3.

FUNCTIONAL HARDWARE OF PC
CONCEPT OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARESOFTWARE- Software is set of instructions or data that can be store
electronically.
There are two types of softwares-1) System software (operating
systems)
2) Application software (programs)
HARDWARE- Hardware is the storage device and display device.

PC SPECIFICATIONMOTHERBOARD-

A motherboard is physical arrangement in computer that contains the

computers basic circuitry and components.
The computer components include in the motherboard are1) Microprocessor- The microprocessor, also known as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU)is the brain of all computers and many household
and electronics devices.

2) coprocessor- A coprocessor is a computer processor used to

supplement the functions of the primary processor (the CPU).
3) Basic input/output system- BIOS (basic input/output system) is the
program a personal computer's microprocessor uses to get the computer
system started after you turn it on. It also manages data flow between the
computer's operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk,
video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.

4) Expansion slot- An opening in a computer where a circuit board can

be inserted to add new capabilities to the computer.
5) Interconnecting circuitry- A flexible printed circuit interconnecting
cable which includes a flexible circuitry assembly including an array of
conductors mounted on a flexible substrate film and covered with a
flexible covering film.

CPU PROPERTIES1) CLOCK FREQUENCY- It specifies the execution speed of CPU it is

operated with clock.
2) BUS WIDTH- It specifies the word size in number of lines available
for carrying data at a time.
3) SERIAL PORT- It specifies whether serial communication is provided
or not, because peripheral may require serial data transfer.
TYPES OF MEMORIES1) CONVENTIONAL MEMORY- Conventional memory, also called base
memory, is the first 640 kilobytes (640 1024 bytes) of the memory on
IBM PC or compatible systems. It is the read-write memory directly
addressable by the processor for use by the operating system and
application programs. As memory prices rapidly declined, this design
decision became a limitation in the use of large memory capacities until
the introduction of operating systems and processors that made it
irrelevant.
2)EXPANDED MEMORY- In DOS memory management, expanded
memory is a system of bank switching that provided additional memory
to DOS programs beyond the limit of conventional memory (640 KB).
3) EXTENDED MEMORY- Computer system having an extended
memory which permits the running of a plurality of operating systems
(OS) on one computer having main memory and at least one extended
memory and which includes at least one virtual main memory which
permits each of the plurality of OSs to reside on main memory, at least

one virtual extended memory (virtual ES) residing on the extended

memory.
4) PHYSICAL
AND LOGICAL MEMORY- Physical refers to anything
related to hardware. The opposite of physical is logical or virtual,
which describes softwares.eg. physical memory refers to the RAM
CHIPS installed in computer and virtual memory is an imaginary area
used by programs.
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES1) ROM- Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data
storage. A random-access memory device allows data items to be
accessed (read or written) in almost the same amount of time
irrespective of the physical location of data inside the memory. In
contrast, with other direct-access data storage media such as hard
disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older drum memory, the time
required to read and write data items varies significantly
depending on their physical locations on the recording medium,
due to mechanical limitations such as media rotation speeds and
arm movement delays.

2)ROM- Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used

in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM can only
be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to
distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific
hardware and unlikely to need frequent updates).
Strictly, read-only memory refers to memory that is hard-wired, such as
diode matrix and the later mask ROM. Although discrete circuits can
be altered (in principle), integrated circuits (ICs) cannot and are useless

if the data is bad. The fact that such memory can never be changed is a
large drawback; more recently, ROM commonly refers to memory that is
read-only in normal operation, while reserving the fact of some possible
way to change it.
3)PROM-A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or field
programmable read-only memory (FPROM) or one-time programmable
non-volatile memory (OTP NVM) is a form of digital memory where the
setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse. They are a type of
ROM (read-only memory) meaning the data in them is permanent and
cannot be changed. PROMs are used in digital electronic devices to store
permanent data, usually low level programs such as firmware
(microcode). The key difference from a standard ROM is that the data is
written into a ROM during manufacture, while with a PROM the data is
programmed into them after manufacture. Thus, ROMs tend to be used
only for large production runs with well-verified data, while PROMs are
used to allow companies to test on a subset of the devices in an order
before burning data into all of them.

4)EPROM -EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is

programmable read-only memory (programmable ROM) that can be
erased and re-used. Erasure is caused by shining an intense ultraviolet
light through a window that is designed into the memory chip.

TYPES OF SYSYTEM BUSES- A bus is simply a channel over which

information flows between two or more devices.
1) DATA BUS-Data bus are the lines that actually carry the data being
transferred .it is bidirectional bus.
2) ADRESS BUS- Address bus is the set of lines that carry information
about where in memory the data is to be transferred. It is unidirectional
bus.
3) CONTROL BUS-Control bus is used to send different control signals
like read, write signals to the memory , some control signals sent on
this control bus used to identify the type of device, processor wants to
interact with.
4) UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS- A two way, high speed serial interface to
which you can dynamically connect and disconnect .USB has been
around for few years and USB port are fitted to just about every
computer now.

4.Peripheral devices
Introduction-Computer system mainly designed to accept input data
through input device process it and display or print the results.
INPUT DEVICESTHERE ARE FOLLOWING TYPES OF INPUT DEVICES:
1) KEYBOARDIn computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which
uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as mechanical levers or
electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards and paper
tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input
device for computers.
1) Keyboard allows all alphanumeric set 0-9, A to Z in small and capital.
2) Keyboard available in two types1) 84 keys
2) 101 enhanced keys

2) MOUSEA computer mouse is a pointing device (hand control) that detects twodimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically
translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine
control of a graphical user interface.
Physically, a mouse consists of an object held in one's hand, with one or
more buttons. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch

surfaces and "wheels", which enable additional control and dimensional

input.
ACTIONS RELATED TO MOUSE1) Single click
2) Double click
3) To move
4) Dragging

3) SCANNERIn computing, an image scanneroften abbreviated to just scanner,

although the term is ambiguous out of context (barcode scanner, CAT
scanner, etc.)is a device that optically scans images, printed
text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image.
Commonly used in offices are variations of the desktop flatbed
scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for
scanning. Hand-held scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have
evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial
design, reverse engineering, test and measurement, orthotics, gaming
and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that move the
document are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed
design would be impractical.

OUTPUT DEVICES1) VIDEO(MONITOR)A computer monitor or a computer display is an electronic

visual display for computers. A monitor usually comprises the display
device, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in

modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal

display (TFT-LCD) or a flat panel LED display, while older monitors
used a cathode ray tubes (CRT). It can be connected to the computer
via VGA, DVI, HDMI, Display Port, Thunderbolt, LVDS (Low-voltage
differential signaling) or other proprietary connectors and signals.
Originally,
computer
monitors
were
used
for data
processing while television receivers were used for entertainment. From
the 1980s onwards, computers (and their monitors) have been used for
both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have
implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of
televisions, and computer monitors,

VIDEO MONITOR/BOARD CHARACTERISTICS1)RESOLUTION- In computers, resolution is the number of pixels

(individual points of color) contained on a display monitor, expressed in
terms of the number of pixels on the horizontal axis and the number on
the vertical axis. The sharpness of the image on a display depends on
the resolution and the size of the monitor.
2) DOT PITCH- Dot pitch, or "pixel pitch," is a measurement that
defines the sharpness of a display. It measures the distance between the
dots used to display the image on the screen. This distance is very small
and is typically measured in fractions of millimeters. The smaller the
dot pitch, the sharper the picture.
3) HORIZONTAL SCAN FREQUENCY-The number of lines
illuminated on a video screen in one second. For example, a resolution
of 400 lines refreshed 60 times per second requires a scan rate of 24 kHz
(60 x 400) plus time to bring the beam back to the beginning of the next
line.

4) MULTI-SYNC-The ability of monitor to handle multiple resolution

automatically is called multyncing.

2)PRINTERS-1) IMPACT PRINTER - 1) DOT-MATRIX PRINTER

2) NON-IMPACT PRINTER- 1 ) LASER PRINTER
2) INK-JET PRINTER
DOT MATRIX PRINTER-Dot matrix printing or impact matrix
printing is a type of computer printing which uses a print head that
moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and
prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper,
much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. However, unlike a
typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix,
and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced.
Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin",
which
is
driven
forward
by
the
power
of
a
tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers
(pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate named
ribbon mask holder or protector, sometimes also called butterfly for its
typical shape. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins.
This plate may be made of hard plastic.

LASER PRINTERLaser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process. It produces

high-quality text and graphics (and moderate-quality photographs) by

repeatedly passing a laser beam back and forth over a negatively charged
cylindrical drum to define a differentially-charged image. The drum then
selectively collects electrically charged powdered ink (toner), and
transfers the image to paper, which is then heated in order to
permanently fuse the text and/or imagery. As with digital
photocopiers and
multifunction/all-in-one inkjet
printers,
laser printers employ axerographic printing process. However, laser
printing differs from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced
by the direct scanning of the medium across the printer's photoreceptor.
This enables laser printing to copy images more quickly than most
photocopiers.
Invented at Xerox PARC in the 1970s, laser printers were introduced for
the office and then home markets in subsequent years by IBM, Canon,
Xerox, Apple, Hewlett-Packard and many others. Over the decades,
quality and speed have increased as price has fallen, and the once
cutting-edge printing devices are now ubiquitous.

INK-JET PRINTER- Inkjet printing is a type of computer printing that

recreates a digital image by propelling droplets of ink onto paper,

plastic, or other substrates. Inkjet printers are the most commonly used
type of printer, and range from small inexpensive consumer models to
expensive professional machines.
The concept of inkjet printing originated in the 20th century, and the
technology was first extensively developed in the early 1950s. Starting
in the late 1970s inkjet printers that could reproduce digital images
generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epson, HewlettPackard (HP), and Canon. In the worldwide consumer market, four
manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales: Canon,
HP, Epson, and Lexmark, a 1991 spin-off from IBM.
The emerging ink jet material deposition market also uses inkjet
technologies, typically print heads using piezoelectric crystals, to deposit
materials directly on substrates.