SPE~kdbdb~

lbdhy

ERES

Hvdraulic=Fracture=Treatment
D&sign Simulation
Rums Acharya, BJ Titan Services

Introduction

Basics of a Hydraulio-Fracturing Design Simulator

Hydraulic fmcbming is a technique for simulating wells

completed in Iow:pepneability reservoirs. The process involves
the pressurization of an isolated perforatti section of the
wellbure with a tiscous flidd untl the induced stresses exceed
the formation strength, which causes a failure and thus creates
the fracture. Proppants are then.pumped into the newly created
fracture with viscuus fracturing fluid as a carrier. Once
initiated, the fracture propagates as additional fracturing fluid
is ihjected. Following the release of the fracturing pressure,
the proppants hold the fr:cmre open and provide a conductive
channel through which the reservoir fluids flow to the
welibore. Only vertical fractures are considered here.
The effectiveness of a hydratiic-fracturing
treatment is
determined by the propped fracture conductivity and the
geumetry of the created fracture, more specifically by the
propped fructure height and the areal extent. The areal extent,
by definition, includes both the penetration length and the
fracture width. Pad vohune and proppant concentration also
ptay an important role in the fractnr-rreatment
design because
they determine final propped fracture penetration and
conductivity. Insufficient pad volume causes premamr:
screenout because of early depletion of pad fluid, whereas
excess pad volume injection often resuk.s in short propped
penetration, The propped fracture cunductivily depends on the
type of proppants (mesh size, shape), extent of permea.btity
damage caus?d by fracture fluid residue, and other factors
e.g., fluid viscosity, fluid-loss characteristics, and pumping
schedule-tlat
determine fracture width. The intrusion of a
fracture frum the pay zone into the formations lying above and
below is another factor that affats the effectiveness of the
fracture treutment. If the hydraulic fracture is not contained
within the producing formation and propagates in the vertical
direction, tie postfracmring production reiponse may be lower
than anticipated because substantial amounts of fracture fluid
and proppants are used tu fracture the unproductive
formations. The containment OFi fracture within the producing
zone is even more impurtant if the adjacent zones are waterbeuring.
Hydraulic-fracturing
simulators are used tu design the
treatment volume, proppant size and type, and pumping
schedules to obtain the desired fracture geome~ and
conductivities, The pumping schedules are designed by mnning
these simulators on a trial-and-error basis until a desired
prepped geometry is obtained that will ensure maximum
proppant coverage at rhe end of pumping. Whh these propped
fracture geumetry and conductivity data, an economic estimate
is usually made for the treatment for a given fracture length
and an optimal design is selected for the maximum return of
the well.

A realistic mcdel must consider such basic phenomena of

fracturing as (1) rock cfefo?ma~ion, characterized by the
variation of mechanical properties of the reck, vertical in-situ
stress distribution, pore pressure distribution, und stress
cuntmsts in the layered rock medig (2) jhid j70w through
tubular gouds, fracture, and perforations; (3) rock defomon
with fluid flow interaction? (4) J?acture propagation that takes
into account the reservoir or pore pressiue in the vicinity of
the propagating fracturti and (5) proppant disttibtion and
placement in the fm.cture, influenced by t?acturing fluid leakoff
characteristics.
Five principal mathematical relationships that dictate the
opening and propagation of hydraulic fractures include (1) the
mass conservation equation governing a total mass balance for
a pmppan-laden
tkidi. e., the total volume of sluny injected
minus the volume of the slurry in the fracture, and the volume
of fluid lost to the formation by leakoff and sp!ut loss must be
equal to zero; (2) jiacture-width-opening eq@ions that relate
the crack-opening thickness to the fracture length, height,
geometry, and to the fluid-pressure iiistribution atong the
fracture, assuming that the reck. formation deforms according
to the laws of linear elasticity; (3) momentum equations
describing the fluid-flow behavior of rheologi+y.
complex
fracturing fluids in response to rbe pressure gradiens in the
fracmrq (4) continui~ cquafions governing the exchange of
fluid between the tiacture and its surroundings; and
(5) fia.ture propagation criteria that determine tbe direction of
the fracture propagation in a given time.

Copyright19P8 Society of PeWau!n Enginem

Journal of Petroleum Technology, February 1988

Types of simulators
Twu-Dintensiunaf
(2D) Mudels. Hydraulic-fracture
propagation modeling began initially with tiese NO basic
approaches.
1. The fracture mne deforms independently of the upper and
lower layers, allowing free slippage on these layers (i.e., the
plane-stin
solution is considered in a horizontal plane). The
fracture is assumed to have a constant height with a vertically
constant width (but the widrh decreases with distance from the
wellbore) as shown in Fig. la, characterized by a de,cmasing
net weUbure pressure with time when injection is at a cunstant
rate. This model, commonly known as the Geertsma-de Klerk 1
model, wotdd approximate a fmctare with a horizontal
penetration much less rhan the vertical penetmtion. The idea of
the Geertsma-de IOerk model was originally proposed by
Kbristianovicb and Zheltov. 2 Therefore, it is sometimes
referred to in the literawre as the Kbristia.novich-ZheltovGeertsma-de fGerk (KZ-GDK) model.
2. A constant-height model assumes that the cross section of
the fracture ties in the vetical plane, perpendicular m the axis
of the fracture. The fracture is limited to a given zune and the
plane-strain condition is assumed in vertical planes only.
139

(a) 2.0 Christianovich-Zhel!ov-Geer&ma-deKlork (CZGDK) type model

(b) 2.D Perkins KernINo,dgren (PKN)tyPe model

(c) Pseudo 3.D or fully 3.D type made]

T7+F7T-K-T Ill.

Therefore, each vertical cross section would deform

independently of the others. Because there is no fluid flow in
each vertical cross section, the fracmre maintains an elliptical
width in the vertical direction, as shown in Fig. lb,
characterized by an inc+sing
net wellbore. pressure with time
when injection is at a wmstant rate. tlds is known as i
Perkins-Kern3/Nordgren4
model and wotdd approximate a
fracture geometry having lengthlheight ratios greater than 1,
.Pseudo-Three-Ditnensional
(3D) and Fulfy 3D Models. As
the understanding of the basic phenomena of the hydraulicfrachming treatment has advanced; there has been a growing
need for a cost-effective, realistic mathematical model for the
prediction of 3D fracture growth.
Pseudo-3D fracturing models5-8 are developed with the
simplified approach of a 3D fracture-modeling concepti. e., a
latetsdly propagating crack in the x direction is coupled with a
2D description of vertical section in a plane perpendicular to .x
at any cross section (shown in Fig. lc). These are later
coupled with a set of equations governing one-dimensional
(ID) fluid flow. Fluid loss along the fracture surface is
described by a simple function of leakoff coefficients. Variable
fracture height is computed by stress gradients and contrasts in
the layered media and{or by the fracture toughness in the
bounding zones. Although most pseudo.3D models cannot
satisfactorily simulate noncontained fractures, these models can
140

provide an approximate estimate of the fracture geomet~ that

is useful in pressure-matching calculations,
A fully 3D modelg. lo is developed on the basis of 3D linemelasdcity solution of equilibrium cracks and 2D tkid flow in
the plane of fracture. Urdiie the vieudo-3D model. which uses
ID fluid flDw equations, the tlill~ 3D model solves the 2D
fluid-flow equations, allowing variation of fluid pressure with
time between the fracture and tie reservoir, Temperatircdependent fluid-flow behavior and the leakoff distributkm along
the fracture surface are also considered in the fully 3D model.
Fracture propagation is conrmiled by the criterion based cm the
stress-intensity facto: and the fracture toughness (a criticalstress-intensi~ factor): If the stress-intensity factor becomes
Iarger than fracture toughness, fie fracture becomes unstable
and propagates wi~ a high velocity. ~e geometry of the.
fracture in the fully 3D model is very much the same as in the
pseudo.3D model (shown in Fig. lc). Fully 3D model
simulations are often used to obtain fine-tuned treatment results
for both contained apd nonconmined fractures. Fracture height
and shape are detetmmed by the mechanical properties of the
rock, the stress gradients, fractvre toughness, and the stress
contrasts in the reservoir rocks.
Pressure in a pseudo- or fully 3D model decreases dining
early fracture growth, until the flacture encounters mnditiom
tending to arrest its growth. From that time, pressure starts to
increase as shown in Fig. lc.
Journal of Petroleum

Technology,

Febnmy 1988

Total Volume
of Fluid
Pumped
(gal)

Sand
Concentration
(Ibmlgal)

110,000 (pad)
118,000
126,000

133,000
140,000
146,ooO
151,000
156,000
160,000
162,000

Fracture
Length
(n)
_
2D
3D.,

Fracture
Width .
(in.)
2D
.

Fracture
Height
(n)

Ap at
Wellbore
(psi)

3D
-

2D
-,-

3D

2D
3D
..
271.0
505.0
(at the start
of pumping)

o
2
3

520
546
565

622
653
680

0.430
0.490
0.505

0.445
0.448
0.451

160.0
160.0
160.0

137.0
139.0
141.0

103.6
102.5
102.0

4
5
6

584
598
612
623
635
645
650

700
724
738
753
768
760
787

0.510
0.512
0.526
0.532
0.5421
0.545
0,548

0.453
0.460
0.464
0.467
0.471
0.473
0.475

160.0
180.0
160.0
160.0
160.0
160.0
160.0

14S.0
145.0
146.0
147.0
149.0
150.0
150.5

100,5 336.4
100,0 340.0,
99.0 341.0
98,0 341.7
97,5 342.6
97.2 ,343.0
97.0 343.5

:
9
10

334.5
336.0
338,0

. Fracture wid!h and height are conwted

at the wellbore
.3D refers !. P.eudO.3D model.
model
The pr.ppd
length obtained from the 2D and pse.dMD mdd was 420 and 622 tt, respectively.The pwd+3D
used 500 psi as a stcass co.trasl in W adjace.1 layers YOWW,S modulus and the Poisson ratio are 4.10,
psi and 0.28,
Ce,petiwly.
S.*
models se a pay thicknss, of I 28 *.

m:
,. .,,
:*
,.
.,.,,.
.!.

-,!:
,,,-,.
..,,
,,
:,:-: ,,,.,.

[in the Lower Lever-

The fundamental differences between 2D and 3D (pseudoand fully 3D) models are as follows.
1. 2D mcdels consider the propagation of a vertical fracture
with a given height. In pseudo- and tidly 3D models, the
vertical fracture height &pends on the position along the
fracture and time, and the height growth is determined by
mechanical and material properties of the bounding zones and
the theological characteristics of the fracturing fluid.
2. Untike fully 3D models, the fracture lengths in pseudo-3D
and 2D mcdels do not depend on the fracture propagation
criteria.
Journal of Pemle.m

Technology;

February

1988

fn the following, we describe the results obtained from a 2D

and pseudo-3D simulation for an actual field treatment. The
pumping and sand (20/40 mesh) schedules are given in Table
1. The fracmring fluid was a crosslitded gum gum gel having
the theological characteristics of n (flow behavior index) =0.45
and K (consistency index) =0.2 lbf-seen/ft2
9.58 Pa. Sn] and
the total fluid loss coefficient =0.002 ftl ? tin [0.0006
m/~].
In simulating this job with the 2D model, a fracture
height of 160 fi [49 m] was used, and for the pseudo-3D
model, the fracture height was computed on the basis of 500-psi
[3.4-MPa] stress contrast between the pay and adjacent zones.
141

In Table 1, one can find the difference in the shape and

geomeoy resulting from a pseudo-3D and a 2D (KZ-GDK)
model simulation. The 2D model predicts a shorter but wider
fracture vs. the fracture simulated in a pseudo-3D model. The
fracture height as a function of fracture length in the
pseudo-3D model result was influenced by the variation of
mechanical properties of rock, stress contrasts between pay arid
bounding zones, and the fracturing fluid characteristics. lle
confining stress contrasts control the fracture height and that,
in turn, determines the net wellbore pressure. For 2D and
pseudo-3D models, the pressure profiles are distinctly
different, as shown in Table 1.

2D, pseudo-3D, and even fuUy 3D fracture propagation

simulators are now in use to sinudate fracture geome~ while
many of the complex phenomem are considered (e.g., fracture
growth and containment) in the fracturing process, Depending
on the complexities of the process, the underlying assumptions
and the methodology of solution vary considerably from model
to model. A fully 3D fracture propagation mcdel requires
much detailed information about material properties of the
reservoti rock and the flow behavior of fracmring fluids.
Therefore, it requires thorough understanding of fracture
mechanics and the mechanisms describing mcWfluid interaction
to run the model and to interpret the results accurately.

Fracture Containment

References
J. and de Klerk, F.: A Rapid M&od of Predkdrrg WidtJ
1.Gem.sm,

The vertical growth of a fracture is not very desirable

whenever the fracture is to be contsined within a single
producing zone., Containment of the fracture increases
fracturing efficiency and also provides greater production
increases.
There are three major parameters that play an important role
in controlling vertical fracture growth in the hydraulicfractming-treatment
design simulation elastic mcdulus
contrast, in-sire stress contr~t, and fracture-toughness factor.
Although it is the combined effect of ?dl three parameters that
influences the strength of a barrier to prevent vertical fracture
growth, most of the pseudo- and ftdly 3D models assume that
the minimum in-situ stress contrast and the fracture toughness
have the predornimnt influence on hydraulic- fractire
containment.
Fractures can easily penetrate through weaker barriers,
which are characterized by low elastic modulus contrast and
low in-situ stress contrast (shown in the lower part of Fig. 2).
Vertical fracture gmwtb is essentially arrested whenever there
is a large discontinuity or gradients in the minimum in-situ
stress, Also, a fracture can be contained if there is a sufficient
increase in minimum in-situ horizontal stress commst in the
bounding zones. It is therefore beneficial to know the
minimum in-situ stress in the region where fracnue
containment is desired,
Fracture foughness is detimd by fbe stress-intensity factor,
and is a measure of the sfrengtb of the stress singularity at the
crack tip in a fradtme. Fractttre toughness varies with the rock
type. Sandstone forming hydrocarbon reservoirs has smaller
fracture toughness, ad therefore requires smaller fracturing
pressure for lateral fracture pmpagafion, Shale and limestone
forming caprocks, however, have larger fpcmre toughnesses
than sand.rtorrq therefore they can prevent veticaf propagation
or gro Wtb of a fracture,

Conclusions
Computer simulation of hydrautic.fracrure-treatment
design
uses a combination of reservoir rock, fluid properties, and
process variables to compute the treatment size and volume cm
the basis of desired fracture geometry ad conductivities,

142

and Extent of Hydraulically Induced Fractures,z JPT fDec. 1969)

1571-81; Tram., AEWE, =5.
of Verdmt
2, Khrktiamvich, S.A. and Zheltov, Yu.P,: =Fomtim
Wodd
Fractures by Means of Highly Viscous Liquid,x, Pmt., Fourth
Pet. Cong., Rome (1955) 2, 579-86.
3. Perkins, T.K. andKern, L.R.: Widths of Hychmdk Fractures,,>JPT
(Sept. 1961) 9374% Tram. . ASME, 222.
4. Nordgrcn, R.P.: propagation of a Vertical HydmdicFracmre,,% SPEJ
(ABE. 1972) 306 -14 Trans., A3ME. 253.
5. Nol~, K.G.andSmii, M.B.: %@-etion
of Fracturing Pmsmres,>,
JPT (Sept. 1981) 1767-75.
6. Settari, A. and Clwy, M.P. : Developmem and Testing of a PsedoSPEPE
Three-Dimemioml Model of Hydratic Fracture Geomeq,,
WOV. 19S6) 49-66.
7. Patmer, I.D. and C!ovel,H.B.: Three-Oiimimd
Hydrmdk Fracture
Propagationin the Preseme of Stress Variadon,Z, SPEJ (Dec. 1983)
870-78.
8. Meyer, B.R.: Desi~ Formulae for 2-D and 3-D VwtimJ Hydrmlic
Fracture Model Com@s.m and Parametric Studie.s,23paper SPE 15240
pmented at the 1986WE Umnrmui.md Gas Teduwlogy symposium,
Louisville, KY, May 18-21.
9. Abou-Sayed, A. and Clifton, R.: Evaluation of the Intluence of Sn
Situ ReservoirConditionson the Geometryof Hydmdic Fracturm Using
a 3-D Simulator. Part 1 Tedmicat Approach, , Wp., SPE 12877

!mentedatthy1954sp~DoE/G~ unconvendon~
G= Recowv
Sympwum,
Pmsburgh, May 13-15.
10. Settad, A.: FRACANAL (Version O.O.0)A Hydmudk Fracturing
8imutatoc System,,, Simtech Com.lting Services Ltd., A3ta., Canada

(Ndv, 1984).

S[ Metric Conversion Factora

ft x 3J34S*
gal
in.
Ibm/gal
psi
.Covemio
lad.,

X
X
X
x

3.7S5 412
2,54*
1.198264
6.894757

E01 = m
E-03
E+OO
E+02
E+OO

=
=
=
=

m3
cm
kg/rn3
kPa

is exact.

Ills paper k SPE 17175. Tech. o[ogy Today Series article, pmid.
useful wrnrn,wy l..
fmlali,.
0 bo!h ,Iasslc and emerging cmce,ots i Petroleum engineering, PuPo,e
To
Pro.,de the Wera[
reader with a basic ..derstandi.g
m development WM.
a $Pacifi. area d technology.

of. significant mnwt,

technique,

Journal of Petroleum Technohagy, February 1988