38 Las 119 Equations of Motion, Problem Statement, and Solution Methods Chap. 1 Fig. P117. Each diagonal wir is pretensioned to high tes; it cross-sectional area is A and elastic modus is 2. Neglecting the mas ofthe columns and wires, drive the equation of ‘motion governing fee vibration in a) the x-direction, and (b) the ydiection, (Hint: Because Of high pretension, all wires contbute to the structural stiffness, like Example 1.2, where the braces in compression do not provide sifnes,) Figure PLAT Derive the equation of motion governing the torsional vibration ofthe system of Fig. PLAT bout the vertical axis passing throagh the center ofthe platform, ‘An automobile is erdely idealized as a lumped mass m supported ona sping-dmper sys tem as shown in Fig PII9. The automobile travels at constant speed v over a road whose ‘roughness is known asa fonetion of position along the road. Derive the equation of motion igure PLAS a 2 Free Vibration PREVIEW A structure is said to be undergoing free vibration when itis disturbed from its static equi- librium position and then allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. Tn this chapter We study free vibration leading to the notions ofthe natural vibration frequency ‘and damping ratio for an SDF system, We will see that the rate at which the motion decays, in free vibration is controlled by the damping ratio, Thus the analytical results describing free vibration provide a basis to determine the natural frequency and damping ratio of a structure from experimental data of the type shown in Fig, 1.14, ‘Although damping in actual structures is due to several energy-dissipating mech- anisms acting simultaneously, a mathematically convenient approach is 10 idealize them bby equivalent viscous damping. Consequently, this chapter deals primarily with viscously damped systems. However, free vibration of systems inthe presence of Coulomé friction forces is analyzed toward the end of the chapter. 2.1 UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION The motion of linear SDF systems, visualized as an idealized one-story frame or & mass~ spring-damper system, subjected to external force p(t) is governed by Ba, (1.52). Setting () = O gives the differential equation governing free vibration of the system, which for systems without damping (c = 0) specializes to mit + ku =0 4) 39cy Free Vibration Chap. 2 Free vibration is initiated by disturbing the system from its static equilibrium position by imparting the mass some displacement u(0) and velocity si(0) at time 2er0, defied as the instant the motion is initiated: (0) 0) @.12) ‘Subject to these initial conditions, the solution tothe homogeneous differential equation is ‘obvained by standard methods (see Derivation 2.1): u(t) = 40) COS amt + so) sinargt (2.1.3) — oe ua Equation (21.3) is plotted in Fig. 2.1.1. It shows thatthe system undergoes vibra- tory (or oscillatory) motion about is static equilibrium (or undeformed, v = 0) position and that this motion repeats itself after every 27r/ay, seconds. In particular, the state (is placement and velocity) of the mass at wo time instants, fy and fy + 2 /<, is identical: u(t) = ult, + 27/9) and ity) = a(t + 2a /oy) These equalities can easly be proved, starting with Eq, (2.1.3). The motion described by Eq (2.1.3) and shown in Fig. 2.1.1 is known as simple harmonic motion. ‘The portion a-b-c~d-e of the displacement -time curve describes one cycle of free vibration of the system, From its static equilibrium (or undeformed) position at a, the ‘mass moves to the right, reaching its maximum positive displacement up at B, at which time the velocity is zero and the displacement begins to decrease and the mass returns back to its equilibrium position c, at which time the velocity is maximum and hence the aap Amplitude, uy at DIL LA Le Figure 2.11 Free vibration of system witout damping. ‘Sec. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration “4 ‘mass continues moving tothe lef, reaching its minimum displacement —' a , at which Aime the velocity is again zero andthe displacement begins to decrease again andthe mass setums to its equilibrium position ate. At time instante, 2a seconds afer time instant a the state (displacement and velocity) ofthe mass is the same as it was atime instant, and the mass is ready to bepin another eye of vibration. ‘The time required forthe undamped system to compete one eycle of free vibration isthe natural period of vibration ofthe system, which We denote as Ty, in units of sec- ‘nds. It is elated to the natal circular frequency of vibration, yn nits of radians per second! (Ao 15) oe A system executes 1/T, cycles in 1 sec. This natural cyclic frequency of vibration is denoted by 1 i The units of f, are hertz (Hz) (cycles per second (cps); fy is obviously related 10 0, through Se 216 217 ‘The term natural frequency of vibration applies o both and fx ‘The natural vibration properties a, Tay and fy depend only on the mass and stiffness of the structure; se Eqs, 2.1.4) t0 2.1.6). The stifle of two SDF systems having the same mass will have the higher natural frequency andthe shorter natural period, Similarly, the heavier (more mass) of two structures having the same stiffess wil have the lower atc frequency and the longer natural period. The qualifier nateal is used in defining Ty, a, and fq {0 emphasize the fact that these are natural properties of the system whea itis allowed to vibrate freely without any extemal excitation. Because the system is ine these vibration propetics are independent ofthe inital displacement and velocity. The natural frequency and period ofthe various types of structures of interest to us vary over a ‘wide range, a shown in Figs. 1.10.1, 1.102, and 2.1 2a-f ‘The natural circular frequency wy, natural cyclic fequency f and natural period T, defined by Eqs. 2.14) wo @.1.6) canbe expressed inthe steratve form ie by where dy = mg/k, and where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is the static de- flection of the mass m suspended from a spring of stiffness k; it can be visualized as the system of Fig. 1.6.1 oriented in the vertical direction, In the context ofthe one-story frame ‘of Fig. 1.2.1, dy is the lateral displacement ofthe mass due to lateral force mg.Free Vibration Chap. 2 Figure 24.26 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, Cafomia, The fundunestl earl ‘rato pesos ofthis sospention ide withthe man span of 3200 faze 182 se for transerse vibration, 109 se fr vertical vibaion, 381 $2 for login vitro, 1nd 449 se for esol vibrton. ‘Thexevieton ropertie were deters’ fom recorded motions ofthe bide ender arin (rn, raf te) condoms (Cntesy of Interatosl Sacra Ses) Figure 241.2 Reinforced conte chimney, lcd in Armen, France, The fundarental natura vibration prod of is 250-migh coe) ie 357s was eemined fom reser of wind ndaced ‘tration, (Counesy of Chimaey (Consuls, Ine nd SITES S.A) ‘Soc. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration 45 The undamped system oscillates back and forth between the maximum displacement uy and minimum displacement ~ug, The magnitude u, ofthese two displacement values is the same; itis called the amplitude of motion and is given by 19) ‘The amplitude u, depends on the initial displacement and velocity. Cycle after cycle it remains the same; that i, the motion does not decay. We had mentioned in Section 1.1 this unrealistic behavior ofa system if a damping mechanism to represent dissipation of energy is not included. ‘The natural frequency ofthe one-story frame of Fig. 1.3.24 with lumped mass m and. columns clamped atthe base is z 24E I 2p +1 AE & oye i ped 2.1.10) ‘where the lateral stiffness comes from Eq, (1.3.5) and p = y/4/, For the extreme cases of a rigid beam, p = oo, and a beam with no stiffness, p =O, the latcralstiffnesses are given by Eqs. (1.3.2) and (1.3.3) and the natural frequencies are HET. E (yes = AEE (odoay = YEE @aay ‘The natural frequency is doubled 2s the beam-to-column stiffness ratio, p, increases from 0 to oo; its variation with p is shown in Fig. 2.1.3 ‘The natural frequency is similarly affected by the boundary conditions at the base ‘of the columns. If the columns are hinged at the base rather than clamped and the beam is rigid, «% = VOEL./mh®, which is one-half of the natural frequency of the frame with clamped-base columns. ny (Dp em iz iB os is (, € = 10% 10° 107 191 10° 10° 10 P igure 24.3. Vsti of mtr fen, a, wit beam 4o-clum sie rtin,p46 Free Vibration Chap. 2 Derivation 2.1 ‘The solution of Bg. (21.1), linear, homogeneous, second-order difleremial equation with ‘constant coefficients asthe Form @ ‘where the constant si unknown, Subsition into Ea, (2.1.1) gives (ms? + Be ‘The exponential erm is never zero, 50 the characteristic equation is ns? +8 Jom o hese = Y=T. The general solution of Eq (21.1)is = Are! + Ane” 0 m2 hich after substnting Eq, (b) becomes ue) = Aref Aertt © where Ay and Ap are constants yet undetermined, By using de Movee's theorem, Cp ee ee a a Equation (e) ean be rewritten as lt) = Acosent + Bsinayt ® ‘where A and B are constants yet undetermined. Equation () is differemtiated to obtain H(t) = ay A sina t + oy B coset © Evaluating Eqs. (8) and (c) a time zero gives the constants A and Min terms ofthe inital displacement w(0) and intial velocity a0) WO) (0) = 048 0 ‘Substituting for 4 and B from B. (0 ito Ea (@) leads tothe solution given in Eq. 2.1.3). Example 2.1 For the one-story industria building of Example 1.2, determine the nara circular frequency, natural eyelic frequency, and tur! period of vibration in (a) the north-south direction and (the east-west direction Solution (a) North-south dvcton: (ones Gv-s Undnes ‘Sec. 2.1 Undamped Free Vibration av (0) Bass-west direction Tew iden = ggg = 806 He Observe that the natural frequency is much higher (andthe natural period much shorter) in the east-west direction because the vertical bracing makes the system much stifer, although the columns ofthe frame are beading about their weak ais the vibrating mas isthe same in both directions, ‘Example 22 For the three-span box ginder bridge of Example 1.3, determine the natural circular frequency. natural eylic frequency, and natural period of vibration for longitudinal motion, Solution E _ 5880 om = 5 = yaa = 1097 rade th fe Example 23 Determine the natural eyclic frequency and the natural period of vibration of weight of 20 1b suspended as described in Example 14 Suton LE wade Bye Ls ae V Ta 19391 see4“ Free Vibration Chap. 2 ample 24 Consider ihe sytem described in Example 7 with 30fud = 206, h = 128 slab weight = 011 kip, and the lateral ifs of esc colar in the x and y disctions is hy = 1S snd fy = 1.0, both in kipsin. Determine the natural fequency end perio of wsional motion ‘Sout the vera aa Solution From Example 1.7, the torsional sites ke and he moment of inert Lo ae fy = hyd? yb? = 15(12)(207 + 1.0(12)80) = 18,000 ip ad IoamBt® _ 0.100 x 20) [ 20? + 20? aaa GD 1 | 201.86 kip sec 9.44 ad/sce fy = 149 1 see 2.2 VISCOUSLY DAMPED FREE VIBRATION Setting p(t) = 0 in Eq, (1.5.2) gives the differential equation governing free vibration of SDF systems with damping mit + oa +ku=0 (22.18) Dividing by m gives +2 ani balu=0 221) where wy = ETH as defined cartier and — 222) Bmae ~ Ger G22) We will refer to A er = De = 20 = 023) as the critical damping coefficient, for reasons that will appear shortly; and ¢ isthe damp- ing ratio ot fraction of erticat damping. The damping constant cis a measure of the energy dissipated in a cycle of free vibration or in a eycle of forced harmonic vibration (Section 3:8). However, the damping ratio—a dimensionless measure of damping —is a property ofthe system that also depends on its mass and stiffness, The differential equa- tion (2.2.1) can be solved by standard methods (similar to Derivation 2.1) forgiven intial displacement u(0) and velocity (0). Before writing any formal solution, however, we ‘examine the solution qualitatively. 2.2.4 Types of Motion Figure 2.2.1 shows a plot of the motion u(t) due to initial displacement u(0) for three values of ¢. If ¢ = tyr or f = 1, the system returns to its equilibrium postion with- ‘out oscillating. IF ¢ > cay £ > 1, again the system does not oscillate and retums to its ‘See, 2.2 Viscously Damped Free Vibration 49 Cia age ut Underdamped, 6 =0.1 Figure 22.1 Fie vibration of underiamped,cisly damped, and oecdamped sys equilibrium position, asin the £ = 1 case, but at a slower rate. Ife < cq or f < 1, the system oscillates about its equilibrium position with a progressively decreasing amplitude ‘The damping coeficient cq is called the critical damping coefficient because itis the smallest value of c that inhibits oscillation completely. It represents the dividing line between oscillatory and nonoscllatory motion, ‘The rest ofthis presentation is restricted to underdamped systems (c < ca) because structures of interest—buildings, bridges, dams, nuclear power plants, offshore structures, ctc.—all fall into this category, as typically, their damping ratio is less than 0.10. ‘There. fore, we have little reason to study the dynamics of critically damped systems (c ~ cx) 0F ‘overdamped systems (c > ca). Such systems do exist, however; for example, recoil mech- anisms, such as the common automatic door closer, are overdamped; and instruments usedd to measure steady-state values, such as a scale measuring dead weight, are usuelly critic cally damped. Even for automobile shock absorber systems, however, damping is usually less than half of extical, ¢ < 0.5, 2.2.2 Underdamped Systems ‘The solution to Eq, (2.2.1) subject to the inital conditions of Eq. (2.1.2 for systems with © < e and B, are determined from the conditions at the beginning ofthis half-cycle: A,=u(0)-3up =O Substituting these in Bq. (2.4.4) gives u(t) =[wO) —3up]oosant — up foe $1 2/ore 246) “This is plotted in Fig. 2.4.2; its @ cosine funtion with reduced amplitude = (0) ~ 3ur and shifted in the negetive u direction by up. Equation (2.4.6) is valid until the velocity becomes zero again at = 27 fay = Ty (Fig. 24.2) at this time instant u = u(0) ~ dite "Att = 2a /ovs the motion reverses and is described by Eq, (2.4.2), which after eval- uating the constants 4; and Bj becomes 4() = (uO) Suplcosant tur 2 /oy StS 3nfom AT See. 24 — Caulomb-Damped Free Vibration 59 Linear decay 40) [igure242 Fre vibration of system with Coulom fiton This is a cosine function with its amplitude reduced further to u(0) ~ Su» and shifted, as before, in the positive w direction by up ‘The time taken foreach half-cycle is /a, and the duration of a full cycle, the natural period of vibration, is 2n (Observe thatthe natural period of a system with Coulomb damping i the same as forthe system without damping. In contrast, viscous damping had the effect of lengthening the natural period [Eg. 2.2.6) In each cycle of motion, the amplitude is reduced by 4p; that is, the displacements uy and ug at suecessive maxima are related by 248) og = — 4p 49) ‘Thus the envelopes of the displacement-time curves are straight lines, as shown in Fig.2.4.2, instead ofthe exponential functions for systems with viscous damping, ‘When does the free vibration of a system with Coulomb friction stop? In each eyele the ampliuue is reduced by 4up. Motion stops atthe end of the half-cyele for which the amplitude is less than 1p. At that point the spring force acting on the mass is less than the friction force, ku < F, and motion ceases. In Fig. 24. this occurs atthe end of the third cycle. The final rest position of the mass is displaced from its original equilibrium position and represents a permanent deformation in which the friction force and spring force are locked in. Shaking or tapping the system will usually jar it suficiently to restore equilibrium, ‘Damping in real structures must be due partly to Coulomb friction, since only this ‘mechanism cen stop motion in free vibration. Ifthe damping were purely viscous, motion theoretically continues forever, although at infinitesimally small amplitudes. This is an scademic point, but itis basic fo an understanding of damping mechanisms, ‘The various damping mechanisms that exist in real structures are rarely modled individually. In particular, the Coulomb fictional forces that must exist ae not considered ‘explicitly unless frictional devices have been incorporated in the structure, Even with such66 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Exctations Chap. 3 PART A: VISCOUSLY DAMPED SYSTEMS: BASIC RESULTS 3.1, HARMONIC VIBRATION OF UNDAMPED SYSTEMS A harmonic force is p(t) = p, sin or pe cos. where pa isthe amplitude or maximum value ofthe force and is frequency « is called the exciting frequency ot forcing frequency: T = 2n/o is the exciting period of forcing period (Fig, 3.1.18). The response of SDF systems to a sinusoidal force will be presented in some detail, along with only brief com- ‘ments on the response to a cosine force because the concepIs involved are similar in the ‘Setting p(t) = po sin in Eq (1.5.2) gives the differential equation governing the forced harmonic vibration of the system, which for systems without damping, specializes to mil+ ku = posinot Ly “This equation is to be solved for the displacement or deformation u(t) subject to the init conditions 0) t= 4) 12) ‘where u(0) and (0) are the displacement and velocity atthe time instant the force is applied. The particular solution to this differential equation is (see Derivation 3.1) ut) = sinot — wo 6.13) £1 Glen? “The complementary solution of Bq 1.1) is the free vibration response determined in Eq, (0) of Derivation 2. Nel) = Acosant + Bsinagt G14) and the complete solution i the sum ofthe complementary and particular solutions y= Acooye + Binoy + nwt GS) T= Jan) “The constants A and B are determined by imposing the initial conditions, Eq. (3.1.2), t0 ‘obvain the final result (see Derivation 3.1) 18m Dee (= morcosont + [ elo non we pee Pe) net 3.1.60 El wae (oe) ‘eady state See. 3.1. Harmonic Vibration of Undamped Systems 7 ? Amplitude, p, ae ‘Total response ‘Steady-state response WO He ° os 1 1s ur Fer 344, (lara 9 pone angen wef (u(O) = 0, and (0) = ay poh. fessolen = 02 Equition (1.64) has bon plated for way = 02, w(0) = 0 nd 0) for afoy = 02, 0) = 0, and iO) = onpe/k the solid tin in Fig. 3.1.1. "Te sino term in his equation i ie aclar slates ot Ey. (3.13) ands sown ty the dashed ine uation 1.62) and Fig 311 show that u() contins two distinc vitation come ponent: (1) the sin tem, giving an osilaton at he forcing or enc r cng or excing frequency, 4nd ©) te snot and cosa tems, giving anos at ead toe ee sosem. Theft ofthese ithe forced vation or tends iron fe cee Because of te applied force no mater what the nial condor The late ee oon sient vibration, which depends onthe ial displacement and vel, I ext eee MO) = 0) ~O,in which eae BCL) spain 0 We68 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitaions Chap. 9 ‘The tansient component is shown as the difference between the solid and dashed lines in Fig. 3.11, where itis seen to continue forever. This is only an academic point because the damping inevitably present in real systems makes the free vibration decay with time (Section 3.2). Itis for this reason thet this component is called transient vibration. ‘The steady-state dynamic response, a sinusoidal oscillation atthe forcing frequency, may be expressed a5, ue wo. [ rca ene aan Ignoring the dynamic effects signified by the acceleration term in Eq, (3.1.1) gives the static deformation (indicated by the subscript “st” at each instant: =P sine uao= G18) Tejon ‘The maximum value ofthe static deformation is Pa ade = G19) “which may be interpreted asthe static deformation due to the amplitude p, ofthe force; for Drevity we will refer 10 (4a). &8 the static deformation. The factor in brackets in Eq. (3.1.7) hhas been plotted in Fig. 3.1.2 against o/ay, the ratio ofthe forcing frequency to the natural frequency. For w/a, < 1 oF @ < iy this factor is postive indicating that u(t) and p(t) have the same algebraic sign (.c., when the force in Fig. 1 21a acts tothe right, the system. ‘would also be displaced to the right). The displacement is said to be in phase with the applied force. For w/i, > 1 of a > oy this factor is negative, indicating that u(t) and [= (oa?) 0 1. 2 3 Frequency ratio o/ Figore 31.2 uel ude Deformation response factor Ra Phase angle ¢ ‘Sec. 3.1 Harmonie Vibration of Undamped Systems 69 ‘p(t have opposing algebraic signs (i.e, when the force aets tothe right, the system would be displaced tothe left). The displacement is said to be out of phase relative tothe applied force. To describe this notion of phase mathematically, Eq. (3.1.7) i rewritten in terms of the amplitude u of the vibratory displacement u(t) and phase angle ¢: HD) = uasinlor ~ 6) = (uoResin(wt ~ 6) G19) where Me ! md gaf{% ay, 6 = 180°, indicating thatthe displacement varies as —sinw, cut of phase relative to the force. This phase angle is shown in Fig. 3.13 asa function of the frequency ratio c/a. at | + 4 Mianre313-efimion esos aoe ‘piglet nape Frequency ratio @/ @y ‘excited by harmonic foece. a0 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations Chap. 3 ‘The deformation (or displacement) response factor Ry is the ratio ofthe amplitude up of the dynamic (or vibratory) deformation to the static deformation (uy),. Figure 3.13, which shows Eq. (3.1.11a) for Ry plotted as a function ofthe frequency ratio w/a, permits several observations: If w/a, is small (Le, the force is “slowly varying”), Ry is only slightly Iarger than I and the arapitude ofthe dynamic deformation is essentelly the sare 7 2 the static deformation, Ifeo/o, > V2 (Le. is higher than @4./2), Re <1 andthe dynamic deformation aroplitide fs less than the static deformation, As oo, increases beyond V2, Ry becomes smaller and approaches zero a8 «/ay —r 00, implying that the vibratory deformation due toa “rapidly varying” force is very small Ife is close to (ie. a is close tow), Ry is many times larger than 1, implying tha te deformation amplitude is much larger than the static deformation. ‘The resonant frequency is defined as the forcing frequency at which Re is maxi- ‘mum. For an undamped system the resonant frequency is «, and Ry is unbounded at this frequency. The vibratory deformation doesnot become unbounded immediately, however, but gradually, as we demonstrate next. If @ = di, the solution given by Bq, (3.1.60) 6 no longer vali In this case the choice ofthe funetion Csinar fora particular solution fils because iis also a part ofthe complementary solution, The particule soation no is w= —Bemtcort oem ony and the complete solution for at-rest initial conditions, u(0) tion 3.2) 0) 0, is (see Deriva: 1 po. un) (ont cos at ~ sin oy) G13) G13) ‘This result is ploted in Fig. 3.1.4, which shows that the time taken to complete one cycle of vibration is T,. The local maxima of u(t), which occur at ¢ = j(Ts/2. are xj —1/2)(ug)o—j = 1, 2, 3, --.—and the local minima, which occur at ‘= js. are —1 j(ug)o—} = 1, 2, 3, ..-. In each eyele the deformation amplitude increases by 0 [yet |~ Lat I= Ceol (i + 9) — ef} = "Pe ‘The deformation amplitude grows indefinitely, but it becomes infinite only after an in finitely long time ‘This isan academic result and should be interpreted appropriately for real structures. {As the deformation continues fo increase, at some point in time the system would fail if is brittle. On the other hand, the system would yield if it is duct, its stiffness would crease, and its “natural frequency” would no longer be equal to the forcing frequency, and Eq, (3.1.13) or Fig. 3.1.4 would no longer be valid, Sec. 3.1. Harmonic Vibration of Undamped Systems n ae “t, Fare 314 Reon of waned stew sii oso ny = a) = Derivation 3 ‘The parca solution of Ba. ..1, liner second-order ferential equation, is ofthe form ipl) = Cina © Difleeniating this twice gives gf?) = -0FCsinat oy Substiaing Eqs. (a) and (bin the differential equation (3.1.1) leads toa solution for C: kh = ofon) Q ee eee Reerececerrerrs carracenes ns , mi todoint + Beat pee : & (eer)? a Tem ein pane) p= Hp C oy E T= (wont which are substituted in Eq, (3.1.5) to obtain Fa. (3.1.60,R Response to Harmonic and Periodic Exctations Chap. 3 Derivation 32 cs = ty the particular solution of Ea (3.1.1) 8 of the fem p(t) = Creosant ® Substituting Eq, (0) in Eq (3.1.1) and solving for yields c= Fey ® ‘whic is combined with Eg, (a) to obtain the particular solution, Eg. 1.12), “Thus the complete solution is a u(Q) = Acosont + Beings ~ Pet coset o sod the corresponding velocity is > iff) = ~ayA sinc +a Beosant ~ Loan cos ant + Peat inant © Evaluating Eqs. €) and (@) at and solving the resoking gtr intions ies 10), be raed “OB Specialitng for a-rest intl conditions Ano Which are substituted in Eq.) t obtain Eq, 31.138) 3.2 HARMONIC VIBRATION WITH VISCOUS DAMPING 3.2.1 Steady-State and Transient Responses Including viscous damping the differential equation governing the response of SDF systems to harmonic Force is mil +e + hu = po sinaot @21) ‘This equation is to be solved subject to the initia conditions x) (0) 22) ‘The particular solution of this differential equation i (from Derivat up(t) = Csinat + Deoser 23) where cu (w/o)? K 1 @/oP? +RE@/o)P 62 Po =2wfon ‘k= Jo, P +25 /o)P ‘The complementary solution of Eq. (3.2.1) isthe free vibration response given by Eq. (8) of Derivation 22 S0(4 coswn! +B sinwpt) 0) ‘Sec. 32 Harmonic Vibration with Viscous Damping nm couy/T =F. The complete solution of Ea (3.2.1) Ue) = (Acosaot + Bsinwpt)+Csinat +Deosat (3.25) ‘ransiont ‘sendy stato where the constants A and B can be determined by standard procedures (se Deriva- tion 3.1) in terms ofthe inital displacement u(0) and inital velocity (0). As noted in Section 3.1, u() contains two distinct vibration components: forced vibration or steady sate vibration, and transient vibration. Equation (3.25) is plotted in Fig. 3.2.1 for way) = 02, £ = 005, u(0) = 0, and {(0) = depo/k; the total esponse is shown bythe solid line and the steady-state response by the dashed line. The difference berwezn the two is the transient response, which decays exponentially with time at arate depending on w/o. and &; compat this with no decay {or undamped systems in Fig. 3.1. After awhile, essentially the forced response rensins, and we therefore ell it steady-state response and focus oni forthe rest of this chapter (after Section 3.2.2). It should be recognized, however, that te largest deformation peak ‘may occur before the system has reached steady state; see Fig, 3.2.1 2 Total response Steady-state esponse HO 1Hade 2 ° os 1 1s 2 ur Figure 32.1 Response of damped system to humic fe; aay = 02, § = 005, Derivation 33 Dividing Eq. 2.1) by m gives H+ Dee + of = 2 sina @ ‘The particular solation of Ea, (8) ofthe form spt) = Csina + Deosar ©™ Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitations Chap. 3 ‘Substituting Eq, (b) and its irs and second derivatives in Eq, (2) gives [ed — eC — 2400] sinant + [2armOC + (oe ~ 0”) ) Dycos o For Bq. (6) tobe valid forall, the coefficients ofthe sine and cosine terms onthe two sides ofthe equation must be equal, This egutement gives two equations in Cand D which fer Aividing by and using the relation = az, become [-@-es)-# . Ga)eo[-()] Solving the two algebraic equations (4) and (e leads to Bg (3.2.4), © 3.2.2 Response for w = wa In this section we examine the role of damping in the rate at which steady-state response is attained and in limiting the magnitude ofthis response when the forcing frequency is the same as the natural frequency. For @ = oy, Eg. (3.2.4) gives C = 0 and D ()o/26% for & = a and 2210 initial conditions, the constants A and B in Eq. (3.25) ccan be determined: A = (ug)o/2% and B = (ua)o/2/1 —€. With these solutions for A, B,C, and D, Eq. (3.25) becomes. 1 HUD) = (uadose fe (cos@mnt + (0) = (none [ ( Fi ‘This result is plotted in Fig. 3.2.2 fora system with £ = 0.05. A comparison of Fig. 3.2.2 ‘or damped systems and Fig, 3.14 for undamped systems shows that damping lowers each peak and limits the response to the bounded value: sooo!) - sve 626 (ude Made 27 a 827 For lightly damped systems the sinusoidal term in Fg, (3.2.6) is small and wp ~ ay; thus 40, 1 uadogelee! = Neos oat G28) — ‘envelop fonction ‘The deformation varies with time as a cosine function, with its amplitude increasing with ‘time according to the envelope function shown by dashed lines in Fig. 32.2 “The amplitude ofthe steady-state deformation of a system to a harmonic force with o, and the rate at which steady state is attained is strongly influenced by damping. Soc. 3.2 Harmonie Vibration wth Viscous Damping 8 20 Envelope curves Steady-state amplitude Figure 3.22. Response of damped system with ¢ = 0.05 to snot fre of fequesy w = uy: 0) = i)» 0 30 » ut Figure 323 Response of ree sytm—f = 0.01, 005, and 01-4 soul fore of frequency w = ay: a0) = a0) =O, ‘The important influence of the demping ratio on the amplitude is seen in Fig. 3.2.3, where Bq, (3.2.6) is plotted for three damping ratios: £ = 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1. To study how the response builds up to steady stale, we examine the peak u; after j cycles of vibration. A relation between u; and j can be writen by substituting t = j7, in Fa, (3.2.8), setting cosconf = 1, and using Eg. (3.2.7) to obtain 829) ‘This relation is plotted in Fig, 3.2.4 for ¢ = 0401, 0.02, 0:05, 0.10, and 0.20. The discrete points are joined by curves to identify trends, but only integer values of j are meaningful16 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Exctations Chap. 3 02, Ve ° 10 Ed 30 ry so j= numberof cycles igure 324 Varin of rxgonte anplinde with umber of eyces of harmosi ore wih equeey = on ‘The lighter the damping, the larger is the number of eycles required to reach a certain percentage of u,, the steady-state amplitude. For example, the number of cycles required 1 reach 95% of u, is 48 for ¢ = 0.01, 24 for £ = 0.02, 10 for ¢ = 0.05, § for ¢ = 0.10, and 2 for ¢ = 0.20. 9.2.3 Maximum Deformation and Phase Lag ‘The steady-state deformation of the system due to harmonic fore, described by Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.4), can be rewritten as NG) = uo sin(ot — 9) = (ua)o Ra sin(cot = 6) 2.10 where up = VOT DF and = tan“!(—D/C), Substituting for C and D gives pee 21 (ado YI = @/an?F + 25 (@/on)P n1 2g (w/eon) i eiek G21 = tar Equation (3.2.10) is plotted in Fig. 3.2.5 for three values of w/o, and a fixed value of {= 0.20, The values of Ry and 4 computed from Eqs. (3.2.11) and (3.2.12) are identified. ‘Also shown by dashed lines isthe static deformation [Eq. (3.1.8)] due to p(0), which varies ‘with time just as does the applied force, except for the constant k. The steady-state motion is seen to occur atthe forcing period 7 = 2 /o, but with atime lag = ¢/2; 4 is called the phase angle ot phase lag. ‘See, 32 Harmonic Vibration with Viscous Damping ()0/@,=05 1, Dynamic: (ade State: Mal) (uae Woro=t ky=25 ur [igure325_ Stay-snte respons of damped stems (¢ = 02) to sausoidal face fore values ft fequeey rt: () fay = 05,00) 2/04 = 1 (0) 2/0 77 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Exctatons Chap. 3 to Deformation response factor Re Phase angle 1 2 3 Frequency ratio @/ a, Figure 32 Defomation sponse fatr and phase angle fr a damped sytem excited by harmonic orc. A plot of the amplitude of a response quantity against the excitation frequency is called a frequency-response curve, Such a plot for deformation w is given by Fig. 3.2.6, wherein the deformation response factor Ry {from Eq. (3.2.11)] is ploted as a funetion ‘of c/a for a few values of f; all the curves are below the £ = O curve in Fig. 3.13. Damping reduces Ry and hence the deformation amplitude at all excitation frequencies. Sec. 82 Harmonie Vibration with Viscous Damping cn) ‘The magnitude of this reduction is strongly dependent on the excitation frequency and is ‘examined next for three regions ofthe excitaion-frequency scale Tf the frequency ratio w/a « 1 (ie. T >> Ty implying thatthe force is “slowly verying”), Rg is omy slightly larger than 1 and is essentially independent of damping. Thus We ~ (Uae 2.13) E ‘This result implies thatthe amplitude of dynamic response is essentially the same as the static deformation and is controlled by the stiffness ofthe system. 2. Wa/a, > 1 (ie, T « Tn, implying thatthe force is “rapidly varying”), Re tends to 2er0 as bo, increases and is essentially unaffected by damping. For large values (of w/a, the (1o/t0,)* term is dominant in Eq. (3.2.11), which can be approximated by He (wads 214 ‘This result implies thatthe response is controlled by the mass ofthe system. 3. If ofa = 1 (ie. the forcing frequency is close wo the natural frequency of the system), Ry is very sensitive to damping and, for the smaller damping values, Ry can be several limes larger than 1, implying thatthe arupitude of dynamic response can be much larger than the static deformation. If @ =, Eq. (3.2.11) gives (Ce = 215) ‘This result implies that the response is controlled by the damping of the system. ‘The phase angle 6, which defines the time by which the response lags behind the force, varies with w/a as shown in Fig. 3.2.6, It is examined next for the same three regions of the excitation-frequency scale. 1. Thay < 1 (ie, the force is “slowly varying”), ¢ is close to O° and the dis- placement is essentially in phase with the applied force, as in Fig. 3.2.52. When the force in Fig. 1.2.1a acts tothe right, the system would also be displaced tothe right. 2. Wwf 3 1 (ie. the force is “rapidly varying”), ¢ is close to 180° and the displacement is essentially out of phase relative to the applied foree, as in Fig. 3.2.5. ‘When the force acts to the right, the system would be displaced tothe left 3, Has/tay = | (i.e. the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency), 6 = 90° for all values of &, and the displacement attains its peaks when the force passes through zeros, as in Fig. 32.50. ‘Example 3 ‘The displacement amplinide up of an SDF system due to harmonic force is known fortwo excitation frequencies. At = y, uo = Sin: at @ = Say, wp = 002 in, Estimate the ‘damping ratio of the system.% Aspnes omens and Pade Excttene Chap Seon Avon tombe 219, valores ® A= ou tom 62.) went ® From Bq, (), sy = 05 in, Substtating in Ea. (3) gives ¢ 3.2.4 Dynamic Response Factors In this section we introduce deformation (or displacement), velocity, and acceleration response factors that are dimensionless and define the amplitude of these three response ‘quantities. The steady-state displacement of Bq. (3.210) is repeated for convenience: 0) Dolk Where the deformation response factor Rg is the ratio ofthe amplitude u of the dynamic (6 vibratory) deformation tothe static deformation (ta)o: see Bg. (3.2.11) Differentiating Eq. (3.2.16) gives an equation for the velocity response: io) Polen ‘where the velocity response factor Ry is related to Ry by = Rysin(wt ~ 9) 62.16) Ry costot ~ 9) 6219 R= ek 2.18) a Differentiating Bq, (3.2.17) gives an equation for the acceleration response: a) ee) 6219 palm where the acceleration response factor Re seated to Ry by n= (2) ku 6220 on Observe from Eq, (3.2.19) that Re isthe ratio ofthe amplitde ofthe vibratory acceleration tothe acceleration due 0 fore p acting onthe mas. “The dynamic response factors Ry, Ry, and Re ate ploted as functions of «on in Fig. 327. The plots of R, and Rare new, bu the one for Ry i the sme as that in Fig. 3.26. The deformation response factor Ry is unity at = 0, peak a ey < 1, and approaches 2c a fa,» 00. Te velocity response factor R, is 270 an = O. peaks st w/e = I, and approaches zero s/n —> 00. The acceleration response factor FR i 210 at w/o, = 0, peaks at wey > 1, and approaches imity as 1/0 > 00. For £5 1/V2 no peak occurs for Ry and Re ‘Sec. 3.2 Harmonic Vibration wth Viscous Damping at 2001 01 02 » oor % 0a © r ? 3 Frequency ratio © / igure 32:7 Dsfoontion, veloc, and acceleaon response factors for 8 damped sytem cried by harmonic re. @221) make it possible to present all thee factors ina single graph. The R,-a/ay data in the linear plot of Fig. 32.7b are replotted as shown in Fig. 3.28 on four-way logarithmic graph paper. The Ry and R, values can be read from the diagonally oriented logarithmic scales that ae different from the vertical scale for Ry. This compact presentation makes it82 Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitaions Chap. 3 Velocity response factor Ry hr ost Frequency ratio / Figure 228 Fourvay logarihmic plot of deformation, veloiy, and sccleation ‘esgonse factors fr «damped sytem ected by harmonic oe, possible to replace the three linear plots of Fig. 3.2.7 by a single plot. The concepts under. lying construction ofthis four-way logarithmic graph paper are presented in Appendix 3 3.2.5 Resonant Frequencies and Resonant Responses: [A resonant frequency is defined as the forcing frequency at which the largest response amplinde oocurs, Figure 32.7 shows thatthe peaks in the frequency-response curves for displacement, velocity, and acceleration occur at lightly different frequencies, These resonant frequencies can be determined by sting 0 ero the it derivative of Ray Re and Re With respect to «/e4; for £ < 1/-/2 they are: Displacement resonant frequency: ey/T= 3k? Velocity resonant frequency: o ‘Acceleration resonant frequency: wy + y/T 2 For an undamped system the three resonant frequencies are identical and equal tothe natural frequency a, of the system. Intuition might suggest thatthe resonant frequencies Sec. 32 Harmonie Vibration with Viscous Damping ry fora damped system should be at its natural frequency ap = a /T = F%, but this does not happen, The difference is small, however, or the degree of damping usually embodied in structures, typically well below 20%, the differences among the thre resonant frequencies ‘nd the natural frequency are negligible. ‘The three dynamic response factors at their respective resonant frequencies are 1 1 1 el 3.2.22) aa ca aie = 3.2.6 Half-Power Bandwidth R, ‘An important property ofthe frequency response curve for Ry is shown in Fig. 3.2.9, where the half power bandwidth is defined. If and ay are the forcing frequencies on either side ide Resonant amplitude Deformation response factor Re (A) Resonant arp Frequency ratio fy Figure329 Petition of af power bandwith of the resonant frequency at which the ample is 1/\/2simes the resonant amplitode, then for small ¢ one ‘This result, derived in Derivation 3.4, can be rewriten as One 2, 79 8223) ‘ or 6224)co ‘Response to Harmonic and Periodic Excitation Chap, 9 where f = w/2x is the cyclic frequency. This important result enables evaluation of dam- ping from forced vibration tests without knowing the applied force (Section 3.4). Derivation 34 qusing Re from Ea. (32.1) ad 1/V5 dimes the resonant ampli of given by 4.822) by definton, the forcing Feqvences ay and satis the coin L too ao © Vi - c/o) +2r(eiaye V?26vI~¢ Invern bot sides squaring tem, and rearanging ems gies 2)'-20-2 (2) 41-90-29 <0 : (2) -20-209 (2) 41-90-04) » uation). uti equation no), th ot of which ae 2) -0->anvinF o: (&) -0-s92avire © ‘here the positive sign ges thelargerooto andthe native sign comesponds othe mae ty Fath small damping rato represetatve of prasl str th Wo tesco. taining ¢? can be dropped and Zs? @ “Tuking only the first term inthe Taylor series expansion of the right side gives Said. ) Zelee ® ‘Subtracting the smaller foot fom he larger one gives 0 3.2.7 Steady-State Response to Cosine Force ‘The differential equation to be solved is mito + hu = pocoswt 6225) -& and D are 2o(w/aiy) F [1 -(@/a?) + 2 @/oo? p=? = (w/on)?* ¥ [1-@/on} +12t(@/o)? ‘Sec. 9.3 Response to Vibration Generator as “These are determined by the procedure of Derivation 3.3, The steady-state response given by Eqs. (3.2.3) and (3.2.26) can be expressed as un jocos(ot — 4) (uo Ry costet ~ $) 2.27 where the amplitude 4p, the deformation response factor Ry, and the phase angle @ are the Same as those derived in Section 3.2.3 for a sinusoidal force. This similarity in the steady- state responses 10 the two harmonic forces is not surprising since the two excitations are the same except fora time shift. Vibration generators (or shaking machines) were developed to provide a source of har- ‘monic excitation appropriate for testing full-scale structures. In this section theoreti- cal results for the steady-state response of an SDF system to a harmonic force caused by 2 vibration generator are presented. These results provide a basis for evalua- fing the natural frequency and damping of @ structure from experimental data {Section 3.4) 3.3.1 Vibration Generator Figure 3.3.1 shows a vibration generator having the form of two flat baskets rotating in ‘opposite directions about a vertical axis. By placing various numbers of lead weights in the baskets, the magnitudes of the rotating weights can be altered. The two counterrotat- ing masses, m/2, ae shown schematically in Fig. 3.3.2 as lumped masses with eccentr city = e; their locations at 1 = 0 are shown in (a) and at some time ¢ in (b). The 2 components of the inertia forces ofthe rotating masses cancel out, and the y-components combine to produce a force P(t) = (m¢0*) sino ean By bolting the vibration generator tothe structure to be excited, this force can be transmit- ted to the structure. The amplitude ofthis harmonic force is proportional tothe square of ‘the excitation frequency «. Therefore, itis difficult to generate force at low frequencies ‘and impractical to obtain the static response ofa structure. 3.3.2 Structural Response Assuming that the eccentric mass m. is small compared to the mass m of the structure, the equation governing the motion of an SDF system excited by a vibration generator is mit -+ cit + ku = (meu) sinot 32)