Sample Problem 2.

4
A vessel contains 85 l of water at 10 degree C
and atmospheric pressure. If the water is
heated to 70 degree C, what will be the
percentage change in its volume.?
What weight of water must be removed to
maintain the volume at its original value.

 2.6.1
Exercises
Use Fig. 2.1 to find the approximate specific
weight of water in lb/ft3 under the following
conditions: (a) at a temperature of 60 degree C
under 101.3 kPa abs pressure, (b) at60 degree C
under a pressure of 13.79 MPa abs.
2.6.3
A vessel contains 5 ft3 of water at 40 degree F
and atmospheric pressure. If the water is heated
to 80 degree F, what will be the percentage
change in its volume.? What weight of water
must be removed to maintain the volume at its
original value?

Ideal Fluid & Real Fluid

Ideal Fluid:
An Ideal Fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which
there is no friction, it is inviscid (its viscosity is zero).
Thus the internal forces at any section within it are
always normal to the section, even during motion. So
these forces are purely pressure forces.
Although such a fluid does not exist in reality, many
fluids approximate frictionless flow at sufficient
distances from the solid boundaries.
So we can often conveniently analyze their behaviors
by assuming an ideal fluid.

 Real Fluid:
In real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or
shearing forces always develop whenever
there is motion relative to a body, thus
creating fluid friction, because these forces
oppose the motion of one particle past
another. These frictional forces give rise to
fluid property called viscosity.

The Continuum Concept of A Fluid

In engineering problems dealing with fluids,

one generally deals with dimensions that are very
large compared to molecular sizes.
The space between the molecules is not
considered and the fluid properties (pressure,
velocity, etc.) are considered to vary continuously
in space.
The method of considering fluid as a continuous
mass is called as continuum principle.
Except in dealing with rarified gases (a gas whose
pressure is much less than atmospheric
pressure), all normal fluid mechanics analysis
deals with fluid as a continuum.

 Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are

composed of molecules separated by "empty"
space. On a macroscopic scale, materials have
cracks and discontinuities.
However, certain physical phenomena can be
modeled assuming the materials exist as a
continuum, meaning the matter in the body
is continuously distributed and fills the entire
region of space it occupies.
A continuum is a body that can be continually
sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with
properties being those of the bulk material.

 All materials, solid or fluid, are composed of

molecules discretely spread and in continuous
motion.
However, in dealing with fluid-flow relations
on a mathematical basis, it is necessary to
replace the actual molecular structure by a
hypothetical continuous medium, called the
continuum.

Viscosity

Factors Affecting Viscosity

Effect of temperature on Viscosity

Newtons Equation of Viscosity

Newtons Equation of Viscosity

Unit of Viscosity

Problem

Problem

Problem

 Sketch the relationship between viscosity and

temperature for liquids and gases.
Consider the classic case of two parallel plates.
Sufficiently large that we can neglect the end
conditions, a small distance Y apart with fluid filling
the space between.
The lower plate is stationary, while the upper one
moves parallel to it with a velocity U due to a force F
corresponding to some area A of the moving plate.
No slip Condition
Velocity Profile
Newtons Equation of Viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity
Absolute viscosity/ dynamic viscosity
Units
Kinematic Viscosity
Units

Problem

Sample Problem 2.8

A 1-in wide space between two
horizontal plane surfaces is filled with
SAE 30 Western Lubricating oil at 80
degree F. What force is required to drag
a very thin plate of 4 ft2 area through
the oil at velocity of 20 ft/min if the
plate is 0.33 in from one surface?

Exercise
Assuming a velocity distribution as shown in
Figure, which is a parabola having its vertex 12
in from the boundary, calculate the velocity
gradients for y 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 in. Also
calculate the shear stresses in lb/ft2 at these
points if the fluids absolute viscosity is 600 cP.

Exercises
Exercise 2.11.1: At 60F what is the kinematic viscosity of the
gasoline in Fig. A.2, the specific gravity of which is 0.680? Give
the answer in both BG and SI units.
Exercise 2.11.2: To what temperature must the fuel oil with the
higher specific gravity in fig. A.2 be heated in order that its
kinematic viscosity may be reduced to three times that of water
at 40F?
Exercise 2.11.3: Compare the ratio of the absolute viscosities of
air and water at 70F with the ratio of their kinematic viscosities
at the same temperature and 14.7 psia.
Exercise 2.11.6: A liquid has an absolute viscosity of 3.2 x 10-4 lb
sec/ft2. It weighs 56 lb/ft3. What are its absolute and kinematic
viscosities in SI units?
Exercise 2.11.11: Assuming a velocity distribution as shown in
fig. X2.11.11, which is a parabola having its vertex 12 in from the
boundary, calculate the velocity gradients for y = 0,3,6,9 and 12
in. Also calculate the shear stresses in lb/ft2 at these points if
the fluids absolute viscosity is 600 cP.

Surface Tension

SURFACE TENSION

 The surface tension effect is caused by unbalanced

cohesion forces at fluid surfaces which produce a
downward resultant force which can physically seen as
a membrane.
The surface energy per unit area of interface is known
as surface tension or coefficient of surface tension, .
OR
Surface tension coefficient can be defined as the
intensity of intermolecular attraction per unit length
along the free surface of a fluid, and its SI unit is N/m.
The coefficient is inversely proportional to temperature
and is also dependent on the type of the solid
interface.
For example, a drop of water on a glass surface will
have a different coefficient from the similar amount of
water on a wood surface.

CAPILLARITY
Liquids have both cohesion and adhesion,
which are the forms of molecular attraction.
Capillarity, the rise (or fall) of liquid in smalldiameter tubes is due to this attraction.
If the adhesion of fluid molecules to the
adjacent solid surface is stronger than the
intermolecular cohesion, the fluid is said to
wet on the surface. Otherwise, it is a nonwetted interaction.

For a cylindrical glass tube the capillary rise (or depression)

h is given by:
h = 2 cos / R
Where = contact angle
= unit weight of the liquid (= g)
R = radius of curvature of the glass tube
= coefficient of surface tension (Tensile force per unit length)

Capillarity

Exercises
Sample Problem 2.10: Water at 10C stands in
a clean glass tube of 2 mm diameter at height
of 35 mm. What is the true static height?
Exercise 2.12.1: Tap water at 68F stands in a
glass tube of 0.32 inch diameter at a height of
4.50 inch. What is the true static height?

Exercise 2.12.2: Distilled water at 20C stands

in a glass tube of 6.0 mm diameter at a height
of 180 mm. What is the true static height?

Exercises
Exercise 2.12.3: Use Eq. (2.12) to compute the
capillary depression of mercury at 68F ( =
140) to be expected in a 0.05 inch diameter
tube.
Exercise 2.12.4: Compute the capillary rise in
mm of pure water at 10C expected in an 0.8
mm diameter tube.

VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS

All liquids tend to evaporate or vaporize, which they do by projecting
molecules into the space above their surfaces. If this is a confined space, the
partial pressure exerted by the molecules increases until the rate at which
molecules enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave. For this
equilibrium condition, we call the vapor pressure the SATURATION PRESSURE.
Molecular activity increases with increasing temperature and decreasing
pressure, and so the saturation temperature does the same. At any given
temperature, if the pressure on the liquid surface falls below the saturation
pressure, a rapid rate of evaporation results, known as BOILING. Thus we can
refer to the saturation pressure as the BOILING PRESSURE for a given
temperature, and it is of practical importance for liquids.
We call rapid vaporization and recondensation of liquid as it briefly passes
through the region of low absolute pressure CAVITATION.

Fluid Statics

In fluids at rest there are no shear

stresses
Only normal forces due to
pressure are present.
Note that normal pressure forces
alone can occur in a moving fluid,
if fluid is moving in bulk without
deformation, i.e., as if it were
solid or rigid.
The average pressure intensity P is
force exerted on a unit area

Pressure at a Point the same in all Directions

No tangential stresses on fluid at
rest.
The only forces between
adjacent surfaces are pressure
forces normal to the surfaces.
Therefore the pressure at any
point in a fluid at rest is same in
every direction
A small wedge shaped element
of fluid at rest is considered,
whose thickness perpendicular
to plane of paper is constant
and equal to dy.

PASCALS LAW

PASCALS LAW

PASCALS LAW

Variation of Pressure in a Static

Fluid
Gravity (a body force): Yes, gravity acts on the particle.
Gravity doesnt care whether the fluid particle is
moving or not.
Pressure (a surface force): Yes, pressure forces act on
each of the particles faces. Pressure is present in fluids
also regardless of whether or not theyre moving.
Shear stress (a surface force): There are no shear
stresses. To understand this, recall our definition that
fluids move under the action of any shear stress. Since
the fluid particle is stationary, there can be no shear
stresses.

 As the fluid is at rest, the summation of forces acting on the

element in any direction must be zero.
The horizontal direction forces are pressure forces acting normal
to the vertical faces of the element.

EXCERCISES
3.2.1: Neglecting the pressure on the surface and the
compressibility of water, what is the pressure in pounds per
square inch on the ocean floor at a depth of 15,500 ft? The
specific weight of the ocean water under ordinary conditions is
64.0 lb/ft3

3.2.2: Neglecting the pressure on the surface and the

compressibility of water, what is the pressure in kPa at a depth
of an instrument 4600 m below the surface of the ocean? The
specific weight of the ocean water under ordinary conditions is
10.05 kN/m3.
Do 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 also, refer to the book (Fluid Mechanics with
Engineering Application by Finnemore and Franzini)

Pressure Expressed in Height of

Fluid.
Often we find it more convenient to express pressure
in terms of height of the column of fluid rather than
force per unit area.
Even if the surface of liquid is under some pressure,
we to convert this pressure into an equivalent height
of the fluid and added this to h.
The relationship: h=p/
For an incompressible fluid at rest, at any point in the
fluid the sum of elevation z and the pressure head p/
is equal to the sum of these two quantities at any
other point.

Sample Problem 3.2

An open tank contains water 1.40 m deep
covered by a 2 m thick layer of oil (s = 0.855).
What is the pressure head at the bottom of
the tank, in terms of a water column?

Exercises
An open tank contains 5.0m of water covered
with 2 m of oil (=8.0kN/m3). Find the gage
pressure. (a). At the interface between the liquids
and (b) at the bottom of the tank.
An open tank contains 7 ft of water covered with
2.2 ft of oil (s=0.88). Find the gage pressure. (a) at
the interface between the liquids and at the
bottom of the tank.
The air had a constant specific weight of 12 N/m3
and were incompressible, what would be the
height of air surrounding the earth to produce
pressure at the surface of 101.3 kPa abs?.

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

Exercise 3.4.2 and 3.4.3

Exercise 3.4.2: A gage is connected to a tank in which
the pressure of the fluid is 305kPa above atmosphere
(fig. X3.4.1a). If the absolute pressure of the fluid
remains unchanged but the gage is in chamber
where the air pressure is reduced to a vacuum of
648mmHg (fig X3.4.1b), what reading in kPa will then
be observed?

Exercise 3.4.3: If the atmospheric pressure is 780mb

abs and a gage attached to a tank reads 330mmHg
vacuum, what is the absolute pressure with in the
tank?