ ~ 0
~ o ~ "~
~..~ ~ " 0
~-'~
p?,~,.0
N [-"
~. .~ =~ ~,~
.~~=~
~ ~ o
~ ~ ~~
CORRELATION
OF WIRELINE
73
~'~ ~
c~
0~, +-~ . ~
0.~ r'"
~.., r -~
..~
o "~ o
"~
~,~
U~g~~
-~
~-~-
~'~
~ ~
~ .~~
..~
~t"
'
9
~
'~
o=
m :-:,r-,I ~ N~..~
= ~ , - ~ - ~ ~, o
o== r ~
"~
74
C O R R E L A T I O N OF W I R E L I N E LOGS W I T H O U T C R O P
75
.0. 2
~
t"r
Oo,0
gr
~t'q
qgoo
oo
,9, , . ~ o o
~r/2
O,.~
~~
. ,.,,~
76
..=~
"-'
.._,
"0
0
0
0
0,-. ,,...~
g~
,~
~
0
o "
C O R R E L A T I O N OF W I R E L I N E LOGS WITH O U T C R O P
77
~ 4 ~ . ~84
,~e-~N
~o
~.=_
~ .,..-,
78
79
References
ADAMS, J. A. S. & GASPERINI, P. 1970. Gamma ray
spectrometry of rocks, Elsevier, Holland.
ATLAS WIREL1NE SERVICES. 1985. Log Interpretation
Charts. Western Atlas International, Inc.
ATLAS WIRELINE SERVICES. 1992. WDS advanced log
evaluation - documentation. Western Atlas International, Inc.
BESSA, J. L. & HESSELBO, S. P. 1997. Gamma ray
character and correlation of the Lower Lias, SW
Britain. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association,
108, 113-129.
CHAMBERLAIN,A. K. 1984. Surface gamma ray logs: a
correlation tool for frontier areas. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 68,
1040-1043.
COE, A. L. 1992. Unconformities within the Upper
Jurassic of the Wessex Basin, Southern England,
DPhil Thesis, University of Oxford.
1995. A comparison of the Oxfordian successions of Dorset, Oxfordshire, and Yorkshire. In:
TAYLOR, P. D. (ed.) Field Geology of the British
Jurassic. Geological Society, London, 151-172.
1996. Unconformities within the Portlandian
Stage of the Wessex Basin and their sequencestratigraphical significance. In: HESSELBO,S. P. &
PARKINSON, D. N. (eds) Sequence Stratigraphy in
British Geology, Geological Society Special Publications No. 103, 109 143.
COWAN, D. R. & MYERS, K. T. 1988. Surface gamma
ray logs: A correlation tool for frontier areas:
Discussion. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 72, 634-636.
Cox, B. M. & GALLOIS,R. W. 1981. The stratigraphy
of the Kimmeridge Clay of the Dorset type area
and its correlation with some other Kimmeridgian
sequences. Report of the Institute of Geological
Sciences, 80/4.
DAVIES, S. J. & ELLIOTT,T. 1996. Spectral gamma ray
characterisation of high resolution sequence
stratigraphy: examples from Upper Carboniferous fluvio~leltaic systems, County Clare, Ireland.
In: HOWELL, J. A. & AITKEN, J. F. (eds) High
Resolution Sequence Stratigraphy." innovations and
applications, Geological Society Special Publications No. 104, 25-35.
DYPVIK, H. & ERIKSEN, D. O. 1983. Natural radioactivity of clastic sediments and the contributions
of U, Th and K. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 5,
4094 16.
ETTENSOHN, F. R., FULTON, L. P. & KEPFERLE, R. C.
1979. Use of scintillometer and gamma ray logs
for correlation and stratigraphy in homogeneous
black shales. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, part II, 90, 828-849.
GALLOIS,R. W. 8z Cox, B. M. 1974. Stratigraphy of the
Upper Kimmeridge Clay of the Wash area.
Bulletin of Geological Survey of Great Britain,
47, 1-16.
HANCOCK,F. R. P. & MITHEN,D. P. 1987. The geology
of the Humbly Grove Oilfield, Hampshire, UK.
In: BROOKS, J. & GLENNIE, K. (eds) Petroleum
Geology of North West Europe, Graham & Trot-
80
man, 161-170.
HESSELBO, S. P. 1996. Spectral gamma ray logs in
relation to clay mineralogy and sequence stratigraphy, Cenozoic of the Atlantic Margin, offshore
New Jersey. In: MOUNTAIN, G. S, MILLER, K. G,
BLUM, P., POAG, C. W. & TWlCHELL, D. C. (eds)
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Scientific Results, 150.
LOVBORG, L. 1984. The calibration of portable and
airborne gamma ray spectrometers - theoo',
problems and facilities, Report Riso-M-2456, Riso
National Laboratory, Denmark.
& MOSE, E. 1987. Counting statistics in
radioelement assaying with a portable spectrometer. Geophysics, 52, 555-563.
, WOLLENBERG,H., SORENSEN,P. & HANSEN, J.
1971. Field determination of uranium and thorium by gamma ray spectrometry, exemplified by
measurements in the llimaussaq alkaline intrusion, South Greenland. Economic Geology, 66,
368-384.
MARTINSON,D. G., MENKE,W. & STOFFA,P. 1982. An
inverse approach to signal correlation. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 87, 4807~4818.
MELNYK, D. H., SMITH, D. G. & AMIRI-GARROUSSl,K.
1994. Filtering and frequency mapping as tools in
subsurface cyclostratigraphy, with examples from
the Wessex Basin, UK. In: DE BOER, P. L. &
SMITH, D. G. (eds) Orbital Jorcing and cyclic
sedimentary sequences, International Association
of Sedimentologists, Special Publications 19, 35
46.
, ATHERSUCH,J., AINSWORTH,N. & BRITTON, P.
D. 1995. Measuring the dispersion of ostracod
and foraminifera extinction events in the subsurface Kimmeridge Clay and Portland beds, Upper
Jurassic, United Kingdom. In: MANN, K. O.,
LANE, H. R. & SCHOLLE,P. A., Graphic correlation, Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists, Special Publications, 53, 185-203.
MYERS, K. J. 1987. Onshore-outcrop gamma ray
spectrometry as a tool in sedimentological studies.
PhD thesis, University of London.
- - &
BRISTOW,C. S. 1989. Detailed sedimentology
and gamma ray log characteristics of a Namurian
deltaic succession II: gamma ray logging. In:
WHATELEY, M. K. G. & PICKERING,K. T. (eds),
Deltas." Sites and traps for jbssil fuels, Geological
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& W1ONALL, P. B. 1987. Understanding
Jurassic organic-rich mudrocks
new concepts
using gamma ray spectrometry and palaeoecology: examples from the Kimmeridge Clay of
Dorset and the Jet Rock of Yorkshire. In:
LE~GETT, J. K. & ZUFFA, G. G. (eds) Marine
Clastic Sedimentology - concepts and case studies,
Graham & Trotman, London, 172-189.
PARKINSON,D. N. 1996. Gamma ray spectrometry as a
tool for stratigraphical interpretation: examples
from the western European Lower Jurassic. In:
HESSELBO, S. P. & PARKINSON, O. N. (eds)
Sequence Stratigraphy in British Geology, Geological Society Special Publications, 103, 231-255.
PENN, I. E., Cox, B. M. & GALLOIS, R. W. 1986.
Towards precision in stratigraphy: geophysical
log correlation of Upper Jurassic (including
Callovian) strata of the Eastern England Shelf.
Journal of the Geological Society, London, 143,
381-410.
RIDER, M. H. 1991. The geological interpretation of
well logs. Whittles Publishing, Caithness.
SCHLUMBEROER 1994. Log Interpretation Charts.
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Houston,
Texas.
SERRA, O. 1984. Fundamentals qf well-log interpretation
1. The acquisition of logging data. Developments
in Petroleum Science 15A. Elsevier, Holland.
SLATT, R. M., JORDAN. D. W., D'AGOSTINO, A. E. &
GILLESPIE, R. H. 1992. Outcrop gamma ray
logging to improve understanding of subsurface
well log correlation. In." HURST, A., GR1FFITHS, C.
M. & WORTHINGTON, P. F. (eds) Geological
Applications of Wireline Logs H, Geological
Society Special Publications, 65, 3-19.
TALWAR, A. D., HENDERSON, A. S. & HART, M. B.
1992. Simple gamma ray response of the Upper
Jurassic from the Dorset coast - a preliminary
investigation using the scintillometer profile technique. Proceedings of the Ussher Society, 8, 70-72.
VAN BUCHEM,F. S. P., MELNYK,D. H. & McCAvE, [.
N. 1992. Chemical cyclicity and correlation of
Lower Lias mudstones using gamma ray logs,
Yorkshire, UK. Journal of the Geological Society,
London, 149, 991-1002.
WmTTAKER, A. (ed.) 1985. Atlas of Onshore Sedimentary Basins in England and Wales: Post-Carboniferous Tectonics and Stratigraphy. Blackie,
Glasgow.
WORSSAM, B. C., IVIMEY-COOK, H. C. 1971. The
stratigraphy of the Geological Survey Borehole
at Warlingham, Surrey. Bulletin of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain, 36, 1-146.
The accurate determination of formation lithology from common geophysical logs is hindered
by a lack of sensitivity coupled with nonunique
responses to the minerals that reside in sedimentary rocks. The interpretation of lithology for the
purpose of wireline petrophysical evaluation or
geological characterization primarily consists of
estimating fractions of shale, sand, and carbonate. Nuclear logs, either gamma ray, photoelectric factor, and/or a combination of neutron
and density are the most commonly used logs for
lithology interpretation, A desire for improved
accuracy in Ethological description led to the
introduction of several generations of nuclear
spectroscopy logs. Recent developments in open
and cased hole logging have made it possible to
obtain accurate concentration logs for the
elements silicon, calcium, iron, sulfur, titanium,
and gadolinium at relatively low cost and high
logging speeds (Herron 1995).
A new lithological interpretation has been
developed to capitalize on these new logging
capabilities. It is founded on an extensive
database of core chemistry and mineralogy.
The new interpretation provides quantitative
estimates of: total clay, which is the sum of all
clay minerals; carbonate, which is the sum of
calcite and dolomite; anhydrite, which is the sum
of anhydrite plus gypsum; and quartz-feldsparmica (Q F-M), which is the remainder of the
formation essentially constituting the sand frac-
tion. The clay, carbonate, and quartz-feldsparmica portions of this interpretation have been
presented previously (Herron & Herron 1996).
This paper provides a brief introduction to the
new geochemical logging capabilities in both
open and cased holes and a detailed examination
of the new core-based interpretation.
HERRON, M. M. & HERRON,S. L. 1998. Quantitative lithology: open and cased hole application
derived from integrated core chemistry and mineralogy database. In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A.
(eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 81-95
81
82
M. M. H E R R O N & S. L. H E R R O N
200
3OO
4O0
500
e-
600
7OO
[}
800
900
0
50 0
20
40 0
10
20 0
10
20 0
2
4 0
20
40
Calcium wt%
Iron + .t4AI ~%
Sulfur wt%
Titanium wt%
Gadolinium ppm
Silicon wt%
Fig. 1. Openhole elemental concentrations from the Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS; Mark of
Schlumberger) sonde.
x 104
1.01
7-
r-.
.,....
1.03
.v
p,.
O..
g~
1.05
1.0"/
][
0
50 0
Silicon wt%
w
,
~,
20
40 0
10
20 0
10
20 0
2
4 0
20
40
Calcium wt%
Titanium wt%
Iron + 14AI wt%
Sulfur wt%
Gadolinium ppm
Fig. 2. Cased hole elemental concentrations from the (RST; Mark of Schlumberger) Reservoir Saturation Tool.
from an open hole Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS; Mark of Schlumberger) sonde. This
is a nuclear spectroscopy device which uses a
standard AmBe source and a BGO detector. It is
combinable and can log at up to 540 m hr -l (1800
fthr-~). Chemical concentrations measured on
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
'~176wo,:-.
/1
- /
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......... r
'O01we"/
Well6 ~ o ' o ~
I Well 7
"o /
Well i
I/:"
oL~ ." .
~176
w~176/
0
100
200
Gamma Ray
Well 10
100
200
Gamma Ray
100
200
Gamma Ray
100
200
Gamma Ray
Fig. 3. Synthetic gamma ray (computed from Th, U and K concentrations) plotted against total clay (kaolinite,
illite, smectite, chlorite and glauconite) measured on the same sample for 12 datasets. Although GR crudely
correlates with total clay, the slopes and offsets vary widely from well to well.
Core database
The development of the new quantitative lithology interpretation begins with a core database
that contains chemistry and mineralogy measurements on over 400 core plug samples from
numerous wells on four continents. The wells are
diverse in age and geographic location, but all
are predominantly sands and shaly sands.
To analyse the samples, rocks were crushed
and split with a microsplitter into chemistry and
mineralogy fractions. The chemistry fraction was
analysed at X-Ray Assay Laboratories using XRay fluorescence, neutron activation and induc-
(1)
84
%
~ 9 9 9
e 9 1 4 90 ~
10
20
Thorium ppm
e"
5
Uranium ppm
2.5
5
Potassium wt%
loo
+t
_~ so
o
t 9
.,'.;
+/
00
10
20
Aluminum wt%
1
Titanium wt%
.t
.
5
Gadolinium
10
20
40
loo[
r
t
o
25
Silicon wt%
50
15
Iron wt%
30
Calcium wt%
Fig. 4. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 3.
A1 shows a strong positive correlation that is mirrored by the negative correlation with Si.
dolomite, siderite, ankerite, magnesite, aragonite, gypsum, anhydrite, hematite, barite and
opal. Total clay is the sum of kaolinite, illite,
smectite, chlorite and glauconite. Although there
are significant amounts of mica, another layered
silicate, they are not included in the total clay
fraction. At high clay concentrations there is
sometimes interference between illite and mica
phases.
Exploring elemental relationships
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
~5o
~r1~176" i
I.=.
85
~ Jp
O0 e~ II
_r
Thorium ppm
--
5
10
Uranium ppm
2.5
Potassium wt%
100,
I.,../)--:-.
.=" -o-'
50
06
lb
Aluminum wt%
20
_.
5
Gadolinium
T'aanium wt%
10
100,
-%
~149
25
50
Silicon wt%
O~
15
Iron wt%
30
20
40
Calcium wt%
Fig. 5. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 5.
A1 again shows a strong positive correlation with clay. The negative correlation with Si is slightly perturbed by
high Fe siderite samples.
,100]
.fi"
:-
~0
I.%',,
10
Thorium ppm
20
~5oI '~:~"""
2.5
5
Potassium wt%
o
o
ee
9 9
e~po
d.'t' t
lb
Aluminumwt*/,
20
100
5
10
Uranium ppm
k,..'
100, ,
~~'
1
2
Titanium wt*/,
....
5
Gadolinium
20
10
.
9 00
u."
0
"4.
25
Silicon wt%
50
~
0
15
Iron wt%
30
Calcium wt%
40
Fig. 6. Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging against total clay for Well 6.
A1 shows a strong positive correlation. The anticorrelation with Si is significantly perturbed by carbonates.
86
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
100
87
Well I
.="/
Well5o
_~ s o
100
Well6
o/
-./
.
; Y
100
I Well9 /
Well8
.'.s/
Well1 2 ~
Aluminum
wt%
00
Alumi10num
wt%
20 0
10
'
20 0
Aluminumwt%
Alumi1()num
wt%
20
Fig. 7. Aluminium versus total clay for all 12 wells. The correlation with total clay is much tighter for aluminium
than for GR. In addition, the slopes are about the same and most wells show a near-zero offset.
88
5c
I~
+
100
....
~;
+ 50 /
,/,
tO
|
lOO
~ 50
0
Well1 /
Well1 0 /
lO
|
Aluminum wt%
20 0
Well 12
/
1'0
Aluminum
wt% 20 0
1'0
Aluminum
wt% 20 0
10
Aluminum
.......
wt% 20
Fig. 8. Aluminium versus total clay +mica for all 12 wells shows an even tighter and more universal relationship
than aluminium versus clay.
(2)
.r
89
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
20[a
I' b
o 'ot
06
5"0
100
100 - Si02
00
50
100
O Q
50
100
Fig.
9. Aluminium is estimated from the other major elements in sedimentary rocks. (a) A1 vs 100-SIO2 shows a
clear trend that is disturbed primarily by carbonates. (b) A1 vs 100 SiO2-siderite and dolomite shows a very tight
trend that is disturbed only by siderite and pyrite rich samples. (c) When the high-Fe minerals are corrected for, A1
can be estimated from Si, Ca and Fe.
2~ We"' /
"10I f
~< 0 U ;
Well 4
'
2~IWe,./,5
"
IlU'
2O
E
<
e
00
10
20 0
10
20
10
20 0
10
20 0
Aluminum Emulator
Aluminum Emulator
AluminumE m u l a t o r
Aluminum Emulator
Fig. 10. Aluminium estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe closely matches measured aluminium in all 12 wells.
which produces estimates of A1 with a correlation coefficient of 0.99 and a standard error of
0.6 wt% A1. Figure 10 presents a comparison of
measured A1 concentrations with those estimated
from equation (2) for each of the 12 wells.
Clearly, this is a robust means of estimating A1
from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe.
Quantitative lithology
The strong correlation between aluminium and
clay provides the cornerstone of the lithology
interpretation. This relationship can be quantified to estimate clay, and the elements calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur can be used to estimate
the other major mineralogical components. The
mineralogical fractions defined here are different
from the lithologies commonly used in log
interpretation. The main difference is that a clay
fraction rather than a shale fraction is computed.
According to Bhuyan & Passey (1994), shales
commonly have about 60 wt% clay minerals and
40 wt% Q - F - M . Using this ratio, a rock with 60
wt% clay is 100 wt% shale. The other difference
90
.,
]Well 1
,~
01r
ol00[Well5 " /
Well 4
Well 6
"
o /
./
./
jwey.
IWe"7/
Iwe"
0[/r
'O01we"9/
l/.
0
50
1O0 0
Estimated Clay
50
100
Estimated Clay
50
1O0 0
Estimated Clay
50
1O0
Estimated Clay
Fig. 11. Clay estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe plotted against total clay for all 12 wells is a near duplicate of
Fig. 7.
Estimating clay
(3)
C a C O 3 - M g C O 3 - 1.99Fe),
(4)
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
91
C a C O 3 - M g C O 3 - 1.99Fe)
(5)
loo ;g/
~,
5
50
0 ~0
50
1 oo
Estimated Clay2
Fig. 12. Clay estimated from equation (5) for feldsparrich sands and shales vs measured clay for Wells 11 and
l 2 (o) and Well 4 (+).
Estimating carbonate
The second c o m p o n e n t in this lithological
description is the carbonate fraction. The carbonate fraction will be determined from calcium,
but first we need to consider the calcium
concentration which we obtain from log data.
Pure calcite (CaCO3) formations have Ca concentrations of 40 wt%, and this concentration is
accurately reflected by log data. A complication
arises in dolomites (CaMg(CO3)2) because magnesium has not normally been detected by
spectroscopy logs. As a result, the log calcium
concentration in a pure dolomite is also 40 wt%
(see Hertzog et al. 1987 and Roscoe et al. 1995
for detecting Mg from logs). This is equivalent to
saying that the Ca detected by logs equals
C a + 1.455Mg, an expression that equals 40
wt% in either pure calcite or dolomite. Using
the core data base, calcite plus dolomite concentrations were optimized as a function of
(Ca + 1.455 Mg) to produce equation (6):
Calcite + Dolomite
- 7.5 + 2.69(Ca + 1.455Mg).
=
(6)
/ ,/
o
o
50
1 oo
Estimated Calcite + Dolomite
92
oo[
so
0
50
100
0
50
100
E~imated Clay wt%
Estimated Carbonate wt%
0
50
100
Estimated Q-F-M wt%
Fig. 14. Comparison of estimated and measured quantities of clay, carbonate, and quartz-feldspar-mica on
samples from all 12 wells.
Estimating quartz-feldspar-mica
The third component of the new lithological
description is the sand fraction composed
primarily of quartz, feldspars and micas ( Q - F M). This fraction is determined by subtracting
the clay and carbonate fractions from 100 wt%.
Figure 14 shows the estimated and measured
concentrations of clay, carbonate, and quartzfeldspar-mica for all 12 wells. In the reservoir
rocks, where clay content is less than 30 wt%,
the agreement between measured and estimated
concentrations is remarkably good for all components. In the shales, particularly where clay
exceeds 50 wt%, the interpretation tends to
under-estimate clay and over-estimate Q - F - M .
Obviously, the clay algorithm could be optimized
to give more accurate estimates in shales. The
carbonate estimates are good over the entire
dynamic range.
Estimating anhydrite
This three component lithological description is
easily modified to accommodate formations
containing significant amounts of anhydrite or
gypsum. The anhydrite estimate precedes the
carbonate estimate to separate carbonate calcium from anhydrite calcium. Two estimates of
anhydrite are made, one from sulfur and one
from calcium, according to stoichiometric relationships where the sulfur concentration in
anhydrite is 23.55 wt. % and the calcium
concentration is 29.44 wt.%.
Anhl = S/23.55
(7)
Anh2 = Ca/29.44.
(8)
(-920
+
e15
-E
"O
~r 1 0
<
5
I
10
20
30
Estimated Anhydrite wt%
40
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
concentrations from induced gamma ray spectroscopy logs and the derivation of the lithology
algorithms presented above.
To apply these relationships using the data
from Figs 1 and 2 requires that the clay
algorithms be modified to account for the known
aluminium interference in the iron measurement.
Equations (3), (4) and (5) for computing clay or
clay plus mica become:
ClayL = 1.91(100 -- SiO2 - CaCO3 - 1.99FeA1) (9)
Clay + MicaL = 2.43(100
-- SiO2 -
(10)
CaCO3-1.99FeA1)
(11)
93
20("
40(
=......
w
60(
80(
l_
t-t
100(
120(
F"-"
1400
160C
0
50
Clay, wt%
1 O0
50
Carbonate, wt%
1 O0
50
Quartz-Feld-Mica, wt%
1 O0
Fig. 16. Quantitative lithology logs for Well 8 using the openhole elemental concentration logs shown in Fig. 1.
FT-IR core measurements are provided for comparison.
94
!
w
1.03
[1.05
B
i
L
1.07
50
Clay, wt%
1 O0
~:"
0
i
50
Carbonate, wt%
O0
50
1 O0
Quartz-Feld-Mica, wt%
Fig. 17. Quantitative lithology logs for Well 3 using the cased hole elemental concentration logs shown in Fig. 1.
FT-IR core measurements are provided for comparison.
minerals in which they occur are generally
abundant.
The S i - C a - F e aluminium emulator gives a
demonstrably superior clay interpretation compared to that available from gamma ray. Its
strength lies in the near constant slope, small
degree of scatter, and near zero intercept. It is
also independent of fluid volume, type and
density, rendering it free from gas or light
hydrocarbon effects, unlike the neutron-density
separation.
The calcium log provides an unparalleled
carbonate estimation. It provides carbonate
quantification in complex lithologies. In heavy
barite muds, it easily and accurately locates
carbonate cementation at levels of 10 to 20 wt%
which were previously undetected by conventional log interpretation. The sulfur log provides
a very accurate estimate of anhydrite which is of
greatest value in carbonate/evaporate lithologies.
While the relationships presented here have
demonstrated a large degree of universality, each
algorithm can be further optimized on a field or
regional basis to give improved lithological
estimates.
References
BHVVAN, K. & PASSEY, Q. R. 1994. Clay estimation
from GR and neutron~tensity porosity logs,
QUANTITATIVE LITHOLOGY
KATAHARA, K. W. 1995. Gamma ray log response in
shaley sands. The Log Analyst, 36, 50--55.
MATTESON, A. & HERRON, M. M. 1993. Quantitative
mineral analysis by Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy, Society of Core Analysts Technical
Conference, August 9 11, 1993, SCA 9308.
RoscoE, B., GRAU, L, CAO MINH, C. (~; FREEMAN, D.
1995 Non-conventional applications of through-
95
Abstract: The Sellafield region, west Cumbria, is the focus of one of the most thorough
geological investigations in the United Kingdom. The Sellafield Site is defined as an area
immediately around the potential repository, extending 6.5 km north-south by 8 km eastwest. Twenty six deep boreholes were drilled within the area up to the end of 1995, with a
total depth of approximately 28 km. Most of these boreholes have been continuously cored,
a total of over 17 kilometres of core, with average core recovery well in excess of 90%. All
boreholes were logged with a comprehensive suite of geophysical logs, including many state
of the art tools. Laboratory physical property analysis of hundreds of sample cores has been
carried out.
Pilot studies were carried out to compare and contrast datasets and to investigate the
relationships between the different data scales. Various techniques, including fractal analysis
and Artificial Neural Networks, were tried in order to explore the relationships of these data
at a variety of measurement scales.
The pilot study was conducted in two stages:
(1) evaluation of the primary controlling factors of the physical properties;
(2) testing the validity of 'Up-scaling'.
The rocks of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group provided the most challenging problems
due to the physical properties being dominated by fracturing and associated alteration
zones.
Relationships between data types at different scales were established suggesting that the
extrapolation of properties derived from core and wireline logs across three-dimensional
seismic grids would allow an understanding of the properties throughout a threedimensional volume.
Nirex is responsible for the development of a
deep geological repository for solid, intermediate level and some low-level radioactive wastes.
Following preliminary geological investigations
of two sites, an area near Sellafield, west
Cumbria, was chosen in 1991 for further study.
The Nirex science programme aimed to assess
the suitability of the Sellafield site as the host for
the repository. Such an assessment required,
among other things, an understanding of the
geology and hydrogeological characteristics of
the area.
The Sellafield region in west Cumbria, England was the focus of one of the most detailed
site investigations projects ever undertaken. This
investigation aimed to characterize the geology
and hydrogeology of the site to determine
whether the site at Sellafield showed sufficient
promise of meeting regulatory targets to permit
Nirex to submit a planning application for a
deep repository. An underground Rock Characterization Facility (RCF) had been proposed
in order to allow more detailed characterization
of the geology and hydrogeology of the area
using direct observations from underground
KINGDON, A., ROGERS, S. F., EVANS, C. J. & BRERETON,N. R. 1998. The comparison of core and
geophysical log measurements obtained in the Nirex investigation of the Sellafield region.
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 97-113
97
98
A. KINGDON E T AL.
Fig. 1. Location of the Sellafield boreholes and the potential repository zone.
Data sources
High quality geological and geophysical data
have been acquired across the Sellafield region
during the site investigation. All twenty-six
boreholes have been geophysically logged using
comprehensive suites of state of the art tools,
including borehole imaging. In addition, the
boreholes have been extensively cored, allowing
continuous detailed geological and discontinuity
description to be undertaken. Detailed gravity
and magnetic survey data has been acquired
across the Sellafield region, as well as twodimensional seismic data.
The geology of the PRZ area has been the
subject of a highly detailed investigation. Up to
the end of 1995 eleven boreholes (Boreholes 2, 4
& 5; RCF1, 2 & 3, RCM1, 2 & 3; PRZ2 & 3)
were drilled within an area measuring only
1200 m by 800 m across the ground surface. All
penetrated to the BVG, the deepest borehole
99
Stud), o f velocity
Although many rock properties have been
measured at various scales, compressional velocity is one of the few to have been measured at
all scales, from core to seismic scale. It was
therefore chosen as the most representative
property for analysis as an example of the
average rock property behaviour. The compressional velocity of a rock formation is controlled
by the matrix density, the porosity and the fluid
composition.
Compressional velocity data for each of the
three data scales were derived by different
techniques. Core scale data for each of the main
rock types were provided by laboratory testing
on core samples. Wireline log scale data were
derived from sonic velocity logging. Larger scale
100
A. KINGDON ET AL.
Fig. 2. Percentage frequency histogram of bulk compressional velocity for the main stratigraphic units of the
PRZ.
Fig. 3. A graph of midpoint depth against compressional velocity for the St Bees Sandstone.
Fig. 4. A graph of midpoint depth against velocity for the Borrowdale Volcanics Group.
101
102
A. KINGDON ET AL.
NUMBER OF POINTS
103
95%
UPPER
QUARTILE
UPPER
QUARTILE
UPPER
QUARTILE
MEDIAN
MEDIAN
MEDIAN
MEAN
MEAN
MEAN
LOWER
QUARTILE
LOWER
QUARTILE
LOWER
QUARTILE
5%
FAULT PROPERTIES
BULK PROPERTIES
CORE PROPERTIES
5.0
1596
1378
?-7 10
1647
22
2411
2506
75
2293
2428
1627
18
2645
2605
2475
23611
121
59
4.5-
~'~ 4.0--
r~
tI
3.5-
3.0--
I ,.,
I ,.,
I -
I ~
i ~
i .~
i .~, i ,~
i ~.~ i ~
i ,0,, i ~.
BOREHOLE NAMES
Fig. 6. Box and whisker plot of compressional velocity for the St Bees Sandstone Group.
boreholes 3.4 to 3.8 k m s -1) than those of the
bulk rock as they were tested on dry samples (see
above). The fault data are also somewhat lower
(interquartile range for all boreholes 3.3 to 3.9
k m s 1). Whilst the interpretation of these two
104
A. KINGDON E T AL.
7.0
7238
85 t l i
5482
378 76
4950
104 75
168
389
27
3878
77
3@66
118
2911
23
14188
43
1480
28
3046
119
6.0
5.0"
4.0'
34896
1002 262
tt
ti
3.0
BOREHOLE NAMES
Fig. 7. Box and whisker plot of compressional velocity for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
Fig. 8. Cross-plot of density against neutron porosity fo the St Bees Sandstone Group showing depth as the z-axis.
105
Fig. 9. Cross plot of density against neutron porosity for the St Bees Sandstone Group showing gamma ray as the
z-axis.
106
A. KINGDON E T AL.
Fig. 10. Cross plot of shallow resistivity against neutron porosity for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
Fig. 11. Box and whisker plot of gamma ray for the Borrowdale Volcanic Group.
107
Fractals
A true fractal relationship is a relationship
between two variables that does not change
with scale. Whilst it is unlikely that any relationship is truly fractal in a natural system, if a
relationship could be demonstrated over a
number of orders of magnitude then this could
be used to justify up-scaling of data from one
scale to another. Figure 12 shows a diagrammatic fractal relationship, the Sierpinski Gasket.
Each size of triangles is related to the next
largest and next smallest size of triangles by the
same scale and geometric relationships, up to the
limits of page size in one extreme and print
resolution in the other.
An attempt was made to study discontinuities
in the Sellafield area at two separate scales:
distances between individual discontinuities
measured directly from the core and distances
between seismically resolved faults. This was
108
A. KINGDON ET AL.
Fig. 13. Log-log plot showing fractal distribution of borehole discontinuities in borehole 8B.
done firstly to assess whether fracture distributions were fractal at each scale and then to see
whether any link between data at the two scales
could be established.
Discontinuity separation
Various techniques have been derived to study
the fractal dimension for a distribution of
naturally occurring phenomena. This study was
carried out using the Spacing Population Technique (after Harris et al. 1991) which is both
straight forward and applicable to the type of
data to be examined.
The basic dataset for this study was the
borehole discontinuity log, produced for Nirex
by Gibb Deep Geology Group (GDGG) from
direct measurement of the core. This lists, for
each borehole, all the occurrences of faults,
veins, joints and other discontinuities, ordered
by depth. All discontinuities with a non-structural origin were removed, such as bedding
features, stylolites in the Carboniferous Limestone and those fractures in the core that were
induced by the drilling process.
Methodology
The Spacing Population Technique is based on
cumulative frequency distributions derived incrementally from large (infrequent) to small
y=ax - D
where: y = probability (cumulative frequency);
a = a prefactor;
x = the discontinuity spacing;
D = t h e line gradient (i.e. the fractal
dimension).
For a distribution to be considered fractal the
data should be linear across at least one order of
magnitude.
109
Fig. 14. Log-log plot showing fractal modelling of seismic scale faults for the base Carboniferous.
Methodology
In order to get an acceptable level of coverage of
fault features with a common resolution, offshore seismic reflection data from near the
Sellafield site were used for this study. Unlike
boreholes, which essentially sample a onedimensional environment, the interpreted seismic fault maps used in this part of the study
were two-dimensional in character. The dataset
in this case were fault maps stored in a database
of faults derived from V U L C A N software
modelling of the regional structure.
A different sampling technique was used in
order to develop cumulative frequency data. In
this case a two-dimensional 'box counting'
method was applied. This was done by overlaying the maps to be studied with grids of
110
A. KINGDON ET AL.
Fig. 15. Log-log plot showing fractal modelling of seismic scale faults for the base permo-trials.
faults
Two different seismic base maps of the East Irish
Sea basin were studied (Nirex 1995b); The base
Carboniferous (Fig. 14) and Base Permo-Triassic (Figure 15). Both showed very clear fractal
patterns over the scale range from 200m to
1 km, with regression coefficients of R 2= 0.999
in both cases.
Fractal patterns have been demonstrated over
two different scale ranges for discontinuity
spacing events. The regression coefficient for
both sets of events was very close to one (i.e. a
completely fractal pattern). However the scaling
exponents, sometimes known as the fractal
dimension, differ suggesting that fracture spacing is a scale dependent parameter. These
relationships provide evidence that up-scaling
of discontinuity events from features measured
in core and at the seismic scale are valid within
111
Fig. 17. Results of neural network modelling for RCFl: zonation of fracturing from actual and predicted fracture
frequency.
Fig. 18. Results of neural networks modelling for RCF2: zonation of fracturing from actual and predicted
fracture frequency.
Multi-layer preceptron
This study used a type of A N N called a multilayer preceptron (MLP) to model the relationship between core derived fracture frequency
and geophysical log measurements.
The MLP consists of a series of simple
processing elements (nodes) connected to one
another. In operation the node receives several
ll2
A. KINGDON ET AL.
Network training
Training was highly important to the performance of a neural network. Although it was
possible for ANNs to generalize and infer noise
obscured properties, the network response was
better where it has been trained by high quality
data. In this exercise data from boreholes in the
PRZ area were used to model the fracture
Conclusion
Whilst neither the fractals nor the artificial
neural network derived models showed exact
matches with the core derived data from which
they were extrapolated, both showed that there
was considerable scope for the belief that using
the correct criteria, it is possible to up-scale data
to match both wireline and seismic scale data.
The Rock Characterization Facility (RCF)
proposed at Sellafield requires detailed rock
properties to be derived from boreholes and
extrapolated across a wider area to allow for
prediction of the likely tunnelling parameters.
Where three-dimensional seismic survey data are
available across an area, it should be possible to
derive rock properties at a borehole scale and
extrapolate them across a three-dimensional
volume to give an accurate prediction of the
nature of the RCF site. This was dependent
upon a detailed knowledge of the rock properties and accurate correlation of core and seismic
properties.
The concept of up-scaling parameters derived
at one scale to another may be feasible but needs
113
References
BARNES, R. P., AMBROSE, K., HOLLIDAY, D. W. &
JONES, N. S. 1994. Lithostratigraphic subdivision
of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group in
West Cumbria. Proceedings of the Yorkshire
Geological Society, 50, 51-61.
BIRCH, F. 1960. The velocity of compressional waves in
rocks to l0 kilobars, Part 1. Journal of Geophysical Research, 65, 1083-1102.
CHADWICK,R. A., KIRBY, G. A. & BAILY,H. E. 1994.
The post-Triassic structural evolution of northwest England and adjoining parts of the East Irish
Sea. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological
Society, 50, 91-103.
CHAeLOW, R. 1996. The geology and hydrogeology of
Sellafield : an overview. Proceedings of the
NIREX seminar, 11 May 1994. Quarterly Journal
of Engineering Geology, 29, Supplement 1.
HARRIS, C., FRANSSEN, R. & LOOSVELD, R. 1991.
Fractal analysis of fractures in rocks: the Cantors
dust method-comment, Tectonophysics, 198, 189197.
HIRATA,T. 1989. Fractal Dimension of fault systems in
Japan: fractal structure in rock fracture geometry
at various scales. Journal of Geophysical Research.
94, 7507-7514
JACKSON,D. I., JACKSON,A. A., EVANS,D., WINGEIELD,
R. T. R., BARNES,R. P. & ARTHUR, M. J. 1995.
United Kingdom offshore regional report. the
geology of the Irish Sea. British Geological
Survey.
MILLWARD, O., BEDDOE-StEPHENS, B., WILLIAMSON, I.
T., YOUNG, S. R. & PETTERSON, M. G. 1994.
Lithostratigraphy of a concealed caldera-related
ignimbrite sequence within the Borrowdale Volcanic Group of west Cumbria, Proceedings of the
Yorkshire Geological Society, 50, 25-36.
NIREX, 1993. The Geology and hydrogeology of the
Sellafield area, Volume 1: The Geology. Nirex
report 524.
NIREX, 1995a. The Geology of the Sellafield Boreholes
Nos. 8A and 8B. Nirex report 638.
NIREX, 1995b. Sellafield geological and hydrogeological
investigations. Factual report-compilation of maps
and drawings, Volume 1 of 2. Nirex report SA/95/
02.
Abstract: A new methodological approach based on the analysis of core data, logs and highresolution electrical images of borehole surfaces (FMS) is developed in order to improve the
study of oceanic sediments from physical properties. This approach is tested on data
obtained in the context of the Ocean Drilling Program (Japan Sea, Leg 128, Hole 798B). The
downhole measurements and FMS images exhibit a cyclic pattern reflecting variations in
oceanic surface productivity combined with continental aeolian supply due to palaeoclimatic changes. On the basis of m-scale physical measurements, cm-scale FMS images and
measurements on core, the objective is to deconvolve the variations in sedimentary supply of
oceanic and continental components through time and to compute the intrinsic formation
factor versus depth. The latter topic is approached in two ways: first by conventional log
analysis, then with a new iterative forward modelling method. In the second case, the low
frequency electrical resistivity log (SFL) is modelled using a numerical modelling code
(Resmod2D e:) in order to obtain an accurate formation electrical resistivity model (Rt),
where individual beds are derived from FMS images. An analytical routine is also used to
model the natural gamma-ray measurement (CGR). While the conventional log analysis
allows deconvolution of the sedimentary supplies, the forward modelling leads to a greater
resolution and accuracy in more precise sediment characterization, such as that obtained
from the derivation of the formation factor.
115
LAUER-LEREDDE,C., PEZARD,P. A., TOURON,F. & DEKEYSER,1. 1998. Forward modelling of the
physical properties of oceanic sediments: constraints from core and logs, with palaeoclimatic implications.
In: HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special
Publications, 136, 115-127
116
C. LAUER-LEREDDE E T AL.
Fig. 2. Formation MicroScanner (FMS) micro-resistivity images from the ODP Hole 798B (from 200 to
300 mbsf). The images are azimuthal traces of the four
pads pressed along the borehole wall. Black represents
low resistivity, and white, high resistivity.
SVL
(Ohm m)
Opal
recovery
_
o~
~o
(wt%)
20 30
117
0.45
40
so
loo
0.55
0.65
100
OPAL
(%)
II0
10
lo
,,0
110
120
120
130
130
100
I
140
140
8
150
200 i
150
No data
2so
300
118
C. LAUER-LEREDDE E T AL.
Component
Densit~r
gcm -
PEF
ba e 1
CEC
meq gq
Illit e
Chlorite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Quartz
2.50
2.60
2.42
2.12
2.65
3.5
6.3
1.83
2.04
1.8
0.1-0.4
0.05-0.4
0.03-0.15
0.8-1.5
0
Illite
(%)
Chlorite
(%)
Kaolinite
(%)
Smectite
(%)
85
80
90
85
80
10
10
10
10
5
0
10
0
5
10
5
0
0
0
5
*The studied interval was split into five zones, each with a constant clay mineralogy, on the basis of Dersch &
Stein data (1992}.
20
40
Electrical Resistivity
B u l k density
(fl m)
(g ce-l)
60
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.4
1.6
Photoelectric effect
(ba/e')
1.9
2.2
2,6
119
N e u t r o n Porosity
(%)
6O
70
I 'T'" I
8O
I~l
II
220
240
260
280
41
Fig. 5. Downhole measurements from 200 to 300 mbsf in ODP Hole 798B.
Downhole measurements
120
C. L A U E R - L E R E D D E E T AL.
The aim is to analyse the downhole measurements in order to deconvolve both oceanic and
continental inputs. The model of the formation
consists of only two known inputs in unknown
proportions. Bulk and matrix densities (Pb, Pma,
g CC-1) and photoelectric effect (Pef, ba e-1) were
chosen to define proportions of the two components. Whereas Pb responds primarily to porosity, the Per responds primarily to rock matrix
(lithology). The combination of Pb and the Pef,
the photoelectric absorption cross-section
(Schlumberger 1994), is:
Log analysis
The downhole logs and core measurements,
associated with the proposed mineralogical
model, are used here to determine variations in
sedimentary inputs, and to compute the formation factor.
U = Pef x Pb
(1)
Uf-~-(1--(~) Uma
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
u~ = L #i Pefi Pmai
(7)
(8)
i=1,5
Computation o f the f o r m a t i o n f ac t or
The electrical resistivity of saturated sediments is
usually quoted in terms of a formation factor
(FF) to remove the effect of the pore-fluid
resistivity, because the grains themselves are
considered as insulators (Archie 1942):
FF = Ro Rw-1 = Cw Co 1
(9)
(10)
(11)
121
(12)
122
C. LAUER-LEREDDE ET AL.
Fig. 6. Log analysis results. (a) Grain density; from core (solid squares) and computed (solid line) (b) Opal
fraction from core (after Dunbar et al. 1992) and computed. (c) Computed continental sedimentary fraction. (d)
Computed CEC (derived from CGR) and Qv values. (e) Computed formation factor from definition (dash) and of
Waxman & Smits (1968) (solid).
Results
Grain density. The computed matrix density
(Fig. 6a) exhibits a high degree of variability.
The matrix density reflects the varying clay and
diatom contents. Diatoms tend to have low
densities, sometimes lower than 2.0g cm -3,
whereas clay minerals have densities ranging as
high as 2.80g cm -3 (Johnson & Olhoeft 1984).
The estimated values and the core measurements
are in general agreement over the interval,
although fine-scale correlations between the
two quantities are difficult. This difficulty results
mainly from the discrepancy between the core
and log measurements themselves. One of the
problem with gaseous sediment is that the core
recovery is often fragmented and the section is
expanded and disturbed, leading to differences
between the core and log depth-scales (e.g.
123
124
C. LAUER-LEREDDE ET AL.
C G R (API)
--- computed
- - measured
200
30
tl%[
50
I
C G R model
(API)
30
I
50
i
S F L (f2 m)
... computed
- - measured
I
II
I 4
0.5
1
0.7
I
Rt model
(fi m)
0~5
I
0.7
I
FFs
... from raw logs
-- from modelled logs
t
II
2.5
;ll=1
3.5
[
4,5
205
"-~21q
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Fig. 8. Forward modelling results. (a) Computed and measured gamma ray values (CGR). (b) Formation natural
gamma ray, from K and Th, model expressed in terms of CGR. (c) Computed and measured electrical resistivity
values (SFL). (d) Formation electrical resistivity model (Rt). (e) Formation factor as determined from downhole
measurements and the numerical model
model
Numerical modelling
Modelling code. Resmod2D ~ is a newly developed two-dimensional finite element numerical
code. It allows modelling of the response of
electrical resistivity downhole probes, such as
the Spherically Focused tool (SFL). In brief, a
formation resistivity model composed of horizontal sedimentary beds (layers) with fixed
thicknesses and resistivities, is entered in the
code in order to compute the response of the
probe in front of this formation. The resistivities
of the model are referred to as 'true', whereas the
computed resistivities (so the simulated response
of the tool) are referred to as 'apparent' because
125
E l o g = ~l Z
i=l,U
1)
(log(mi) -- log(ci)) 2
(14)
(15)
126
C. LAUER-LEREDDE ET AL.
Conclusions
The first results of the method using the raw logs
show that the proposed mineralogical model is
well representative of the sediment from ODP
Hole 798B. The photoelectric absorption crosssection (U) allows differentiation and computation of the oceanic and continental fractions.
The vertical resolution of the raw logs and of the
computed formation factor curve being however
poor in some zones, a new forward modelling
method is proposed in this paper to improve this
study.
The m-scale electrical log (SFL) and the
natural gamma ray log (CGR) are modelled
using cm-scale electrical images (FMS) to define
and map high-resolution layers, The first results
show that the Rt, C G R and F F models are more
precise than the Rm, C G R and FF obtained
from log analysis, insofar as the models bring
out small layers not detected by the raw logs.
The modelling approach allows the study of
changes from oceanic to continental supply
hence from interglacial to glacial periods: the
continental input tends to increase abruptly
from warm periods to colder ones suggesting
abrupt initiation of glacial cycle, whereas it
seems to decrease gradually from cold to warmer
periods.
This study provides a continuous description
of changes in intensity of the different sedimentary sources within the analysed interval. While
FMS images reveal the presence not only of
large-scale layers but also of thin (short) events,
the numerical modelling enhances the nonlinearity of m-scale logging devices, stressing
References
ARCHIE, G. E. 1942. The electrical resistivity log as an
aid in determining some reservoir characteristics.
Petroleum Transaetions of the AIME, 146, 54-62.
CAILLERE, S., HENIN, S., RAUTUREAU, M. 1982.
Min{ralogie des argiles. 2. Classification et nomenclature. Masson, Paris.
CLAVIER, C., COATES, G. DUMANOIR, J. 1977. The
theoretical and experimental bases for the dualwater model for the interpretation of shaly sands.
Society of Petroleum Engineers 52nd Annual Fall
Technical Conference of AIME, Denver.
DEMENOCAL, P. B., BRISTOWJ. F. & STERN,R. 1992.
Paleoclimatic applications of downhole logs:
Pliocene Pleistocene results from Hole 798B, Sea
of Japan. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
Program, Scientific Results, 127/128, 393407.
DERSCH, M. & STEIN, R. 1992. Pliocene-Pleistocene
fluctuations in composition and accumulation
rates of Polo-marine sediments at Site 798 (Oki
Ridge, Sea of Japan) and climatic change:
preliminary results. Proceedings of the Ocean
Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 127/128 (1),
409-422.
DREVER,J. I. 1982. The geochemistry of natural waters,
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey.
DUNBAR, R. B., DEMENOCAL, P. B. & BURCKLE, L.
1992. Late Pliocene-Quaternary biosiliceous sedimentation at Site 798, Japan Sea. Proceedings of
the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results,
127/128 (1), 439~455.
EKSTROM, M. P., DAHAN, C. A., CHEN, M.-Y., LLOYD,
P. M. & Rossl, D. J. 1986. Formation imagining
with microelectrical scanning arrays. Transactions
of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts,
27th Annual Logging Symposium, Paper 88.
ELLIS, D. V. 1987. Well logging/or earth scientists.
Elsevier, New-York.
FERTL, W. H. & Frost, E. 1980. Evaluation of shaly
clastic reservoir rocks. Journal of Petroleum
Teehnology, 31, 1641 1646.
FOLLMI, K. B., CRAMP, A., F(SLEMI, K. E., ALEXANDROVlCH, J. M., BRUNNER, C., et al. 1992. Darklight rhythms in the sediments of the Japan Sea:
127
2 & C. M A C L E O D
1Environmental Systems Science Centre, University of Reading, PO Box 238, Reading RG6
6AL, UK
2 Southampton Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, Empress Dock, European
Way, Southampton S014 3ZH, UK
3Department of Earth Sciences, University of Wales College of Cardiff, PO Box 914,
Cardiff CF1 3 YE, UK
Abstract: Neural networks offer an attractive way of using downhole logging data to infer
the lithologies of those sections of ODP holes from which there is no core recovery. This is
best done within a computer program that enables the user to explore the dimensionality of
the log data, design the structure for the neural network appropriate to the particular
problem and select and prepare the log- and core-derived data for training, testing and using
the neural network as a lithological classifier. Data quality control and the ability to modify
lithological classification schemes to particular circumstances are particularly important. We
illustrate these issues with reference to a 250 m section of ODP Hole792E drilled through a
sequence of island arc turbidites of early Oligocene age. Applying a threshold of > 90%
recovery per 9.7 m core section, we have available about 50% of the cored interval that is
sufficiently well depth-matched for use as training data for the neural network classifier. The
most useful logs available are from resistivity, natural gamma, sonic and geochemistry tools,
a total of 15. In general, the more logs available to the neural network the better its
performance, but the optimum number of nodes on a single 'hidden' layer in the network
has to be determined by experimentation. A classification scheme, with 3 classes (claystone,
sandstone and conglomerate) derived from shipboard observation of core, gives a success
rate of about 76% when tested with independent data. This improves to about 90% when
the conglomerate class is split into two, based on the relative abundance of claystone versus
volcanic clasts.
129
130
G. WADGE E T AL.
131
System design
The quite complex processing chain implicit in
the above discussion is best handled by a
computer system designed for the job. We have
designed such a system, the essential elements of
which are shown in Fig. 1. The computing
platform is a Sun Sparcstation and the graphical
user interface is designed using PV-WAVE
visualization software. There is a separate
development environment for designing the
neural networks that the user does not see, but
which can create portable networks (as C code)
that can be retrained. The user must define the
problem by choosing appropriate depth intervals, lithological classes, logs and a neural
network. The results of running the network
are displayed graphically and in terms of relative
performance of the classification rate. There are
three main functional components to the system.
These are shown in Fig. 2 and are described in
detail in the following sections.
Performance measures
Having trained a neural network classifier, some
way of assessing its performance is required. The
standard way to do this is to take a separate subpopulation of core-classified samples from the
same general population and classify it independently with the network. The goodness of fit of
the two classifications (classification rate) gives a
measure of how well the network classifier
performs relative to the visual description
classification. If this performance is thought
satisfactory then the network can be run on the
full problem interval. What is 'satisfactory' in
this context is best left to the geologist. One,
albeit relative, benchmark by which to judge
satisfactory performance is to compare with
another classification technique. Again, the same
132
G. WADGE ET AL.
Data selection
Explicit selections of depth interval, logs and
classes must be made. As we show later, the
133
Table 1. Representative part of a L O G - C L A S S file with 4 classes. Only 3 o f the logs are shown. There is no sample
classified as Conglomerate 2 in this selection shown
SGR
CGR
A1203
26.6793
26.8207
26.6378
12.6669
12.1269
11.7988
12.1286
11.8547
11.7594
24.7285
25.1096
25.287
9.3789
8.8892
8.7609
8.1325
7.9513
7.9992
21.4907
20.9049
20.0691
23.0037
21.9625
21.4303
19.5016
18.8318
17.9526
Clay
Sst
Cong 1
Cong2
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
134
G. WADGE E T AL.
Downhole
measurements
Networkperformance results
Network
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
135
Network
Structure
1-717-3
15-15-3
15-15-3
15-15-4
4-8-4
5-15-4
6-15-4
11-10-4
15-02-4
15-04-4
15-06-4
15-08-4
15-10-4
15-12-4
15-14-4
15-16-4
15-18-4
15-20-4
15-25-3
15-30-3
15-25-10-3
15-25-20-3
Depth
Interval
(mbsf)
Classification
Total
Clay
Sst
Cong (1)
482-550
482-550
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
482-732
483-732
482-732
482-732
88.4
85.5
75.8
90.0
78.1
80.0
81.9
86.3
71.9
82.5
83.1
86.1
86.9
86.9
88.1
86.9
89.4
88.1
78.0
76.6
80.2
78.8
87.0
87.0
83.5
92.0
85.0
82.5
87.5
85.0
87.5
90.0
85.0
87.5
90.0
90.0
85.0
92.5
92.5
90.0
86.8
79.1
84.6
82.4
78.3
73.9
59.3
80.0
47.5
52.5
67.5
65.0
92.5
47.5
60.0
85.5
62.5
72.5
72.5
70.0
72.0
77.5
57.1
69.2
72.5
65.9
100
95.7
84.6
87.5
82.5
85.0
72.5
95.0
12.5
92.5
87.5
75.0
95.0
85.0
95.0
85.0
95.0
85.0
90.1
81.3
83.5
87.9
Rate(%)
Cong(2)
100
97.5
100
100
100
95.5
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
97.5
100
136
G. WADGE E T AL.
100
60
x
90
50
80
40
x
70
30
60
Classification Rate
Computing Time
20
10
12
14
16
Number of Logs
Fig. 4. Plot of classification rate performance and elapsed computing time versus increasing numbers of
geophysical logs as input to the neural networks (networks 4-8).
B
90
ra
88
ra
86
84
82
o
80
78
76
.--4
74
72
70
10
12
14
16
18
20
Fig. 5. Plot of classification rate performance versus the number of nodes in the hidden layer (networks 9-18).
sis of shallow resistivity, sonic velocity, spectral
gamma, computed gamma and potassium oxide
logs shows that some of the conglomerate class
samples give much lower values of principal
component 3 and higher values of principal
component 4 than the other conglomerate
samples. Thus we have created a second
classification scheme with four classes: claystone, sandstone, conglomerate 1 and conglom-
137
Fig. 6. Component lithological classification using neural network 4. The four columns display the component
contribution of the rocks types (claystone, sandstone, conglomerate 1 and conglomerate 2) for each sampling
interval of the logged hole. The depth in mbsf is shown on the left and the core number on the right of each
column. The same colours are also used to display the classification in the visual core descriptions in the narrow
column to the left of the core numbers.
conglomerate 1 but the separation is less
distinct. With four classes, network 4, otherwise
equivalent to network 3, gives a much improved
classification rate for the whole 482-732 mbsf
interval of 90.0%.
We saw an example of improvement in
performance with increased numbers of logs
(from network 1 to 2) for the 482-550 mbsf
interval. For the full interval with 4 classes it is
also generally true that the more logs input to
the network the better the performance (networks 4, 5 to 8 inclusive; Fig. 4). There is a
penalty to pay in terms of increased computing
time (Fig. 4) but this is not too great a burden.
Hence it makes sense to use as many useful logs
as are available at the outset.
Network 4 has a 15-15-4 structure. The
138
G. WADGE ETAL.
Discussion
We have chosen to ignore a number of major
issues of core-log-driven classification including
graded bedding, the differences in spatial resolving power of the logs and the use of segmentation, in order to emphasize the value of quality
control of the data and careful consideration of
the optimal structure of the neural network. In
particular, we wish to stress the need to have a
flexible mechanism for changing the classification scheme of rock types based on the
information content in the logs and the shipboard-derived classification scheme. Such an
approach is inherently hole-specific. It lies at
an intermediate position between a totally
empirical approach, driven solely by the log
data, and one that might use a universal library
of log responses derived from fundamental core
components (e.g. sand, carbonate, sea-water
etc.). If the data can support it, the refinement
of the classification scheme in a hole will be
essentially hierarchical. However, there is no
guarantee that the way that the log data can be
optimally divided will correspond to the classification scheme that the geologist wants or
expects. This sort of approach should be of
value to ODP scientists both on and off the ship.
Results of our work using data from other ODP
holes will be presented elsewhere. We also
envisage that this technique might be of value
for providing rapid lithological analysis of
ODP L I T H O L O G Y U S I N G N E U R A L N E T W O R K S
139
Fig. 7. Majority component lithological log output of the neural network 4. The main column is the network
classification, the narrow column to the right is that classified from recovered core.
G. WADGE ET AL.
140
References
AGRINIER, P. & AGRINIER, B. 1994. A propos de la
connaissance de la profondeur a laquelle vos
echantillons sont collectes dans les forages.
F u n d a o - R i o de Janeiro, 2 1 9 4 9 - 9 0 0 , B r a z i l
accurate rock, fluid and petrophysical information. For example, to obtain a reservoir
porosity map using seismic data as reference, it is necessary to generate reliable correlations
between seismic attributes and petrophysical properties like porosity and permeability.
Again, to optimize drilling and/or hydraulic fracturing programs, it is also necessary to
estimate better formation static mechanical behaviour from geophysical data. The main goal
of this work is to establish for an offshore Brazilian field, relationships between
compressional and shear wave velocities and petrophysical properties such as porosity
and permeability.The large number of limestone samples (120) gave us a precise empirical
relationship between Vs and Vp for limestone. In order to obtain a calibration reference, we
also made, with the same samples, simultaneous measurements of dynamic and static elastic
constants. Using all these laboratory relationships, it was possible to generate unmeasured
pseudo-logs of in situ parameters, which include: shear wave velocity, static and dynamic
elastic constants and permeability. The good experimental relationships obtained between
k-~b and Vp-~b in this work together with available logs give us an additional method to
estimate permeability which is impossible to obtain from in situ measurements.
Methodology
Ultrasonic P and S wave velocities were measured in about 120 samples of limestone from an
offshore Brazilian field. These samples were
retrieved from three vertical wells at depths of
about 2350m to 2550m and vertically cut as
right cylindrical plugs with diameter 2.5 cm and
3.75 cm and length 3.75 to 5cm. The measurement frequency was 500 kHz for both Vp and Vs
and over a range of confining pressure of 1000
psi to 5000 psi at room temperature. The
porosity and permeability range were 5% to
35% and 0.1 mD to 1800mD, respectively. The
same measurements were made under dry and
formation water saturated conditions. However,
the results showed only small variations due to
saturation, as noted by Bastos et al. (1995).
Simultaneous measurements of static and
dynamic elastic constants were made on some
samples of diameter 5cm and length 12.5cm.
These samples were placed in a triaxial cell and
subjected to an in situ confining stress of about
5000 psi, and to a deviatoric stress which was
increased up to the sample failure. The deforma-
141
142
A . C . BASTOS E T A L .
4000
Vm - 0 , 5 5 V p + 4 1 , 6 0 c c " 0,96
F
1000
2OOO
4O0O
600o
Vp (m/s)
WELL - A
Velocity (m/s)
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
2380
WELL - c
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity (m/s)
2390
2400
2410
242O
2430
2440
A
.....
245O
Q
2460
247O
2480
249O
2500
2510
2520
Vp log
Vs log
9 Vp lab
9 V s lab
Fig. 2. Vp and Vs from laboratory data (symbols) and calculated Vp and Vs logs (curves). The three wells show
good agreement between laboratory and log data.
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
..y
6O
,..,.
,-. 4O
o
9
20
2O
0
20
40
E d y n (GPa)
60
"2d,:,
80
(c)
(B)
(A)
I11
143
2O
20
40
K d y n (GPa)
(P
60
"
80
2O
G d y n (GPa)
40
Fig. 3. Static and dynamic elastic constants for sedimentary rocks obtained from simultaneous laboratory
measurements.
WELL
O (GP=)
0
10
20
30
40
50
- C
E (GPa)
K (GPa)
60
70
80
10 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2390
I
20
30
,
40
i ~ i
g_%,
50
, i
60
, i
, ,
- i ~ 1
9
2440
i"
2450
2460
2470
2480
',
2500
2510
L
,k, >
2520
,i,},,
''
~ L
2490
b ~
I
I
2430
2420
7O 8 0
v } i
2410
I~
10
,
2400
I
I
:l
-!
~
I
,~
)l
!, ~,
N ~1
i,l,I,
,
I,I,
)
I
, ,
i
,t,t,
I,
Fig. 4. Calculated static and dynamic elastic constants logs for weU-C.
polynomial fit proposed by Castagna et al.
(1993) even for values of Vs close to 1500ms -1.
The regression algorithm is:
Vs = 0.55 Vp + 41.60
2). There is good agreement between pseudologs and laboratory data. With the Vp, Vs and
density (p) logs and the following elastic theory
equations:
(1)
v~ = d
/ K
v
+ 4#/3
Pb
(2)
144
6000F
I
5000
'
Vp
'
- 5868
'
'
--e
~176
'
1o L ,
8 ~ K'~0"05e
cc ,, 0.88
'
'
'/,
;cc=0"90 9
4000
../
3000
2000
10
15
20
Porosity
25
(%)
'
30
35
10
15
20
25
(%)
Porosity
30
35
WELL - B
6000
'
'
-o.026
t4 e
'
5 --
'
K"
0.179
0.024 e
; cc = 0.77
; cc ,, 0.93
~o~
5000
'
'
'
'
'
,ooo t-
1
9
2000
10
15
20
Porosity
25
(%)
'
..
'
'
.~4000
D,.
10
'
20
Porosity
Porosity
20
25
(%)
'
'
'
0.4 6 El
K = 0.0002 e
; c c ,, 0 . 8 9
i
15
15
25
(%)
30
30
35
- C
2000
3000
2000
10
35
V p =, 5 8 2 2 e0.021
5000
'
30
WELL
6000
'
; cc =0.93
i000
35
10
15
20
Porosity
25
(%)
30
35
Fig. 5. Exponential fits of velocity and permeability versus porosity for three wells.
V, =
~/~
#
(3)
WELL - A
Permeability (mD)
0
145
WELL-C
Permeability (mD)
10
100
Permeability (mD)
10
2380
10
[ 1 1 1 1 ~
100
10o0 10000
I I1111llI I Illllll~
I Illllll
q~,,,,d
2390
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
I
I
2450
2460
2470
r,,
2480
_s
2490
2500
2510
2520
2530
254O
2550
v4
2560
2570
2580
, ,,,,id
L ,,,,,,,I
~,,,,,,l
,,,
.....
,.I
Fig. 6. Calculated permeability logs obtained from laboratory k-Vp relationship show a good correlation for
wells A and C, but less so for well B. The crossed points in well A were not used to develop the k-Vp relationship.
(4)
(5)
(6)
cc = 0.88
(7)
146
cc = 0.90
(9)
Vp 73.e6~
Well B
Vp = 6214e-~176
cc -- 0.93
k = 0.024e~
(8)
cc -- 0.77
k = g p -6"54. e 53"35
(10)
(11)
(12)
Well C
Vp = 5822em~
cc = 0.89
(13)
k = 0.0002e~
cc = 0.93
(14)
k : Vp-184.e152.5
(15)
Conclusions
(1) The large number of limestone samples
gave us a precise empirical relationship between
Vs and Vp for limestone, and this differs from
the earlier work of Castagna et al. (1993), even
for Vs close to 1500 ms -1.
(2) Good relationships between static and
dynamic elastic constants were obtained for
sedimentary rocks, and these have allowed us
to generate logs for these constants. As expected,
dynamic constants are greater than static ones.
(3) The capacity to obtain a relationship
between static behaviour of rocks from dynamic
properties combines the advantages of both
methods in one. Thus, the resultant properties
References
BASTOS, A. C., DILLON, L. D., SOARES, J. A. &
VASQUEZ, G. F.. 1995. Estimativa dos perils de
Centre for Petroleum Studies, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine,
London S W 7 2BP, UK
1Present address." Petrobras S.A., Exploration Department, 27913-350, Macae, R J, Brazil
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Background
Complex electrical impedance measurement is a
non-invasive technique where an electrical current flows through the sample at different
frequencies. Experimental measurements of the
electrical properties of rocks, when submitted to
an alternating electrical field at different frequencies, have shown that both the resistive and
reactive components of the complex impedance
vary over the frequency spectrum. These two
features (complex quantity and dispersion or
DENICOL,P. S. & JING, X. D. 1998. Effects of water salinity, saturation and clay content on the
complex resistivity of sandstone samples In: HARVEY,P. K. LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 147-157
147
148
Table 1. List of petrophysieal parameters and chargeability at full and partial water saturation.
Sample
Density
grams cm-3
Porosity
%
Kair
mD
Saturation
Sw(%)
Chargeability
Partial Sat.
Chargeability
Full Sat.
Z1
Z3
Z4
Z5
Z7
Z8
Z9
2.66
2.66
2.64
2.65
2.71
2.69
2.64
22.4
14.1
12.2
20.1
25.8
21.5
29.1
1760
38.7
3.51
163
23.1
101
819
33
39
61
47
77
82
44
0.74
0.81
0.68
0.55
0.54
0.52
0.53
0.53
0.53
0.54
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.50
Clay Type
Clay
Length
Content cm
Area
cm2
Grain
Porosity
Density
%
grams cm-3
Kair
mD
SZ1
SZ2
SZ3
SZ4
clean
montmorillonite
montmorillonite
montmorillonite
0
5
10
15
10.75
10.75
10.75
10.46
2.65
2.66
2.66
2.66
337
235
146
105
6.41
6.49
6.53
6.37
29.1
28.1
27.4
27.9
150
Frequency effect
Figures 3 and 4 show the real component and
phase angle versus frequency for two reservoir
core samples. This plot of resistivity and phase
151
Salinity dependence
The general frequency behaviour of the complex
impedance is shown in Fig. 7 for the reservoir
sample Z7 at two different brine concentrations.
The effect of increasing the pore electrolyte
salinity on the frequency behaviour of the
sample can be summarized as follows:
152
Fig. 8. Normalized impedance at two brine concentrations showing salinity dependence for sample Z7.
Fig. 9. Frequency dependence of resistivity and phase angle at partial saturation for sample Zl.
Fig. 10. Frequency dependence of resistivity and phase angle at full brine saturation for sample ZI.
Fig. 11. Saturation dependence of the resistivity for sample Z1 as characterized by the chargeability (m)
153
154
080
E_075
~"070
~ 065
="0.60
Z3
Zl
Z4
0.55
0.50
0.3
Saturation dependence
m = R1/(R1 +R2)
0.85
0.4
0.5
0.6
Sw (fraction)
0.7
0,8
0,9
Clay effects
Synthetic shaley samples with controlled clay
type, content and distribution were used to
investigate the effects of clay minerals on
complex impedance measurements. Figure 13
shows the results for the synthetic sample SZ4.
The low-frequency region from 10 Hz to ~10
kHz indicates strong dispersion in both impedance and phase angle which is attributed to
electrode polarization. In the intermediate frequency range (1 to ~100 kHz) the impedance
decreases monotonically while the phase angle
reaches a minimum and then starts increasing.
The high frequency region is characterized by
the relaxation frequency at N800 kHz where the
phase angle reaches a maximum and the
impedance decreases more drastically. All the
synthetic samples present the relaxation frequency at around the same position. However,
the value of the phase angle at the relaxation
155
Fig. 13. General frequency dependence behaviour of impedance and phase angle for sample SZ4.
Fig. 14. Normalized impedance versus frequency relationships of four synthetic samples containing various
amounts of montmorillonite.
Fig. 15. Correlation between clay content and frequency dependence for the synthetic samples.
156
Conclusions
The frequency effect in the intermediate frequency range (10-100 kHz) increases when the
solution concentration is decreased from 5% to
2% NaC1. This salinity dependence may be
explained by variations of the double layer
thickness and ion mobility. At high salinity,
the double layer is compressed to the pore
surface and gradually expands with decreasing
brine concentration. As a consequence, the
mobility of the ions in the diffuse layer is
reduced at high salinity preventing them from
following the alternating field as opposed to the
free ions in the centre of the pore. Additionally,
the expansion of the double layer supports the
blockage of ions particularly at the smaller pores
with subsequent electro-osmotic polarization
due to the accumulation of charges.
The frequency effect is found to increase for
the whole frequency range when brine is
displaced by oil (Isopar H). A variation in water
saturation from full to partial saturation resulted in a dramatic increase in the frequency
dispersion and a clear shift of the relaxation
frequency. This observation may have potential
References
BORNER, F. D. 1995. Estimation of hydraulic conductivity from complex electrical measurement.
International Symposium of the Society of Core
Analysts, paper 9523.
COLE, K. S. & COLE, R. H. 1941. Dispersion and
absorption in dielectrics. Journal of Chemistry and
Physics, 9, 341.
DANKHAZI, G. 1993. A new principle approach to
induced polarization in porous rock. The Log
Analyst, 34, 54-66.
DEBVE, P. 1929. Polar molecules. Chemical Catalogue
Co.
DENICOL, P. S. & JING, X. D. 1996. Estimating
permeability of reservoir rocks from complex
resistivity data. Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts, 37th Annual Logging Symposium,
paper X.
ELASHAHAB,B. M., JING, X. D. & ARCHER,J. S. 1995.
Resistivity index and capillary pressure hysteresis
for rock samples of different wettability characteristics. SPE paper No. 29888, the 9th Middle
East Oil Show and Conference, March, Bahrain.
Gouv, G. as discussed in HUNTER, R. J. 1988. Zeta
Potential in Colloid Science, Academic Press.
JING, X. D., ARCHER, J. S. 8r DALTABAN,T. S. 1992.
Laboratory study of the electrical and hydraulic
properties of rocks under simulated reservoir
conditions. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 9,
115-127.
KNIGHT, R. & NUR, A. 1987. Geometrical effects in the
dielectrical response of partially saturated sandstones. The Log Analyst, 28, 513-519.
KNIGHT, R. & ENDRES,A. 1991. Surface conduction at
the hydrocarbon/water interface. Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 32nd Annual Logging Symposium, paper I.
KULENKAMPFF,J. M. & SCHOPPER,J. R. 1988. Low
frequency conductivity--a means for separating
volume and interlayer conductivity. Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts, 12th European
Formation Evaluation Symposium, paper P.
logically
mature.
mature,
texturally
157
submature
to
Sample Z8."
Sandstone with pseudo-argilaceous matrix (27
%), quartz (31%), K-feldspar (18%), glauconite
(6%), plagioclase (5%), others (2%). Cements
include dolomite and pyrite.
Sample Z9."
Sandstone with pseudo-argilaceous matrix,
quartz, K-feldspar, glauconite, and plagioclase.
1Production Department, Oil and Gas Development Corporation, F-8 Markaz Islamabad,
Pakistan
2 Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Royal School of Mines, Imperial College,
London SW7 2BP, UK
Abstract: Seismic anisotropy has been studied on a number of dry cubic sandstone
specimens, of 51 mm side, in which a system of aligned cracks has been first introduced
progressively by the application of a polyaxial state of stress, and then closed by hydrostatic
stress. One P- and two S-wave velocities polarized at right angles, along with the
deformation, have been measured at each stress level in each of the three principal stress
directions. Thomsen's (1986) anisotropy parameters (e, 7, 6) have been calculated at each
stress level during the cracking and crack closing cycles using Nishizawa's (1982) theory.
Test results indicate that anisotropy in the P-wave velocity is greater and more sensitive to
the presence of aligned cracks than that observed for S waves. Modelling studies show that
the P-wave anisotropy parameter e is always greater than that of anisotropy parameter 8, for
low crack densities and for small aspect ratios. The reverse is true for high crack densities
and low aspect ratios. The results of numerical studies indicate that S-wave anisotropy is
independent of the nature of the saturating fluid and that it is possible to observe elliptical
anisotropy in a medium containing aligned dry ellipsoidal inclusions.
It is well known that the presence of microcracks
and fractures reduces the acoustic velocities of
P- and S-waves in rocks. When the principal
stresses are altered on a rock that initially has a
random distribution of cracks, the crack distribution no longer remains randomly oriented.
The effect of an applied non-hydrostatic stress is
to close cracks in some directions and leave
cracks open in others (Sayers 1988). Those
cracks with their normals lying close to parallel
to the new major principal stress will tend to be
closed more than those with their normals subparallel to the new minor principal stress (Sayers
1988). The elastic and transport properties of the
rock then become anisotropic in their behaviour,
with the degree of anisotropy depending on the
magnitude of the principal stress differences, the
type of fluid filling the cracks (Xu & King 1989,
1992; King et al. 1995a,b).
Seismic anisotropy was studied more than 40
years ago by Postma (1955) and Uhrig & Melle
(1955), but for a long time its effect was ignored
or considered insignificant, due to the fact that
most of the seismic surveys carried out were for
P-wave reflection and conducted at small angles
to the vertical. However, for seismic surveys
conducted with large angles of the incidence
waves (such as VSP surveys), the effect of
a n i s o t r o p y c a n n o t be i g n o r e d ( C r a m p i n
1985a,b). Seismic anisotropy due to aligned
Cll -C33
V 2 1 - V22
-- - -2C33
V 22
SHAKEEL,A. & KING, M. S. 1998. Acoustic wave anisotropy in sandstones with systems of aligned
cracks In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 173-183
(1)
173
174
V 21 - V 22
2C44
V 22
(2)
(3)
re2
(4)
The parameter 3' describes the S-wave anisotropy of a transversely isotropic medium. It is
the relative difference between the faster S-wave
velocity (Vsl) and the slower S-wave (Vs2)
velocity travelling in a transversely isotropic
medium. Thus, for small values of 7, it can be
used to define 'S-wave anisotropy' of a medium
(Thomsen 1986) as
VS1 m Vs 2
7 -- -
Vs2
(5)
Experimental system
A polyaxial stress loading system, developed at
175
160-TONNE S E R V O - C O N T R O k L E D
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
TRANSDUCER HOLDERS
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE,
2-DIRECTION
HYDRAULIC RAM,
2-DIRECTION
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE,
3-DIRECTION
HYDRAULIC RAM,
3-DIRECTION
"fRANSDL~ER HOLDERS
CUBIC ROCK SPECIMEN
REACTION RING
176
. . . . . . . .
:,= o.o2
o7
. . . . . . . .
I' . . . . . .
'
. . . . . . .
C r a c k density = 0 . 0 1
/ Y
87"
""
o.01
9
O.OO I
'
I llll
. . . . . . .
o.ool
O.OeO
. . . . . . . .
O.Ol
0.1
(a)
0~0
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
0.15
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
~-. r
"2.'.'_"2~: "-'."L\~ 22:" 2"-".'2"2:: - " 2 " . ' - " . 2 : ~ 22".222:: -"2.-'_"".'.:: -':;.':.z-~.
>~ o.lo
-~-
o.o$
0.00
~,.,..
"
'
"
. . . . . . . .
I''|
0.04}01
0.001
'
'
'
'
'
"..,~
''']
0.01
0.1
(b)
0.5
0.4
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Crack density = O. I0
9
"~ "..--.'.'T
-".:. 7----.-.-:
: .--.'..--:.--.
- .-""
-- "~.'.'T
~';r
o.3
O~
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
~)
~"
2 2": : .".-:"
- -~....:
: :";
"'~"
". ~
'~.~
0.1
O.O
, ..!
0.0001
, ,r
. . . . . . . .
0.01
O.OOl
. . . . . . . .
0.1
(c)
. . . . . . . .
Crack density
l.o
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
0.20
.". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
p..
/
0.0
O.OeOI
Y
.
"'-..
i
i,,|
. . . . . . . .
O.OI
O.OO!
Aspect
. . . .
..l
" "
O.t
Ratio
(d)
Fig. 2. Thomsen anisotropy parameters as a function of aspect ratio for dry inclusions for crack densities, (a) ~ =
0.01, (b) ~= 0.05, (c) ( = 0.10, (d) ~= 0.20.
0.02
+r
'' ......
......
''I
177
........
.......
p t ' Y..... . . - ' " " ..- .-.. . -. . . -. ( _ : . ~ " :~.-'=" = : - ' : - : k : .
,..
O.Ol
..... -+"~
o-,"
-0.01
.....................
.~-"*"
........
-0.02
0.0001
......
ill
O.OOl
i. ....
O.Ol
....
0.I
(a)
O.IS
.........
0.1
0.05
,,J
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
...........
C r a c k density = 0.05
","U:':u:-':~.:. ,,
s
..................................
~- j-
. o~"
-0.05
................
,
-0.1
0.0001
.---"
,
....
, ,.,1
0.001
i '''I
O.OI
0.1
(b)
0"~
,r
........
0.2
0,1
-0.1
........
.......
........ . .o
.......... .....~
........................
.*" f . /
~ o ~ o "" J~l~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-0.2
........
. . . . . . . .
0.000
"~'~"
. . . . . . . .
0.001
. . . . . . . .
0.01
. . . . . . . .
O. !
(c)
9 " ...... I
0,6
0.45
........
C r a c k denmty = 0.20
........
i ..... .:~. . . . . . . .
..-"
0.3
0.15
~
~
o
....o~
I"
"%
-/"
.,.o
.s
0
-0.15
-0.3
0.O~i
1..
. . . . .
. . . . .
0.001
+,il
0.01
. . . . . .
....
O.l
Aspect Ratio
(d)
Fig. 3. Thomsen anistropy parameters as a function of aspect ratio for liquid filled inclusions for crack densities,
(a) ~= 0.01, (b) ~= 0.05, (c) ~= 0.10, (d) ~=0.20.
178
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
6.55
6.$0
6.45
6.40
.........................................................................
6.35
6.30
,,.
Vr2
6.~g
. . . . . . . .
0.0001
, , , , , I
. . . . .
0.01
0.001
O. I
Aspect Ratio
(a)
3.85
Vs~
3.80
3.75
3.70
3.65
3.60
, ,
0.0001
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
0.001
0.01
. . . . .
0.1
Aspect Ratio
(b)
Fig. 4. Changes in acoustic wave velocities as a function of aspect ratio for dry inclusions (a) P-wave velocities and
(b) S-wave velocities. The crack density is ( = 0.01.
........
........
. . . . . . . .
179
i
Vp l
6.55
6.50
6.45
6.40
6.35
Vp2
6.30
Crack
density
........
6.25
= 0.01
........
0.0001
0.001
........
0.01
.......
O.t
Aspect Ratio
(a)
3.85
I . . . .
. . . . . . .
Vs i
3.80
.'a
3.75
3.70
3.65
3.60
0.01.|
. . . . . .
0.001
0.01
Aspect
. . . . .
0.1
Ratio
(b)
Fig. 5. Changes in acoustic velocities as a function of aspect ratio for liquid-filled inclusions (a) P-wave velocities
and (b) S-wave velocities. The crack density is ~= O.O1.
elliptical (Thomsen 1986) for both the dry and
saturated cases in this limited range of aspect
ratios.
Experimental results and discussion
180
S.O
,~
I -*1%
o3 = 3
4.5
:I-+1%
M P a
....
(constant)
4.0
4.0
3..~
:~-
3.0
ft.
2..~
3.0
Pll
. . . . . .
l.$
P22
2.0
. . . .
= o 2 =
. . . .
. . . .
25
. . . .
SO
;~--
0"3 ( M P a )
. . . .
75
100
01 = O2 ( M P a )
12S
ISO
~:~
o l > o 2 = IOOMPa
3.2
.
'
50
01
1.5
3.2
P33
03 - 3 M P a
2.9
"
(constant)
. r -*1%
!~
2.6
2.3
~ 2.,
g
2.0
1.7
$23---o---
$21
S13 ~
$32
S12
t
I
1.4
1.7
$31 ~
!
,
1.4
,,.
50
o 1 = 0 2 = 0 3 (MPa)
i~
S13
i ....
~
i ....
50
o I = 02 ( M P a )
$32
i ....
75
S12
i.,,.
100
i ....
125
l.gO
=',~
o 1 > o 2 = IOOMPa
F i g . 7. P a n d S - w a v e v e l o c i t i e s a s a f u n c t i o n
of stress
9"
I '' "
"
2.4
4J I
7-O
1.6
3,$
181
7Z:L~ ,--]
.
,o
3.0
G a m m a ,
O.8
2.0
&
25
0.4
SO
50
75
'=
a I *, 0" 2 - 0 3 ( M P a )
75
1o0
O 1 = 02 ( M P a )
-'~
12~
150
o l 9 o2 = 100MPa "4''I
(a)
3.2
,~.,
'-4
Aspect Ratio
2.9
-Z
ct = 0 . 0 0 ~
2.0
I~lta.
A
1.6
2.6
I..*
,,
0J
1.7
.--o---
$31
$23
SD
S32
o.4
$21
.
4 .....
S12
o.o
1.4
"
f
5O
0
7$
0.1
0.2
o.3
0.4
Crack Density
01 - 0 2 - 0 3 (MPa)
182
Aspect ratio
. . . .
i . . . .
Aspect ratio
a = 0.001~;
i . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
i'.
a = 0.0005
o 3 - 2 MPa (Constant)
Delt~
1.5
Epsilon,
9 ~
1.0
Gamma.
,
~
,
25
50
.
25
I~
c; 1 = 02 = 03
. "~.
50
,~.
75
. . . .
n . . . .
100
1~
13o
75
0 1 = 02 ( M P a )
(MPa)
-' ~
(a)
(a)
. . . .
Aspect Ratio
9 -
J . . . .
L . . . .
L . . . .
Dolts,
a = 0.0015
i . . . .
6 "--'~/~
U)
0.02
0.04
0.06
Crack
0,(]~
0.I
0.12
0,05
O.l
Crack
Density
0. I$
0.2
0.25
Density
(b)
(b)
Conclusions
(1) The results of the experimental study for
t.6
171tt,
':
25
50
oI=
183
75
ioo
c 3 (MPa)
o z =
(a)
References
. . . . . . .
. . . .
0 . . . .
#~
/
. . . .
Delta, 8
/
:,= 1.6
d
o.0
Ion ,
/7
o.1
0.2
Crack Density
o.3
0.4
Abstract: Many logging tools make multiple measurements of the same type that have more
than one depth of penetration. Common examples are Compensated Density, Compensated
Neutron and Array Induction logs. The purpose of the compensation is to reduce or remove
the effects of a disturbance that distort the true measurement. Examples of this disturbance
are the borehole size, mudcake and salinity.
A general technique can be derived based on a theory of Linear Perturbation which
requires no prior knowledge of the nature of the perturbation, the only requirement being
that it is approximately locally linear. Various interpretations can be made of the general
equation depending on the particular circumstances.
The technique also produces a Complementary Parameter associated with the degree of
correction. This parameter is usually discarded or paid scant regard, but can often be of
some significant value and exposes surprising information. A number of examples can be
used to illustrate these techniques, showing that they have wide applicability in situations
ranging from difficult logging conditions (e.g. density through casing) to the apparently
routine, where unusual and unexpected borehole fluids are revealed from neutron logs.
Orthogonalization
A definition of an orthogonal pair of parameters
0 = V+ KP
(1)
159
160
J.R. SAMWORTH
K1P
02 = V+ K2P.
(2)
(3)
(O1 - 0 2 )
(4)
K1
This is arranged in the following form:(True value) = (Observed value) + (Correction).
It is important to note that the correction
depends on the two observations and the ratio
of the perturbation rates K2/K1 and not the
individual rates themselves. This is very signifi-
(5)
161
perturbations varies significantly over the borehole, this variable parameter can be derived
explicitly and a curve plotted. That is, it becomes
Sharp.
Principle of betterness
Before considering examples of the application
of Linear Perturbation it is prudent to consider
our objectives. The main objective is to improve
the quality of a measurement, not necessarily to
make it absolutely correct, because this depends
on the quality of our assumed model. We can
often become unnecessarily obsessed with correctness, whereas the log interpretation process
162
J.R. SAMWORTH
API
inches
250
GM/CC
2.0
3.C
0
GM/CC
-0.25
11
i
0.25
'%
_.~~176 h
C~
,~rill-pipe)
-[
sJ
~' Density
Densi
~,/Correction
~_.Gamma Ray
6,5O
_i
_I
I
_i
I
-I
I
-I
1
-It
DEPTH BA~ED DATA FILENANE:
MAXIMUN S A M P L I N G INCRE~4ENT I O C N .
.CIB
RUN I D :
ON
AT 20:48
PLOTTED ON 0 7 - J U N - I ~
AT 0 9 : 3 7
P J E ~
Density logs
We can apply equation (4) directly to the long
and short-spacing density logs.
We then get:-
pt=pn+
where pt
PL
Ps
Ks & KL
11 ]
~
=
=
=
=
(PL--PS)
(6)
True Density
Long Spacing Density
Short Spacing Density
Perturbation rates.
163
Fig. 4. Use of a derived Apparent Caliper to improve Slim Array Induction logs.
PA= Jpm~+ (1 - J ) Pt
Pmc = mudcake density.
Rearranging;
PA = Pt + J(Pmc -- Pt).
(7)
(8)
J = Kd,
PA = Pt + Kd (Pine-- Pt).
(9)
(10)
Ps--PL
d=(Pmc-P,)(Ks-KL)"
(11)
164
J.R. SAMWORTH
applied. The degree of correction and complementary functions are not now associated with
mudcake.
Figure 3 shows a compensated density log
obtained in this manner. If the original sharp
value required is the bulk density, we do not
have to assign an explicit meaning to the density
correction; it can remain largely unsharp.
Although unsharp, it is still probably safe to
165
~.;~nc~easing
,~ ~
,,"
~176176
..-""
~176176176
Short
count
rate
Fig. 6. Cross plot to indicate effect of perturbations on Neutron log count rates.
set up the linear perturbation system as in
equations (2) and (3). This has been previously
explored for slimline array tools (Samworth et
al. 1994).
Figure 4 shows an example of this application.
A difficult horizontal well was logged with a slim
array induction tool, without an opportunity to
run any other log. The borehole fluid was saline
(.07 52 f2m) and since no caliper was available to
correct the logs, they were apparently quite
poor. (The right hand set of curves in Fig. 4).
Since we know the mud resistivity, by assuming
that the two shallowest measurements see no
further than the invaded zone we can use linear
perturbation to calculate an apparent caliper.
This caliper, shown in the left-hand track, was
then used to correct the deeper reading measurements. A much more systematic log then results
(in the centre track of Fig. 4). This is a form of
optimization of the induction logs, and it leads
to a better product without necessarily being
absolutely correct.
(12)
0 2 = V 2 + K2P.
(13)
166
J.R. SAMWORTH
H I D D E N DATA IN LOGS
!0.0
API
I00 5
inches
1~
(SalinityIndicator)
B/E
167
1.0
10 30
L
LST %
- 10
6600
6700
9
6800
)
\
Gamma
fk
Caliper
6900
! i~
vooo
Bit Size
7100
: k
"7:~00
r
\
7~0o
I"
7400
~,
?
I
~
~'b-
,r
Salinity
r Indicato~
r--~"
.
~.~
.~.,.~.s
7600
77OO
.-.,~
Ne
7gO0
I
\)
-,ooo
7900
,L ;
"~
,,.&~
e-J
_N
i)'
2~
8100
8400-
)I
8~00
8600
iI
bi)
87oo
f f
'8800
i
~"
j ogoo
-g
2~."
%-N
168
J.R. SAMWORTH
0.0
API 100l
(SalinityIndicator)
inches 1
B/E
10]30
6600
6700
6800
6900
7"Caliper 70OO
7100
~-Bit Size
sNeor
7200
tm~.
Salinity
7400
7~00
7600
7700
t',
7800
7
7900
8000
8100
8200
8:S00
8400
8~00
8600
8700
8800
18900
PE
7300
<
1.0 I
LST%
-loI
inches 13
(SalinityIndicator)
169
10.2
ohm-m
2000
......
'
A..~Caliper
~' Gamma
I5 2 0 0
~~ ~
5300
_- ~
_-,~
~
"Salinity
Indicator
~ Medium
t~Dee p
154oo E
5,5oo
-!
5600 -
5"700 :i
b
,58oo
--
1004. RECOROED
ON
AT 14:2:5
PLOTTEDON19-,JUN-1996AT 14:07
4'
Fig. 10. Borehole salinity in a horizontal well (1).
K1
Kx V2).
(14)
(15)
(16)
previously been explored in some detail (Samworth, 1991). If, however, we can identify the
positions of O] and 02 on the ratio line, we can
identify which line of constant salinity we are on,
and we can then estimate the borehole salinity.
Some examples now follow to show the
usefulness of this complementary parameter.
Figures 7, 8 and 9 show sets of logs, on a
compressed vertical scale in a dolomite reservoir.
The field was being produced by an injected
waterflood, and the wells were close to each
other. The reservoir section is the whole of the
lower halves of the wells where the gamma ray
log activity increases.
170
J. R. SAMWORTH
)
API
150 3
inches 13
(Saliniq Indicator)
1 30
LST %
-10
~,
/ 1~..,..,.Bit Size
51 O0
5200
c,
ma
Cahper
5300
5400
55O0
560O
5700
5800
59OO
RUN I D :
RECORDED ON
PLOTTED ON l O - J U N - 1 9 9 6
AT 1 3 : 3 8
AT 1 1 : 1 ' : ;
Conclusion
There is much information to be had from well
logs by interpreting them in a slightly unconven-
171
References
ELKINGTON,P. A. S., SAMWORTH,J. R. & ENSTONE,M.
C. 1990. Vertical enhancement by combination
and transformation of associated responses.
Transactions of the 31st Annual Logging Symposium, SPWLA, Paper HH.
SAMWORTH, J. R. 1991. Algorithms for compensated
neutron logging--57 varieties. Transactions of the
14th European Logging Symposium, SPWLA,
Paper A.
- 1992. The dual-spaced density log, characteristics, calibration and compensation. Log Analyst
33, 4249.
, SPENCER, M. C., PATEL,H. K. & ATACK,N. A.
1994. The array induction tool advances slim hole
logging technology. Transactions of the 16th
European Logging Symposium, Paper Y.
shear-wave splitting
B. W I D A R S O N O , 1 J. R. M A R S D E N 2 & M. S. K I N G 2
1Lemigas, Jakarta, Indonesia
2 Department o f Earth Resources, Engineering Royal School o f Mines, Imperial College,
London S W 7 BP, U K
Abstract: Knowledge of the /n situ states of stress in rock masses is of considerable
importance to a number of subsurface engineering activities, including those involved in
exploiting petroleum and geothermal energy reserves. In this paper, a comparison is made of
two laboratory techniques, based upon stress-relief microcracks, for determining the in situ
state of stress: differential strain analysis (DSA) and ultrasonic shear-wave splitting
(USWS). Measurements on ten sandstone samples recovered from deep boreholes, made
using the well-established technique of DSA, have been compared to those made by the
comparatively new technique of USWS and to sleeve fracturing measurements of in situ
stress made in the corresponding boreholes. The results obtained indicate that the USWS
technique, with its ability to test a large number of samples quickly, provides a useful
adjunct to DSA and sleeve fracturing in determining trends in in situ stresses. Used in
combination, the two laboratory techniques have also proved useful for examining rock
micro-structural features.
WIOARSONO,B., MARSDEN,J. R. & KIN6, M. S. 1998. In situ stress prediction using differential strain
analysis and ultrasonic shear-wave splitting In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log
Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 185-195
185
B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
186
Depth
(m)
Grain size
(mm)
Comments
SSA-1
SSA-2
SSA-3
SSA-4
SSA-5
SSA-6
SSA-7
SSA-8
SSB-1
SSB-2
1361
1363
1364
1366
1374
1399
1409
1422
3232
3304
0.5
0.1-1.0
0.5-1.0
0.54).75
0.5
0.14).5
0.14).5
0.5
0.14).5
0.14).5
the borehole and in the laboratory, and employing differential strain analysis itself. For example, Teufel (1983) observed anisotropy of P-wave
velocity measurements and correlated this with
results from the anelastic strain recovery technique (ASR).
Basic assumptions of the technique are presented in length by Strickland & Ren (1980)
who, in brief, assume that aligned microcrack
densities in different axes are proportional to the
relieved stress magnitudes in these axes. Consequently, when the sample is compressed hydrostatically, the resulting strains will show
preferential orientation in magnitudes which
are proportional to the microcrack densities. A
further assumption is that all microcracks
existing within a tested sample are of stressrelief
type, or at least that all pre-existing microcracks
do not affect sample deformation significantly.
Experimental procedure
Three basic steps are followed in specimen
preparation: machining the specimen, attaching
the strain gauges and encapsulating the specimen. Each step in specimen preparation must be
performed carefully in order to prevent generation of new microcracks in the rock sample. Flat
surfaces are machined on each specimen in at
least three orthogonal directions, by first sawing
them with a diamond saw and then by hand
lapping or surface grinding. After ovendrying at
35 ~ strain gauge rosettes are attached to the
specimen following the arrangement shown in
Fig. 1. The rock sample is finally encapsulated
with epoxy resin in an elastomer membrane.
The strain gauged and encapsulated specimen
is placed in an oil-filled pressure vessel and left
for approximately 24 h in order to ensure
temperature stabilization. This procedure avoids
any temperaturerelated fluctuations while strain
Procedure of analysis
Additional input data is required for analysing
DSA measurements, including: vertical in situ or
(MPa)
100
80
60
~G a u g, e _ _ _, _
40
2O
0
0
Strain(millist rains)
187
188
B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
0.2
0.3
Sample
o1/0. V
1
Azimuth
(0)2
Dip
(0)2
0"2/0"1
Azimuth
(0)2
SSA-1
SSA-2
SSA-3
SSA-4
SSA-5
SSA-6
SSA-7
SSA-8
SSB-1
SSB-2
1.005
1.017
1.010
1.130
1.000
1.059
1.001
1.004
1.004
1.008
204N
106N
116N
74N
38N
331N
229N
164N
240
179
80
73
76
59
87
66
86
81
83
74
0.892
0.824
0.877
0.939
0.832
0.760
0.902
0.866
0.888
0.928
71N
3 08N
213N
351N
293N
52N
326N
20N
132
88
Dip 0"3/0"1
(O)
7
17
2
4
3
2
0
7
2
1
0.849
0.807
0.832
0.805
0.817
0.676
0.824
0.835
0.763
0.879
0"3/0"2
Azimuth
(0)2
Dip
(o)
0.955
0.982
0.948
0.858
0.982
0.983
0.914
0.966
0.858
0.948
340N
219N
304N
262N
203N
140N
57N
290N
42
358
7
1
14
26
3
23
4
6
7
16
1
0.v = vertical or overburden stress.
2 Azimuths measured clockwise with respect to North (Z-axis) or, for unoriented cores (SSB), clockwise from
reference line (X-axis).
Experimental results
D i f f e r e n t i a l s t r a & analysis
North
f
1
6
b
7%o8~3 2
1
3
0(~. 2
1,2,3 ... sample number
A~ 3
189
190
B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
136oN
166oN
196~
226oN
256oN
286oN
316oN
t
60
63
66
69
72
75
60
63
66
69
72
S h e a r w a v e splitting
191
19oo
1-_+0.5%
18oo
1~o
'
18o
2~o
'
'
24o
Sample
270
300
~h azimuth
(o)l
o from North
velocity (m/s)
2100
b) X-direction propagation
Y-axis polarization
2000
19oo
~b
6;
9'o
90
120
o from vertical
150
180
SSA-1
SSA-2
SSA-3
SSA-4
SSA-5
SSA-6
SSA-7
SSA-8
SSB-1
SSB-2
0
75
2
0
0
0
0
0
7 6 ( 2 5 6 ) N 166(346)N
5 3 ( 2 3 3 ) N 143(323)N
83(263)N
197(17)N
120(300)N
343(163)N
106(286)N
105(=285)
75( = 255)
173(353)N
107(287)N
210(30)N
253(73)N
196(16)N
15(--195)
345(= 165)
192
B. WIDARSONO ET AL.
Reference line
~ / 7 7
/
e C~,H
1,2,3 ... sample number
193
Table 4. Comparison of/n situ stress orientations from DSA and USWS
DSA
0-1
S-Wave Splitting
O'H
Oh
Sample
Azimuth
Dip
Azimuth
Dip
Azimuth
Dip
Azimuth
Azimuth
SSA-1
SSA-2
SSA-3
SSA-4
SSA-5
SSA-6
SSA-7
SSA-8
SSB-1
SSB-2
204
106
116
74
38
331
229
164
240
179
80
73
76
59
87
66
86
81
83
74
71
308
213
351
293
52
326
20
132
88
7
17
2
4
2
2
0
7
2
1
340
219
304
262
203
140
57
290
42
358
7
1
14
26
3
23
3
6
7
16
76(= 256)
53(-- 233)
2
83(= 263)
197(= 17)
120 = 300)
343 (= 163)
106(=286)
105(= 285)
75(=255)
166(= 346)
143(= 323)
2
173(= 353)
107(= 287)
210( = 30)
253(= 73)
196(= 16)
15(= 195)
345( = 165)
(o)l
~
(o)
(o)1
~
(o)
(o)1
(o)
(o)1
(o)1
1Azimuths measured clockwise with respect to North (Z-axis) or, for unoriented cores (SSB), clockwise from
reference line (X-axis).
2 = Poor acoustic coupling due to poor cementation of the rock.
However, in the presence of large discontinuities, the reverse is true. Large discontinuities in
specimens influence acoustic wave propagation,
whereas any non stress relief behaviour in the
DSA tests can usually be avoided by strain
gauge emplacement. Consequently, DSA can
produce more reliable results in this case.
The DSA results in Table 2 show that the
principal stresses do not lie in exactly horizontal
or vertical directions. In other words, the
induced cracks in most cases are not exactly
parallel or perpendicular to the vertical axis in
situ. However, the reasonably good agreement
between the two techniques has shown that
acoustic velocity anisotropy can still be observed
even though the microcracks dip from these
directions, which is more often than not likely to
be the case. This fact is very important in any
effort to establish USWS as an alternative
technique for in situ stress determination, bearing in mind that it is most likely that grain scale
heterogeneities can cause local deviations in
microcrack orientations.
Configuration
system
dominant and mutual perpendicular microcracks sets. Although this assumption is logical,
as demonstrated by Charles et al. (1986), DSA
does not provide a direct illustration of the
microcrack system. Direct observation such as
scanning electron microscope (SEM) of oriented
samples used in conjunction with DSA can,
however, provide an insight into microcrack
orientations and distributions.
The results of S-wave splitting measurements
can provide, to some extent, additional information on microcrack configurations. Velocity
plots, such as shown in Fig. 6, have demonstrated that velocity anisotropy can occur
between measurements in the vertical and
horizontal directions. There are several factors
that can lead to such acoustic anisotropy, and to
S-wave splitting in particular, but it is generally
accepted that aligned cracks are the major cause
of S-wave splitting (Crampin & Lovell 1991). At
the small scale, such as in USWS tests, there is
always a possibility that other sources of
anisotropy, such as lamination and crystal
alignment, can contribute to the overall anisotropy. As shown in Table 1, SSA sandstone
samples exhibit signs of bedding (between 4 ~ and
22 ~ from the horizontal), even though not all
samples were found to exhibit dominant bedding. However, in this study, there is evidence
that the presence of bedding planes has not
contributed to the velocity anisotropy for the Xaxis (horizontal) propagation direction. For
example, the results for SSA-5 (Table 3) show
that, despite the 18.5 ~ dip in bedding (Table 1),
the USWS measurements indicate the presence
of a set of horizontal microcracks as indicated
194
B. WIDARSONO E T AL.
Conclusions
A series of investigations of in situ state of stress
using DSA and USWS has been conducted
References
BROWN, E. T. & HOCK, E. 1978. Trends in relationships
between measured in-situ stress and depth. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences and Geomechanics Abstracts, 15, 211215.
CHARLES, Ph., HAMAMDJIAN,C. DESPAX, D. 1986. Is
the microcracking of a rock a memory of its initial
state of stress? Proceedings International Symposium on Rock Stress and Rock Stress Measurements, Stockholm, 341-349.
CRAMPIN, S. 1978. Seismic wave propagation through a
cracked solid: polarisation as a possible dilatancy
diagnostic. Geophysical Journal of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 53, 467-496.
- & LOVELL,J. H. 1991. A decade of shear-wave
splitting in the earth's crust: what does it mean?
what use can we make of it? and what should we
do next? Geophysical Journal International, 107,
387-407.
DESROCHES,J., MARSDEN,J. R. & COLLEY, N. M. 1995.
Wireline open-hole stress tests in a tight gas
sandstone. Proceedings International Gas Conference, Cannes.
DEY, T. N. & BROWN, D. W. 1986. Stress measurements in a deep granite rock mass using hydraulic
fracturing and differential strain curve analysis.
Proceedings International Symposium on Rock
Stress and Rock Stress Measurements, Stockholm, 351-357.
195
Abstract:The distribution of mineral cements in oil fields is critical to the spatial variation of
porosity and permeability. The distribution of dolomite cement within fluvial Triassic
Chaunoy sandstones in the Paris Basin was studied using core description, petrography,
core analysis (porosity and permeability), wireline data interpreted to give mineralogy,
porosity and permeability data and geochemical data. Petrographic analysis revealed that
dolomite and quartz cements are the main diagenetic minerals. Using sonic transit time,
density and neutron porosity log, the overall proportions of quartz, dolomite and shale as
well as porosity for each depth interval could be resolved. Petrographic and core analysis
data showed that permeability could be calculated from wireline-derived porosity and
mineralogy data. There is excellent correlation between core analysis porosity and
permeability and their wireline-derived equivalents. There is also excellent correlation
between wireline-derived mineralogy data and quantitative petrographic mineralogy data.
The wireline-derived mineralogy data show that dolomite is preferentially concentrated at
the tops of most sand bodies. Porosity and permeability are consequently lowest at the tops
of individual sand bodies due to the localized dolomite cement. There are a number of
potential causes for this distribution pattern although geochemical and petrographic data
showed that a combination of early pedogenetic dolomite cementation and later
recrystallization, possibly due to an influx of organically-derived CO2, are most likely.
One of the key problems involved in describing the distribution of diagenetic cement is the
cost (in terms of time and money) of acquiring
the data. Petrographic data are usually collected
at a far lower density than core analysis data (if
at all), are harder to quality-control and are
highly operator-dependent. In this paper, the
method of assessing carbonate cement distribution in sandstones using petrophysical logs
(hereafter known as wireline logs) will be
described. This method was used to describe
the distribution of dolomite cement in Triassic
fluvial clastic sediments of the Chaunoy Formation in the Paris Basin, France. The controls on
dolomite cement distribution will be discussed,
the effects of dolomite cement (and by inference,
quartz cement) on reservoir flow properties,
defined, and possible mechanisms that controlled the carbonate cement distribution pattern
investigated.
Geological setting
The Paris Basin is an intracratonic basin with an
aerial extent of approximately 6000km 2 and
about 3000m of present day sediment infill
deposited on Hercynian basement (Fig. 1;
Pommerol 1974, 1978). There are two main
permeable, petroleum-bearing reservoir units in
the central part of the Mesozoic of the Paris
WORDEN,R. H. 1998. Dolomite cement distribution in a sandstone from core and wireline data:
the Triassic fluvial Chaunoy Formation, Paris Basin. In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
197
198
R.H. WORDEN
Methods
Core description and petrography
Slabbed core from the well was examined for
general lithology, facies variations, sedimentary
structures and grain size. Grain size of the core
was measured at regular intervals by comparing
core to standard grain size charts under a
binocular microscope. Petrographic analysis
was performed on 22 thin sections stained for
carbonates and feldspars and impregnated with
blue-dyed epoxy resin. Grain size and sorting
class were assessed quantitatively in thin section
by measuring sizes of one hundred grains per
section. Detrital grains, cements and porosity
were quantified by point counting using three
hundred grain counts per section.
199
At e
P
Pminx
p4
~bn
(~nminx
4~n,
minX
pi
ps
qtz%
(1)
(3)
(4)
200
R.H. WORDEN
Results
Core description and p e t r o g r a p h y
Polycrystalline quartz
Monocrystalline quartz
(Total detrital quartz
K-feldspar
Plagioclase
Quartzose lithic fragments
Detrital mica
Detrital clay
Kaolinite
Illite
Chlorite
Authigenic K-feldspar
Authigenic Quartz
Calcite cement
Dolomite cement
Mean
%
21.1
13.0
34.1
8.9
4.6
13.2
0.8
3.2
2.5
0.4
0.5
1.1
11.6
1.4
16.4
Standard
deviation %
8.6
8.2
6.6)
4.1
3.5
8.8
1.1
5.4
4.2
1.1
0.9
1.4
8.5
5.9
22.0
201
Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of (a) microcrystalline non-ferroan dolomite at the very top of a sand body with partial
replacement of detrital silicate grains and (b) grain-rimming quartz cement (Q) and pore-filling rhombic ferroan
dolomite (DOL) enclosing the quartz cement. Remnant porosity (~) is minor and occupies pore centres. Scale
bars are 200 #m.
202
R.H. WORDEN
203
Fig. 6. Cross plots of (a) sonic transit time against density and (b) neutron porosity against density. The positions
of the three mineral groups (quartz, dolomite and shale--where shale refers to all clay minerals and not a texture
or fabric) used to define the mineralogy of the formation are marked on both plots. The position of the pore fluid
is off the scale but the general direction is marked.
Fig. 7. Data quality assurance: (a) comparison of wireline-derived porosity and core analysis-derived porosity.
There is a good correlation between the two datasets. The intercept on the x-axis shows that the wireline porosity
data are over-estimating porosity by about 0.024 (note that this over-estimate is subsequently accounted for in all
the following calculations and plots); (b) comparison of petrographically-determined quartz and wireline- derived
quartz; (c) comparison of petrographically-defined dolomite and wireline-derived dolomite. Porosity and
mineralogy from core and petrographic sources is well matched by the values defined from the transformed
wireline logs.
204
R.H. WORDEN
Fig. 8. Combination diagram of grain size data (derived from core description, Fig. 2) and mineral proportions,
porosity and permeability (derived from wireline log analysis). There is excellent agreement between quartz
proportion and reservoir quality. The agreement of these with grain size is complex. The tops of some sand bodies
have a high dolomite content and correspondingly poorer reservoir quality (e.g. 2470-2471 m). Sand bodies are
numbered for reference to Figs 2 and 9. Core analysis porosity and permeability data (dashed and faint) have
been added to the diagram for comparison with the wireline-derived data.
205
(5)
(6)
(7)
206
R.H. WORDEN
Discussion
Quantitative mineralogical data have been generated from sonic transit time, density and
neutron porosity wireline logs. Gamma logs
cannot be used for mineral identification due to
the variable site of radiogenic potassium in a
variety of minerals and the non-concordance
between uranium and thorium and specific
minerals (Doveton 1994; Hurst & Milodowski
1996). The Triassic sandstones and mudstones of
the Paris Basin have been resolved into quartz,
shale and dolomite. Dolomite has a diagenetic
(i.e. non-primary) origin. Wireline logs can be
207
Fig. 12. Theoretical dolomite distributions from four potential controlling processes. The model represents a sand
body sandwiched between pedogenic dolocrete layers. (a) Pedogenic dolomite cement; there would be most
dolomite at the top of each sand body. (b) Dolomite cemented, sourced from the dolocrete during burial,
transported by diffusion; cement should be equally abundant at the tops and bases of sand bodies with a
minimum at the centre. (c) Dolomite distribution controlled by high permeability streaks enabling input from
external sources; fluvial sandstones usually fine upwards leading to high permeability bases and thus most
dolomite at sand body bases. (d) Dolomite distribution controlled by the relative buoyancy of oil (which may
have carried dissolved CO2) or a separate CO2 gas phase caused dolomite cementation and thus leading to most
dolomite at the tops of sand bodies.
208
R.H. WORDEN
Thus, not only does the dolomite cement
preferentially obscure porosity at the tops of the
sandstone units, but it also leads to disproportionately lower permeabilities than quartz-cemented sandstones of similar porosity.
209
210
R.H. WORDEN
Conclusions
(1) Wireline petrophysical data have been
successfully manipulated to give mineralogy in terms of the amounts of quartz,
shale and dolomite, as well as porosity.
(2) Core analysis data show that dolomite
cement has a more detrimental effect upon
permeability than quartz cement. Permeability has thus been calculated from the
wireline porosity data using algorithms
that account for the variation in mineralogy as well as porosity.
(3) Petrography and, more importanly, wireline log data, have shown that dolomite
c e m e n t is not u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
t h r o u g h o u t the sandstones within the
C h a u n o y Formation. Rather, dolomite
cement is localized within the top portions
of individual sandstone units.
(4) Reservoir quality in the Chaunoy Formation is not just a function of depositional
facies but is also a function of localized
cement distribution. Building a reservoir
model using primary sand body architecture alone is insufficient to correctly describe reservoir quality.
(5) Sand bodies contain microcrystalline nonferroan and replacive dolomite as well as
rhombic ferroan and pore-filling dolomite.
Textural and mineral chemical data show
that the microcrystalline dolomite probably
grew during pedogenesis of the overlying
fine-grained facies. Fluid inclusion and
isotope data, together with textural evidence, show that the rhombic ferroan
dolomite probably grew at close to maximum burial in the mid Tertiary in the
presence of organically derived CO2.
References
BOURQUIN,S. 8z GUILLOCHEAU,F. 1993. Gbometrie des
sbquences de d6p6t du Keuper (Ladinien
Rh&ian) du Bassin de Paris: implications gbodynamiques. Comptes Rendus Acad~mie des
Sciences, Paris. 317, S6rie 2, 1341-1348.
, BOEHM, C., CLERMONTE, L, DURAND, M. &
SERRA, O. 1993. Analyse facio-sbquentielle du
Trias du centre-ouest du bassin de Paris fi partir
des donnbes diagraphiques. Bulletin de la Societe
G~ologique Francais, 164, 177-188.
BRUNET, M.-F. & LE PICHON,X. 1982. Subsidence of
the Paris Basin. Journal of Geophysical Research,
87, 8547-8560.
BRYANT, S., CADE, C. MELLOR, D. 1993. Permeability prediction from geological models. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
77, 1338-1350.
CADE, C., EVANS,I. J. 8s BRYANT,S. 1994. Analysis of
permeability controls: a new approach. Clay
Minerals, 29, 491-501.
DEMARS, C. & PAGEL, M. 1994. Palbotemp6ratures et
pal6osalinites dans les gr~s du Keuper du Bassin
de Paris: inclusions fluides dans les min6raux
authig~nes. Comptes Rendus Acad~mie des
Sciences, Paris. 319, serie 2, 427-434.
DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geologic log analysis using
computer methods. AAPG computer applications
in geology, 2. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, USA.
FOLK, R. L. 1974. Petrology of sedimentary rocks.
Hemphill, Austin.
211
Gaffney, Cline & Associates, Bentley Hall, Blacknest, Alton, Hampshire GU34 4PU, UK
Abstract: Traditionally, the deterministic open-hole petrophysical evaluation of non-Archie
primary reservoirs has been undertaken exclusively within one or other of two intergranular
systems, those of effective and total porosity. Yet, these interpretative models can be
considered conjunctively with the object of inter-model validation of petrophysical
interpretation. These considerations reveal ways of demonstrating the numerical compatibility of the two approaches. The compatibility is expressed in terms of equalities that
contain core-calibrated, log-derived parameters and that are founded on the underlying
petrophysics. The equalities must be satisfied if the petrophysical procedures are to be
applied consistently and correctly. These inter-model algorithms constitute a basis for a
proposed quality assurance scheme in well-log interpretation that goes beyond tying log
data back to core. They suggest quality control points at which core-calibrated log data can
be examined to assess the meaningfulness and performance of interpretation procedures at
different stages of the petrophysical evaluation process. These assessments form a basis for
the development of measures of confidence in the practice of open-hole well-log
interpretation for porosity and hydrocarbon saturation, regardless of whether the
interpretation is ultimately set in the context of the effective or the total porosity model.
More generally, the subject matter forms part of a broader thrust to introduce a systematic
quality assurance culture into open-hole petrophysical interpretation.
Open-hole petrophysical evaluation of nonArchie rocks, those that do not satisfy the
conditions for the application of the laws of
Archie (1942), has traditionally drawn upon
either effective or total porosity concepts as a
basis for the determination of reservoir porosity
and fluid saturations. The difference between the
two concepts lies in the interpretative treatment
of the electrochemically-bound interstitial water.
This should not be confused with capillary
bound water, whose volume can be an order 9f
magnitude greater (Pallatt & Thornley 1990),
nor with those dual-porosity waters that are
distinguished by pore type. Petrophysicists have
usually operated the effective and total porosity
models discretely, selecting one or the other at
an early stage of the formation evaluation
process. This exclusive choice has been driven
by company culture, software considerations,
statutory requirements, or technical or personal
preference.
The practice of selecting a discrete interpretative model constrains the manner in which core
data can be used to support and validate log
interpretation. Thus, for example, effective
porosity cannot easily be determined in the
laboratory, and yet these data are strictly
required by the effective porosity model in order
to control the porosity interpretation of neutron~lensity log cross plots. In contrast, the
electrochemical shale parameters needed to
WORTHINGTON,P. F. 1998. Conjunctive interpretation of core and log data through association of
the effective and total porosity models. In: HARVEY,P. K. 8s LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 213-223
213
214
P.F. WORTHINGTON
acteristics, quantified through the cation exchange capacity per unit pore volume Qv. All
constituent fluids comprise the porosity, which is
termed 'total'. Despite this seemingly all-embracing name, the term 'total porosity' does not
include fracture porosity, and the sum of these is
better described as 'absolute porosity'.
The role of the effective and total porosity
systems within the overall scheme of formation
evaluation is governed in some quarters by the
polarization of the subject area into statistical
and deterministic methods of interpretation.
These approaches, too, need not be operated
exclusively, but their integrated use extends
beyond the scope of this paper and is the subject
of another that is in preparation.
Statistical methods of petrophysical interpretation are based on the global approach to the
solution of log response equations (Mayer &
Sibbitt 1980). If these equations contain characterizing shale properties and solve for a wetted
shale fraction, the computed porosity will be an
effective porosity. If the response equations do
not contain characterizing shale properties and
do not solve for a wetted shale fraction, the
implicit requirement for a total porosity approach must be one of identical log responses to
clean rock matrix and dry clay minerals for all
the log responses represented within the input
matrix over the evaluation interval. The highly
tenuous nature of this general assumption
inhibits the meaningful operation of the global
approach in the total porosity system.
On the other hand, deterministic methods can
be operated in both the effective and the total
porosity systems, because logs can be used more
selectively on the basis of their being fit-forpurpose. Therefore, the following discussion is
set within the context of deterministic petrophysics.
The scheme of deterministic open-hole petro-
RESERVOIR
FORMATIONWATERSALINITY
CLAY-MINERALCONTENT 1
ARCHIE
POROSITY
Sw
"7
+
+
NON-ARCHIE
TOTAL
I EFFECTIVEpoROSI
] TY I POROSITY
EFFECTIVE
Sw
215
I TOTAL
Sw
(1)
increasing Vsh.
After applying equation (1) to the sonic,
density and neutron logs, effective porosity can
then be evaluated as for clean sands:
(2)
(3)
Fe* = a*/doem*
(4)
216
P.F. WORTHINGTON
Shale-corrected
Log Response
DENSITY
NEUTRON
SONIC
_I
-
Porosity
Oe
L
F
] ARCHIE'S
[ ~ A=W
FIRST
1F
/ Oee.m
Core control
in clean zones
HELIUM POROSITY
Core control
INTRINSIC POROSITY
EXPONENT
m*
Formation water
sample
WATER
CONDUCTIVITY
Cw
UNIFIED SHALE /
VOLUME FRACTION
Vsh
Jl
Log Response
LATEROLOG
INDUCTION
Ct C sh
F-~
Core control
INTRINSIC
SATURATION
EXPONENT
Oe Swe
n*
(5)
(6)
(7)
_I
Log Response
DENSITY
Porosity
Core control
in clean zones
HELIUM POROSITY
ARCHIE'S FIRST ~ W L
1,o,
217
Core control
INTRINSIC POROSITY
EXPONENT
m*
Formation water
sample
WATER
CONDUCTIVITY
Cw
r ~176 , 89
Log Response
LATEROLOG
INDUCTION
Ct
WAXMAN-SMITS EQUATION
C t = C w Swtn*+ BQ v Swtn*-I
Ot
Swt
B -- f (Cw)
Core control
INTRINSIC
SATURATION
EXPONENT
n*
+ ~bw
(8)
where
~)bw: Vsh ~)tsh
(9)
(10)
(13)
Porosity
(11)
Grain density
If Vma is the fractional volume of the rock
matrix, the grain density can be expressed:
Pg = (Pma Vma + Pcl Vcl )/( Vma "[- Vcl).
(12)
(14)
(15)
(16)
218
P.F. WORTHINGTON
written:
~t-- ~be-~ ~t
Qv/Qvsh
(17)
to be.
Equations (4) and (7) can be combined as
follows:
(20)
(18)
Equation (22) describes the relationship between Qv and Vsh assuming that the water-zone
forms of the Waxman-Smits and Simandoux
equations are valid within their respective
porosity systems. It is interesting to consider
the boundary conditions on equation (22). When
Vsh=0, Fe* = F t* and therefore Qv=0. When
Vsh = 1 for a perfect shale in which Cw
approaches the bound-water conductivity Cbw,
4~e= 0 and therefore Fe* is infinite. Under these
conditions, equation (22) reduces to:
Qvsh =
(23)
(24)
(19)
(22)
BF~.
Cbw ~- BQvsh
F* =a*/q~ m*
(21)
(25)
Ftsh*
or, alternatively:
Ftsh*= Ftsh (1 + (BQvsh/Cbw))
(26)
where
Fts h =
Cbw/Csh.
(27)
Fluid saturations
The interpreted hydrocarbon-filled porosity
must be the same in both the effective and the
total porosity systems, otherwise the computed
hydrocarbons in place will be different. Therefore:
~e She = ~t Sht
(28)
Relative strengths
or
(1
- Swt)
(29)
(30)
Oe (1 -- Swe ) = (~t
219
so that
Systemic differences
The effective porosity system entails the characterization of matrix, fluid and shale points
without the need to specify net sand at the
outset. The neutron and density logs are
corrected for light hydrocarbon effects before
all three porosity logs are corrected for shale
effects. At that point the corrected porosity logs
are deemed to be sensing effective porosity. The
interpreted porosities are used to calculate
corresponding values of intrinsic formation
factor. A unified shale volume fraction and
shale conductivity are other essential inputs to
the water saturation equation (Fig. 3).
The total porosity system entails the density
220
P.F. WORTHINGTON
221
first.
The second element is concerned with tying
the computed grain density pg back to core
through log-derived values of Vsh, q~e and ~btsh,
and a knowledge of pc~ and Pma- A satisfactory
tie-back would substantiate the assumptions
concerning Pcl and Pma, the latter being verifiable
over any shale-free intervals of net sand. Failure
to secure agreement could be attributed to
unrepresentative densities of matrix or dry clay
minerals or to errors in q~e, which is not qualityassured until the third key stage, again suggesting some degree of iteration.
The third element of Fig. 5 reconciles logderived effective porosity with log-derived total
porosity through a comparison of ~bt indirectly
calculated from q~e with that interpreted directly
within the total porosity system over net
reservoir intervals. The third element also allows
both the log-derived porosities to be referred to
core porosity over net reservoir intervals.
Because of the uncertainty associated with the
influence of sample preparation on the measured
core porosity of shaly plugs, the tying back to
core might best be done in two stages. First, the
log-core comparison should be restricted to
clean intervals to establish that the interpretation systems are functioning under the most
straightforward conditions. Second, in view of
the earlier comments concerning a hybrid core
porosity, the tying back to core over shalier
intervals of net reservoir should allow the
measured core porosity to be of intermediate
value relative to the log-derived effective and
222
P.F. WORTHINGTON
Conclusions
A comparison of open-hole petrophysical interpretation practices for non-Archie reservoirs
that are set exclusively within either the effective
or the total porosity system has identified a set
of relational algorithms through which these
interpretative models can be associated. This
identified numerical equivalence allows intermodel assessments of the consistency and
validity of the interpreted data at key stages of
the petrophysical evaluation process, so that
some measure of reliability may be established.
The assessments involve comparisons of interpretations made by separately using the two
porosity models as well as the tying of these
interpretations back to core. The key stages
form the basis for a quality assurance scheme
that draws upon the integration of traditionally
separate areas of petrophysical systemics. The
development of such a scheme in the form of
quantitative measures of inter-model agreement
would constitute a logical extension of the
demonstrated association of the effective and
total porosity models.
This initiative forms part of an essential thrust
to complement the excellent quality control that
currently exists in well-log data acquisition. At
present, our ability to acquire petrophysical data
Nomenclature
B equivalent conductance of (sodium) clayexchange cations (S m 1 equiv. 1 litre)
Cbw conductivity of bound water ( S m ')
Csh conductivity of wetted shale fraction (S m -1)
Ct bulk conductivity of reservoir rock (S m -1)
Cw conductivity of free water ( S m -1)
F* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in
generic form
Fe* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in the
effective porosity system
Ft* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor in the
total porosity system
Ftsh formation (resistivity) factor of a perfect
shale in the total porosity system
Ftsh* intrinsic formation (resistivity) factor of a
perfect shale in the total porosity system
Qv cation exchange capacity per unit pore
volume (equiv. litre-1)
Qvsh cation exchange capacity per unit pore
volume of shale (equiv. litre -1)
She fractional hydrocarbon saturation in the
effective porosity system
Sht fractional hydrocarbon saturation in the
total porosity system
Swb fractional bound-water saturation
Swe fractional water saturation in the effective
porosity system
Swt fractional water saturation in the total
porosity system
Vd volumetric fraction of dry clay minerals
Vmavolumetric fraction of clean rock matrix
Vsh volumetric fraction of wetted shale
X generic log response
Xcorr generic log response corrected for shaliness
Xma generic log response to clean rock matrix
Xsh generic log response to shale
a* Archie intrinsic porosity coefficient
Ce concentration of equilibrium free water
(equiv. litre 1)
c~ concentration of saturating water (equiv.
litre-1)
References
ARCHIE, G. E. 1942. The electrical resistivity log as an
aid in determining some reservoir characteristics.
Trans. AIME 146, 54-62.
BARDON, C. 8z PIED, B. 1969. Formation water
saturation in shaly sands. Trans. SPWLA lOth
Ann. Logging Syrup., Zl-19, Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, Houston, Texas.
BUSH, D. C. & JENKINS, R. E. 1970. Proper hydration
of clays for rock property determinations. Journal
of Petroleum Technology, 22, 800-804.
CLAVIER, C., COATES, G & DUMANOIR, J. 1984.
Theoretical and experimental bases for the dualwater model for interpretation of shaly sands.
Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, 24, 153167.
HILL, H. J., SHIRLEY,O. J. & KLEIN, G. E. 1979. Bound
water in shaly sands--its relation to Qv and other
formation properties. The Log Analyst 20(3),
3-19.
HURST, A. & NADEAU, P. 1994. Estimation of water
saturation from clay microporosity data. SPE
Paper 28850, Society of Petroleum Engineers,
Richardson, Texas.
223
conductivity of anisotropic shaly formations. The model is based on Willis' formulae and
the concept of a host medium, the selection of which is crucial in predicting these transport
properties. Different rock components, including shales and mudrocks, are characterized by
parameters typifying their pore geometry, namely the aspect ratio, size and orientation
distribution of the pores. In this regard the model is an extension of the elastic model of Xu
& White for predicting P- and S-wave velocities in siliciclastic rocks. The electrochemical
effect of clay minerals on electrical conductivity is simulated by Waxman & Smits' model. A
novel feature of the permeability model is that its percolation factor is estimated by a nonlinear transformation of the percolation factor found from conductivity measurements.
The model was tested on the laboratory measurements published by Waxman & Smits.
Comparison of the results with those from the Waxman & Smits, Dual-Water, and K o z e n ~
Carman models, and with multilinear and non-linear regression techniques, demonstrated
that the unified model predicted conductivity and permeability more accurately than any of
these models from the same number or fewer parameters. The improved prediction was most
noticeable in samples containing a significant clay mineral fraction. Apart from Waxman &
Smits' data, we have found no published dataset that is comprehensive enough to test
physical predictions of both conductivity and permeability.
225
226
S. XU & R. WHITE
where
Vc
~bc = _---~b
1
(2)
4,s = 4 - 4~c.
(3)
and
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION
further postulate that the sand-related pores are
randomly oriented whereas the clay-related
pores tend to align themselves in a plane. This
assumption conforms with observations of
strong seismic and ultrasonic anisotropies for
shales and isotropic wave propagation in clean
sandstones. In modelling logs, Vc is generally
replaced by shale volume Vsh, which would lump
the fractional volume of silts and various
mineral fragments with Vc. The model could in
principle take account of these different components and different clay minerals if there were
practical log analysis procedures distinguishing
them.
227
five phases:
1. a non-conducting solid phase;
2. a clay mineral phase with a finite but very
small conductivity;
3. a randomly oriented sand-related pore
fluid phase with conductivity Cwe;
4. a clay-related pore fluid phase with the
same pore fluid conductivity Cwe but with a
preferred pore orientation;
5. a non-conducting hydrocarbon phase.
The percolation factor Fc for conductivity is
defined as in equation B1 in Appendix B:
CH= FcCwe+(1-Fc) Cm
Conductivity
In simulating electrical conductivity special
consideration must be given to the electrochemical behaviour of clays. Waxman & Smits
(1968) demonstrated that shaley sands behave as
perm-selective cation exchange membranes and
their electrochemical efficiencies increase with
increasing clay content. They modelled this by
supplementing water conductivity Cw with a
conductivity Ce from the clay counter-ions
within the ionic double layers:
Ce = BQv
(5)
(6)
where Cw is in ohm m q. The effective conductivity of the formation water Cwe is simply
the sum of Cw and Ce.
Cwe = Cw + Ce
(4)
(8)
(7)
In order to apply the modified Willis' formulae (equations A5-A11) to the conductivity
of shaly sands, we subdivide the formation into
Permeability
In simulating permeability, there is a problem in
defining the intrinsic permeabilities of the inclusions. One approach is to start from the intrinsic
permeability of two parallel plates:
be
k = -12
(9)
(10)
(11)
228
S. XU & R. WHITE
ks = gO~s as-
(12)
kc = ~1 ac 2ac2.
(13)
and
(14)
The Waxman-Smits (WS) and the D u a l Water (DW) models (Clavier et al. 1984) were
also tested on the dataset for comparison.
To simulate electrical resistivity, all three
models require porosity, clay content and brine
conductivity (Cw) as input parameters. As there
were no direct measurements of clay content, we
estimated it from Qv using a relation given by
Juhasz (1979):
V~l(drv) =
9
Qvq~t
(15)
Pcl (dry) C E C c l
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION
229
25
~E20
"! 15
%,
0
1;
1;
2'0
10
lid
0
3;
35
4'5 50 55
40
Sample Number
5
0
25
50
100
150 200
(mS/cm)
7
250
Conductivity of brine
_AA
/o ,; 2o 25 3; 3'5 20 ~5 5; 5;
Sample Number
57
"64
0
o
.~ 2
5; 5;
Sample Number
nl
50
100
150
200
Conductivity of brine (mS/cm)
250
FC versus porosity
-10 a
100.~ 604',,
3o9
Permeability
Figures 5 to 7 show cross plots of permeability
versus porosity, Qv and formation factor.
Permeability is clearly affected by all three
factors. There are two distinct trends on the k4~ and k - F F plots but apparently just one on the
k-Qv plot.
Of the many models in the literature for
predicting permeability, the most popular are
the Kozeny-Carman equation and multilinear
and non-linear regression techniques.
The K o z e n y - C a r m a n e q u a t i o n ( C a r m a n
1956) is based on a tube-like model of the pore
paths in a rock. Flow through a porous medium
is represented by a bundle of tubes of different
radii. Within each tube, the flow is laminar
rather than turbulent. The tubes are also
,mmI "
9
mt m
|m
9
9
10-
6-
31
0.0
oi,
o12
o13
o14
Porosity (fractional)
Fig. 3. Cross plot of the estimated percolation factor
Fc as a function of porosity.
assumed to be twisted with tortuosity 7-= La/L,
where La is the assigned length of a tube and L is
the length of the sample. Under these conditions, the Kozeny-Carman equation becomes
k-
~bRh2
(16)
230
S. XU & R. WHITE
P e r m e a b i l i t y versus F F
Fc versus Qv
- 1 0 -3
100-
&
~"..~
6o-
. ..
9 ii m
~9
30-
102 -
= ~ ' ~ 1 /n ~ 9 9 9
9
9 me
====
.~
10 ~
"'%
10-
6-
o==
~.
"
10_2 3-
006
0;
l O -4
o16 ,o
io
4'O
10
'
100
200
Fotenation F a c t o r
Qv (meq/ml )
~)3
k=
9 "
102--
t:.
g
.~
(17)
f r S 2 ( 1 - ~b)2.
10 ~
el
102
10 ~
o9
o11
o12
o13
o14
Porosity (fractional)
Fig. 5. Cross plot of the measured permeability as a
function of porosity.
Permeability versus Qv
Measured versus predicted
10 -~
102-
.-~
,-.,.,
9 "":-:'k-'."
10 -2
10 ~
102 .....................................................................................
102
10 ~
==
==
10' ...................................
%.
10-2-
0
mi
.'. : :'r
9
1 0 : ..................................................................................................
10 2
10
10 ~
10'
I
0.06
0 I
91
013
0'.6
l'.0
3.0
Qv (meq/ml)
10"
10 2
10 ~
10:
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION
Factor F P versus Factor F C
Predicted v e r s u s measured
101~0~
10 -~
10 ~
----.
"~
102 . ...................................................................
10 2
i
10'
10"
"-.'i"
10 o ...............................; . . ;
.~
10 ~
"~
10"-
,.~
l O 2--
10 .2
"
BBB
9
i 9
10 -~_
10 ~
10 -6
10 -4
"l t
10~_
10"
...
10.~ -
.........'.....'...~....~............................10 ~
t "-"
~"
231
10 ~
10 2
lO
- 1 0 -~
)~0"~
30
60
100
F a c t 9 f r o m conductivity data
I~,T'
10~
10o
102
q
,,...,_
10~0,
ioe
10 .................................................................
9 9149 pe
e.e~,..~ ................... 10 2
9 9
i:
10 ~
10 -~ ...................... ..",........................................................................
lOio~,
10 .2
10 ~
10 ~
10 ~
04
+ 0.01FF.
(19)
(20)
232
S. XU & R. WHITE
particles affect electrical conductivity and permeability. As we discussed earlier, clay particles
adhering in a pore throat may block the fluid
flow path, whereas for electrical current flow,
wet clay particles are effectively conductive. In
other words, conductivity and permeability
respond differently to clay content.
Equation 20 was applied to the permeability
prediction. The results are shown in Fig. 11,
which should be compared with Figs 8 and 9.
The unified model predicts permeability better
than the KC model and multiple regression. It
benefits from predicting the permeability percolation factor Fp from the percolation factor Fc
determined from conductivity measurements.
Application of the model to another dataset
(Sen et al. 1990) for which no conductivity
measurements were available showed only a
slight improvement over the empirical models
given by Sen et al.
Discussion
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION
rock samples in order to compare and
calibrate models. Measurements are needed
of conductivity, permeability and elastic
wave velocities, and their anisotropies from
the same set of samples.
(2) There is the question of what kind of model
is best suited to predicting permeability.
Our approach is to look for a physical basis
for the prediction rather than the dubious
practice of playing with variables and
functions in the melting pot of multiple
regression. The Kozeny-Carman model
appears to be the most widely used physical
model of permeability and, when adapted
to use with N M R logs, this can predict
permeability in clean sands very well
(Fletcher et al. 1996). A major assumption
of this model is that the total fluid flow is
the sum of flows in individual tubes. Since
this model, or any parallel flow model, is
dominated by large tubes, it does not
appear to be well suited to modelling
permeability in clay-rich rocks. A model
based on inclusions may also be more
capable of accounting for the well-documented rapid decrease in permeability with
an initial rise in differential pressure than a
tube-based model. This phenomenon is
commonly considered to be due to the
closure of microcracks or flat gaps that act
as channels between big pores.
Our model is an inclusion-based model
which embeds pores into a permeable host
medium and, with the aid of Willis'
formulae, relates permeability to pore
shapes, sizes and orientation distribution.
It tries to integrate permeability and conductivity measurements. Its use of pore
aspect ratios connects the transport properties model to one employed in modelling
elastic wave propagation. In the elastic
wave modelling, pore aspect ratios provide
a way of specifying pore compressibility
but it is far from certain how relevant they
are to modelling transport properties.
Although one can postulate a connection
with pore throat parameters, the connection is admittedly tenuous. However, there
is a benefit in seeking an integrated model
since fitting different measurements helps
constrain its parameters better.
(3) More accurate prediction of permeability
needs detailed information about the pore
space. Porosity itself is not a problem since
it can be measured directly in the laboratory and estimated with a reasonable
accuracy from logs. Since permeability is
sensitive to the second power of pore size,
233
234
S. XU & R. WHITE
Conclusions
(1) There is a strong correlation between clay
content and permeability.
(2) We have d e v e l o p e d a unified effective
m e d i u m model for simulating the electrical
conductivity and permeability of anisotropic shaley formations. The effect of clay is
modelled by means of pore parameters
(size, shape, orientation) and the W a x m a n
& Smits electrochemical model.
(3) The model predicts electrical conductivity
measurements slightly better than the wellk n o w n W a x m a n - S m i t s and the D u a l Water models when it is reduced to the
isotropic case.
(4) Permeability is m o r e difficult to predict
than conductivity and elastic velocities
since it is effected by more factors. In the
case where resistivity measurements were
available, the model simulated the permeability m e a s u r e m e n t s better than other
models tested. In the case where there were
no conductivity measurements, it worked
at least as accurately as existing models.
(5) The percolation factor determined from
c o n d u c t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s is different
from that determined from permeability
measurements in magnitude, probably due
to the different ways in which clays affect
permeability and conductivity. Wet clay
usually acts as a barrier for fluid flow but a
conductor for current flow.
We are indebted to the sponsors of the London
University Research Programme in Seismic Lithology,
Amoco (UK) Exploration Company, Elf UK plc,
Enterprise Oil plc, Fina Exploration Ltd, Mobil North
Sea Ltd and Texaco Britain Ltd, for their support of
this research. We thank B. Moss of Moss Petrophysics
Ltd for helpful comments in his review of the paper.
References
BEARD, D. C. & WEYL, P. K. 1973. Influence of texture
on porosityand permeability of unconsolidated
sand. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 57, 349-369.
Bos, M. R. E. 1982. Prolific dry oil production from
sands with water saturation in excess of 50%--a
study of a dual porosity system. In: SPWLA 23rd
Annual Logging Symposium, paper BB.
CARMAN, P. C. 1956. Flow of gases through porous
media. Academic Press Inc., New York
CLAVIER, C., COATES, G. & DUMANOIR, J. 1984.
Theoretical and experimental bases for the DualWater model for interpretation of shaley sands.
The Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, 24,
153-168.
DE KUIJPER, A., SANDOR, R. K. J., HOFMAN, J. P.,
PERMEABILITY PREDICTION
- -
L = s crZr[l+ eo(tr--Zo)] -1
r=l
{s
-1
(A1)
r=l
where Cr is the concentration of phase r, Lr is the
property tensor (elastic, conductivity or permeability tensor) of phase r, I is the unit tensor, L0
is the property tensor of a hypothetical host
medium having vanishing volume, and P0 is a
tensor which is a function of pore geometry and
the properties of the host medium. Willis
demonstrated that if the most conductive phase
is chosen as the host medium, one gets the upper
bound for the effective conductivity whereas one
gets the lower bound if the least conductive
phase is chosen. The same applies to elasticity,
permeability and thermal conductivity. For any
physical property, the true response lies between
the Hashin-Shtrikman extremes. In terms of
equation (A1) the porosity enters the response
through the concentrations cr and the pore
geometry through the tensor P0.
For spheroidal inclusions aligned perpendicular to the x3 axis,the composite is transversely
isotropic. The host medium L~ may conseq u e n t l y be specified as d i a g o n a l , with
L~ =L~ . The Po tensor for conductivity or
permeability is also diagonal, with Pll =P22
(Willis 1977), and
A2
(e2L033. . f A + 1 '~
Pl1=2--~101{1-2--~101 a l n L A _ l j }
where
A = (LOl L~
_ _e2L~ 3 ) 89
L=
crAr(O,~)
r=l
(A5)
r=l
where
Aij) (0,/3
r
= jof27rf ~Wr(O,/3)KimKjnAmn(O,O
sin( O)dOd/3,
(A6)
0)
sin( O)dOd/3,
(A7)
(A8)
(A9)
and
e2A2 { 1
(A+I)
P33= LlO---~ ~Aln\A_I
(A4)
(A2)
and
235
}
--1
..
(A3)
236
S. XU & R. WHITE
f ~Wr(0,/3)sin(O)dOd/3
=1.
(All)
(B1)
The integration of electrical image logs with core data for improved
sedimentological interpretation
T. M . G O O D A L L 1, N. K. M O L L E R 2 & T. M . R O N N I N G S L A N D
Abstract: Electrical borehole images allow the direct integration of sub-surface well-log data
with core data on a detailed visual level. For sedimentary interpretation, electrical borehole
images are primarily used to obtain bedding orientations and to confirm core-derived
sedimentology.
The aims of this paper are two-fold: firstly, to discuss how the sedimentological
information provided by electrical borehole image logs is integrated with that obtained from
other wireline logs and from cores; and secondly, to show that despite the need to integrate
these data electrical borehole images can provide the geologist with unique sedimentological
information which can not be obtained from either the cores or the other wireline logs. In a
case study from the Oseberg Syd oil and gas field, a Fullbore Formation MicroImager (FMI
Mark of Schlumberger) log through a complex interval of shallow marine sediments has
been investigated. The interpretation of the FMI log led to the acquisition of very detailed
orientation data related to the attitudes of sedimentary bedding surfaces. When these data
were integrated with the sedimentary facies, identified from core description, they proved
fundamental for understanding the activity of different shallow marine palaeocurrents
during sediment deposition.
GOODALL,T. M., MOLLER, N. K. & RONNINGSLAND,T. M. 1998. The integration of electrical image logs 237
with core data for improved sedimentological interpretation In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 237-248
238
T. M. GOODALL ET AL.
Fig. 3. The principle of static and dynamic normalisation. Static normalization can be used to compare
images over an entire well. Dynamic normalization is
used to bring out local detail. A full colour scale is used
for limited data range or 'window' which can be from
any chosen interval such as a bed of interest, or a preset small depth range. Note that for the purposes of
this figure the colour scale is represented as blackgrey-white scale (from Rider 1996).
up to 1.8 m due to the differences in sampling
diameter between the two techniques (Adams et
al. 1990).
239
240
Fig. 4. Representation of borehole wall images on a fiat surface (from a vertical well). The images derived from
the cylindrical borehole (a) are presented on a flat surface (computer screen or hard copy log plot) by
'unwrapping' onto a vertical depth grid and horizontal grid of compass bearings. (b) In this format, horizontal
and vertical surfaces are unchanged but dipping surfaces become represented by a sinusoid. (c) Such dip and
azimuth may be represented on a dipmeter tadpole plot (from Rider 1996).
Fig. 5. Location map for the Oseberg Syd oil and gas field (from Fristad
et al.
241
1997).
242
Fig. 7. A palaeogeographic model showing the distribution of sedimentary facies during the deposition of
the Tarbert Formation in the vicinity of the Oseberg
Syd field (after Fjellanger et al. 1996).
[cm3
~
2.:
CORESEDIMENTOLOGY
G R A I N SIZE &
O
NEUTRON
POROSITY ~
60
%
a
-~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SEDIMENTARYDEPOSITIONAL
STRUCTURESENVIRONMENT
i m u d st vf f m c v c
'
243
--floo~i,,9 v
Swamp
Tidal
: :
,~
9
Lower
l ~ ~'~
..
_.7,0_
T..
9
,
'
. / j / / f
Inlet
'
O~176 f
:: ::--------YJr~/'~
. 2760 -
J . - / /
Shoreface
ii
2770 -
i:::~
[~]
-~
Lower
Shoreface
SEDIMENTARYSTRUCTURES
Cross~
Bioturbation
stratification
~ : ~ Horizontal ~
Rootlets
lamination
Ripple
[ ~ - ] Pebbles
lamination
Waveripple ~
Hummockycrosslamination
stratification
o.)
LITHOLOGY
Coal ~
Sandstone
Silt
Conglomerate
Mud [ ~ ]
Cemented
horizons
Fig. 8. The wireline log responses of the gamma ray and density-neutron combination through part of the Tarbert
Formation in well 30/9-16, Oseberg Syd field. The integration of the core sedimentology demonstrates that the
cleaning-up gamma trends correspond to upward coarsening and upward shallowing of the facies.
244
B
Outer shelf muds
Oo o o
Marsh
Coal / Backshore
I
_/~.~..A.~
Beach
///'v".
9' "
~
9 ."
9 .
.
"
Tidal inlet
Shoreface
Tidal sand
Tidal channel /
bar complex
".'.',.-,.~
.
~.~
Beach
Jl
. . . .
. . . . . . .
. . .
u
/~
U~ , ~
Mid-shelf
bioturbated
sandy
Mid-shelf bioturbated
sandy siltstone
siltstone
Outer-shelf bioturbated
5m
mudstone
Outer-shelf bioturbated
mudstone
mation and part of the Middle Tarbert Formation are shown in Fig. 8. Cross-stratified
intervals are associated with the upper half of
the coarsening-up sand and silty sand successions. Foreset angles tend to be low (10~ ~
and channelization is rare. The lower part of the
coarsening-up sand and silty sand successions
usually contain ripple laminae and HCS.
Lower Tarbert Formation. (2799.5-2819.0m) the Lower Tarbert Formation in Well 30/9-16
consists of a gradationally based wave-dominated shoreface succession passing from lower
shoreface silts into the wave-rippled, silty sands
of the shoreface and beach sediments. HCS are
absent.
245
~ o,,...~
.,..a
~Z
Q
. ,...~
246
Fig. 11. Dynamically-normalized4-pad FMI image log with interpreted sedimentary orientation data through an
interval of hummocky cross-stratification (HCS). The integration of the schematic core photograph and image
derived sedimentary orientation data demonstrates that second-order surfaces (shown in red) and third-order
surfaces (shown in blue) within HCS can be discerned.
Hummock
2
~'-~
",-...
Sole m a r k s
1 - Third-order
surface
2 - Second-order
3 - First-order
surface
surface
Fig. 12. The form of stratification and first-, secondand third-order bounding surfaces commonly found in
scour and drape hummocky cross-stratified sandstone
beds (from Cheel & Leckie 1993).
247
Fig. 13. The 4-pad FMI image log with interpreted sedimentary orientation data through the Upper Tarbert
Formation in well 30/9-16, Oseberg Syd field. The integration of the core and image derived sedimentology
demonstrates that the prograding shoreface succession was produced by a combination of both storm- and
tidally-dominated processes. For key to sedimentology see Fig. 8.
Conclusions
(1) Although the integration of core data with
electrical image logs does lead to improved
sedimentological interpretations of subsurface reservoirs it should be appreciated
that there is not only a distinct difference in
the amount of formation that is sampled by
the imaging tools compared to the core, the
direct comparison of the two sets of data
involves coping with marked physical
differences of depth and spatial position.
(2) In a case study from Oseberg Syd, electrical
image log-derived orientation data from
the Tarbert reservoir sands were integrated
with core data. Some of the sedimentary
facies were difficult to characterize when
they were first studied in core. The subsequent palaeocurrent interpretations derived from the electrical image logs
provided unequivocal evidence for the
correct identification of these sedimentary
facies.
(3) Electrical image-derived dip data cannot
248
References
1Elf Petroleum Norge as, P.O. Box 168, N-4001 Stavanger, Norway
2 Western Atlas Logging Services, P.O. Box 953, N-4040 Hafrsfjord, Norway
Abstract: Microconductivity array and acoustic imaging of the borehole wall provide
valuable multidatasets which are used to characterize the geological strata and especially the
reservoirs in exploration activities and during development of producing zones. This paper
presents a tutorial of the main applications and a methodology to follow when performing
fracture interpretation. Borehole image interpretation should not be a routine work
referring to 'a cook book'. It must rely on our geological and structural knowledge and
experience, on basic notions about tool principles and image processing, and on geometrical
calibrations to cores. Vatious examples will be given, showing:
(a) natural fractures; how to distinguish them from drilling-induced fractures;
(b) typical drilling-induced fractures and borehole breakouts; how to identify them;
(c) a tricky case where cemented fractures might be confused with open ones.
The match between interpretation of borehole images and production data appears now
to be the most efficient way to manage fractures in reservoirs.
HALLER,D. & PORTURAS,F. 1998. How to characterize fractures in reservoirs using borehole and
core images: case studies In: HARVEY,P. K. 8z LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration,
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 249-259
249
250
Fig. 1. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate cemented layer (example 1). The FMI image
(left-hand) shows mainly two steeply dipping conductive fractures (in black), whose extent stops sharply at the edge of
the carbonate layer. This is typical of a fracture developing in a brittle layer interbedded with less porous brittle rocks.
Interpretation of these fractures as natural open ones is sensible. Unrolled core photograph (right-hand) zoomed on this
carbonate layer proves that this interpretation is correct. One large natural open fracture is observed; in the fracture
plane, calcite crystals have been seen and strong hydrocarbon shows have been reported, indicating that this fractures
acted as hydrocarbon pathways through this tight level.
Fig. 2. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate rock (example 2). The CBIL amplitude image
(left-hand) and core-like display (right-hand) show a dark sinusoidal feature at xx83.4 m (a). The minimum of the
sinusoid shows an easterly dip. The fracture was interpreted as an open one and fits well with drilling losses. Note also a
low reflective (black) fracture (b) subparallel to borehole axis, trending NNE-SSW, interpreted as a drilling-induced one.
The well is deviated and the lowside of the borehole is revealed by the marks of the previous logging tools (c). The CBIL
image was acquired in an oil-based mud.
250
Fig. 1. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate cemented layer (example 1). The FMI image
(left-hand) shows mainly two steeply dipping conductive fractures (in black), whose extent stops sharply at the edge of
the carbonate layer. This is typical of a fracture developing in a brittle layer interbedded with less porous brittle rocks.
Interpretation of these fractures as natural open ones is sensible. Unrolled core photograph (right-hand) zoomed on this
carbonate layer proves that this interpretation is correct. One large natural open fracture is observed; in the fracture
plane, calcite crystals have been seen and strong hydrocarbon shows have been reported, indicating that this fractures
acted as hydrocarbon pathways through this tight level.
Fig. 2. Example of natural open fractures developing in a brittle carbonate rock (example 2). The CBIL amplitude image
(left-hand) and core-like display (right-hand) show a dark sinusoidal feature at xx83.4 m (a). The minimum of the
sinusoid shows an easterly dip. The fracture was interpreted as an open one and fits well with drilling losses. Note also a
low reflective (black) fracture (b) subparallel to borehole axis, trending NNE-SSW, interpreted as a drilling-induced one.
The well is deviated and the lowside of the borehole is revealed by the marks of the previous logging tools (c). The CBIL
image was acquired in an oil-based mud.
252
Case studies
some intervals.
On the F M I image (Fig. 1), it is observed that
steep dipping conductive fractures develop inside the carbonated layer. One particular point
to be noticed is that fractures stop sharply at the
limits of the carbonated layer. This recalls field
observations where brittle layers interbedded
within more ductile rocks show the development
of natural fractures, which very often terminate
sharply at the boundary of the brittle layer.
These fractures being conductive, they are
assumed to be open and invaded by drilling
fluid, which is more conductive than the rock
matrix. Based on this observation, interpretation
of these fractures as natural open ones is
sensible.
This interpretation is supported and confirmed by core observation. On the cores,
natural open fractures are observed in front of
these conductive fractures seen on the FMI.
Figure 1 displays an unrolled photograph of the
core surface, which bears strong similarities to
the F M I image, the only difference between
them being the fact that the pictures are not
taken in exactly the same spatial location; the
F M I picture is taken along the borehole wall
plus a certain distance due to electrical penetration (approx. 2.5 cm), while the core picture has
a smaller radius. In the example displayed in
Fig. 1, an open fracture is observed on core,
which stops sharply at the boundary of the
carbonated layer. Inside the fracture plane,
calcite crystallization is present, showing that
this is clearly a natural fracture. Even more
importantly, hydrocarbon shows are observed
along the fracture plane, indicating that these
fractures act as hydrocarbon pathways through
this tight level. As natural open fractures are
observed in several of the carbonate layers, it is
clear that these tight layers are fractured and will
not act as tight barriers during production, but
will only degrade the vertical permeability.
Fig. 3. Drilling-induced features observed on FMI (a, b; example 3) and CBIL (c, d; example 4). Conductive en-bchelon
fractures, observed on FMI in the upper part of 3a, are developed rather extensively along the whole logged reservoir
with a very constant E-W orientation. They are similar to the drilling-induced fractures illustrated on Fig. 4a. A more
continuous vertical fracture, branching at bed boundaries, observed on CBIL 3c, can be interpreted in the same way. The
large conductive (black) bands observed in the lower part of 3a and b, with small scale rock chips, recall breakouts due to
the present-day stress regime, as illustrated on Fig. 4b. They are oriented N-S. On the CBIL image (3d), breakouts
appear as dark bands, due to the borehole ovalization, the ultrasonic tool working as an ultra sensitive caliper.
9, ~
254
255
Fig. 5. Example of fracture interpretation based on FMI image (example 5). The left-hand picture reveals natural
cemented fractures. They appear as resistive (white) features, with a typical conductive halo at the tops and
bottoms of the sine wave figuring the fracture plane. The right-hand picture exhibits conductive (black) fractures.
They are interpreted as drilling-induced ones since they have a consistent orientation, parallel to the direction of
maximal normal stress, which is deduced from other wells of the same area (like the one shown in Fig. 3a,b).
256
D. H A L L E R & F. PORTURAS
Fig. 6. Example of clay smearing associated with a normal fault (example 6). The CBIL image shows a steep
dipping fault at xx33.5 m cutting through the sandstones. The fault appears to be wide and of low acoustic
impedance (dark) due to a 25 cm thick clay smear of the fault plane. The edge enhanced image (right-hand side)
highlights this fault plane. The arrow plot (left-hand track) resulting from the interpretation shows the orientation
of the fault and associated fractures and displays a drag-fault geometry within the above-lying series.
~ '4 "~4
--~
r~
, ..~ ,.~ ~
~...~ ~ ~ . ~
: ~:~ ..~
.g~'n~o~o
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258
Fig. 9. Example of a CBIL image showing the benefits of having fullbore coverage available as opposed to
conventional dipmeter logs (example 9). The arrow plot alone shows an apparent drag which might be interpreted
as being associated with a fault. Both dynamic normalized and edge enhanced images instead show a sedimentary
structure. Furthermore, notice truncation surfaces at xx42.5 m, and very thin laminated beds. Vertical light stripes
are due to marks produced during previous logging operations and also by the metallic blades from the upper
centralizer of the dipmeter tool, which were scraping the mudcake.
259
Conclusions
The use of high resolution borehole imagers has
led to a revolution for reservoir geologists, who
now have an insight into the reservoir. It is now
possible for them to discriminate between
natural open fractures, cemented ones, and
drilling-induced features. The main improvement is that it is now easy to orientate all these
geological features. As a matter of fact, matching borehole image interpretations with production data appears to be the most efficient way to
manage fractures in reservoirs.
It is a pleasure to thank Elf Petroleum Norge and
Statoil for allowing the borehole images to be used.
The use of * throughout denotes a Mark of
Schlumberger and ** denotes a Mark of Western
Atlas Logging Services.
References
HALLER, D. & HAMON,G. 1993. Meillon-Saint Faust
gas field, Aquitaine basin: structural re-evaluation
aids understanding of water invasion. In: PARKER,
J. R. (ed.) Petroleum Geology of NW Europe,
Proceedings of the 4'h Conference. Geological
Society, London, 1519-1526.
LEHNE, K. A. & AADNOY, B. S. 1992. Quantitative
analysis of stress regimes and fractures from logs
and drilling records of the North Sea Chalk Field.
The Log Analyst, 33, 351-361.
SAFINYA, K. A. LE LAN, P., VILLEGAS,M. CHEUNG,
P. S. 1991. Improved formation imaging with
extended micro electrical arrays. Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Special Paper 22726.
SERRA, 0. 1989. Formation MicroScanner image
interpretation. Schlumberger Educational Services, Houston Texas.
Drilling Program are used to illustrate the wide range of scales of resistivity data available
for reservoir characterization. The differences in scale and sampling interval between
quantitative log resistivity data and conventional core plug data is shown to be central to
reconciling these two datasets. Resistivity images of fine scale sedimentary structures taken
on half-round cores are presented (at the same resolution as the downhole borehole wall
imaging tools) and these fine structures are shown to be 'lost' if investigated using
conventional core plugs and downhole resistivity logging tools. The limitations of
conventional measurements on core plugs are presented and contrasted with the benefits
of logging all of the core in the laboratory at a resolution comparable to the borehole wall
imaging tools. An example of integrating different scales of resistivity data using a modelling
approach is presented and is shown to be applicable to both core and log data. Visualizing
and comparing the scale content of different resistivity datasets has been achieved in an
intuitive way using a spectral method which illustrates the 'data gap' in quantitative
resistivities which exists between core and log data.
Fine scale sedimentary structure is now accepted
to be an important control when considering
hydrocarbon reservoir modelling. Furthermore,
the difficulty of quantifying heterogeneity over
scales from mm to km is well known. While
geological processes occur seamlessly over scales
ranging from pores to sedimentary basins,
difficulty is experienced in reconciling log and
core data over the mm to m scales.
This paper presents real data over a range of
scales and highlights some problems encountered when moving from one scale to another,
with particular reference to reconciling traditional core-plug resistivity measurements with
higher resolution, similar data available both in
the laboratory and downhole.
In the direct current approximation, electrical
resistivity measurements are scale independent
and are increasingly being used as the method of
choice for identifying different scales of heterogeneity. The development of the vast majority of
downhole resistivity measuring technology has
been in response to the needs of the oil industry,
driven by the knowledge that electrical resistivity
can be used as a primary estimator of the oilsaturation of reservoir rocks. Consequently, a
wide range of resistivity logging tools which are
sensitive to a wide range of scales of heterogeneity already exists. Resistivity variations are
identified routinely over differing distances from
the borehole, into the formation, using suites of
JACKSON,P. D., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., GUNN,D. A., WILLIAMS,C. G. & FLINT,R. C. 1998.
Measurement scale and formation heterogeneity: effects on the integration of resistivity data
In. HARVEY,P. K. ~z LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-LogIntegration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 261-272
261
262
P. D. JACKSON
ET AL.
Resistivity L o g g i n g tools
Depth of investigation vs. vertical resolution
ILD
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.E
gr=llglll~L.Z~-.'_
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dlg-]r 82
~---- LLD
IIMIIKil
lO
low Rt
high Rt
LLS
>
Microlaterolog
~
o.1
0.1
Depth of investigation, in
FMS
Fig. 1. A wide range of resolutions and depths of investigations are available for routine resistivity logging.
I
Plan/Isometric.
c, I S
c2
Multi-electrode (64)
'
~ " ~
t
Computer.
I
I
k..VJ
;
I
c1,1-51
!c ,i-5
->
<:
r ~
J ~
H Multiplexor& I
Conditioning.
Electrode pad.
Multiplexor.
;:' To computer.
lililliillillil
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of technology used for micro-resistivity imaging of core (after Jackson
two extreme cases (FMS and ILD) 'sample' very
different portions of a reservoir, making quantitative comparisons unsafe if 3-D heterogeneity is
suspected, or if radial invasion processes cannot
be allowed for. In addition, the 'style' of current
flow between the two tools is diverse, making
their responses to the same heterogeneity very
et al.
1990).
Fig. 3. Map of Northeast Australian margin showing Leg 133 drill sites (after Davies et
263
al.
1991).
264
P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Site 823 is situated in the centre of the Queensland Trough ENE of Cairns as shown in Figs 3
and 4. The sediments are a sequence of clastic
turbidites within hemipelagic carbonates. The
turbidites are shelf sediments derived from the
Australian sub-continent. The bathymetry dis- Fig. 5. Photograph of a sandy turbidite seen in core
played in Fig. 3 can be seen to indicate steep from Site 823.
shelf slopes which will have facilitated the
265
Fig. 6. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 5 in image and log format. The log illustrates the
rapid changes in resistivity that can occur within the volume of a conventional core plug.
266
P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Fig. 7. Photograph of a 0.5m of clayey nanno ooze core obtained from Site 815.
267
Fig. 8. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 7 in image and log format, showing marked vertical
and lateral variability.
268
P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Fig. 9. Microresistivity data corresponding to the core in Fig. 7 in image and log format, showing similar
variability to Fig. 8 but different 'average' value.
269
Fig. 10. Site 815 downhole resistivity logs showing the corrections and errors associated with the calculation of
270
P. D. JACKSON E T AL.
Fig. 11. Comparison of electrical resistivity data from Site 815 (ODP): micro-log (core image) and the integrated
SFL/ILD downhole log, from core to whole borehole.
Conclusions
Resistivity measurements are inherently scale
independent, and downhole logging datasets
spanning scales from 5ram to 100m are
routinely acquired by the oil industry.
Relating these downhole, scale-rich datasets
to core requires further research for the following reasons:
(1) Core plug data provide measurements
which relate to volumes that are greater
than fine scale sedimentary structures,
providing responses in the resistivity datasets that are important in reservoir modelling.
(2) Core plug data provides an extremely
'sparse' spatial coverage of the core; the
sampling interval, being of the order of 1
m, makes them unrepresentative of structures with characteristic lengths less than
2m.
(3) Typically, core plugs sample less than 1%
of the core recovered.
Fig. 12. Comparison of core and downhole resistivity data over 0.59 m at Site 815 (ODP)
Fig. 13. Visualization of disparate scales of resistivity data: micro-log (core image), FMS and integrated S F L /
ILD downhole log
272
P . D . JACKSON ET AL.
(LAMBDA). The core imaging technique was developed under a Natural Environmental Research Council Special Topic initiative (ODP). The LAMBDA
Project aims to improve our understanding of electrical and fluid flows in reservoir rocks through the
study of pore morphology and utilizes the imaging
system in its research. LAMBDA is currently funded
by Shell UK and Mobil North Sea Ltd. This paper is
published with the permission of the Director of BGS
(NERC).
R e f e r e n c e s
1Z & S Geoscience, Kettock Lodge, Aberdeen Science & Technology Park, Balgownie Drive,
Bridge of Don, Aberdeen, AB22 8GU, UK
2 Schlumberger GeoQuest, Gatwick, R H 6 0 N Z , UK
Abstract: Core-log comparisons are often not considered routinely enough within the
exploration environment. This may be for a number of reasons, such as problems with
depth-matching the core and log datasets, the environment of acquisition of both datasets,
the lack of understanding of log and core acquisition or a lack of confidence in laboratory or
log measurements. These problems are discussed as a preliminary step to the development of
a strategy aimed at improving core-log integration.
Using recent technological advances in the side-by-side presentation of core and high
resolution image data from logging tools, a strategy is presented with the aim of making
core-log integration more rigid and routine. Features in both core and images are correlated
interactively--thus ensuring the best possible integration. This is a two stage process
involving core-to-image matching, and then image-to-log matching. This strategy has the
potential to make core-log integration more accurate and as a result enable the interpreter
to realize the most from sub-surface data.
LOFTS, J. C. & BRISTOW,J. F. 1998. Aspects of core-log integration: an approach using high resolution
images In. HARVEY,P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 273-283
273
274
Sampling disparities
Volume and heterogeneity. Of major importance
when comparing core and log datasets is the
sample size/volume difference between core and
log data. Core plugs taken in laboratory analysis
generally have a volume of the order of 10 mm 3
while logging measurements represent a volume
in excess of 100mm 3, or many hundred times
larger. The geochemical logging tool (GLT;
Mark of Schlumberger) measurement, as an
example, acquires data from a volume of
approximately 0.3-1m 3 (Hertzog et al. 1989;
Pelling 1992), whilst deep induction (resistivity)
tools have a depth of investigation of greater
than 1.5 m, with a vertical resolution in the order
of 2m (Allen et al. 1988). Both measurements
cover a large volume which will include any
lateral or vertical heterogeneities. A core plug
effectively measures the formation at one point
and heterogeneities greater than the core plug
are not considered. This leads to the problem of
the core samples not being representative of the
formation or rather, being incompatible with the
log data. In addition, logging tools measure the
formation in a dynamic sense, i.e., the fluids and
matrix alike. While some indication of the fluids
may be gained from laboratory measurements,
they are not intrinsic to the direct measurement.
Viewed statistically, these different datasets
represent two different systems of geostatistical
support (Clarke 1984), where volume and
heterogeneity are most likely to be different
between systems.
Consideration of such a volume disparity is
important especially when the lithology being
measured is heterogeneous on a fine pore//
lamination scale (Worthington 1989).
Implementing techniques such as slabbed core
sampling can reduce this problem. Slabbed core
samples are samples taken along the axis of the
core over a length of up to 0.5 m. The core is
then homogenized into a bulk sample and the
laboratory measurement is made on this sample.
This procedure helps to minimize the disparity in
the volume and vertical resolution of core and
log data and makes them more suitable for
integration. It is not a valid technique however,
for volumetric measurements such as porosity
and permeability.
Sample density and averaging. The regularity and
density of sampling of each dataset is a crucial
consideration. Commonly, if not considered, the
Depth mismatch--shifting log data in the temporal domain. One aspect of depth matching
275
276
Fig. 2. Example of the problem faced with depth shifting. (A) 'Ladder diagram', no tool stick and depth
increments are on depth with time increments. Tension increases to the right. (B) Situation with tool sticking.
Two time increments are recorded in one depth increment as indicated by the tension. This will lead to inaccurate
shifting of tools below the gamma ray (GR) tool. (C) Tool diagram showing the simplest depth shift of 1 m for all
tools on a string. (D) If there is a tool stick for a length of time GR will be shifted correctly in the depth domain
but tools A and B will not be on correct depth. (E) Shifting in the temporal domain. All tools bought to GR
reference and depth shifted then returned to their respective depths.
277
and temperature, although scientifically desirable, are technically and financially prohibitive
in most circumstances. Integration of incompatible parametric systems is possible when examining total and effective porosity. For example,
core porosities measured by helium expansion
(effective porosity) are often reported in the total
porosity system with porosities from neutrondensity log combinations. Figure 3 shows the
comparison of log and core resistivities that
belong to different parametric systems; namely
ones that involve 'dynamic' (logging data) and
'static' temperature and pressures (core data).
Because the sampling frequencies of both
measurements are not dissimilar, the single most
important correction needed to make these two
datasets compatible is to correct the core data
for effects of temperature. In the case of a sonic
velocity measurement there is a difference in
measurement scale, this being largely due to
measurement frequency. A velocity measurement in the laboratory will typically be at a
frequency of MHz whilst in the borehole it will
be over several metres and in the range of KHz.
Problems relating to core acquisition
Incomplete core recovery (vertical). Depth mismatch is perhaps the most common and largest
source of error. Besides the problems mentioned,
mismatch can be caused by incomplete core
recovery. More often than not, core recovery is
less than 100%, and when a core barrel is
incomplete, it is usually impossible to determine
where the section of core is located along the
length of cored formation. Standard policy is
often, to locate the uppermost core piece at the
top of the core barrel. This assumes (arbitrarily)
that the material was lost from the base, which is
not necessarily the case and leads to depth
mismatches that can span over the length of the
core barrel.
Preferential core recovery and induced lithological bias. Another contribution to depth mismatch is the problem of preferential core
recovery. This occurs when the recovery is
dependent on the lithology being drilled. Some
formations are more competent than others and
resist break-up and washout during drilling and
coring. If they surround less competent units
(shale layers, for example), they will tend to be
preferentially recovered in the core barrel,
ultimately leading to an incomplete recovery.
Drilling parameters tend to be set to maximize
the recovery of the dominant lithology in any
one section, although the drilling process may be
dictated by the most indurated lithology in the
278
13o
170
..............................................................................................
210
................................................................
i
250
...................................
SFLU
290
....................................
resist
ohm-m
~ ...................................................................
::
ei
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4so
0.01
........
'
o9
K" . . . . . . .
'
0.1
1
SFLU (Ohms-m)
ter)/0.1405.
Additional considerations
section. Simply 'hanging' the core from the top
of the barrel will lead to gross inaccuracies in
core-log integration.
279
Conventionally, matching log curves from different logging runs has been performed by
correlating the gamma ray curve from each tool
run and re-aligning to one common depth. The
gamma ray measurement however, has a relatively low vertical resolution (of the order of
200-300 mm) in contrast to the extremely high
vertical resolution of microresistivity images.
Tools such as the FMI (Mark of Schlumberger)
and its predecessor, the Formation MicroScanner, FMS (Mark of Schlumberger) have a
vertical resolution on the order of 5mm.
Features seen in the images of these tools will
not necessarily be detected by the gamma ray
device, especially when statistical and averaging
filters are applied. As a result, there could be
discrepancies when trying to depth match
gamma-ray to the core at a fine scale although
visible on microresistivity images.
One method of integration of core and log
data therefore is to match core to high resolution
images in one step and then match that image to
log data in a second independent step. Thus, we
have a core-to-image, image-to-log integration
where image data can be thought of as the link
between datasets (Fig. 4).
Core to image matching. Core to image matching
is achieved by projecting a photo-scanned, 360 ~
digital image of a core (or a digitized slabbed
core photo or a hand drawn goniometry sleeve)
in a fashion similar to that of borehole microresistivity image data.
Once scanned, the core image is placed next to
the borehole image representing the same interval. The core gamma ray and log gamma ray
curves can then be used to put the datasets
approximately on depth. Viewed at an expanded
scale, features common to both image and core
can then be identified and, where necessary, the
core can be shifted to match the image precisely.
In our experience, a scale of between 1:4 and
1 : 10 is most useful. If core recovery is less than
100%, patches of core can be moved and
matched to the appropriate log depth. Orientation missfits of individual features will suggest
where the core is not properly matched. Because
a 360 ~ (or 180 ~ picture of the core has been
acquired, the core image can easily be manipulated and oriented with respect to the logged
image. The microresistivity image is itself
oriented during acquisition by an inclinometry
280
Fig. 4. Flow diagram summary of the strategy for improved core-log integration.
281
Fig. 5. Example of a core image that has been scanned and displayed alongside an FMI borehole i~tage. The core
is orientated with respect to the borehole image and features in the core have been picked (see text for
description).
ity measurements such as the LLHR 6' curve
(Fig. 6) from the Azimuthal Resistivity Imager
(ARI; Mark of Schlumberger) or a similar
measurement from the High Resolution Laterolog Sonde (HALS; Mark of Schlumberger).
One curve possible for correlation on conventional tools is the MSFL (Mark of Schlumberger) (with 50-100 mm vertical resolution). Once
an image has been correctly matched with the
appropriate shallow resistivity, all the other logs
on the string can be depth shifted. Therefore a
higher resolution depth match is possible by
matching a resistivity device from each logging
run to the resistivity of the imaging device. Care
must be taken however, when there is a long
period of time between logging runs as resistivity
profiles do change.
The final result is that oriented images, cores
282
Fig. 6. Comparison of the vertical resolution of the FMI (0.2") and the current generation Azimuthal Resistivity
Imager tool (LLHR, ~6") and the traditional LLS and LLD curves. Curves such as the LLHR are suitable for
the high resolution match of the micro-resistivity image (right hand image) to log data. A high resolution match
will ensure that tools from different logging runs are accurately depth matched for comparison to core. The ARI
image (centre and left image) is generated from 12 azimuthal laterolog resistivity readings and can be seen to
match the resistivity profile of the FMI image.
based studies.
Looking to the future, with possible developments of core based resistivity measurements
(Jackson et al. 1997), it may also be possible to
directly match core based resistivities to the high
resolution images and then to log data, fully
quantifying each step through correlating resistivity measurements.
Ultimately, a more confident calibration of
log data (using core) will allow us to understand
and extend our knowledge of the features, or
artefacts of the features, seen in borehole
images. In turn, this will give us more confidence
in the interpretation of images when the core is
not available. Similarly, geologists will then be
able to further refine the structural, sedimentological, and stratigraphic analysis of the subsurface.
Schlumberger is acknowledged for permission to use
Fig. 5.
References
ALLEN, D., BARBER, T., FLAUM, C., HEMINGWAY,J.,
ANDERSON, B. & DES LIGNERIS, S. 1988. Advances
in high resolution logging, The Technical Review,
36.
BARBER,T., ORBAN,A., HAZEN,G., LONG, T., SCHLEIN,
R. ALDERMAN,S., TABANOU,J. & SEYDOUX,J. A.
1996. Multiarray induction tool optimised for
efficient wellsite operation. Society of Petroleum
Engineers, SPE paper 30583.
BOURKE, L., DELFINER,P., TROUILLER,J. C., FETT, T.,
GRACE, M., LUTHI, S., SERRA, O. & STANDEN, E.
1989. Using formation microscanner images, The
Technical Review. 37, 16-40.
BOYELDIEU, C. & JEFFREYS, P. 1988. Formation
MicroScanner: new developments. Transactions
of the llth European Evaluation Symposium,
SPWLA. Paper WW. Later reprinted in 1990 in:
Borehole Imaging reprint volume, SPWLA, pp.
175-190.
BRISTOW, J. F. & DEMENOCAL,P. B. 1992. Evaluation
of the quality of geochemical log data in Hole
798B. In. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling
Program, Scientific Results, 127/128, 1021-1036.
CLARK, I. 1984. Practical Geostatistics. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, New York.
283
& L E G 166 S C I E N T I F I C P A R T Y
Abstract: Cores offer the ability to describe lithological, physical, and chemical properties of
rocks at the millimetre and smaller scale. However, continuous coring is expensive and only
occasionally recovers 100% of the drilled interval. Microresistivity images of the borehole
wall depict features down to the centimetre and smaller scale and can complement, or in
some cases substitute for, core description as a means of geologic interpretation. This paper
describes two techniques of integrating core data with borehole image and log data. Two
case studies in carbonate rocks recovered during Ocean Drilling Program Legs 160 and 166
are presented.
Microresistivity log images, grey-scale reflectivity from core photographs, and gamma ray
logs are correlated at the centimetre scale over up to 300-metre cored intervals. Direct visual
correlation of core photographs with borehole images and correlation of gamma ray
measurements on core with downhole logs are shown to be complementary techniques.
High-resolution core-log depth matching may be best achieved by correlating multiple
datasets to reduce the error inherent in each and more precisely constrain depth matching.
Depth matching of individual features allows a more accurate and consistent depth scale for
use in quantitative stratigraphic analysis.
The advent of visual core-log integration software has opened the door to new possibilities for
calibration and interpretation of borehole data.
Accurate, high-resolution core-log integration
allows the maximum information to be gleaned
in cases where boreholes are both logged and
cored. The comparison of cores to log images
has been previously recognized as a valuable
tool in stratigraphic analysis (Luthi 1990;
Salimullah & Stow 1992). However, it has
proven difficult and time consuming to systematically integrate and compare multiple datasets
such as wireline logs, image logs, core images,
and point measurements over long stratigraphic
sections. A systematic analysis of these integrated data is highly desirable because it can
provide a better understanding of a drill hole
than is possible from the separate analysis of
each of the individual datasets.
Previous attempts at detailed core-log integration demonstrate the potential of integrated
analysis of complementary core and log facies
descriptions in intervals of incomplete core
recovery (e.g. Hiscott et al. 1992; MacLeod et
al. 1996; Pirmez et al. 1997). The potential
benefits of such work also extend far beyond the
scope of the present study, and includes orientation of core pieces for structural (Mathis et al.
1995), palaeomagnetic and palaeocurrent analysis (MacLeod et al. 1992), up-scaling of core
MAJOR, C. O., PIRMEZ,C., GOLDBERG,D. & LEG 166 SCIENTIFICPARTY 1998. High-resolution
285
core-log integration techniques: examples from the Ocean Drilling Program In: HARVEY,P. K. &
LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 285-295
286
Table 1. Logging runs and base logs used in processing for ODP Holes lO03D and 966F
Hole
tool strings
base log
1003D
Sonic-DIT
FMS
IPLT
GLT
WST
Quad combination
FMS
GHMT
966F
Tool string and log acronyms are as follows: DIT (dual induction tool), FMS (Formation MicroScanner), IPLT
(Integrated Porosity Logging Tool), GLT (Geochemical Logging Tool), WST (Well Seismic Tool), GHMT
(Geological Hi-resolution Magnetometer Tool), HNGS (Hostile-environment Natural Gamma Sonde), APS
(Accelerator Porosity Sonde), HLDS (Hostile-environment Lithodensity Sonde), NGT (Natural Gamma Tool),
SDT (Array Sonic Tool), LSS (Long-spaced Sonic Tool), HLDT (Hostile-environment Lithodensity Tool), CNT
(Compensated Neutron Tool).
core samples to constrain lithology. Indeed, one
of the most important applications of detailed
core-log integration is the ability to define a
reliable, unified depth scale for all borehole data.
This is particularly important for quantitative
stratigraphic analysis and determining true event
sequences.
Results
Hole lO03D, L e g 166, B a h a m a s Carbonate
Bank
Hole 1003D is located in 483 m water depth on
the slope of the Great Bahama Bank. The
287
288
C.O. MAJOR E T A L .
Fig. 1. Summary of lithostratigraphy for Hole 1003D (ODP Leg 166) showing core recovery, major rock types,
stratigraphic sequences, and logs (caliper, gamma ray, shallow resistivity, and sonic velocity). Estimated ages of
the sequence boundaries are: M-- 15.1 Ma, L-- 12.7 Ma). (Figure adapted from Eberli et al. 1997)
289
Fig. 2. Best fit position for core 166-1003D-32R, showing the relationship of core grey-scale reflectance with FMS
resistivity. Core colour corresponds well with the electrical resistivity as illustrated by the white-brown tones on
the FMS image and by the shallow spherically-focused resistivity log (yellow curve). The best fit is confirmed by a
good match of the core gamma ray with the downhole gamma ray (HSGR). Darker layers in the core and FMS
have higher gamma ray counts. Note that best fit of core with log data requires splitting both the core and core
gamma ray curves mid-section (between core biscuits), indicating that material was lost during drilling. 'X' marks
in the core image columns indicate intervals with no corresponding core.
cases where there is obvious drilling disturbance
and biscuiting, we allow a greater amount of
space between adjacent sections, assuming that
some volume of material was likely to have been
lost during the drilling process. In some cases,
the best match requires that spaces be left
between adjacent core sections (Fig. 2). The
gradational nature of the contacts between
cemented and porous beds introduces some
uncertainty because the sediment colour is not
linearly related to the change in resistivity
between different layers.
Where there is no clear visual correlation
between FMS and core images, we rely on the
core and log gamma ray comparisons to further
constrain depth matches. By depth matching
290
C. O. MAJOR ET AL.
Fig. 3. Summary of the lithostratigraphy for Hole 966F (ODP Leg 160), including core recovery, major rock
units, biostratigraphically determined ages, and logs (caliper, gamma ray, shallow resistivity, and sonic velocity).
some mismatch between gamma-ray amplitudes
from the core and logs.
291
Fig. 4. Best fit position of core 160-966F-26R (shifted core) compared with unshifted core (drilled depth), FMS,
and logs (porosity (NPHI) resistivity (SFLU), and spectral and computed gamma ray (SGR and CGR)). 'A'
indicates a substantial peak in the resistivity log which correlates with the white area in the FMS immediately
above the unconformity; 'B' indicates a substantial peak in natural gamma ray which corresponds with the
bituminous limestone immediately underneath the unconformity (see text). Uranium measurements on core (blue
bars in unshifted core column) indicate that the highest gamma radiation occurs within the bituminous
limestones. 'X' marks in the core image columns indicate intervals with no corresponding core.
292
Fig. 5. Fractured core intervals from Hole 966F. Areas of more intense fracturing correlate with lighter coloured
patches in the FMS image. These features are interpreted as cherts.
Discussion
In order to establish a depth match between core
and log data it is necessary to be aware of several
methodological limitations. Visual core-log integration is limited by the quality and percentage
293
Table 2. Table showing the amount of core offset from drilled depth required to achieve the best correlation with the
F M S images and the gamma ray log for Hole IO03D. Note that the drilled depth is a rather poor estimate of the true
depth in this hole
core number
32
33
34
' 35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
average offset
standard deviation
drilled
depth (mbsf)
visually
shifted
depth (mbsf)
difference
(visual)
(metres)
gamma ray
shifted
depth (mbsf)
difference
(gamma)
(metres)
751.6
761.2
770.8
780.4
790.1
799.8
809.4
819.0
828.6
838.2
847.9
857.5
867.1
876.7
886.3
751.3
762.3
771.8
784.7
790.1
800.2
810.6
820.2
831.8
838.5
848.8
858.3
868.4
877.7
887.2
-0.3
1.1
1.0
4.3
0.0
0.4
1.2
1.2
3.2
0.3
0.9
0.8
1.3
1.0
0.9
1.15
1.17
751.2
762.3
771.8
784.4
790.6
800.2
810.5
820.1
831.9
842.2
848.7
858.1
868.3
877.7
887.3
-0.4
1.1
1.0
4.0
0.5
0.4
1.1
1.1
3.3
4.0
0.8
0.6
1.2
1.0
1.0
1.38
1.31
that the offset between the drilled and logcorrelated depth is likely to vary in a manner
which is not predicted by the probabilistic
models nor consistent with the current default
assumptions. Table 2 shows the amount of offset
from the drilled depth that is required to attain
the best visual correlation with the FMS for
Hole 1003D; in poorly recovered sections, the
drilled depth is a rather poor estimate of the logcorrelated depth. Such depth shifts may also be
applied to core physical properties data, which
can then be used for the calibration of log
responses.
Routine log processing for the Ocean Drilling
Program involves the creation of a single depth
scale for different tool passes, usually by
comparison of gamma ray logs among different
tool strings. These gamma ray logs are aligned
by means of peak matching with linear stretching or squeezing of the depth scale applied
between tie points. The use of a linear operator
may result in imprecise correlation between
gamma ray peaks from different tools, particularly if tie points are widely spaced, because the
tools travel at non-constant speeds due to stickslip motion and incomplete ship heave compensation. The FMS data are initially depth
corrected using accelerometer and image-correlation algorithms (Serra 1989); these data are
then treated the same as the other logs, i.e., they
are shifted and resampled according to gamma
ray tie-points.
This peak matching method can result in an
294
Conclusions
We find that the application of two independent
techniques is most successful in integrating core
and log data in lithologies with moderate core
recovery. Gamma ray and other standard logs
may be used to constrain sediment properties in
intervals of poor core recovery by calibration or
core measurements to logs in intervals where a
good match can be made. In order for visual
core-log integration to be successful, it is
essential to understand the relationship between
the physical properties measured in situ by the
logging tools and the colour and structural
properties of the formation as represented in
core photographs. In the carbonate lithologies
discussed in this paper, core colour correlates
well with the resistivity logs. This observation
establishes the basis for matching the cores to
FMS images. Both display centimetre scale
information about the circumferential and vertical variability of the formations encountered in
the drill hole.
Our depth matches between core and log
images indicate that incompletely recovered core
295
Abstract" Hole 504B is located about 200 km south of the Costa Rica Rift and constitutes
the reference section for the structure of the upper oceanic crust. Compared to core, the
continuous electrical resistivity (at m scale) and the high-resolution electrical images (at cm
scale) recorded in Hole 504B, provide a continuous and detailed lithostratigraphic
description of the effusive section at Site 504. Flow thicknesses measured from cm scale
FMS images average 0.5 (
The massive units, known to bound fluid circulation at
large scale into the crust, are constituted with a series of 20 to 50 individual flows. If Site 504
was created over two volcanic cycles, each volcanic cycle allows the emplacement of [0.60
(+0.30)] x106 m 3 of magma per m along the ridge axis. This computation leads to an
estimate of magma volume for a single eruption of [0.003 (+0.001)] l06 m 3 per m along the
ridge axis, and eventually, a gradient in magma pressure within the magma chamber lens of
52 (+26) MPa, appropriate for one eruption.
AYADI, M., PEZARD,P. A., LAVERNE,C. & BRONNERG. 1998. Multi-scalar structure at DSDP/ODP Site 297
504, Costa Rica Rift, I: stratigraphy of eruptive products and accretion processes In. HARVEY,P. K. ~fr
LOVELL, M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 297-310
298
M. AYADI E T AL.
Lithostratigraphic analysis
At the spreading axis, a volcanic cycle starts with
a large eruption characterized by the emplacement of massive flows (Pezard et al. 1992). Then,
more viscous lavas equating to slower eruption
rates erupt, forming pillows and thin flows
(Bonatti & Harrison 1988). Pillows are a classic
submarine lava form composed of 'elliptically'
shaped pods of basalt. Upon eruption, the
pillows are rapidly cooled which may partially
or completely fragment the pillow, the debris of
which eventually forms haloclastite breccias.
Pillows are usually transected by numerous
fractures which can be either radial or parallel
to curved outer surfaces. These fractures are
open or filled by low temperature alteration
products (e.g. clay minerals, iron hydroxides,
zeolites, carbonates). Both the base and top of
massive flows present thin chilled margins,
299
although the tops often have a rubbly appearance resulting from fracturing and fragmentation during cooling. The internal part of the flow
is massive, often crystalline and transected by
planar fractures.
Core description
of pillow, and formed by fine- to mediumgrained basalts. A dyke is a unit which shows
one or two chilled intrusive margins.
A series of constraints on the structure of the
upper crust is derived from alteration features
determined by mineralogical, petrological and
chemical studies. The boundaries between the
three main alteration zones described in the
effusive section of Hole 504B (Honnorez et al.
1983; E m m e r m a n n 1985; Alt et al. 1985,
1986a,b; Laverne 1987; Laverne et al. 1989) are
presented by Fig. 3. The upper pillow alteration
zone (UPAZ) is characterized by oxidative
alteration due to the reaction of basalt with
seawater at high water-rock ratio and low
temperature. The lower pillow section (LPAZ)
is characterized by a non-oxidative alteration
due to reactions at lower water-rock ratios and
slightly higher temperatures (up to l l0~
The
boundary between the LPAZ and the zone
altered under greenschist facies (GFAZ) conditions has been located at 898 mbsf (Emmermann
1985; Alt et al. 1985, 1986a,b; Laverne 1987),
with a transition zone to LPAZ alteration facies
located above (Fig. 3). The abrupt transition
from oxidative seawater alteration (UPAZ) to a
300
M. AYADI ET AL.
spanned by the core from which it was extracted
(typically 9m), most of the units are readily
identified on the electrical resistivity and FMS
profiles purely from electrical properties. This
identification is further constrained by sequences
of events in the core which must be respected in
the continuous dataset. A few examples of log
signatures for well defined lithologic units (with
good core recovery) are now described in an
attempt to understand the small-scale signal
recorded by the resistivity sensor, and that
recorded by the FMS sensor. The main difficulty
comes from units absent from the core, necessarily interpreted by default after comparison with
the signature of nearby similar units.
Downhole m e a s u r e m e n t s
Electrical resistivity ( D L L ) . The average resistivity value measured with the DLL in the upper
basement is about 10.0f2m (Fig. 3). As this
crustal section corresponds to eruptive products,
each interval with a resistivity of 10.0 9t m or less
was associated with the presence of pillows (P),
whereas intervals with higher resitivities were
associated to a massive flow (MF) when the
apparent thickness of the unit exceeds 4.0 m, and
a thin-flow (TF) otherwise. The terminology
'dyke' (D) was used when a near-vertical margin
was identified in the core, also for a unit with a
resistivity larger than 10.0 f~ m.
Fig. 5. (a) Electrical resistivity measurements (continuous line corresponds to LLd and dashed line
corresponds to LLs) and (b) FMS record for short
intervals including Unit 2D (at the top), Unit 27 (in the
middle) and Unit 34 (in the bottom). The Units 27 and
34 are composed of two massive flows parts separated
by a thin pillow flow layers.
301
302
M. AYADI E T AL.
303
~,<
=2
304
M. AYADI ET AL.
Fig. 7. Histogram of basaltic flows thickness (MF: massive flow, TF: thin flow, P: pillows) derived from FMS. The
thickness averages for MF, TF and P are 0.6m, 0.5 m and 0.4m, respectively.
305
Fig. 8. The distribution of the flow thicknesses within the main massive units encountered in the Hole 504B (2D,
24, 27, 34 and 39) versus depth. Units 27, 34 and 39 contain pillow layers with thicknesses increasing with
decreasing depth (mbsf: metres below sea floor). Site 504 was interpreted to be constructed in two main volcanic
cycles associated with the emplacement of two volcanic sequences (Pezard et al. 1992).
306
M. AYADI E T AL.
Accretion processes
The concept of the magma chamber has been a
critical element in geological models of crustal
formation along mid-ocean ridges (e.g. Cann
1974; Kidd 1977; Nicolas et al. 1988). Most of
these models consider that the magma chamber
is a relatively large reservoir essentially occupied
by melt. On the basis of more recent considerations concerning the size of crustal magma
chambers (e.g. Detrick et al. 1987; Kent et al.
1990; Sinton et al. 1991) and recent geophysical
data, Sinton & Detrick (1992) have proposed a
model of mid-ocean ridge magma chamber at
different spreading rates.
Along a fast spreading ridge like the East
Pacific Rise, this model consists of sill-like
bodies of melt located 1.0 to 2.0km below the
ridge axis, and grading downward into a
partially solidified crystal mush surrounded by
a transition zone to solidified, although still hot
gabbros (Fig. 9). In this model, a lens constituted of melt is proposed to be 10 to 100 m in
height. The shape and dimensions of the crustal
magma chamber determined along the northern
EPR are also probably typical of a wide range of
intermediate and fast spreading ridges (Sinton &
Detrick 1992).
The accretion process episodicity at the ridge
axis is believed to reflect the episodic activity of
the magma chamber under the ridge. The lava
volume emplaced during a volcanic cycle (Kappel & Ryan 1986; Gente 1987; Pezard et al. 1992)
may be used to evaluate the magma flow
through the magma chamber during this volcanic cycle. In the following, constraints from
Fig. 10. (a) Idealized view of the ridge axis and neovolcanic zone (Pezard et al. 1992). At a half-spreading
rate of 35 mm yr-1, the NVZ is proposed to be 1 km
wide. (b) Schematic representation of lava geometry
erupted within the NVZ. It is a cross-axis section
obtained at the end of emplacement of the two
volcanic sequences (VS1 and VS2). (c) A cross-axis
section showing the volume occupied by the massive
flows at the beginning of the volcanic cycle. The
massive flows fill the axial graben (ESD) and overflow
on the ridge flank until the first block-bounding fault.
marine geophysical surveys and downhole measurements obtained in Hole 504B are used to
estimate the basaltic volumes erupted during
volcanic activity, and the constraints applied on
the magma chamber under an intermediate rate
spreading ridge, such as the Costa Rica Rift.
At an intermediate rate, the massive flows are
considered to be erupted on-axis in a graben
called elongated summit depression (ESD; Kappel & Ryan 1986), yielding a lava plain at a large
scale. If the eruption is large enough, the massive
flows may fill the axial graben (ESD) and
overflow on the ridge flank until the first great
fault is encountered, often 2000 to 4000 m from
the axis, acting like a dam to the lava. The axial
graben (ESD) is generally 50 to 100 m deep, and
200 to 1500m wide. The volcanic and hydrothermal activity is, in most cases, limited to a 50
307
Table 1.
Dimensions
NVZ
k
T
D
W
E
Z
Definition
Values (m)
Neovolcanic zone
Massive flow lateral extent
Massive flows thickness
Axial graben depth
Axial graben width
Extrusive thickness
Sheeted dykes complex thickness
500+200
30004-1000
17-t-5
75+25
275-t-225
800+100
12504-750
M. AYADI ET AL.
308
Table 2.
Lava volumes
VNvz
Definition
Volume estimates
(106 m 3 m-1)
0.404-0.05
0.204-0.03
Vvs(m0
0.034-0.02
Vvs(m2)
Massive flow volume overflowing the axial graben and emplaced off-axis
0.094-0.08
Vvs(m)
0.114-0.09
Vvs(P)
0.194-0.03
Vvs(d)
0.304-0.19
Vvs
0.604-0.30
VvE
0.024-0.01
Vvs(KR)
0.0034-0.001
309
70, and 83, and ODP Legs 11 I, 137, 140, and 148).
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RANGIN, C. & NORMARK, W. 1981. The East
Pacific Rise at 21~ the volcanic, tectonic and
hydrothermal processes of the central axis. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 55. 1-10.
BECKER, K., SAKAI, H., et al. 1989. Drilling deep into
young oceanic crust, Hole 504B, Costa Rica rift.
Review of Geophysics, 27, 79-102.
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seamounts: effect of magma temperature and
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We are grateful to Bernard Celerier and Bisger Hanson
CANN,J. R. 1974. A model for oceanic crust structure
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M. AYADI ET AL.
310
- - ,
3, & C. L A V E R N E 1
DSDP/ODP Hole 504B are analysed in combination with core data to obtain an integrated
description of oceanic faults met in the hole. About 34 500 fractures were mapped from
FMS images over 1672 m of basement. The fracture distribution from FMS confirms the
presence of a main fault zone between 800 and 1100 mbsf (metres below sea floor), elsewhere
detected from seismic data as well as magnetic, acoustic, and electrical resistivity
measurements. The fracture density profile reveals the presence of two other highly
fractured zones, (1) between 400 and 575 mbsf and (2) close to the bottom of Hole 504B
(1700 to 2100 mbsf). Consequently, we infer that Site 504 was submitted first to an
extensional stress regime near the ridge axis, with circulation of high-temperature fluids and
pervasive alteration of the basalts. This initial phase is associated with the main fault met in
Hole 504B. Similar but less developed deformation was generated off-axis, with lowertemperature parageneses, such as that cored between 400 and 575 mbsf. The present
compressional to strike-slip stress regime is expressed in subhorizontal fracturing detected in
discrete zones, such as within the main fault zone and the lower fracture zone (1700 to 2100
mbsf) in Hole 504B.
F a u l t i n g is a f u n d a m e n t a l process in the
construction and evolution of the oceanic crust.
Mid-oceanic ridges at all spreading rates are
believed to be characterized by extension and the
presence of ridgeward-dipping normal faults.
Normal faulting is also observed in ophiolites,
where discrete zones of fracturing spaced at
intervals of 1.0 to 1.5kin and parallel to the
sheeted dykes, and may become listric at depth
(Casey et al. 1981; Rosencrantz 1983). These
fault zones are generally highly altered and
mineralized, indicating a preferential conduit for
fluid circulation (Nehlig & Juteau 1988). In the
Troodos ophiolite, highly-altered subhorizontal
surfaces are observed to act as decoupling
horizons, linked by planar normal faults (Agar
& Klitgord 1995).
The structure of the oceanic crust has often
been described at km scale with marine geophysical data. D S D P / O D P Hole 504B ( C R R U S T
1982; Cann et al. 1983; Anderson et al. 1985;
Becker et al. 1988; Becker et al. 1992; Dick et al.
311
312
M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 1. The upper crustal structure in the vicinity of ODP Site 504, as interpreted from the N-S single channel
seismic section (Langseth et al. 1988) after migration with no vertical exageration (Pezard et al. 1997). The
interpretations are represented with dashed lines. The hole seems to penetrate two tilted blocks seperated by a
north-dipping normal fault met by the drilling.
relation to the nature of the stress field.
While core analyses are essential to study
tectonic and hydrothermal processes, true fracturing estimates from core are grossly underestimated in this case. The approach used in this
paper is based on the integration of the highresolution electrical images of the borehole wall
(Formation MicroScanner, or FMS), downhole
geophysical logs and core data. First, we present
a global analysis of the integrated core-logsFMS images results. The first part presents the
data. The results of the FMS analysis are then
described in details, and interpreted in term of
fracturing. Second, several intervals corresponding to identified fracture zones are analysed in
details in term of faulting and fluid circulation,
then related to the regional stress regime, present
and past.
Structural setting
In the vicinity of Site 504, the upper crustal
structure was first imaged by a north-south
single channel seismic (SCS) reflection profile
(Langseth et al. 1988). More recently, a dense
grid of single- and multi-channel seismic reflection was performed (Kent et al. 1996). From the
earlier SCS section, the basement structure on
the southern flank of the Costa Rica Rift was
interpreted as constituted by km scale fault
blocks, apparently tilted gently to the south. The
depth conversion of the seismic section was
performed in a point-wise manner by Pezard et
al. (1997) using velocities measured on samples
collected in the sediment and basement at Site
504 (Fig. 1). Hole 504B penetrates 274.5m of
sediment, about 600m of extrusives (pillow
lavas, massive flows, thin flows, and breccias),
a transition zone from the extrusives to about
1000m, then the underlying sheeted dyke corn-
Downhole
geophysical
measurements
(m scale)
Downhole measurements of rock physical properties recorded in Hole 504B during ODP Leg
148 (Alt et al. 1993) provide a continuous mscale description of the crustal structures. The
electrical resistivity increases by nearly two
orders of magnitude from highly porous and
altered extrusives (Becker 1985; Becker et al.
1989) to the resistive sheeted dikes (Fig. 2a,b). In
the dykes, the electrical resistivity increases
continuously down to 1400 mbsf, and a more
irregular pattern is observed below. Intervals
with resistivity readings under 100 O H M m
below 1400 mbsf are due to either an increase
in fracture density or a change in clay mineralogy. Compressional-wave velocity values are
greater than 5.0 k m s ~ in the dykes and
occasionnally larger than 6.5 k m s ~ below
1500 mbsf (Fig. 2c). Detrick et al. (1994)
concluded from such data that Hole 504B
penetrates well into Layer 3, and that the Layer
2/3 boundary is not necessarily a lithological
one.
Natural radioactivity (GR) values obtained in
the hole are overall higher, and display a more
313
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of Hole 504B drilling history and lithostratigraphy after Leg 148. (b) Electrical resistivity
profiles (LLd and LLs) recorded in the hole during ODP Leg 148 with the Dual Laterolog (DLL) tool. (c) To the
left, compressional- and shear-wave velocities (Vp and Vs) obtained in Hole 504B with Vp values greater than
5.0 km s-Lin the dykes and eventually larger than 6.5 km s 1 below 1500 mbsf; to tlae right, natural radioactivity
(GR) profile with values obtained in the hole higher and with a more irregular pattern in the altered extrusives
than in the dykes. (d) Magnetic field (to the left) and inclination (to the right) computed from tri-axial
magnetometer data recorded with the orientation device of the FMS during ODP Leg 148.
314
M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 3. FMS plane density derived from raw data, expressed by the number of planes per metre. (a) Density for
total planes mapped from FMS imges (34 500 planes over 1672m of basement); (b) Density for subhorizontal
planes (dip < 30~ (c) Density for intermediate planes (30~ dip < 60~ (d) Density for subvertical planes (dip
_>60~ Large dots indicate recording file boundaries, explaining the absence of data in places (1800 to 1884 mbsf,
for example) and locating where the FMS sensor became stuck during logging due to hole restriction, obliging the
operator to close the tool and interrupt the recording.
show conductivity changes related to bed
boundaries and fractures, either open or mineralized. Each electrode is oriented in space with
three-axis accelerometers and flux-gate magnetometers, making it possible to derive the strike
and dip of geological features.
FMS data processing and analysis in Hole
504B is described by Ayadi et al. (1996). Images
were analysed with Fracview TM,a Schlumberger
interpretative software package that allows the
interactive display and analysis of oriented
images (Luthi & Souhait~ 1990). About 34 500
planes were identified and mapped over 1672 m
of basement, yielding an average of 20 planes
mapped per m. This dataset is analysed here in
terms of raw fracture density versus depth (Fig.
3). In order to organize this large dataset, the
planes were binned in terms of dip angle as
subhorizontal (dip _<30~ intermediate (30 ~
_<dip < 60 ~ and subvertical (60 ~ _<dip _<85~
Corrections. On the one hand, FMS raw density
average for subvertical planes (5 planes per m) is
lower than that for intermediate and subhorizontal planes (10 planes per m; Fig. 3). In fact,
in near vertical holes, subhorizontal planes are
better detected from borehole wall images than
subvertical ones. The probability of encountering vertical features is lower than that of
encountering horizontal ones ( N e w m a r k e t al.
1985; Dick et al. 1992). A correction of fracture
density with dip value may thus be applied.
Plane account is equal to zero, if dip is equal to
90 ~, and to one, if dip is equal to 0 ~ A
correction coefficient equal to [1/cos(0)], where
0 is the mean dip value for a given bin, is usually
applied to compensate for this sampling bias.
On the other hand, the number of planes
mapped from FMS images is affected by the
small size of FMS pads in O D P (Pezard et al.
1990), implying a low relative surface coverage
of the borehole wall. During O D P Leg 148, only
three pads of the FMS were operating due to a
sensor malfunction, and the surface coverage is
only in the order of 12%. In comparison with
FMS results derived from Hole 504B, the
Corrected
Subhorizontal
(# per m)
2oo ~
100
200
FMS
50
FMS
Corrected
Intermediate
Planes
(# per m)
150
400
600
50
100
150
FMS
Corrected
Subvertical
Planes
(# per m)
100
315
Planes
(# per m)
50
100 150
0
-
200
Upper
Fracture
Zone
8OO
Main
Fault
Zone
looo
1200
m
,~ 1400
160C
180C
No d a t a
No data
[No d a t a
Lower
Fracture
Zone
No data
200G
2201
i
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4. FMS plane density profiles derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage effects. The
density profile is expressed by an average number of planes per metre. (a) Density for total planes; (b) Density for
subhorizontal planes (dip < 30~ (c) Density for intermediate planes (30~ dip < 60~ (d) Density for subvertical
planes (dip 60~ Large dots indicate recording file boundaries.
316
M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 5. (a) Recovery in percent obtained in the volcanics (275 to 1000 mbsf; on the left) and core plane density
(open fractures and veins) derived from corrected data for both verticality and recovery effects on the right (from
Tartarotti et al. 1998). (b) The minimum estimates of fracture porosity (to the left), derived from the difference
between the two DLL electrical resistivity measurements (LLs and LLd; Pezard & Anderson 1989), compared to
breccia and rubble intervals found in the cored section. Horizontal fracture porosity is represented by grey line,
vertical fracture porosity by black line, breccias by dark lozenges and rubbles by dark triangles. (c) FMS total
plane density derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage effects, obtained in the volcanic
section (from 275 to 1000 mbsf). The number of planes is represented by crosses and the average density profile by
a dark line.
in the volcanic section. A total of 1112 macroscopic fractures and veins were measured on
core from the upper 1000m of the hole. The
term fracture was restricted to open planar
features without any mineral fill, and the term
veins to filled fractures. Cooling and drilling
features were excluded during mapping in order
to include only tectonic data. Vein selection was
adopted in order to avoid vein networks related
to either incipient brecciation, or to contractional cooling of pillow lavas. Fracture and vein
distribution plotted in Fig. 5a is the number of
fractures and veins per metre over the considered depth interval. These data are also
corrected for verticality, as described above. In
addition, core data must be corrected for
recovery (Tartarotti et al. 1998).
Results
317
Fig. 6. (a) Schematic of Hole 504B drilling history and lithostratigraphy after Leg 148. (b) To the left, minimum
fracture porosity of near-vertical conductive structures in the Hole 504B, derived from the difference between the
two DLL electrical resistivity measurements (LLs and LLd). The data were obtained at the opportunity of ODP
Legs 111 (1986; dark line) and 148 (1993; grey line). To the right, the estimates of apparent total porosity on the
basis of Archie's formula (dark line) and the free-fluid porosity (grey line) deduced from accounting for surface
conductivity due to clay minerals (Pezard 1990; Revil et al. 1996). (c) To the left, resistivity-derived open porosity
fraction (ratio of free fluid pore space to total pore space) and to the right, Young's modulus computed from
acoustic velocity measurements at dm-scale (and 20 kHz). The dotted line reflects an expected increase with
increasing depth. (d) FMS total plane density derived from corrected data for both verticality and coverage
effects. The number of planes is represented by crosses and the average density profile by a dark line.
the core (e.g. about 430, 575, 850 mbsf; Fig. 5),
except at 500 mbsf where the core recovery is
zero (Fig. 5). The highly fractured zone between
400 and 575 mbsf derived from FMS analysis
(Fig. 4) is confirmed by the core fracture and
vein analysis. Some of the planes, such as that
located near 430 or 575 mbsf, and deduced from
both core and FMS data, may be of tectonic
origin, and thus may relate to the presence of
fault planes. Below 800 mbsf, the fracture
density increase confirms the existence of the
main fault, elsewhere detected from seismic data,
as well as magnetic and electrical resistivity
measurements.
Three methods to obtain porosity estimates
from electrical resistivity measurements are
detailed in Pezard et al. (1996) and provide a
means to evaluate macroscopically the fracturing intensity and distribution in basement, as
well as to compute the open porosity fraction
318
M. AYADI E T AL.
Fig. 7. The upper fracture zone (from 400 to 575 mbsf). (a) To the left, the percentage of core recovery obtained in
the Hole 504B and to the right, the deep electrical resistivity profile (LLd). (b) Minimum DLL-derived horizontal
(grey line) and vertical (dark line) fracture porosity, on the right, and total plane density derived from corrected
FMS data, on the left. (c) Natural radioactivity profile, on the left; distribution of K-rich minerals and zeolites
derived from petrographic observation in thin sections, in the centre and right. (d) Intermediate plane density
derived from corrected FMS data, on the left; distribution of red alteration halos derived from visual observation
on cores and petrographic observations, on the right.
Fault analysis
In this part, individual fracture zones are
analysed in details on the basis of FMS images
and in terms of fracture density and mean
aperture. These results are compared to those
obtained by Tartarotti et al. (1998) and other
studies (e.g. Agar 1990, 1991; Alt et al. 1986,
1996; Pariso & Johnson 1991) which focused on
the upper core section of Hole 504B (extrusives
and transition zone, see Fig. 2). FMS results are
also compared to results derived from downhole
geophysical measurements (e.g. Kinoshita et al.
1989, Pezard et al. 1997).
Upper f r a c t u r e z o n e ( 4 0 0 to 575 m b s f )
319
320
M. AYADI ET AL.
Fig. 8. Composite profiles of geophysical logs and mineralogical logs from the main fault zone (from 800 to 1100
mbsf). (a) To the left, core recovery percentage and to the right, interval studied by Agar (1991) with some fault
planes presented (F). (b) Magnetic inclination computed from tri-axial magnetometre data recorded with the
orientation device of the FMS, is opposed to the Cu ppm values obtained from core. (c) Total plane density
derived from corrected FMS data, on the left; ppm values of Zn derived from core chemical analyses, on the right.
(d) Subhorizontal plane density derived from corrected FMS data on the left and open porosity fraction (free fluid
porosity over total porosity) on the right. (e) Apparent aperture in mm of planes directly mapped from FMS
images, on the left; distribution of breccias (triangles) and rubbies (circles) identified on core (Tartarotti et al.
1998 volume), on the right. (f) To the left, minimum porosity of near-vertical conductive structures. The data were
obtained seven years apart, at the opportunity of ODP legs 111 (1986, dark line) and 148 (1993, grey line). To the
right, distribution of zeolites derived from petrographic observation in thin sections. To the left-hand side, the
localization of the stockwork-like sulphide mineralization (Honnorez et al. 1983).
321
322
M. AYADI E T A L.
Fig. 9. Composite profiles illustrating geophysical logs in the lower fracture zone. (a) core recovery percentage. (b)
To the left, the deep electrical resistivity profile (LLd) and to the right, the total plane density derived from
corrected FMS data. (c) Open porosity fraction (free fluid porosity over total porosity), on the left; subhorizontal
plane density derived from corrected FMS data, on the right. (d) Apparent aperture in mm of planes directly
mapped from FMS images, on the left; temperature gradient recorded at the end of coring operations during
ODP leg 140, on the right. Distribution of zeolites derived from petrographic observation in thin sections are
presented on this diagram (closed circles).
323
Fig. 10. (a) Plane azimuths and dips mapped from FMS images over the interval spanning from 1900 to 2100 mbsf
represented versus depth. Subhorizontal (dip < 30~ closed triangle), 'intermediate' (30~ dip < 60~ plus sign),
subvertical (60~ dip < 85~ vertical bars), and steep fractures (dip 85~ closed circles) are discriminated with
different symbols. (b) Schmidt equal area projection in lower hemisphere of 998 plane poles derived from FMS
images over 20 metres (from 1920 to 1940 mbsf) of basaltic crust crossed by Hole 504B.
324
M. AYADI ET AL.
Conclusions
325
326
M. AYADI ET AL.
sandstones and thus affects economically significant reserves calculations and flow-rate
(through its effect on permeability). The presence of oil in a reservoir is commonly assumed
to retard quartz cement precipitation and thus early oil emplacement is often thought to
preserve porosity and permeability. A combined petrographic and wireline log approach
was utilized to investigate whether quartz cement volumes and the total quantity of quartz
do indeed vary across the oil-water contact in a sandstone reservoir. Thin-section pointcount data and bulk density, neutron porosity and sonic transit time wireline log data were
obtained across the oil-water contact from three wells in the Magnus field, an Upper
Jurassic turbidite sandstone reservoir in the Northern North Sea. Reported oil filled
inclusions in quartz overgrowths in this reservoir show that quartz cementation occurred
either during or after oil emplacement. Point count data were used to determine quartz
cement and total quartz volumes across the oil-water contact, whilst wireline data were
transformed to reveal the total quantity of quartz across the oil-water contact. Preliminary
results seem to show that the volume of quartz cement and the total volume of quartz show
little or no variation across the oil-water contact. These data seem to imply that the presence
of oil in the reservoir had no appreciable effect on the component processes involved in
quartz cementation in this field: a paradox that will be further investigated.
The distribution of quartz cement is a major
control on sandstone reservoir quality (Coskun
et al. 1993). Quartz cement can reduce porosity
by occluding pores, thus reducing oil volume. It
can also have an effect on permeability by the
general reduction in porosity and specifically by
reducing the diameter of pore throats.
One of the major factors that has widely been
assumed to either retard, or halt quartz cementation in a reservoir is the prior emplacement of
oil (e.g. Glasmann et al. 1989; Robinson &
Gluyas 1992). It is commonly assumed that
replacing water in the pores by oil must halt
inorganic geochemical processes including those
involved in quartz cementation. This assumption
however does not take account of either the
preferred wetting state of the reservoir or the
source of the silica in the quartz cement.
Although a reservoir may have reached maximum oil saturation, it can be water wet and the
pore network can be filled with approximately
20% water. There exists, therefore, the possibility of continued silica transport, quartz dissolut i o n a n d silica p r e c i p i t a t i o n a f t e r oil
emplacement.
The possibility of quartz cementation continuing in the presence of oil is strongly
influenced by the water saturation of the
BARCLAY,S. A. & WORDEN,R. H. 1998. Quartz cement volumes across oil-water contacts in oil fields
from petrography and wireline logs: preliminary results from the Magnus Field, Northern North Sea
In." HARVEY,P. K. LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 327-339
327
328
Fig. 1. Maps showing location of Magnus field in Northern North Sea and well locations.
329
Chronostratigraphy
Regional setting
Lithostratigraphy
Ma.
Bathonian
~ ~
Bajocian
Aalenian
170
Ness
Rannoch & Etive
Broom
330
Table 1. Reservoir lithofacies in the Magnus field. Lithofacies IV is the most important in terms of the volume of
trapped petroleum
Lithofacies
Description
Depositional environment
Basin plain
I
II & III
IV
The Magnus sandstones are predominantly submarine fan, sub-arkosic to arkosic, fine- to
coarse-grained and generally poorly sorted
sediments (De'Ath & Schulyeman 1981). Sedimentological analysis of the Magnus Sandstone
Member revealed that five distinct depositional
lithofacies were present (Table 1). In terms of the
volume of oil in the reservoir, lithofacies IV is
the most important (Emery et al. 1993). All of
the data presented in this paper are from
lithofacies IV thus negating facies-dependent
control on cementation.
Diagenetic history
331
Definition
At
Atminx
Ato
P
Pminx
pO
On
Onminx
Ono
minX
O
(2)
On = minl .Onminl -+-min2.0nmin2 + min3.0nmin3
+ On.O
(3)
1 = m i n l +min2 + min3 + O
(4)
332
Quartz fraction
Quartz fraction
0.5
0.5
I
3140
3150
3160
3180
3200
D
D
~>
=,
~"
3190
3200
3240
-~
3260
>
3280
9~
"~
3300
~>
E>
[>
E>
OWC
WDt
B[]
2
owc
Q~
3320
E>
3210
~?
3170
0
3180
3220
C>
~JP
3340
3220
3360
3230
3380
9 Wireline pseudo-quartz
[] Point-count pseudo-quartz
9 Wireline pseudo-quartz
[] Point-count pseudo-quartz
Petrography
The point-count quartz cement fraction, pointcount pseudo-quartz fraction and wireline-derived pseudo-quartz fraction are plotted as a
fraction of the rock volume as a function of
depth for wells 211/12a-11,211/12a-09 and 211/
7-1. (Figs 4, 5 and 6, respectively). The other
lithological data derived from the wireline logs
Results
333
Table 3. Calculated means (+ standard deviations) for the point-count quartz cement fraction, point-count pseudoquartz fraction and wireline pseudo-quartz fraction in each of the studied wells. Values shown are on a scale of O to I
Point-count
quartz cement
fraction
Point-count
pseudo-quartz
fraction
Wireline
pseudo-quartz
fraction
Well
Position
211/ 12a-09
oil leg
water leg
0.08 (
0.08 (
0.60 (
0.61 (
0.60 (-+-0.05)
0.59 (-+-0.06)
211/12a-11
oil leg
water leg
0.09 (+0.02)
0.08 (
0.57 (+0.04)
0.58 (
0.60 (+0.05)
0.59 (-4-0.04)
211/7-1
oil leg
water leg
0.04 (+0.02)
0.07 (+0.01)
0.62 (+0.08)
0.58 (-t-0.06)
0.65 (+0.04)
0.65 (-1-0.05)
Quartz fraction
0
3160
0.5
>
3170
Discussion
3180
c e m e n t a t i o n - p r e v i o u s w o r k on M a g n u s
[>
[>
3190
gl,
[>
~r 3200
3210
~>
O0
3220
D
go
3230
9 Wireline pseudo-quartz
[] Point-count pseudo-quartz
A Point-count quartz cement
334
0.20
__J..
(a) 211/12a-ll
1:1 correlation line]
(a) 211/12a-ll L * * * ~
0.8
0.15-
0.6
#*
0.2
0.05-
~o
l_
0.10-
0.4
(b) 211/12a-09
0.8
."
0.15
,~ 0.6
O
(b) 211/12a-09
""
0.10
0.4
cl,
0.2
.~.
0.05
(c) 211/7-1
0.8
(c) 211/7-1
0.15.
/....
0.6
0.10.
0.4
0.2
J,
0.0
0.0
0.05.
O
0.2
01.4
i
0.6
01.8
1.0
Wireline pseudo-quartzfraction
0.00
0.0
'
'
0.2
0.4
0.6
*,
0.8
1.0
Point-count pseudo-quartzfraction
___J_
(a) 211/12a-ll
1:1 correlation line
335
Quartz %
(a)
Oil leg
0.10
OW(
0.05
Waterleg
0.15
t.
;:':.
0.05
~
o
/
0.15
Oil leg
OWC
0.10
=
=
Co)
/
(b) 211/12a-09
!: 1 correlation line[
(c) 211/7-1
0.10
Waterleg
(c)
OWC
Waterleg
0.05
0.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Wireline pseudo-quartz fraction
336
affected by emplacement of oil within a reservoir, then theoretically there are three possible
distributions of quartz cement across the OWC:
(1) early oil emplacement would halt quartz
cementation in the oil leg and have no
effect on the water leg resulting in an
abrupt change in quartz cement volume
(Fig. 10a);
(2) oil emplacement after quartz cementation
would have no affect on quartz cement
volumes in either the oil or the water legs
(Fig. 10b);
(3) oil emplacement during quartz cementation
would lead to progressively less quartz
cement passing up into the oil leg (Fig.
10c).
Secondly, assuming that the rate of quartz
cementation is not affected by the emplacement
of oil in the reservoir, then whenever quartz
cementation occurred, there should be equal
amounts of quartz cement in the oil and water
legs. In this last case, cement distribution should
be independent of the relative timings of oil
emplacement and quartz cementation (Fig. 11).
Emery et al. (1993) asserted that quartz
cementation and oil emplacement occurred
synchronously in Magnus at 80 Ma through
the use of fluid inclusion petrography and burial
history modelling. Thus in Magnus we should
witness either (1) progressively less quartz
cement passing up into the oil leg if quartz
cementation is halted by oil emplacement (i.e. as
shown by Fig. 10c) or (2) uniform quartz cement
volumes in the oil and water legs if quartz
cementation is not affected by oil emplacement
(i.e. as shown by Fig. 11).
The results from all three wells (Figs 4, 5, 6
and Table 3) seem to show that the volumes of
quartz cement, point-count pseudo-quartz and
wireline pseudo-quartz do not change significantly across the OWC. Thus, despite previous
assertions about inhibition of quartz cementation during and following oil emplacement
within the Magnus Field (Emery et al. 1993),
the data seem to show that the distribution of
quartz cement in Magnus was unaffected by the
presence of oil in the reservoir.
P o s s i b l e sources o f q u a r t z f o r c e m e n t a t i o n in
the M a g n u s f i e l d
Oil leg
~" OWC
.
Water leg
Quartz % ~
Fig. 11. Distribution of quartz cement across the oilwater contact is unaffected by the relative timing of oil
emplacement and quartz cementation. Assuming that
quartz cementation is unaffected by oil emplacement.
(6)
(7)
~0.8oJ,d
~
9
mm
Timing
(relative to oil
emplacement)
Wettability
Before
Reservoir
contains only
residual water
(is water-we0
Kro
0.6-
337
(b)
~, 0.4-
Water-wet
During
0.2-
(c)
Oil-wet
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
After
(e)
Oil-wet
reservoir versus the underlying aquifer is controlled by the kr of the reservoir to water.
Relative permeability of reservoir sandstones
to aqueous and non-aqueous fluids is usually
assessed by the use of waterflood tests on core
samples, the results being presented as a function of fractional water saturation (Archer &
Wall 1994). Waterflood tests have been carried
out on preserved core from Magnus (Gamble &
Brooking 1989), and a representative example of
the results obtained is shown in Fig. 12. At low
values of water saturation (Sw) the relative
permeability of the Magnus Sandstone Member
to water (krw) is very low. This implies that when
the reservoir contains oil, flow of water and
influx of silica into the Magnus reservoir will be
negligible. If we accept the assertion of Emery et
al that oil emplacement and quartz cementation
were synchronous, then this seems to rule out
the possibility of the quartz cement in Magnus
being externally sourced as the large volumes of
fluid required to precipitate the amount of
quartz cement observed could not have gained
access to the reservoir. This conclusion is
corroborated by the lack of correlation between
the quartz cement and total quartz data (Figs 8
& 9) which showed that silica appeared not to
have been imported into the sandstone.
With an internal source of quartz in the
reservoir, transport of silica in the reservoir
probably occurs dominantly by diffusion (Worden et al. 1998). The diffusion rate of silica in
solution is governed by Fick's law:
J =
D x (dc/dx). 0 / 0 2
(8)
338
Conclusions
(1) The wireline (petrophysical) pseudo-quartz
values correlate reasonably well with the
point-count (petrographic) pseudo-quartz
values. Both techniques can thus be used to
examine the distribution of bulk quartz
across the oil-water contact in the Magnus
reservoir.
(2) Neither the wireline pseudo-quartz nor the
point-count pseudo-quartz values correlate
with the point-count quartz cement values
and are not good indicators of quartz
cement values in the Magnus reservoir.
(3) The lack of correlation of total quartz
content and quartz cement implies that
silica was not imported into the reservoir.
(4) The point-count quartz cement, pointcount pseudo-quartz and the wireline
pseudo-quartz appear not to change significantly across the oil-water contact in
the Magnus Sandstone Member.
(5) The fact that neither the point-count quartz
cement, point-count pseudo-quartz and
References
ARCHER, J. S. & WALL, C. G. 1994. Petroleum
engineering." principles and practice. Graham &
Trotman, London.
BARCLAY, S. A. 8,~ WORDEN, R. H. 1997. Reservoir
wettability and its effect upon cementation in oil
fields. In: HENDRY, J., CAREY, P., PARNELL, J.,
RUVVELL,A. & WORDEN, R. H. (eds) Geofluids H
'97." Contributions to the Second International
Conference on Fluid Evolution, Migration and
Interaction in Sedimentary Basins and Orogenic
Belts. Belfast, Northern Ireland, 10-14 March,
264-267.
BJORLYKKE, K. & EGEBERG, P. K. 1993. Quartz
cementation in sedimentary basins. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 77,
1538-1548.
BROWN, C. E. & NEUSTADTER, E. L. 1980. The
wettability of oil/water/silica systems with reference to oil recovery. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 19, 100-110.
COSKUN, S. B., WARDLAW,N. C. & HAVERSLEW,B.
1993. Effects of composition, texture and diagenesis on porosity, permeability and oil recovery in a
sandstone. Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering, 8, 279-292.
DE'ATH, N. G. & SCHUYLEMAN, S. F. 1981. The
geology of the Magnus oilfield. In: ILLING,L. V. &
HOBSON, G. D. (eds) Petroleum Geology of the
Continental Shelf of North- West Europe. Heyden,
London, 342=-351.
DICKSON,J. A. D. 1965. A modified staining technique
for carbonates in thin section. Nature, 205, 587.
DOVETON, J. H. 1994. Geologic log analysis using
computer methods, AAPG computer applications in
339
Abstract: The volcanic architecture of oceanic crust records the diversity in volcanic activity
during its development in the neovolcanic zone of individual ridge systems. Potentially there
exists a spectrum of lithological architectures which may primarily be related to the
spreading rate and the dynamics of individual magma chambers along different ridges.
Recent studies have emphasized the observable spatial variations within different
neovolcanic zones, although direct extrapolation into the third dimension can only be
achieved by the use of drilling results. To study the structure of the volcanic layer it is
essential that individual lithologies (sheet flows, pillow lavas and/or breccias) can be
discriminated from the core and/or logging results and mapped within the borehole.
Unfortunately a problem with the drilling of the volcanic basement during the Ocean
Drilling Program has been the generally low (typically c. 25%) and biased core recoveries,
which produce an erroneous picture of the lithological diversity of the volcanics. This
problem is further compounded by the difficulty in determining the volcanic stratigraphy,
particularly when the key information is lost during coring (i.e. boundaries/contacts).
Downhole logging provides near continuous records of the physical/chemical properties of
the borehole which when integrated with core measurements, yield a detailed picture of the
architecture of the volcanic layer. Logging results from ODP Hole 896A are of sufficient
quality that sheet flows, pillow lavas and brecciated units can be discriminated and mapped
effectively within the borehole. From their distribution it is evident that sheet flows become
more abundant in the lower part of the hole, which probably correlates with ridge axis
volcanism whereas, the predominance of pillow lava flows (< 340 mbsf (metres below sea
floor)) in the upper part of the hole, is probably related to off-axis volcanism within the
neovolcanic zone.
BREWER,T. S., HARVEY,P. K., LOVELL,M. A., HAGGAS,S., WILLIAMSON,G. 8z PEZARD,P. 1998.
Ocean floor volcanism: constraints from the integration of core and downhole logging measurements
In- HARVEY,P. K. d~;LOVELL,M. A. (eds) Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 136, 341-362
341
342
Fig. 1. Typical layered model for normal ocean crust, modified from Wilson (1989) and Brown & Mussett (1981).
For comparison the lithostratigraphies of ODP Holes 504B and 896A are shown, data from Alt et al. (1993). The
position of the layer 2/3 boundary in hole 504B is after Detrick et al. (1994).
Geological setting
In the equatorial east Pacific, the Cocos-Nazca
spreading centre consists of the Galapagos,
Ecuador and Costa Rica Rifts. This rift system
was initiated approximately 27 Ma ago, by the
formation of the Galapagos Triple Junction
(Hey et al. 1977; Lonsdale & Klitgord 1978),
which produced a triangular wedge, the Gala-
343
Fig. 2. Location of ODP holes 504B and 896A in the eastern Equatorial Pacific, modified from Hobart et al.
(1985). Insets shows the detailed location of Hole 896A, being situated on a bathymetric high (b) which overlies a
basement high characterized by elevated heat flow (c). Insets from Langseth et al. (1988).
344
345
Table 1. Criteria used to identify lithological units during ODP Leg 148, after Alt, Kinoshita, Stokking et al. 1993.
Massive Units
9 Only recorded as a unit where two or three peices together in the core.
9 Matrix supported breccias lithologically variably which are cemented by clays+carbonate and finely
comminuted basalt.
9 Haloclastic breccias often preserved on outer edge of chilled/glassy rinds and comprise fragments of glass and
devitrified glass in a matrix of clay + carbonate.
Table 2. Macropetrological features of the volcanic lithologies in hole 896A which may be imaged by the diffrent
logging tools. Data from Aft et al. (1993); Yamagishi (1985); Walker (1992).
Pillow lavas
Downhole logging:
346
T. S. BREWER E T AL.
347
Fig. 4. (a) Morphology of Hole 896A, expressed as hole size deviation determined from the FMS calipers. The
hole size deviation is the amount by which the borehole is enlarged beyond the diameter on the drill bit. The FMS
has four calipers, arranged at right angles, and in the plots shown here, the two curves, plotted 'away' from the
centre of the borehole, map the difference of the means of the two opposing pairs of calipers on the FMS, from
the 'true' borehole diameter. Break-outs and enlargement of the borehole only becomes critical when the
deviation is > 5 cm, and as such is limited to small discrete zones. (b) An illustration of the stand-off effect in the
measurement of alumina by the ACT TM(Activation Clay Tool) over a breakout at about 240 mbsf. a-~Mark of
Schlumberger.
348
T. S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 5. Core recovery and percentage error in core location within Hole 896A.
Error estimation
Any reconstruction of the volcanic stratigraphy
which uses both core and log must first establish
the quality of the different datasets. In dealing
with the core, errors arise from inaccurate
location (i.e. metres below sea floor; mbsf) and
misclassification (e.g. pillow or flow). Errors in
the logging data relate to inaccurate location
(mbsf), the precision and accuracy of the
different tools and the interpretation of the data.
Inaccurate depth location of the core, must as
first order value be no better than the average
recovery of 26.9%, which represents a maximum
location error of +73.1% in the cored section.
Clearly such a value does not account for the
variations in recovery for individual core barrels
(Fig. 3) and as such a moving average based on
actual core barrel recoveries is a more appro-
349
8OO
6OO
2OO
0
0
200
400
(a)
6OO
8OO
Pass 1
1000
;
- -
LLd-Leg 140
660
670
(b)
loo0
680
depth (mbsf)
690
700
LIA-Leg 140
......... LLd-Leg 148
IOO-
(C)
660
670
680
690
700
depth (mbsf)
350
T. S. BREWER E T AL.
and hydrosphere. Estimation of apparent porosity within ocean crust can be derived from
resistivity measurements recorded with the longspacing resistivity device (Becker 1985) or by the
dual laterolog (Pezard 1990). The apparent
porosity is a computed value which represents
both electrolytic conduction processes in pores,
fractures, cracks (including microcracks) and
surface conduction mechanisms; the latter are
particularly important when conductive alteration minerals (e.g. smectites) are present (Pezard
1990). From the dual laterolog it is also possible
to record the average fracturing around the
borehole (Boyeldieu & Martin 1984; Sibbit &
Faivre 1985; Pezard & Anderson 1990). In ODP
holes, sea water is both the drilling fluid and the
pore fluid in the rock mass. Consequently, the
difference between the deep (LLd) and shallow
(LLs) resistivity may be related to rock anisotropy (Pezard & Anderson 1990). Moreover, the
difference between the LLd and LLs can be used
to compute the fracture porosity, which relates
to the relative volume of organized conductive
features (i.e. fractures) in the vicinity of the
borehole.
Early attempts at evaluating fracture intensity
in the ocean crust were performed by eye from
borehole televiewer (BHTV) images (Newmark
et al. 1985) or by direct measurements on the
recovered core. Visual fracture analyses of the
BHTV images are often extremely inaccurate
due to blurring and distortion of the images
produced by ship heave, hole ellipticity and tool
stand-off. Fracture analysis of actual core is a
function of the core recovery and is open to
biasing in the drilling of specific rock masses. In
the case of the ODP, basement recoveries are
often low (< 20%) and any recovered core is
often biased towards more massive less fractured
materials (i.e. pillow cores, massive flows).
The relationship between porosity and resistivity for ocean floor basalts has been extensively
discussed by Becker (1985) and Lovell & Pezard
(1990), who concluded that the use of Archie~)s
formula with a = 1.0 and m = 2.0 approximates
the relationship between porosity and resistivity.
However, a different law with a = 10 and m close
to 1.0 has been suggested for ocean floor basalts
(Flovenz et al. 1985; Pezard 1990; Broglia &
Moos 1998), which reflects electrolytic conduction in elongated volumes filled with pore fluid
(sea water). From the more general derivation of
Archie's Law, Pezard (1990) estimated the
apparent porosity (RPHI), assuming the LLd
measurement represents the true resistivity of
the ocean crust, from the following:
RPHI2 = R w / R L L d ,
351
Flows
Core recovery in the flows was moderately high
and individual core pieces tended to be long
compared to recovery in pillow lavas and/or
breccias (up to 20cm; Alt et al. 1993). This
enhanced and more continuous core recovery
probably reflects the massive nature of the sheet
352
353
Fig. 8. Wireline logging responses over a single sheet flow located between 230 and 236 mbsf. Divisions within the
flow, whose position is indicated by the vertical grey bars on the lithological columns in the centre of the diagram,
A, B and C, are described in Fig. 9. Above the flow are brecciated pillow lavas (BPL), with pillow lavas (PL)
beneath. For an explanation of hole size deviation see the caption to Fig. 4.
Breccias
A variety of breccias were recovered from Hole
896A (Alt, et al. 1993, Harper & Tartarotti
1996). However, the amount of actual recovered
material was limited (c. 5%) and breccia units
were only recorded when two or more pieces of
354
Fig. 9. FMS image across a sheet lava flow. The base of the flow is a little below 235 mbsf, and marked by a low
resistance zone. The flow has a fractured base about 140 cm thick, above which is some two metres of relatively
unfractured rock, representing the central part of the flow. The top of the flow is fractured and pillowed and
extends up to 230 mbsf. Resistivity scale: pale (resistive) to dark (conductive).
355
Fig. 10. Downhole logging responses from a breccia unit located at 350-370 mbsf. Two metre long FMS images
covering part of the section are shown, correctly scaled in the horizontal and vertical directions, as (f) (360-362
mbsf) and (g) (366-368 mbsf). Large unfractured blocks within the breccia are outlined in (f) and (g), and
demonstrate the chaotic nature of this lithology.
et al. 1996) which illustrates their importance in
356
Pillow lavas
Pillow lavas comprise c. 58% of the core
lithological log and were identified using the
criteria in Table 1, with individual pillows
ranging in thickness from 50 to 280 mm and
possibly up to 350mm (Alt et al. 1993). In Hole
896A the major problems in identify pillow lavas
from the core were:
(a) the lack of rims, such that the cores of large
pillows may have been classified as massive
units (Alt et al. 1993);
(b) a curved to planar or irregularly chilled
margin unique to a pillow lava;
(c) core recovery in the intervals classified as
pillow lavas was poor, which limits any
357
Fig. 11. Downhole logging responses for pillow lavas located between 290 and 300 mbsf. A 4m FMS image,
correctly scaled in the horizontal and vertical directions, is shown as (f) (294-298 mbsf). Several of the rounded
surfaces between the pillows are picked out in (f--solid lines), as are some irregular fractures (dotted).
358
T. S. BREWER E T AL.
Fig. 12. Comparison of core recovery, core and log derived lithostratigraphies (left). Also shown is the variation
in TiO2, K20 and Ni in core samples over the same depth interval (right). The elemental data were measured by
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
359
Conclusions
Logging results provide important constraints
on the geology of the volcanics in Hole 896A,
which reflects the excellent quality logging data.
Since break-outs are limited in this hole, the
amount of data rejected was small (Fig. 4a;
< 9%) and so a near continuous logging record
is available. Individual logging tools provide
different measurements which can be inverted to
give different geological information on each of
the different rock types. However, where local
core recoveries are high ( > 4 0 % ) conclusions
from the logging data can be qualified. By
combining the core and logging results a detailed
model of the volcanic architecture of layer 2A
can be derived. These models suggest that the
major control on the style of volcanology is the
proximity to the ridge crest, such that sheet flows
correspond to an axial setting, a feature shown
previously from submersible studies (Ballard et
al. 1979). Furthermore, the lithological anisotropy is the major control on subsequent fluid
flow and secondary alteration, the larger scale
picture of which correlates well with the logging
360
T. S. BREWER ET AL.
References
AGRINIER, P. & AGGINIER, B. 1994. A propos de la
connaissance de la profondeur a laquelle vos
8chantillions sont collectSs darts les forages.
Comptes Rendu s de l'Acad emie des Sciences,
Paris, t.318, sSrie II, 1615-1622.
ALLMENDINGER, R. W. & FRIDTJOF, R. 1979. The
Galapagos rift at 86~ W: 1. Regional morphological and structural analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research, 84, 5379-5389.
ALT, J. C., KINOSHITA,H. STOKKING,L. B. et al. 1993.
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Initial Reports, 148. College Station, TX (Ocean
Drilling Program).
ANDERSON, R. N., DOVE, R. E. & PRATSON,E. 1990a.
The calibration of geochemical well logs in basalt,
granite and metamorphic rocks and their use as a
lithostratigraphic tool. In: HURST, A., LOVEEE,M.
A. & MORTON, A. C. (eds) Geological application
of Wireline Logs. Geological Society of London,
Special Publications, No. 48, 177-194.
, ALT, J. C., MAEPAS, J., LOVELL, M. A.,
HARVEY, P. K. t~ PRATSON, E. L. 1990b. Geochemical well logging in basalts: the Palisades sill
and the oceanic crust of Hole 504B. Journal of
Geopyhsical Research, 95, 9265-9292.
BALLARD, R. D., HOLCOMB,R. T. & VAN ANDEL, T. H.
1979. The Galapagos rift at 860 W: 3. Sheet flows,
collapse pits and lava lakes of the rift valley.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 84, 5407-5422.
BECKER,K. 1985. Large-scale electrical resistivity and
bulk porosity of oceanic crust, DSDP Hole 504B,
Costa Rica Rift. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea
Drilling Project, 83, 419-427.
BELL, J. S. 1990. Investigating stress regimes in
sedimentary basins using information from oil
industry wireline logs and drilling records. In:
HURST,A., LOVELL,M. A. & MORTON,A. C. (eds)
Geological application of wireline logs. Geological
Society of London Special Publications No. 48,
305-325.
361
362
T. S. BREWER ET AL.
DSDP and ODP drillings together with shorebased studies (i.e. Larsen & Marcussen 1992)
and drillings on the Faeroe Islands (Waagstein
& Hald 1984) all suggest near sea-level eruption
of the lava within the SDRS (Larsen et al. 1994).
The Tertiary igneous provinces of Britain,
Northern Ireland, the Faeroes and Greenland
were formed at the same time (White &
McKenzie 1989). All these igneous provinces
together form the North Atlantic Volcanic
Rifted Margin.
Although the volcanic nature of the SDRS is
firmly established (Roberts, et aL 1984; Eldholm
et aL 1987), the geological processes responsible
for the formation of their characteristic architecture is still partly a matter of conjecture
(Larsen et al. 1994).
The purpose of this paper is to show the
relation between physical and magnetic rock
properties and the volcanic flow structure.
Borehole measurements as well as core measurements will be used to cast some light on this
matter.
D S D P and O D P drillings in the northeast
Atlantic
At the time of break-up of the N Atlantic and
rifting, all the drillings of the DSDP/ODP Legs
363
364
C.J. BI~ICKER E T
AL.
Fig. 1. Reconstruction of the North Atlantic at the time of magnetic Anomaly 24 with the disposition of the major
continental blocks (after Srivastava 1978), the distribution of on- and off-shore basalt flows and sills and the
palaeolocation of DSDP/ODP Legs 81, 104, 152 and 163 (modified after Larsen et al. 1994).
81, 104, 152 and 163 are situated along a more
or less N - S trending line at these early continental margins (Fig. 1). The Legs 81, 104 and
152 and the Faeroe Islands are situated along
these margins, while Legs 152 and 163 are
situated across the margins. To understand the
genesis of the voluminous volcanic activity
during the short reversed polarity between
magnetic anomalies 24 and 25 and the formation
of coeval suites of dipping reflectors at the
conjugate margins of Greenland, Rockall and
the Norwegian Sea, it is useful to correlate the
volcanic sequences of East Greenland, Rockall
and Voring Plateau and the other volcanic areas
in the NE Atlantic in more detail.
The petrology and petrography of magmatic
products like subaerial flood basalts in large
igneous provinces is mostly well known (i.e. Cox
SE Greenland
Rockall
V~ring
Plateau
C23
365
Site 553A
C24
56
!<
57
Main SDRS
formation
Site 642E
C25
Upper Series
58
59
C26
60
Middle and
Lower Series
61
C27
Site 917
Basal Flow
63 - C28
366
Fig. 3. Generalized section across a 5 m thick pahoehoe flow unit, showing different shapes, sizes and zonal
distribution of vesicles. The curves for the maximal sizes and volume percentages of the vesicles are given in the
middle column (modified after Walker 1993). The right side shows typical log responses within a single volcanic
flow. SFLU: resistivity in Ohm m in linear scaling to enhance the peak at the bottom of the flow, GR: gamma ray
in API; Vp: compressional wave velocity in km s 1, RHO: density in g cm-3. In relation to these log responses, the
flow is divided into four typical flow zones I-IV (right column with different grey shadings).
H o l e 5 5 3 A ( D S D P L e g 81)
367
Fig. 4. Volcanic pile together with a composite log of Hole 553A at the Rockall Plateau. From left column to right
column: simplified lithology (after Roberts et al. 1984), individual lava flows as detected by logs (separated by
different grey scales), SFLU log in linear scale to enhance the sharp peaks at the bottom of single flows, density
RHOB, neutron porosity NPHI, compressional wave velocity Vp, and gamma ray GR,
can be well compared with the physical properties and downhole logs (see also the later section
'Single flow physical property characteristics').
Within one single flow, the densities (RHOB)
and compressional wave velocities (Vp) are well
correlated and show large variations with values
ranging between 2-3 g cm 3 and 2- > 6 km s-l,
respectively. The lower values correspond to the
flow top and bottom parts yielding the high
vesicularities and high alteration degrees,
whereas the massive basalt in the centre part of
a flow shows the highest values of density and
368
Fig. 5. Compilation of core measurements from Hole 990A. From left column to right column: core recovery in
black, flows 1-13 with flow boundaries, flow type (aa, transitional, pahoehoe), rock type, density (measured on
full rounds with the shipboard GRAPE Gamma Ray Attenuation Porosity Evaluator), compressional wave
velocity Vp measured on half rounds, magnetic intensity after 30 mA alternating field demagnetization, and
susceptibility.
369
Fig. 6. Density-velocity correlation for volcanic lava flows in the NE Atalantic. Data were taken from log and
core measurements from holes 553A, 642E, 917A and 990A as indicated. The densities of Hole 990A were
measured on full round cores whereas the velocities were measured on the split cores (halfrounds). Note the
regression lines all lying close together.
370
C.J. BOCKER
E T AL.
Fa ~ ,--
0a o ~
~'=
~ Z ~
N~
~ ' ~
~ ~ "~ r.~ c.~
< ~ , o =
~
~, ~ . ~
o ~
9K ~
~
~
g
~oo
,~-
GG,2
, ,...~
o ~ ' ~
0a
~.~
~LC
.o ~=a: ~ =
~-~ . ~
m
~.~
o<
go~eo~
o ~ ~<.o
.-~
~ ~
~ , ~ o
9
"
GI
371
372
That means, for example, that the peak development is more significant at shallow water
conditions than at dry ground conditions during
the flow emplacement.
In all flows shown in Fig. 7a and b, the central
massive basalt is characterized by zone III with
highest values in density and velocity but lowest
values in gamma ray and magnetic properties.
Obviously, the magnetic properties are affected
by the alteration thus resulting in enhanced
values in the top and bottom zones.
Comparing the curves of the four holes there
seem to be two groups with a high correlation
between the corresponding curves of density and
velocity for Holes 990A and 553A and a similar
correlation with a relatively higher variation in
velocity for the corresponding curves of Holes
642E and 917A.
Conclusion
The key to understanding variations in physical
properties of basaltic lava flows are the intraflow
vesicle sizes, shapes and distributions and the
alteration stages of the flow tops and bottoms.
The comparison of different physical properties
of volcanic flows in the NE Atlantic shows that
they can be clearly attributed to four characteristic flow zones (zones I-IV) with changing
vesicularity (Fig 3). This holds not only for the
comparison of corresponding log measurements
but also for continuous core measurements. It
has been shown that the core measurements
associated with a high recovery are as well suited
for the differentiation of a volcanic pile and
intraflow structures as the log measurements.
Although the flow structure can also be seen in
FMS (Formation Microscanner) images (Cambray 1996), the complete physical structure can
be derived only by downhole and core measurements.
As the structure of a single lava flow depends
on many influences (i.e. distance from the
volcanic vent (grain size distribution), cooling
history, flow thickness, growth and rise of gas
bubbles, sea level air pressure), log interpretation in volcanic flows may give help in answering
questions related to these topics. It seems that
the magnetic properties play a special role in
finding these answers. Obviously, the magnetic
properties, remanence and susceptibility, are not
only suited to differentiate intraflow structures
but also to distinguish between aa (fine-grained)
and pahoehoe (coarse-grained) flow types.
Probably the reason for this is the different
cooling history of aa and pahoehoe flows,
resulting in different grain size distributions also
for the magnetic particles and thus in different
References
AUBELE, J. C., CRUMPLER, L. S. & ELSTON, W. E.
(1988). Vesicle zonation and vertical structure of
basalt flows. Journal of l/oleanology and Geothermal Research, 35, 349-374.
AUDUNSSON,H., LEVI,S. & HODGES,F. 1992. Magnetic
property zonation in a thick lava flow. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 97, 4349-4360.
BUCKLEY, D. K. & OLIVER, D. 1990. Geophysical
logging of water exploration boreholes in the
Deccan Traps, Central India. In: HURST, A.,
LOVELL,M. A. & MORTON,A. C. (eds) Geological
application of wireline logs. Geological Society
Special Publications No. 48, 153-161.
CAMBRAY, H. 1996. Structures within Hole 917A,
Southeast Greenland rifted margin. In: SAUNDERS,
A. D, LARSEN,H. C., WISE, W., et al., Proceedings
of ODP Scientific Results, 152. College Station,
TX (Ocean Drilling Program).
Cox, K. G. 1980. A model for flood basalt volcanism.
Journal of Petrolology, 21, 629-650.
COFFIN, M. F. & ELDHOLM,O. 1992. Volcanism and
continental break-up: a global complication of
large igneous provinces. In: STOREY, B. C.,
ALABASTER,T. & PANKHURST,R. J. (eds) Magmatism and the causes of continental break-up.
Geological Society Special Publications No. 68,
17-30.
&
1993. Grol3e Eruptivprovinzen.
373
374
1 & L. E W E R T 2
during ODP Leg 159 was to assess the sedimentary and deformation processes resulting
from the different stages of continental break-up and related transform tectonism. In view of
the structural importance of the leg, integration of logging and core data is important to
help understand the main tectonic and deformation events that occurred.
The effect of the transform deformation can be seen in physical properties data, for
instance the porosity data derived from index properties measurements. Major breaks in
porosity are associated with the tectonized lower Cretaceous and Cenozoic boundary, a
trend also reflected in the P-wave velocity measurements. At each site, core and well log data
show the presence of a major unconformity between the Cretaceous and Cenozoic, marked
by an offset in porosity, density and P-wave data. The physical properties of log data are
also heterogeneous, reflecting variations in consolidation, age and lithology.
Another interesting aspect covered by core-log integration was the structural relationship
within the sediments. As well as the direct measurements made on cores, in situ structural
measurements have been obtained using the Formation MicroScanner (FMS; Mark of
Schlumberger) logging tool in two of the holes. The measurements cover the Eocene to
Turonian-upper Santonian limestones. Bedding planes dip predominantly towards NWNNW and show an increase with depth which can be interpreted to be the result of steady
subsidence of the Deep Ivorian Basin. Break-outs and fracturing were also observed. Breakout occurrences depend on sediment type and their axes are perpendicular to the maximum
compressive horizontal stress east-northeast west-southwest. Fracturing occurs as normal
and reverse microfaults, with dispersion of dips and azimuth directions in these zones. The
presence of fault zones are also correlated with changes in the physical properties of the
sediments.
GON(TALVES,C. A. & EWERTL. 1998. Development of the Cote D'Ivoire-Ghana transform margin:
evidence from the integration of core and wireline log data In: HARVEY,P. K. LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 375-389
375
376
Fig. 1. Location (a) and structural (b) maps of the area surveyed during ODP Leg 159 showing the four sites
drilled during the cruise (adapted from Mascle et al. 1996).
Site
960
10
20
c~CPl
30
I
40
~m
IIA
50
-lllzllBI
~60
u
80
Con.
90
--~IVAZ_I
"l'ur~
2enorn
100
110
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column for Sites 959 and 960 with
lithologic units along the geological time.
Laboratory
measurements
377
378
Table 1. Standard Schlumberger tool strings used during ODP Leg 159 operations
Hole
Tool string
Depth (mbsf)
959D
QUAD
FMS
DITE/HLDT/CNT-G/NGTC/TLT
DITE/HLDT/CNT-G/SDT/NGTC
DITE/HLDT/CNT-G/SDT/NGTC
FMS/GPIT/NGTC
GLT
QUAD
SEISMIC
STRATIGRAPHY
FMS
DITE/HLDT*/CNT-G/NGTC/TLT**
FMS/GPIT/NGTC
main: 354.5-173.7
960A
960C
* HLDT
** TLT
DITE:
HLDT:
CNT-G:
SDT:
NGTC:
TLT:
FMS:
GST:
AACT:
GPIT:
379
Fig. 4. Core porosity, density log-derived porosity and neutron porosity log in Hole 959D. Caliper and gamma
ray curves for the same interval as well as clay content from XRD analysis are also plotted.
380
Fig. 6. Core porosity and neutron porosity log in Hole 960A. Density and gamma ray curves for the same interval
as well as clay content from XRD analysis are also plotted.
osity values observed below 740 mbsf (Fig. 4)
can be due to the hydrogen concentration
associated with the shale matrix in the black
claystone (lithologic Unit III).
Hole 960A presents density and porosity
measurements for both core and log data
between 50 and 350 mbsf. In this case, a poor
correlation is observed between the absolute
values of both measurements (Fig. 6). Breaks in
log porosity and log density are observed at 105
mbsf (top of lithologic subunit IIA), at 145 mbsf
(within subunit IIB) and at 165 mbsf (between
lithologic subunits IIB and III). A major break
in core density and core porosity measurements
is observed at 185 mbsf, which corresponds to
the unconformity between upper Cretaceous and
Cenozoic (lithologic subunits III and IVA)
(Mascle et al. 1996). Observe the extremely high
counts for gamma ray at this depth. Here, a
highly condensed, 23 cm thick, section of micrit
claystone representing the entire upper Santonian to upper Palaeocene is capped by a
phosphatic hard ground. The deposition of such
an extremely condensed sequence indicates a
depositional environment that was probably
swept by currents with rare respites that allowed
sediment accumulation.
Velocity
The sonic velocity log at Hole 959D is of good
quality for sections exhibiting good hole condi-
.0
vE
381
Velocity
55o
550
6oo
60o
65O
65O
700
700
750
750
800
8O0
o~
IIC
~:~
e-" ~
|
ca.
(D 850
850
9OO
9OO
950
950
lOOO
1000
1050
1050
lO
15
inches
20
III /
1.5
2.5
e~.
E<
Km/sec
Fig. 7. Core velocity and log velocity in Hole 959D. The caliper curve and the stratigraphic column are also
plotted.
3"5/I
/
~+
31
~--25 L
"~
+
~
+core
++~
- [iql-~
! Hamilton's model ~
I
1.5 ~.......
10
. Wyllie's model
Raymer'model
s
~"---.~..L T - - , ~
20
30
40
50
60
-..
70
Porosity (%)
382
K=pVp 2- 4/3 #,
where # is the shear modulus. K can also be
obtained using
K= Ks (Kf + Q)/(K~ + Q),
where factor Q is given by
i"1
"E:
:3
Bulk Modulus
Shear Modulu,,
550
550 I ' ~
383
<
'
of
600
| =
600 ~
650
650
UdI~L
~~~+~7
700
75O
E
e~
700
750 [
~+4"
**~,
80o
850
@@
/o
812.3
~,.-~
'~176
Z++
IIC
650
900
~;~.
~.~
g_g,
r'~
9O0
95O
1000
1043.3
96ol
+~
1000 I
1050
IVA ~
1050 I
I
i
gila
IVB Unknown?~
2 4 6 8 10
(dyne/cm 2 x 1010)
3 4 5 6 7 8
(dyne/cm2 x 1010)
Fig. 9. Calculated shear (#) and bulk modulus (K) for Hole 959D. Note the sharp increase in rigidity within
Eocene sediments associated with an angular unconformity. The stratigraphic column for Hole 959D is also
shown.
(a)
~
(e)
(c)
10
10
+ + + ~+#
IK-~......
,21
~-+
++
. ~ ~*:~t-
5
1,4
1.6
1,8
2.0
2.2
2.4
"-
~ x
2.6
(b)
7.0
"5
++
5. 5
go~
4.5
4.0
1,4
+++
30
40
60
10 12 14
16
18
20
9.0
6.5
50
(d)
7.0
6,0
20
8.0
6.0
7.0
'u F
5.5
%.
60
+~'+
+.
5,0
5.0
4.5
,, I
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Density
(g/cc)
4.0
2.4
2.6
20
30
40
50
60
Porosity
(%)
4.0 i
+
]
I ....
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Densityx Velocity2
(dyne/cm2 x 1010)
Fig. 10. Cross plots of bulk (K) and shear (#) modulus with: (a) and (b) density (p), (c) and (d) porosity (q~), and
2
(e) and (f) density velocity.~ (Vp).
384
Fig. 11. A 1.5 m interval in Hole 959D showing the FMS image and corresponding core section. Layers dip 5~ to
10~ to the Northwest.
size, porosity, cementation, induration, mineralogy as well as borehole size, shape and surface
features. For rocks of similar mineralogy,
cementation and fluid type in a uniform borehole, the pixel tone on the FMS images is
observed to be a function of grain size. However,
prior to obtaining an image of good quality,
data must undergo extensive processing.
Schlumberger (1989) and ODP (1991) present a
complete description of the processing steps
needed for obtaining an image representative
of the formation resistivity.
FMS data were recorded in three holes during
Leg 159. Due to unstable hole conditions
(enlarged holes) and consequently bad contact
between the pads and the borehole wall, the
quality of the FMS images in Hole 962D is poor
and the data were not used in this work.
In Hole 960C, the FMS images are of
moderate quality. A large part of the logged
interval is affected by poor pad contact caused
by irregular hole size. Between 351-341, 292277, 218-200 and 195-175 mbsf, hole conditions
385
Fig. 12. Dip and azimuth measurements for the interval between 660--780 mbsf in Hole 959D, including
histograms with variations in the measurements.
386
Fig. 14. Left: intense calcite veins set in dolomitic limestone of subunit IVB (Site 959). Centre: sketch of a set of
conjugate normal microfaults formed prior to tilting in laminated siltstones in Site 960 (unit III). A reverse
microfault and calcite infills are also present along the fault planes. Right: a typical subvertical microfault
structure in the black claystones of unit III (Site 959) is shown.
387
Fig. 15. FMS image showing a break-out ocurrence in Hole 959D. The conductive open fracture observed here is
about 35 to 40 cm long with a strike aproximately N-S.
Discussion
The earliest record of sedimentation recovered
during Leg 159 is of Albian siliciclastic sequences, which are believed to have formed in
deep, tectonically generated basins. Mascle et al.
(1996) show that this section is characterized by
a progression from intra-continental basins,
comprising lacustrines sediments, to marine
basins comprising both mixed siliciclastic and
pelagic sediments. The cores from Sites 959 and
960 have a range of deformation styles that can
be summarized by slumps, normal and reverse
microfaults, microfolds and veins. Although
sediments from many stratigraphic levels may
show deformation, it is noteworthy that the
most intense concentration of faults, veins and
folds are found towards the end of each site.
388
Conclusion
The objective of this study was to evaluate:
(1) the reliability of both types of measurements;
(2) the extent to which the physical properties
of the sediments are controlled by the
tectonism;
(3) the consistency of the structural features in
the cores with downhole Formation MicroScanner (FMS) images which helped to
interpret the development of the C6te
d'Ivoire-Ghana margin.
Comparison of in situ wireline log and core
measured physical properties assessed the reliability of either data type. Because the two data
types investigate different volumes of rock and
use different techniques to measure the same
physical properties, differences can be expected
in the results. In Sites 959 and 960, however,
both data types agree reasonably well. Differences occur mainly between porosity from the
neutron log data and from cores, where the
presence of clay affects the former. The velocity
log is affected by hole conditions. This is the case
of Hole 960A, where enlarged hole sections
affected most of the velocity data.
Porosity was the dominant control in acoustic
properties at Site 959. Therefore, reliable determination of porosity was important in computing velocities. Compressional wave velocity,
density, bulk modulus and rigidity are all closely
linked to porosity and display the same gradual
compaction effect and high frequency variation
as porosity. A computed velocity log, based on
measured core porosity, core density, core
velocity and on the theoretical equations of
Gassman (1951), is almost identical to the
velocity log in Hole 959D. The only exception
to the overall dominance of porosity in affecting
acoustic properties is the increase in clay content
within the black claystone (lithologic unit III).
In the late Cretaceous, a thick sequence of
organic-rich black claystone (high clay content)
accumulated in the Deep Ivorian Basin, decreasing the density contrast and increasing the
velocity contrast, compared with the effect of
porosity alone. Also, a hiatus is seen to have
affected the results in the Palaeocene. Empirical
relations of velocity to porosity fit our data
References
ARCHIE, G. E. 1942. The electrical resistivity log as an
aid in determining some reservoir characteristics.
Transactions of the American Institute of Mineraloguy, Metallurgy and Petrelogy, 146, 54-63.
BASILE, C., MASCLE, J., SAGE, F., LAMARCHE, G.
PONTOISE, B. 1996. Pre-cruise and site surveys: a
synthesis of marine geological and geophysical
data on the C6te d'Ivoire-Ghana Transform
Margin. In: MASCLE,J., LOHMANN,G. P., CLIFT,
P. D. et al. (eds) Proceedings ODP Initial Reports,
159, College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).
CARLSON, R. L., GANGI, A. F. & SNOW, K. R. 1986.
Empirical reflection traveltime vs. depth and
velocity vs depth functions for deep-sea sediment
column. J. Geophysical Research, 91, 8249-8266.
CLAVIER, C., COATES, G. t~ DUMANOIR,J. 1977. The
theoretical and experimental basis for 'Dual
Water' model for the interpretation of shaley
sands. Proceedings fo the Society of Petroleum
389
structure, and mineralogy) and downhole geophysical data (electrical resistivity, natural gamma ray, dual laterolog fracture porosity, and
borehole wall images recorded with the formation microscanner or 'FMS') in the uppermost
volcanic section of DSDP/ODP Hole 504B,
down to a depth of 1000 mbsf. By using a
multi-scalar approach (i.e. from submillimetric
to metric scale) we have focused our study on
highly resistive massive basalts and intervals
with the highest values of fracture porosity from
downhole measurements, in order to investigate
the relationships between fracturating and alteration in the upper oceanic crust.
At Site 504, the oceanic crust shows the effect
of heterogeneous alteration related to the
circulation of seawater in the uppermost volcanic section and upwelling hydrothermal fluids in
the transition zone and dykes (Alt et al. 1985,
TARTAROTTI,P., AYADI, M., PEZARD, P. A., LAVERNE, C. & DE LAROUZIERE,F. D. 1998. Multi-scalar
structure at DSDP/ODP Site 504, Costa Rica Rift, II: fracturing and alteration. An integrated study
from core, downhole measurements and borehole wall images In: HARVEY, P. K. & LOVELL,M. A. (eds)
Core-Log Integration, Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 136, 391-412
391
392
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
Basement lithostratigraphy
The volcanic section drilled at Site 504 is capped
by a 274.5 m-thick sedimentary layer and extends to a depth of about 846 mbsf (Cann et al.
1983; Adamson 1985). This 571.5m thick section, which includes the basement drilled during
Leg 69, Leg 70 and the top 10m recovered
during Leg 83 (Cann et al. 1983; Anderson et al.
1985) consists of intercalated pillow lavas, pillow
breccias and hyaloclastites, massive units (flows
or sills), thin flows, breccias, and minor dykes
(Adamson 1985; Fig. 1). Massive units usually
give long lengths of full-diameter cores, and may
have a thickness of up to 25m, although a
thickness of 15 to 17m is more common.
Electrical resistivity data suggest that core
recovery in this section is biased toward massive
units, and give an estimate of the pillow basalt
plus breccia percentage as high as 70% (Pezard
et al. 1992; Ayadi et al. 1998).
The transition zone from the volcanic section
to the underlying sheeted dykes and massive
units extends from 846 to 1055 mbsf. Dykes are
recognized by the occurrence of a fine-grained/
chilled rock adjacent to a coarser host rock. The
rocks of the transition zone are represented by
pillows and dykes that are commonly fractured
and brecciated and show a pervasive hydrothermal alteration (Alt et al. 1985, 1986, 1989).
The top of the transition zone is characterized by
more abundant pillows and breccias than its
bottom, where dykes and massive units are more
common. In the upper transition zone, rock
alteration is very similar to that in the upper
volcanic section. From 898 mbsf downward,
alteration abrubtly changes and the rocks are
more recrystallized. A stockwork-like sulfide
mineralization (Honnorez et al. 1985) occurs
between 900 and 920 mbsf, within the pillow/
dyke transition. This zone consists of highly
fractured pillow lavas with abundant breccias
393
Fig. 1. Basement lithostratigraphy of the studied crustal section at DSDP/ODP Hole 504B with location of the
main brecciated intervals (br). (Modified after Adamson 1985).
Core observations
Structural features (macro-scale)
Before the O D P Legs 140 and 148 that drilled
the deepest part of Hole 504B (Dick et al. 1992;
Alt et al. t993) specialist structural studies were
not standard procedure at this hole. Unpublished fracture data are reported in Adamson
(1985). During DSDP Legs 69, 70, and 83,
numbers of fractures were counted on oriented
core in order to have an evaluation of the extent
of fracturing in different units (Cann et al. 1983).
However, no measurements of fracture and/or
vein orientation were made during these cruises.
According to such fracture density estimate, an
394
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
FRACTURING
AND
ALTERATION
AT
SITE
504
395
"~
,,-k o
"9
C~
r~ r 3
,.o ,~.~
.=_D~
{,-4
tr'3
.m
~D
c.l
,'No~
e,i .= .~ N
9, -
396
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
u~
ml'
pt dip
,,270 o.
beddi
plat
archive half relative to local reference coordinates, i.e. the core barrel reference frame. The
plane normal to the axis of the borehole is
referred to as the horizontal plane. On this
plane, a 360 ~ net is used with a pseudo-north
(000 ~ at the bottom line of the working half
(Fig. 3), i.e. with a pseudo-south (180 ~ at the
bottom line of the archive half that we used for
measuring. The split surface of the core, therefore, lies in a plane striking 090o-270 ~ and
dipping vertically. Dip direction (azimuth) of the
structural features in any core piece could be
corrected to geographic coordinates using palaeomagnetic measurements, and dip values
could be corrected to true vertical if the hole
deviation to vertical is taken into account.
Corrections of the dip direction values to
geographic coordinates from palaeomagnetic
measurements are not available for the upper
portion of Hole 504B. Correction to vertical can
be neglected because the hole deviation from
vertical has been estimated to be generally under
5.5 ~ with values under 2.0 ~ from 600 to 1400
mbsf (Alt et al. 1993), which is within the
accuracy in determining the dip angles on core.
Depth values of fractures, veins and breccias
were computed with the help of a computerized
program proposed by Agrinier & Agrinier
(1994). This program is based on a model
assuming that the individual probability density
of sampling during coring is uniform, and that
the relative position of the rock pieces are
preserved in the core. Depth values obtained
by this method were compared with those
obtained by the DSDP/ODP conventional system (Alt et al. 1993). A difference of the order of
10cm was evaluated between the two methods,
397
Fig. 4. Distribution of planes density (number of plane per metre of core) derived from cores (measured raw data).
(a) Total core planes density. (b) Open fractures and veins density. (e) vein aperture.
398
P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
R' ( A B ) = A A ' (RN)+A'B (RN+I)
(1)
399
400
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
feldspar is very scarce (one occurrence). Phillipsite mainly occurs in veins and as glass replacement. Celadonite and celadonite-smectite
mixtures are much more abundant than phillipsite and are restricted to black and red alteration
halos which are typical of oceanic basalts altered
at low temperatures in oxidizing conditions (Alt
et al. 1996b; Belarouchi et al. 1996; Laverne et
al. 1996).
Downhole measurements
Downhole measurements of rock physical properties provide a continuous and m-scale description of crustal structures. The extensive
downhole measurements program conducted at
DSDP/ODP Site 504 over the years has produced a comprehensive dataset that may be
compared with structural and petrographic data
obtained from cores.
Electrical
resistivity
401
.~
~=t5
....O
e'~
.,...,
b-Y:,~
r~
3~
tt~
~ ' ~
o~
9 ~ . ~
..~
~ ~
402
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
24, 27, 30, 34, 37, 64, and Unit 73 (Fig. 1) and
correspond to depth intervals where the highest
recovery percentages were obtained (Fig. 8a).
Unit 2D is considered as the upper limit of an
underpressured aquifer located within Layer 2A.
One exception is massive Unit 9 that shows low
resistivity values (Fig. 8b). Other massive and
thin basaltic layers have lower resistivity than
the thick massive units listed above. These thin
units are Units 11, 17, 32, 44, 46, and Unit 49
(Figs 1 & 8b). In the resistivity profile of Fig. 8b,
spikes of relatively high resistivity also occur at
around 280, 400, 765, and 850 mbsf. These
spikes correspond to thin flows (at 280, 400 and
765 mbsf) and to dykes (850 mbsf) as defined
from core observations (Fig. 1). Another high
resistivity unit of intrusive origin is located at
898 mbsf (Fig. 8b). This unit likely corresponds
to DSDP Unit 57 that caps the stockwork-like
section discovered during Leg 83 (Anderson et
al. 1985).
A comparison between the electrical resistivity
profile and the mineralogical zonation in Hole
504B has suggested that certain low-porosity
massive units appear to constitute either permeability barriers or alteration boundaries (Pezard
& Anderson 1989).
Porosity evaluation
t~
403
0
0
..~ ~ " ~ - ~
_
~-~
.~ .~
-
,~
.~ .~, .~ .~ .~
~
,,....,
.~.
~+~
+~~+~ +~ +~r~
~ +
-'~
-~
.--
%
0
~ - ~~
r~
ZZZZZZ
r~
Z
0b~
0
0
a,
<
c'~
"~" w-~ ~
r~
or
~'~ ~
404
P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
Fig. 9. Composite profiles of geophysical logs and mineralogy log from the studied section. (a) Recovery
percentage. (b) Electrical resistivity, on the left, and DLL-derived fracture porosity, on the right. Zones from 1 to
10 are reported. (c) Natural radioactivity profile, on the left; distribution of K-rich minerals and secondary
minerals derived from petrographic observation in thin sections, on the centre and right. (d) Distribution of red
and black alteration halos derived from visual observation on cores and petrographic observations.
405
Similarly, natural radioactivity minima corresponds to both VFP highs and VFP lows (Fig.
9c). The lowest GR values are commonly
located at the boundary between domains of
contrasting fracture orientation, e.g. at 322.4
mbsf (top of the aquifer), 405 mbsf (top of Zone
3), 467.5 mbsf (top of Zone 4), 510.2 mbsf
(bottom of Zone 4), 544.66 mbsf.
406
P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
contrast with other zones which are characterized by high VFP values. Zone 2 corresponds to
the aquifer and mainly consists of pillows with
abundant breccias and rubble. This interval
represents an extensively fractured and brecciated section, as suggested by the presence of
brecciated samples (Table 1). Zone 3 is characterized by two main peaks of VFP. In this
interval, a very low core recovery (from 10 to
21%) was obtained, probably due to the
abundant breccias. The VFP spikes at 411 and
419 mbsf likely also corresponds to brecciated
levels, as suggested by the occurrence of breccias
at about 407 mbsf and 421 mbsf in cores 19R-2
and 21R-1 (according to the DSDP nomenclature), respectively. This pillowed section, extending from core 19R-1 to the top of core 21R1, includes a massive layer (core 20R-l, massive
Unit 9?), interpreted as a probable single cooling
unit (Cann et al. 1983) that may account for the
VFP 'low' located at 413.9 mbsf between two
VFP spikes (Fig. 8c). Zone 4 corresponds to a
section consisting of pillows and breccias. The
basalts are frequently cut by a network of veins
filled with dark green minerals (smectites) which
may be associated with breccias. VFP peaks and
brecciated levels appear as related (i.e. VFP
spikes located at 478, 480, and 485 mbsf related
to breccias in cores 28R-2, 28R-3, 29R-1,
respectively). From core 29R-1 down, a more
massive basalt recovered in core 29R-2 can be
related to the FP low located at about 490 mbsf.
No core was recovered down to core 32R-1
(507.5 mbsf). This gap corresponds to an
interval with VFP peaks at 498 and 505 mbsf.
Zone 5 is a long section (from 564 to 622 mbsf)
consisting of pillows and breccias in the upper
part, massive basalts in the middle, and breccias
in the lower part. Breccias are also reported in
this depth interval by Alt et al. (1996c). Zone 5
includes a highly fractured zone, located at 570
mbsf, as inferred by FMS data (Pezard et al.
1997; Ayadi et al. 1988).
Massive Unit 27 is located in the middle of
Zone 5 (below the fractured zone at 570 mbsf)
and is characterized by low VFP values. Two
VFP spikes at 569.35 and 617.2 mbsf may
account for the occurrence of rubbles and
breccias in cores 38R-2 and 44R-2, respectively.
Zone 6 is made of massive basalts in the upper
part, and pillows with breccias in the remaining
part. The two VFP peaks occurring in this
interval may be explained by the presence of
breccias in cores 53R-1, 54R-1, and 56R-1. In
these cores, brecciated basalts are frequently
associated with pillows intersected by networks
of veins filled with smectite. Zone 7 is a short
crustal section located at about 730 mbsf and
407
FMS Planes
Unit 2D
50
3 5 [ ! ! ! i ! ! i i 7 ! ! i ! ! !
. . . .
: :
Ii~
: : :
:!:
4o ! ...... !FF?!-':
}
i
.......
35
45
55
65
75
85
[5
35
45
Dip( ~)
65
75
FMS Planes
Unit 24
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i ! : ! ! i i i i ! ! ! ] ! !
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
501
1
3o ..i...i-...i..i i i i iZ-.T..!..i.i.!.-.i-.. I
20
CorePlan~
Unit~
2S
'
15
Dip (~
35
:
: i i i i
20--.i-!-i-i----i---!..-!.--]---i--.i i ! ! i i
: :
::is
i i i l l i i i i i ! i i i l l
'?Fi"?pFzii""!Fi!i-ii
~ i i
i
i i :, i
i i . i
::.
[..i..-i...i........i-.[..:....~:..~....!
!
]
i
! :
30 i-t
"77TF!7"77777!77~1
: : : : z ; : : : : : : :
z~s--!---T--!---F-~---!-.--!---!--.:-.-T.-i--T-I----~---!--- !
~ ; i i i i i i : ~ i ! ! i i i
10 ...... ! - ' ? !
! -!-?-!!?i
' i ........ ? ? " ~ ....
~! i 7 ~
i! :.[!
20
10
o
5
15
25
35
45
~ p (o)
55
65
75
85
15
25
35
45
55
Dip( c )
65
75
85
65
75
g5
Unit 27
35
5O
40
i ;iiii
i'
:: 9 i-i
~o
:: :.
0
5
15
25
351) p ('4s
~
55
65
7s
85
15
25
Core Planes
Unit 34
35
! i
i !
i ! i ! !
if:
55
FMS Planes
Unit 34
i
~ i
~ :
5~
35
45
1)ip f'}
: : : : : : !
:: ::
!::!
:;
: !
25
35
:-
,/
.. ::
"~
/ /
i/
55
65
0
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
Dip (~
15
45
75
85
Dip(~)
Fig. 10. Histograms of dip values of core total planes and planes derived from FMS images from massive units
(corrected data).
408
P. TARTAROTTI ET AL.
Conclusions
A set of geophysical logs (electrical resistivity
measurements and derived fracture porosity,
natural radioactivity, and fractures mapped
from high-resolution electrical images) carried
out in D S D P / O D P Hole 504B have been
compared with lithological and mineralogical
data as determined in rock cores and in thin
sections. By integrating core and log data, we
analysed the structure of the upper oceanic crust
from the m to the sub-mm scale. This multiscalar study points out the following results.
The upper oceanic crust in Hole 504B (from
top of the basement to 1000 mbsf) consists of
low resistivity-high porosity layers, mostly
corresponding to pillow lavas associated with
breccias and rubble material, alternating with
high resistivity-low porosity layers, which
mainly correspond to massive flows. The high
fracture porosity signal (mainly vertical) correlates well with the occurrence of breccias in
pillows. This means that breccia may strongly
affect the electrical signal during downhole log.
The mineral composition of clasts and matrix in
409
410
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
References
ADAMSON, A. C. 1985. Basement lithostratigraphy,
Deep Sea Drilling Project Hole 504B. In: ANDERSON, R. N., HONNOREZ, J., BECKER, K. et al. (eds)
Initial Reports of the DSDP, 83, Washington,
(US. Government Printing Office), 121-127.
AGAR, S. M. 1990. Fracture evolution in the upper
ocean crust: evidence from DSDP hole 504B. In:
KNIPE, R. J. & RUTTEd, E. H. (eds). DeJormation
Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics, Geological
Society, London, Special Publications, 54, 41-50.
- 1991. Microstructural evolution of a deformation zone in the upper oceanic crust: evidence
from DSDP Hole 504B. Journal o f Geodynamics,
13, 119-140.
1994. Rheological evolution of the oceanic
crust: a microstructural view. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99, 3175-3200.
AGRINIER, P. & AGRINIER, B. 1994. A p r o p o s de la
conaissance de la profondeur fi laquelle vos
8chantillons sont collect6s dans les forages.
Comptes rendus de l' AcadSmie des Sciences, Paris,
t. 318, 1615-1622.
ALT, J. C., LAVERNE, C. & MUEHLENBACHS,K. 1985.
Alteration of the upper oceanic crust: mineralogy
and processes in DSDP Hole 504B, Leg 83. In:
ANDERSON, R. N., HONNOREZ,J., BECKER,K. et al.
(eds) Initial Reports of the DSDP, 83, Washington, US Government Printing Office, 217 248.
, HONNOREZ,J., LAVERNE,C. & EMMERMANN,R.
1986. Hydrothermal alteration of a 1-km section
through the upper oceanic crust, Deep Sea
Drilling Project Hole 504B: The mineralogy,
chemistry and evolution of basalt-seawater interactions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 8 0 , 217
229.
, ANDERSON, T. F., BONNELL, L. & MUEHLENBACHS, K. 1989. The mineralogy, chemistry and
stable isotopic composition of hydrothermally
altered sheeted dikes, DSDP Hole 504B, Leg
111. In: BECKER, K., SAKA1, H. et al. (eds)
Proceeding of the Ocean Drilling Program,
Scientific Results, 111, 27-40.
- - ,
KINOSHITA, H., STOKKING, L. B. et al. 1993.
Proceeding of the ODP, Initial Reports, 148,
College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program).
411
412
P. TARTAROTTI E T AL.
Index
Page numbers in italics refer to Figures or Tables
accuracy in measurement 43-4
acoustic images 250
aeolian sandstone resistivity log 49-50
aluminium and clay concentration 87-9
aluminium clay tool (ACT) 119, 134, 347
anhydrite in lithology logging 92
array sonic tool (SDT) 347-8
artificial neural networks (ANN) 110-12
role in fracture analysis
method 112
results 112-13
see also neural networks
As-Sarah
sandstone analysis 11
porosity-permeability data 14
up-scaling 12
Atlantic Ocean floor
basalt flow character 371-2
Cote d'Ivoire-Ghana margin transform
method of analysis 377
results
density 378-9
formation microscanner 382-6
P wave velocity 380-1
porosity 377-8
results discussed 387-8
lithostratigraphy 365-71
seaward dipping reflector series 363
Australian offshore
Queensland Trough
microresistivity imaging 264-5
sedimentary sequence 264
standard core plug measurement 265-6
Townville Trough
microresistivity imaging 266-7
problems of scale 269-70
sedimentary sequence 266
standard core plug measurement 267-8
azimuthal resistivity imager (ARI) 281
Bahama Bank core-log integration
methods 286-7
results 287-90
results discussed 292-4
basalts of Atlantic Ocean floor
flow character 371-2
lithostratigraphy 365-71
subaerial features 363
biscuiting 278
Borrowdale Volcanic Group 98
rock properties
causes of variation 107
mean formation velocity 100, 101, 104
Bouma sequence microresistivity image 264-5
box plots 5-6, 103, 104, 106
Brazil offshore
porosity/permeability calculations 145-6
Vp/Vs relationship 141
Brent Group 41, 41-2, 251,257
see also Tarbert Formation
Brockram Breccia 99, 100
bulk density
methods of analysis 71,330, 377
results 378-9
see also density
Bunter Sandstone complex impedance test 157
414
INDEX
core recovery
problems 277-8
rate 129
core-log integration problems 273-4
application to ODP programme
methods 286-7
results
Bahama Bank 287 90
Costa Rica Rift 405-9
Mediterranean Sea 290-2
results discussed 292-4
core acquisition 277-8
depth assignment 275-7
handling errors 348-50
heave and stretch 278-9
improving accuracy 279-81
parametric differences 277
sample disparity 274-5
correlation coefficients 40
Costa Rica Rift DSDP/ODP programme 48
downhole logging
equipment 346-8
error handling 348-50
procedure 345-6
drilling site and sampling 342-4
ocean crust alteration study
alteration effects 391-2
core analysis methods
bore correlation 396-8
breccia and rubble 394-6
fractures and veins 394
mineralogy 399-400
core analysis results
breccia and rubble 398-9
fractures and veins 398
mineralogy 400
lithostratigraphy 392-3
logs
electrical resistivity 400 2
formation microscanning image 404-5
gamma ray density 405
porosity 402-4
wireline-core integration 405-9
ocean crust fault study
downhole measurements
methods 312-15
results 316-17
fracture patterns 315-16
ocean crust fault patterns
fluid circulation 319-20, 321,323
fractures 319, 320-1,321-3
ocean crust stratigraphy study
ocean crust accretion 306-8
pillow lavas 298-9
structural setting 312
volcanic lithology 299-300
volcanic stratigraphy
downhole methods
INDEX
dual laterolog 300
formation microscanner 300-1
results 301-6
ocean crust volcanism study
physical methods
fracture density 350
porosity/permeability 350
resistivity 350, 351
summary of lithologies 358-9
visual methods
breccia recognition 353-6
flow recognition 351-3
pillow recognition 356-8
Cote d'Ivoire-Ghana margin transform
method of analysis 377
results
density 378-9
formation microscanner 382-6
P wave velocity 380-1
porosity 377-8
results discussed 387-8
crack alignment
numerical modelling 175-9
role in seismic anisotropy 173-4
method of measurement 174
results 179
results discussed 179-82
see also microcrack analysis
cross plots in correlation 3-5
luminance v. bulk density 21, 22
luminance v. porosity 22
cross-scaling
application of 12-13
defined 10-11
deep induction tool (ILD)
resolving power 261
size of sample 274
degassing 278
density
clay minerals 118
use in deconvolution 120-1
density logging techniques
application of linear perturbation 162-3
through drill pipe 163-4
X-ray measurement 17
density logs
Atlantic Ocean floor 366, 367, 368, 370
Cote d'Ivoire-Ghana transform margin
methods of analysis 377
results 378-9
Chaunoy Formation 199, 202
Wessex Basin
methods of analysis 71, 74
results 72, 73
results discussed 78
density-porosity cross plot 105
415
density-velocity correlation, basalt 369
depth recording problems in logging and drilling
275-7
differential strain analysis
method 186-7
results 188-90
results discussed
microcrack system 193-4
stress orientation 192-3
theory 185-6
discontinuity analysis
methods 108
results 108-9
doggers 41, 42
dolomite
Chaunoy Formation 206-10
recognition in wireline logs 330-2
Dorset coast 65-7
density survey
methods 71, 74
results 72, 73
results discussed 78
gamma ray survey
methods 67-8, 71
results 69, 70
results discussed 74-8
drill pipe stretch 279
drilling depth v. wireline depth 275
DSDP Hole 504B see Costa Rica Rift
DSDP Leg 81 basalt lithostratigraphy 366-8
dual laterolog (DLL) 300, 312, 347, 400-2
effective porosity model 216-17
association with total porosity model
conductivity 218-19
fluid saturation 219
formation resistivity factor 218
grain density 217
porosity 217-18
shale volume fraction 216-17
role in quality assurance 219-22
'effective' property values 9
elastic constants 141-2, 145
electrical conductivity see conductivity
electrical double layer 148
electrical formation factor 46-7
electrical image logs
case study of Tarbert Formation 240-1
facies analysis 244-6
sedimentary history 246-7
sedimentary structures 242-3
compared with cores 238-9
equipment 237-8
sedimentary feature recognition 239-40
electrical resistivity log
aeolian sandstone 49-50
Costa Rica Rift 400-2
416
INDEX
elemental analysis
by chemical analysis 83-4
by ECS and RST 81-3
use in clay content measurement
application 89-91
theory 87-9
elemental capture spectroscopy (ECS) 82-3
Eratosthenes Seamount core-log integration
methods 286-7
results 290-2
results discussed 292-4
facies analysis
Carboniferous sandstone
methods 2
results 3-6
results discussed 6-7
use of electrical image logs 244-6
fault analysis
CIBL image 258-9
FMI image 260
fractal analysis
methods 109-10
results 110
at mid-ocean ridge
downhole measurements
methods 312-15
results 316-17
fracture patterns 315-16
ocean crust fault patterns
fluid circulation 319-20, 321,323
fractures 319, 320-1,321-3
feldspar in lithology logging 92
field v. wireline measurements
density
methods 71, 74
results 72, 73
results discussed 78
gamma ray
methods 67-8, 71
results 69, 70
results discussed 74-8
fluid circulation in ocean crust 319-20, 321,323
fluid inclusions
oil in quartz 327-8
use in thermometry 199-200, 205-6
fluid phase in sampling 274
fluid saturation 219
foresets on electrical image logs 242-3
formation density log (FDL)
correlation with X-ray luminance 17
database 17-18
methods 18-21
results 21-3
results discussed 23-4
formation evaluation 214-15
INDEX
Fullbore formation micro imager (FMI) see
formation micro imager
Galapagos Rift see Costa Rica Rift
gamma ray attenuation porosity evaluation
(GRAPE) 287, 368, 370
gamma ray data, use in core-log integration 279,
280
gamma ray logs
Atlantic Ocean floor 366, 367, 370
Costa Rica Rift study 313-15, 319, 405, 408
Chaunoy Formation 199
and clay content 84-6
Izu Bonnin arc 134
Wessex Basin
methods of analysis 67-8, 71
results 69, 70
results discussed 74-8
see also natural gamma also spectral gamma
gamma ray spectroscopy tool (GST) 119, 134
geochemical logging tool (GLT) 25, 378
analytical methods 56-7
handling combined errors 60-1
results discussed 61-2
random error analysis 57-8
sampling methods 56
size of sample 274
systematic error analysis 58-60
technique 55-6
use in ocean crust study 351
Gouy theory 148
grain density 122, 217
methods of analysis 377
results 378-9
gypsum in lithology logging 92
heave compensation 278
high resolution laterolog sonde (HALS) 281
hummocky cross stratification (HCS) on
electrical image logs 243-4
illite properties 118
impedance see complex impedance
induction log 164-5
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) 287
infrared spectroscopy see MINERALOG
integrated images 250-1
integration of datasets 47-8
ionic double layer 148
iron and clay concentration 88-9
Izu Bonnin arc 47
lithology interpretation and neural networks 133
method 135-8
results 138
417
results discussed 138-40
core recovery 133-4
downhole data 134-5
Japan Sea see Oki Ridge
Jurassic System see Brent Group also
Kimmeridge Clay Formation
kaolinite properties 118
KCI in drilling mud 2
Kimmeridge Clay Formation 66, 67, 72, 74,
78
laboratory data v. in situ logs
density data in Wessex Basin 71-4
velocity data at Sellafield 102-5
ladder diagram 276
lavas at mid ocean ridge
classification 300
volumes 307
limestone V p / V s 141
linear perturbation
theory 159
theory applied to density log 162-3
lithodensity log 134
lithofacies analysis
Carboniferous sandstone
methods 2
results 3-6
results discussed 6-7
lithology
classification in ODP bores 130
effects on core recovery 277-8
quantification 81, 89-90
anhydrite 92
carbonate 91-2
clay 90-1
sand 92
summary 92-3
Lochabriggs Sandstone 11
loess in Japan Sea 117
low frequency electrical resistivity log 119-20
luminance 17, 19
magma chamber behaviour at mid-ocean ridge
306-8
magnesium and clay concentration 88-9
Magnus Field
regional setting 329
structure and stratigraphy 329-30
Magnus Sandstone Member
diagenesis 330
oil emplacement and cementation study
methods
418
INDEX
petrography 332
wireline 330-2
results 332-3
results discussed 333-8
sedimentology 330
major element analysis 25
measurement process evaluation
direct v. indirect 40
quality 43-7
resolution 41-2
scale 42-3
Mediterranean Sea ODP study
core-log integration
methods 286-7
results 290-2
results discussed 292-4
mica in lithology logging 92
microconductivity images 250
Costa Rica Rift 300-1, 313-15
microcrack analysis
DSA technique
method 186-7
results 188-90
stress orientation 192-3
stress relief configuration 193-4
theory 185-6
USWS technique
method 187-8
results 190-2
stress orientation 192-3
stress relief configuration 193-4
theory 187
microspherically focused log (MSFL) 263, 281
s e e also spherically focused log
mid-ocean ridge features see Costa Rica Rift
Milankovitch cycles 117
MINERALOG
use in modal analysis 26
method 31
results 31-5
results discussed 35-7
mineralogy 83-4
Japan Sea core 118
ocean crust 399-400
use in modal analysis 26
methods 27
results 31-5
results discussed 35-7
modal analysis
testing by experiment 25-6
method 28-31
results 31-5
results discussed 35-7
modular dynamic tool (MDT) 14
Morecambe Bay fluvial sandstone analysis
11-12
up-scaling 13, 14-15
multilayer preceptron 111-12
INDEX
ODP Leg 159 see Cote d'Ivoire-Ghana
margin transform
ODP Leg 160 see Mediterranean Sea
ODP Leg 163 368-71
ODP Leg 166 see Bahama Bank
oil
emplacement in relation to cementation
methods of analysis
petrography 332
wireline 330-2
results 332-3
results discussed 333-8
in fluid inclusions 327-8
Oki Ridge 115-16
core data analysis
description 116-17
mineralogy 118
core-log data forward modelling 124-6
downhole log analysis
CGR 119-20
FMS 120
SFL 119
log analysis
deconvolution 120-1
formation factor 121
sediment property prediction results
cation exchange capacity 123
formation factor 123-4
grain density 122
mineral fractions 122-3
opaline silica 116-17, 122-3
ophiolites 297-8, 311
orientation, role in measurement 43
orthogonalization 159
Oseberg Syd Field 240-1
Tarbert Formation
facies analysis 244-6
sedimentary history 246-7
sedimentary structures 242-3
Osmington Oolite 72, 74
Oxford Clay Formation 66, 74, 78
oxide analysis 25
P (compression) wave velocity
effect of clays on 232
in ocean crust 312, 366, 367, 368, 370
methods of analysis 377
results 380-1
relation to S wave velocity 142-5
testing at Sellafield
method 99-100
results 100-5
see also seismic anisotropy
Paris Basin
geological setting 197-8
Chaunoy Formation
cementation history 206-10
419
core analytical methods
geochemical 199-200
petrophysical 198-9
core analytical results
geochemical 205-6
petrophysical 202-5
core description 200-2
depositional setting 198
Penrith Sandstone 42, 43
complex impedance test 157
cracks effects on seismic anisotropy
methods 179
results 179-82
permeability
Chaunoy Formation 198, 202, 205
effect of cement on 327
factors affecting 225-6
ocean crust 350
Penrith Sandstone 43
in shales 226
evaluating model 232-3
modelling 227-8
testing a model 229-32
up-scaling 9
permeability/porosity relationship 14, 145-6
permeability/resistivity studies
cross-scaling 12
methods compared 14-15
summary of data 11-12
up-scaling 12-13
petrography
Chaunoy Formation 200-1
Magnus Sandstone Member 332
use in modal analysis 26
method 31
results 31-5
results discussed 35-7
phillipsite 319, 400
photoelectric effect
clay minerals 118
use in deconvolution 120-1
pillow lavas 298-9, 356-8
Piper Formation 18
plug-density method 14
pore geometry, effect of clays on 232
porosity
Chaunoy Formation 198, 202, 204-5
effect of cement on 327
effect of clays on 232
from resistivity 317-18
ocean crust 350, 402-4
ocean sediments 377-8
Penrith Sandstone 43
St Bees Sandstone 105
see also effective porosity also total porosity
porosity/permeability relationship 145-6
Portland Sand 67
potassium and gamma logs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 331
420
INDEX
St Bees Sandstone 99
rock properties
causes of variation 105
velocity 100, 101, 103
salinity
effect on complex impedance 151-4
from nq,'utron logs 165-70
sample density, effect of 274
sample si:,e, incompatibility problems 274
sampling errors 53, 55
sampling strategy in coring 278
sand fraction in lithology logging 92
sandstone
complex impedance properties
methods 148-50
results 150-1
results discussed 152-6
samples 157
cracks effects on seismic anisotropy
methods 179
results 179-82
saponite 319
saturation effect on complex impedance 154
scale effects in measurement 42-3
seaward dipping reflector series 363
sedimentary structures
case study of Tarbert Formation 240-1
facies analysis 244-6
sedimentary history 246-7
structure interpretation 242-3
recognition on electrical images 239-40
sedimentological input studies in Japan Sea
core data analysis
description 116-17
mineralogy 118
downhole log analysis
CGR 119-20
FMS 120
SFL 119
forward modelling 124-6
log analysis
deconvolution 120-1
formation factor 121
sediment property prediction results
cation exchange capacity 123
formation factor 123-4
grain density 122
mineral fractions 122-3
seismic anisotropy 173-4
experimental testing
method 174
result 179
results discussed 179-82
numerical modelling 175-9
see also P waves also S waves
Sellafield
discontinuity analysis
method 108
INDEX
results 108-9
fault analysis
method 109-10
results 110
fracture frequency analysis
method 112
results 112-13
geological setting 98-9
rock mass rating 113
rock properties
density 105
porosity 105
velocity 99-105
shale
modelling conductivity 227
modelling permeability 227-8
testing models
conductivity 228-9
permeability 229-32
unified permeability-conductivity model
226-7
shale volume fraction 21 6-17
Sherwood Sandstone 12, 13
silicon and clay concentration 88-9
slabbed core sampling problems 274
smectite 118
sonic log 134
sonic transit time 199, 202, 330
spacing population technique 108
spectral gamma ray (SGR) logs 1, 67, 277, 287
correlation test
methods 2
results 3-6
results discussed 6-7
factors affecting 1-2
spherically focused log (SFL) 264, 287
Japan Sea 119
modelling data 125
see also microspherically focused log
stretch problems in drilling 279
susceptibility 370
systematic error, role of 55
in chemical analysis 57, 58-60
Tarbert Formation 240-1
facies analysis 244-6
sedimentary history 246-7
sedimentary structures 242-3
thermometry and fluid inclusions 199-200,
205-6
thorium and gamma ray logs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 287,
331
tornado chart 160
tortuosity, effect of clays on 232
total porosity model 216
association with effective porosity model
conductivity 218-19
421
fluid saturation 219
grain density 217
porosity 217-18
shale volume fraction 21 6-17
role in quality assurance 219-22
Townville Trough
comparison of methods 268
microresistivity imaging 266-7
problems of scale 269-70
sedimentary sequence 266
standard core plug measurement 267-8
transform margin study see Cote d'IvoireGhana margin
Triassic System studies see Chaunoy Formation
Troodos ophiolite 311
turbidite microresistivity image 264-5
ultrasonic shear wave splitting (USWS)
method 187-8
results 190-2
results discussed
microcrack system 193-4
stress orientation 192-3
theory 187
uncertainty in measurement
case study of geochemical analysis 61-2
analytical methods 56-7
handling combined errors 60-1
random error analysis 57-8
sampling methods 56
systematic error analysis 58-60
technique 55-6
defined 54
problems in chemical analysis 54
problems in field sampling 55
up-scaling 9
application of 12
defined 10
problems 107
use of fractals 107-8
methods 108, 109-10
results !08-9, 1I0
uranium and gamma ray logs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 287,
331
VECTAR technique 159
veins in ocean crust 319, 321,323
Costa Rica Rift
core data
methods 394
results 398
core-log integration 406-8
velocity of seismic waves
see P waves also S waves
vertical averaging in log data 274
Viking Graben 251,257
422
INDEX
Core-Log Integration
edited by
P. K. Harvey and M.A. Lovell
(Department of Geology, University of Leicester, UK)
This volume addresses some of the problems of core-log integration
encountered by scientists and engineers from both industry and
academia. Core and log measurements provide crucial information about
subsurface formations. Their usage, either for integration or calibration, is
complicated by the different measurement methods employed, different
volumes of formation analysed and, in turn, the heterogeneity of the
formations. While the problems of comparing core and log data are only
too well known, the way in which these data can be most efficiently
combined is not at all clear in most cases.
In recent years there has been increased interest in this problem, both in
industry and academia, due to developments in technology which offer
access to new types of information and, in the case of industry, pressure
for improved reservoir models and hydrocarbon recovery. The application
of new numerical methods for analysing and modelling core and log data,
the availability of core scanning facilities, and novel core measurements in
both two and three dimensions, currently provide a framework for the
development of new and exciting approaches to core-log integration.
The contributions within Core-Log Integration geologically range from
hydrocarbon-bearing sediments in the North Sea to the volcanic rocks that
form the upper part of the oceanic crust.
432 pages
31 papers
index
ISBN 1-86239-016-9