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effects on bridges
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11.11.2016
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169
la
A. GHALI
Professor of Civil Engineering
The University of Calgary
Calgary, AB, Canada
Amin Ghali, born 1928,
.j%*****V
SUMMARY
This paper reviews the state of the art of the behaviour of bridge structures under nonlinear
temperature distributions produced by weather conditions. Methods are discussed for pre
diction of distributions of temperature and the corresponding stresses in a bridge cross section.
The effects of various climatological and geometrical parameters on the temperature and stress
distributions in both concrete and composite bridges are discussed. The influence of cracking
on the thermal response and the significance of thermal loading to ultimate capacity are dis
cussed.
RESUME
Cet article presente l'etat actuel des connaissances sur le comportement des structures de ponts
soumis des repartitions de temperature non lineaires dues aux conditions climatiques. On
discute des methodes destinees prevoir la repartition de la temperature et des contraintes
correspondantes dans une section de pont. Les effets des differents parametres climatologiques
et geometriques sur les repartitions de temperature et de contraintes dans les ponts en beton et
mixtes sont discutes. L'influence de la fissuration sur le comportement et l'effet des sollicita
tions d'origine thermique sur la resistance ultime sont brievement discutes
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
In diesem Beitrag wird das Verhalten von Brckentragwerken untersucht, welche durch eine
nichtlineare Temperaturverteilung infolge usserer Wetterbedingungen beansprucht sind. Es
werden Methoden zur Vorhersage der Temperatur- und Spannungsverteilung ber den Brcken
querschnitt diskutiert. Die Auswirkungen der verschiedenen klimatischen und geometrischen
Parameter werden auf die Temperatur- und Spannungsverteilungen in Stahlbeton- und Verbund
trgern verfolgt. Schliesslich wird der Einfluss der Rissbildung auf das Tragverhalten und die
Bedeutung dieser Zwangsbeanspruchung gegenber der Traglast diskutiert.
170
1.
iabse periodica
3/1983
INTRODUCTION
if
2.
SOURCES OF HEAT
IN A BRIDGE STRUCTURE
coefficient.
more
air temperature,
face temperature.
71
IT
CONVECTTVE
GMCD FROM
ATMOSPlCRE^
REFLECTEO
SOLAR
IUI
*jT LOSS AT
0UT90E SURFACE
BT CONVECTION NO
RADIATION
CT
'\,"
L'r
GAINED
//
^rr^
IRRADIATION
AT
INCOENT SOLAR
RADIATION
BT TDRATlON OF
BRIOGE DECK
flow into'
meat
CEMENT
ABSOR8E0 SOLAR
RADIATION
3.
BRIDGE TEMPERATURE
Because
o) SUMMER
DATTIME
CONDITIONS
AT GAINED
FROM ATMOSPHERE
NET AT LOSS AT
OUTSOE SURFACE
,CONVECTJVE
CONVECTION
IRRAOIATION
BT
distributions are:
1. A linear temperature dis
tribution in the deck
.BRIOGE DECK
/HEAT GAINED BT
MTDRATON OF CEMENT
b) WINTER
of the
Fi^
EVENING
CONDITIONS
2.
of
fifth
T
2SC
MAX. T
BOTTOM
TOP OF DECK
-WC
SLAB
TtA
X'fli
FOR
OT DECK
IN
SLAB
100
TOP SLAB
BOX
BETWEEN
WEBS
GIROERS
FOR CBS
AMD CANT1.EJ/ERS
SLAB
l, >S-0
T
l p
DEPTH
o)
RAOIENT
OBSERVEO
MHER I 1970)
Fig.
TOP
'C
BLACKTOP
OF
THICKNESS! I
OECK SLAB
0) TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
TEMPERATURE
BT
OF IROER BELOW
OS
5* -O 2k *C
SUGGESTEO
BT
PRIESTLET
(l76l
iabse periodica
172
3/1983
When
the bearings of
4.
it
of temperature
32T
kx
where k
TT
3x
and k
32T
TT
3y
ky
'
+ Q
3T
(1)
3t
x and y
direc-
tions, respectively, of units W/mC or Btu/(h ft F); Q is the rate of heat per
unit volume generated within the body (e.g. by hydration of cement), W/m3 or
Btu/(h ft3); p is the density, kg/m3 or lb/ft3; and c is the specific heat,
J/(kgC) or Btu/(lbF). The quantity Q of heat generated by hydration of cement
in concrete may be predicted by empirical equations (see Ref. [20]).
If the energy is transferred by the surrounding media to or from the boundary
surface, the boundary conditions associated with Eq.
k
fLn x
x 3x
|In y
y 3y
can be expressed by
(2)
q
n
where n
and n
are the
or Btu/(h ft2).
The rate of energy transfer, q at the surfaces of
of solar radiation, convection and irradiation
W/m2
qc
sum
(3)
qr
time.
The heat
transfer
components
of
sions.
%
where
rays,
i.e.
I(s,t)
ture, the
Eq. 3 are
depends on the
IABSE
periodica
3/1983
173
of the sun ray through the atmosphere, which is in turn dependent upon the
position on the earth and the time t of the day and the day of the year (see
Refs. [5] and [6]). The dimensionless coefficient a is the fraction of I
absorbed by the surface of the structure.
The heat lost or gained from the surrounding air by convection as a result of
temperature differences between the bridge surface and the air is given by
Newton's law of cooling as
path
(5)
hc (T - Ta)
qc
by
The heat transfer between the bridge and the surrounding atmosphere due to long
wave radiation, i.e. thermal irradiation, produces a nonlinear boundary condi
tion which can be modeled by Stefan-Boltzman radiation law which may be conven-
h,
qr
in which
Cse
(6)
- Ta)
CT
is
'
r (s,t)
form [13]:
[(T
T*)2
(Ta
T*)2]
(T
+ T& +
as
(7)
2T*)
where
To
(8)
it1.
is suffic
The
finite
difference method can provide simple numerical Solution and was adopted by sev
eral investigators [9,11,17,22]. The finite element method was also used for
the same problem [23], The two-dimensional heat flow Eq. 1 needs to be solved
when the temperature Variation is to be determined through the thickness and
over the breadth of the slabs and webs of a box girder. The finite element
method was efficiently used for this analysis [6,8,14,24].
174
The temperature distribution in the plates of steel box girders may be determined
employing one dimensional model [4]. Because of the relatively small thickness
of the steel plates (10 to 25 mm) and their high thermal conductivity, the tem
perature distribution may be assumed constant throughout the thickness but varies
from point to point over the perimeter of the box and also with time.
5.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
6.
This section discusses the stresses caused by temperature in a bridge for which
the bearings allow free horizontal translation. In a simply-supported span,
uniform or linearly varying temperature over the depth of the cross section
produces no stresses. With nonlinear temperature Variation (Fig. 3b), the same
bridge is subjected to stresses because of the restraint of temperature expan
sion that must occur by the different fibres. These stresses, which are selfequilibrating, are referred to as eigenstresses (Fig. 3c). In a continuous
bridge, temperature change produces statically indeterminate reactions
and internal forces whether the Variation in temperature over the cross section
is linear or nonlinear. The stresses due to these forces are referred to as
continuity stresses. The eigenstresses and/or the continuity stresses can reach
values above the tensile strength of concrete. Many cracks in prestressed con
crete bridges are attributed to these effects which are usually neglected in
design calculations. A temperature rise caused by the sun at the top surface
of a continuous bridge produces positive moments which cause tensile stresses
at the bottom fibres. A crack damage caused by this type of thermal stresses
otto
7
NA
Hy
CENTROID
blTEMPERATURE
o) CROSS-SECTION
DISTRIBUTION
Fig.
Stresses in
Simply-Supported
c) SELF - EQUILIBRATING
(EIGEN-) STRESSES
Beam
175
7.
where
is Young's
(9)
T(y)
modulus
of elasticity
os
thickness
thickness
os
and v
is Poisson's ratio.
At any
dy
(10)
y dy
(11)
nos
ros
element
be
an
the
ds,
of
must
Fig. 4c,
equilibrium
applied (Fig. 4d). Considering
the intensities of the restraining forces are:
N
OS
and
OS
dN
os
ds
(12)
d2M
0
(13)
ds2
restraining forces for a typicai member of the frame are shown in Fig. 4d.
artificial restraint is to be removed by the application of equal and oppo
site forces for all members and the corresponding stress 5 is calculated from
The actual stress due to temperature is
a conventional analysis.
The
The
os
+a s
(14)
176
FORCES ON THIS
/ELEMENT
ARE SHOWN
^
X
THICKNESS
TEMPERATURE
RISE
o)
CROSS
Mo tl
No.-
OF
SECTION
b) TYPICAL SECTION
BOX
BRIDGE
GIRDER
di
l-l
AND TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTION
<M
nrr
lNo.',
''oi
as.1
(M.
_J_cK
I
IN.)
*B
_/dMo,
d) ARTIFICIAL
OF
Fig.
8.
THE
RESTRAINING
PLANE
FORCES
FOR
MEMBER
AB
FRAME
EIGENSTRESSES
In the longitudinal direction the bridge is as sumed to act as a beam, the profor the transverse stresses can al so be used for the longitudinal
stress o.. The procedure is applicable for a simply-supported or continuous
bridge and the stresses thus obtained are the total of the eigen and continuity
stresses. In this and the following section the stresses in a simply-supported
and a continuous bridge of constant cross sect ion are considered.
the cross section and the temperature distr ibution are constant along the
span of a simply-supported bridge, the strains due to temperature can be artionly at the end cross sections. At a
ficially restrained by applying forces
the
section
of
stress in the restraint State is (Fig. 5)
any cross
point (x,y)
cedure used
If
Ha
ojI
The
(15)
1-v T(x,y)
ox
oyl
dx dy
'
(16)
dx dy
J
Ol Jy
(17)
x dx dy
(18)
o
od
a
a
o.
'
177
CENTROID
TEMPERATURE
tx
(TENSION)
RISE
T(x.y)
Fig.
Sign Convention
Employed
in
for
Symbols
Eq. 19
Moyl
Removal
of the
forces,* which
eigenstresses,
artificial restraints
oi.
" f(
1^ T
where A,
and
oxl y
oyl x)
I
(19)
principal
moments
of inertia of the
cross section.
Equations
15
to
19
give
#"
Ea
Oi
r2;T
l-v
EaT
l-v
1+n
(21)
nd2
EaT
oxl
(20)
(22)
l-v 2(n+l)(n+2)
l-v
(n+l)(n+2)
all fibres
2y
(1
(23)
n+l
erature distribution.
For
40C
30,000
MPa
when
(4350
(72F), the
ksi),
0.2,
10 x 10~s
tensile
C-1
stresses-in Fig. 6e are -7.14 and +2.4 MPa (-1.035 and +0.348 ksi).
The shape of the eigenstress distributions in I and box girders are of the same
form as in Fig. 6d or e. The tensile stress in the central part of the height
can produce cracks in the webs which are usually heavily stressed due to shear
from gravity loads.
178
TOP)
n*2
CENTROID
d
EaT
ot
1-5-1
l-v
"o
7 ,"
lT(--
clSTRESSES
bWARIATION OF TEMPERATURE
OVER THE DEPTH
OF SLAB
olCROSS SECTION
BRIDGE
RESTRAINT
0.300
MULTIPLIER
IN
THE
STATE
0.476
.EjlL
I-
0.16
0.125
0.200
0.190
DUE
TO
0975
MULTIPLIER
1.012
CONTINUITY
STRESS
EaT
EIGNSTRESS
0.135
0.125
^_ 0.475
SECTION OVER
SUPPORT OF A TWO-
THE CENTRAL
SPAN SLAB BRIDGE
RISE VARYING AS A
THIRD DEGREE
EIGENSTRESS
0.343
MTOTAL STRESSES IN
Fi&
CONTINUITY
STRESS
DUE
TO
TEMP.
OF
PARABOLA
glTOTAL STRESS
THE CENTRAL
IN SECTION OVER
SUPPORT OF A TWOSPAN SLAB BRIDGE DUE TO TEMP.
RISE VARYING AS A PARABOLA OF
FIFTH DEGREE
and 2)
In some circumstances when the temperature of the top surface of the slab drops
suddenly as a result, say, of a deposited layer of hail during a summer day,
tensile eigenstresses may be induced at the top and bottom fibres. These
stresses when added to stresses from other loading conditions, may cause cracks
at une or the other of the exterior surfaces of the slab.
9.
CONTINUITY STRESSES
ox
EI
(24)
Substitution of
ox
using Eqs.
n
T
(l-v)I
If
15 and 17
179
gives
(25)
y dy
the
same
bridge is
made
and
-i
ZERO REACTIONS
-"*
CURVATURE
AND MOMENTS
*,.
'
tl-fll
\Ty
dy
MULTIPLIERS
REACTIONS
Ji.
t3/2
rk
&
J6/5
/5
*
9/7
JBr
MOMENTS
j|16/5 $J6/5
t6/5
El
t 3/2 REACTIONS
3/2
*.
MOMENTS
-^-
12/7
9/7
:j6/7
6/7
REACTIONS
MOMENTS
SR
l 12/7
%
^9/7
REACTIONS
MOMENTS
9/7
H^
'24/19
^30/19
24/19
Fig.
T6/I9
18/19
6/19
18/19
30/19
24/19
f 24/19
REACTIONS
MOMENTS
180
The
curvature in
The
3n
moment
I V
fc
The
total
(26)
d(l-v) l(n+l)(n+2)-
continuity
#'
2aT
3n
(27)
4(l-v) l(n+l)(n+2)J
are the
sum
of the stres
30,000 MPa
ses due to M and the eigenstresses (Figs. 6d and e). For E
(4350 ksi), v
0.2, a - 10 x IO"6 "C"1 (5.56 x IO"6 "F"1) and T 40C (72F),
the extreme fibre stresses in Fig. 6g are -15.18 and +5.175 MPa (-2.2 and +0.75
ksi).
10.
lOO
500
5PRING
WINTER
SUMMER
900
230-
BOO-
roo200
130-
-60
TEMPERATURE
600
500
SOLAR
RADIATION
400-
"
100
30-
300-
--20
2007
z.
-0
<
/.-
--50
00
MIDNIGHT
-20
10
12
MMN
^
MIDNIGHT
DAYTIME I IHOURS)
Fig.
sin n(t-9)
12
Ta(t)
181
(28)
the hour of the day; A is the amplitude or one-half the daily rnge
of air temperature; and B is the average daily temperature. The average tem
perature B may take any arbitrary value without affecting the stresses.
where
t is
Fig. 9b.
40-
Ifj23
[0 16
0.5
2.4m
30-
'o
0.5
4:zm ,|
5.2
Um
\
NS
5r
0-
J_
_L
J_
10
MIDNIGHT
*-~i
r''.J.
WINTER
12
J_
J_
J_
10
OfllENTATlONS
DAYTIME I (HOURS)
OF THERMAL CURVATURE FOR
60
DIFFERENT
AND
70
80
DIFFERENT
SEASONS
I00.CF)
90
12
MIDNIGHT
NOON
olHOURLY VARIATION
50
VN$*\ \
VV\
//
////
'-.
\\V*^ ^y//
r....-/ /
0-
Y
SPR
NSSs
0.2
0.4
P 3
uj 4
-0.8
--I.2
1.6
TENSION
COMPRESSION
12.25
'5
10
15
20 25 30 33 40 PC)
TEMPERATURE
-1.6 -0.8
0.8
EIGENSTRESS
1.6
tr.
Fig.
CONDITIONS
(y22.3*)
Effect of
182
difference
between
0.2 -
''>>>>>!>>>
> >
'''''
-'
~"
.014m
\.5 m
3.0
.l.5m.i
CROSS- SECTION
-20
EIGENSTRESS
30 -C
TOTAL
0)
TEMPERATURE
STRESS
0.2
CONCRETE
STRESS
MPo
-0.2 kll
STEEL
STRESS
100
MPo
blSTRESSES
15
Fig.
10
10.2
ksi
11
one web
of
ambient
air.
20
15
IO
30
23
33
45
40
50
y--r^z#
-0.4
60,
55
(27'F)
(36'FI
A'IO'C (18 "Fl
A'15'C
A-20#C
0.3
=4S
_iai_8
35
iii4- -12
.0.5
CROSS-SECTION
>JK--i
i-2 25
0) TEMPERATURE
03
'I
-02
^s-^
-0.4
A'IO'C UB'Fl.
I 5-
-OB
4--l.2
-1.6
COMPRESSION
i
-0j3
0.8
11
i2
y'f
\
io*c(ia-f ]
A-IS*C127'F1
rA'20*C (36*Fl
K>.
TENSION
1,1.1
i_i
-0.8
TENSION
COMPRESSION
blEIGENSTRESS
Fig.
I
/.-
A.|3*C(27'F)
i'
A-20"C<36#F)
L2.25
0 3 (kn)
0 2
.i.i.i
0.8
clCONTINUITY
STRESS
1.6
^
20'
(MPo)
0.2
30-
STEEL TEMPERATURE
dtEB^m
'tU."""Lll.""
20 ~
.1.5m.
3.0m
|,l.5nn
AMBIENT AIR
TEMPERATURE
MIDNIGHT
JVERAGE
CONCRETE
TEMPERATURE
12
NOON
DAYTIME
Fig.
12
HOURS!
183
184
10.3
Effect of
Wind Speed
o
OjOm
55-
^F
300.3
03
,2.4m|
2m
3.2
2J
X <e
?0-
/
//
//
>t. X'.
'*
.-
^
%x
I
-2'"0
K>
12
DAYTIME
oJHOURLY
VARIATION
TEMPERATURE
L'4
..|2 9mA(4lfl/i)
88T(40 4'FI
-0.8
.40m/i
113
9
|
4 0 m l\
v ( 0 m/t
'
n.a
1
'
Itt/t)
j/
COMPRESSION
TENSION
~Tv^^^*^
-4
TEMPERATURE T PC)
13
""
vIZm/t
-8
12
(HOURS)
OF THERMAL CURVATURE
-0.4
Fig.
10
MIDNIGHT
-0 2 -9|
DJ
MMN
MDNIGHT
-1.8
-OB
EIGENSTRESS
OB
n, IMPol
1.6
AND EIGENSTRESS
TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTIONS ALONG THE CENTRE
LINE OF ONE WEB CORRESPONDING TO MAXIMUM CURVATURE
(AT 4O0p.iT,.]
Effect of
and
*
35D
25
'S*
o_ia
0
4 2
LUH
^\
/^
/
N
Ein
2m
^ev
N.
V
4/
i
12
10
MIDNIGHT
10
l( HOURS]
DAYTIME
0 I HOURLY
SCn.03
-0.2
50mm(2-inl ASPHALT
COVER
NO
'
COVER
NO
COVER
50mml2-io) ASPHAU
COVER
SNOW
iTi
COVER
SNOW
'
a.i
-0.1
-on
J4--I.2;
12
MIDNIGHT
NOON
COVER
7-223
-12
-18
-4
-8
TEMPERATURE
b) TEMPERATURE
LINE
(AT
Fig.
14
AND
OF ONE WEB
8
T
12
'
r^gf
-0.8
-16
PC)
EIGENSTRESS
0.8
(MPo)
1.61
4'00pmJ
0)
6.00
40-
1.5m
WHITE
!.0m
-0.014
15m
STEEL
(o-0.151
TEMPERATURE
.".
20RUSTY
Jo-0 6851
100XI0I2ED (u-0.951
AVERAGE CONCRETE
TEMPERATURE
2
0
MIDNIGHT
_L
_i_
--
10
12
NOON
DAYTIME I (HOURS)
Fig.
15
185
186
that concrete bridges of the same depth but with the cross sec
in Fig. 16 have almost the same temperature distribution,
eigenstresses and curvature. On the other hand, the temperature distribution
varies considerably with the section depth. Figure 18 indicates that eigen
stresses are higher when the depth is larger.
and
It can be shown that continuity stresses depend on the product of the depth
The relationship between the non-dimensional product u>d and the
curvature (i)id)
depth d is shown in Fig. 19 for the bridge sections in Fig. 16. The highest con
tinuity stress is for the bridge with a depth 0.5 m (1.6 ft).
The increase in the depth of the composite bridges increases the area of the
steel web exposed to the sun and hence the temperature difference between the
steel and concrete. A decrease in the length of the overhangs has a similar
effect on the temperature difference.
17 shows
Figure
tion
shapes shown
0.4
*Y/////////////m.
70
10
o) SOLID SLAB
0.2 d
^Va
7777^'
-I
20 25 30 33 40
TEMPERATURE T [*C
13
0.9 d
XzzzW^r
vir
!&*$ / tt
-0.1
00.1 0.2
.(ksi)
24 -1.6-03 0 0.8
1.6
EIGENSTRESS er,
MPo)
60 70
50
60 90
jl'F)
100
-0 2
-9,3 |-ViL
Io,
20 29 50
10 15
SLAB
-1.6-0 8 0 0.8
EIGENSTRESS
50 60
i/T
c) BOX-GIRDER
er.
tMPo)
tr/^r-
40
(C
TEMPCRATURt
V/VtWVV
55
02 ilM.)
LjI"
ZZZz2ZZZZZZ=|
..5.2
16
2
|
I
i
lOm
Fig.
-0
0.3
b) CELLULAR
ZZZ2
100 |(*F)
80 90 JOC_|f
70
80 90
;mi)
50
60
70
80
90
0 2
100 IC" Fl
Ol
0 3
0 Ol
02
ksi
SOLID SLAB*S*5\
CELLULAR SLABjf//
DEPTH
10m
BOX-GIRDER
aer
10
30 35 40
TEMPERATURE T PC)
15
20
25
-0.8 0
EIGENSTRESS
08
cfj,
(MPo)
100
I0~6
m
1
10
15
L^J
20 23 30 35 40
TEMPERATURE
24
-1.6
0 8
0 0.8 16
TfC
clBOX -GIRDER
SOLID SLAB
Fig.
17
CELLULAR SLAB
BOX - GIRDER
Variation of Temperature,
Fig.
18
Variation of Temperature
and Eigenstresses in Cross
Sections of Fig. 16 with
Different Depths (Summer
Conditions,
22.5)
187
Another major factor is the slope of the steel webs. Because of the smaller
ineidence angle of sun rays for sloped webs, the temperature differences dec
rease as the slope decreases.
The above results may be helpful in the development of code provisions or sim
plified rules for bridge design.
SOLID
SLAB
CELLULAR
SLAB
BOX - GIROER
I20-
0-
00
0.5
5.0 m
2.0
6.0
DEPTH
Fifc
11.
High
king
19
tensile stresses
will
due
have to occur.
the prestress force over the central support is relatively high resulting
in small compressive stress at the bottom fibre at service load levels, tempera
ture stresses may cause vertical cracks as shown in Fig. 20b. Partial prestres
sing and a sufficient amount of non-prestressed steel will help prevent or
alleviate the consequence of this cracking. Cracks parallel to the bridge axis
may occur in the bottom surface of the top slab due to thermal gradient through
the thickness of the deck (Fig. 20c). Horizontal cracks may also occur in the
web when significant horizontal thermal gradients exist through the web thick
ness (Fig. 20a)
Figure 21 illustrates the effect of cracking of concrete on the continuity mom
ents and the significance of thermal loading at both service and ultimate load
levels [22], As can be seen, at ultimate load, the thermal moments are consid
erably reduced and are of less significance than at service loads, due to non
linearity of the moment-curvature curve. Thus, it can be concluded that a feas
ible design would be to imply partial prestressing in combination with suffici
ent mild steel reinforcement and to rely on the reduction in flexural rigidity
due to cracking to reduce thermal moments. The maximum values of thermal
moments must, however, be considered for limit states of serviceability mainly
for dimensioning the reinforcement to ensure that the cracks are finely distri
when
limitations are
met.
DL Po
/V/V/V
..._.
CRACK
2ZZZZZZZZ2
?*
'AT SUPPORT A
b) VERTICAL
o) HORIZONTAL CRACKS IN
THE
NEAR
THE SUPPORT
WEB
I
SECTION
c
CRACKS
Fig.
20
CRACK
A-A
HORIZONTAL CRACKS AT
SURFACE OF THE DECK
SERVICE
LOAD
THE BOTTOM
SLAB
ULTIMATE
STATE
LIMIT
STATE
FAILURE
I
7M
T
'//7/SSS7
EFFECT
/1
CURVATURE
12.
2
|.
CURVATURE
|7+T
rj
Fig.
DUE TO
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
21
and
of
J%
iabse periodica
3/1983
189
of
ability
checks.
NOTATION
following
The
A
a
B
c
d
of elasticity
emissivity coefficient
overall heat transfer coefficient at surface
h(s,t)
h
W/(m2 C)
or
r (s,t)
and I
and k
M
M
W/(m C)
and n
os
and
and
t,
and y-axes
os
at time
y
1
oxl
F)
Btu/(h ft2 F)
solar radiation intensity on surface s at time t, W/m2 or
Btu/(h ft2)
moments of inertia of a cross section about its centroidal
I(s,t)
Ix
or Btu/(h ft2
"IC1*)
modulus
in this paper:
one-half of the daily air temperature rnge
solar radiation absorptivity coefficient
daily average of air temperature
oyl
(artificial)
end
(artificial)
restraining
moments
surface
190
q
q
and q
s
os
T*
T
t
a
v
p
and a
iabse periodica
3/1983
temperature
conversion temperature (Eq. 7)
air temperature
time or hour of the day
coefficient of thermal expansion, C-1 or F_1
Poisson's ratio
density of the material, kg/m3, or lb/ft3
stresses in the transverse and longitudinal directions, res
pectively, due to temperature when the strains are artificially
restrained
stresses in the transverse direction corresponding to removal
of artificial restraint
eigenstress
curvature in the vertical direction in
bridge, m_1 or ft-1
a
\\>
simply-supported
REFERENCES
1.
BERWANGER, C.
and SARKAR,
and Age on
the Ther
pp. 1-22.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
EMANUEL,
%
11.
12.
13.
14.
iabse periodica
3/1983
191
15.
LEONHARDT, F.
16.
LEONHARDT,
17.
18.
Inc.,
19.
20.
NEVILLE, A.M.,
1973.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Properties of Concrete,
2nd