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UnderstandingRefractoryFailureANewPerspective

ClickPhototo
Enlarge

ByGaryBases
Refractoryhasalwaysbeenanintegralpartofsteam
generatingboilers.Inthesteamgeneratingindustry,
refractorymaterialsareusedforfillinggapsand
openingstohelpkeepthefireinsidethefirebox,for
liningashhoppers(wetanddry)thatcollectashand
slag,andfortheprotectionoflowerfurnacewall
tubesinsidefluidizedbed,cyclonefired,orrefuse
derivedfiredboilers.
Becauserefractoryisoneofthesmallestcomponents
onasteamgeneratingboiler,itlackstheattentionit
deserves.Andyet,ithasbeenproventhatwhen
properlydesignedandinstalled,refractorycansaveup
tofivetosevenpercentoffuelcosts(oil,gas,coal,orrefuse).
Theprimarycauseofboilerinefficiency,andamajorcontributortoboilershutdowns,isrefractoryfailure.
Discoveringwhyarefractorymaterialfailsisacomplexproblembecausefailureisnotcausedbyjustone
factor,butratheracombinationofthefollowingfactors:
Thematerialselecteddoesnotmatchtheenvironmentthatexists(i.e.,reducingatmosphere)
Thematerialselecteddoesnotmatchthefuelbeingburned(i.e.,theamountofalkali,sulfur,hydrocarbons,
vanadium,ormoisturepresentinthefuel)
Thematerialwasimproperlystored,mixed,installed,cured,and/ordried
Thematerialselecteddidnotmatchtheenvironmentcreatedaftertheburningofthefuel(i.e.,ashand
slag).
Itishelpfultounderstandthematerialsthatcouldimpactarefractoryproduct(excludinginstallation)inorderto
fullyunderstandthefailureitself.

FIGURE1

FIGURE2

Spalledrefractoryinside
ashhopper

FIGURE3

Wetbottomashhopper
withfailedrefractory
areas

ALookatMaterialsFailureintheMaking?
Slagcanreducefurnaceheatabsorption,raiseexitgastemperatures,increaseattemperatorsprayflowtemperature,
andinterferewithashremovalorequipmentoperation.Slagistheformationofmoltenashthatiseitherpartially
fusedorresolidifiedashdeposits(ashfusion),formedbasedontheashtemperatureandcomposition.
Forslagtoadheretoasurfaceandformdeposits,theashparticlesmusthaveaviscositylowenoughtowetthe
surface.Ifironispresent,itwillraiseallfourvaluesofashfusiontemperatures(initialdeformation,softening,
hemispherical,andfluid).Thegreatertheironcontentfoundintheash,thegreaterthedifferenceinashfusibility
betweentheoxidizingandthereducingcondition.

FIGURE4

Flyashinsidepenthouse
betweenscreentubesat
middleofboiler

Therearetwokindsofash.Coalashistheresidualproductleftafterburningofthefuel.Oilashistheresidual
productleftafterburningoffoil.Coalashthathasalowfusionpointandhighbasicoxidecontentcanbevery
corrosivetorefractorymaterialsandoilashthatcontainsvanadium,sulfur,alkalis,andhydrocarbonscancause
severeproblemstorefractorymaterials.
Vanadiumcanactasacatalyst,formingalowmeltingalkalisilicacompoundthatcouldreactandbreakdownthe
basiccomponentsofarefractorymaterial.
Sulfurcancombinewithlimeandironoxidesfoundinsomerefractorymaterialsandcanreducematerialstrength.In
thepresenceofmoisture,sulfuralsocouldformsulfurousandsulfuricacids,whichcouldreactwiththebasic
componentsofarefractorymaterial.

FIGURE5

Slagsamplewithfurnace
walltubepinsstuds
embeddedinslag

Alkalisuchassodium(Na)andpotassium(K)canchemicallyreactwithsilicafoundinsomerefractorymaterials.
Hydrocarbons,inconjunctionwithareducingatmosphere(whichreferstotheamountofairrequiredforproperfuel
combustionandisusuallyaddedtothecombustionprocessinanotherlocation),canreactwithironoxidesandform
largecarbondepositsintherefractorymaterial.Thiseventuallycouldcauseaspall(lossoffragmentsorpieces)on
therefractorysurface.
FindingtheRootCauseofaRefractoryFailure
STEP1:DISCOVERYPROCESS

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FIGURE6

Closeupofslagwith
studsfromfurnace

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Itisnecessarytocollectanddocumentsomebasicinformation.Inmanycases,thediscoveryprocessrequires
interviewswithplantandinstallationpersonnel.Theseprofessionalsknowfirsthandabouttherefractoryprocess.
Thefollowinginformationshouldbeidentifiedanddocumented:
Materialsamplesanddatasheetsoftheexistingbrickorrefractoryliningthisinformationmaybesupplied
bythepurchasingagentorbytheplantengineer
Materialsamplesoftheashclinkersandslagsamplesmaybesuppliedbymaintenanceorengineering
personnelfromtheplant
Chemicalanalysisofthefuelbeingburned(coal,startupoil,refuse,wood,steel,aluminum,etc.)this
informationmaybesuppliedbytheplantengineer
Storagelocationanddurationofthestoragepriortoinstallationthismaybesuppliedbytheplantorthe
installationcontractor
Manufacturedateoftherefractorymaterialthisinformationmaybesuppliedbytherefractory
manufacturer
Ambientconditionatthetimeoftheinstallationthisshouldbesupplied/verifiedbyboththeplant
personnelandtheinstallationcontractor
Howmuchmaterialwasinstalledthisinformationmaybesuppliedbyplantpersonneland/orthe
installationcontractor
Howitwasinstalledorapplied(pneumatically,toweled,poured,shotcrete,etc.)thismaybesuppliedbythe
plantortheinstallationcontractorand
Howthematerialwascuredand/ordriedandwhatprocedureswerefollowedthisinformationmaybe
suppliedbytheplantand/ortheinstallationcontractor.

Figure7
FIGURE7

Shotcreteapplication
mixerwith2000pound
refractorytotebag
hangingabovemixer

FIGURE8

Closeupoffurnacewall
studswornawaydueto
failedrefractory

STEP2:EXAMINETHEEXISTINGMATERIALANDTESTING

Theexistingmaterial(orthelackthereof)shouldbeexaminedforsignsthatmayindicatetherootcauseofthe
failure.Whenlookingatanexistingrefractoryliningorphotosoftheexistinglining,keepinmindthefollowing
questions:

FIGURE9

Slagsamplestakenfrom
furnace

Didthematerialfailduetothermalshock(largesectionsofthetopsurfaceareashearedaway)?
Isthereanyevidencethatthematerialshadbeenexposedtoexcessivetemperatures(excessiveshrinkage,
glazing,etc.)?
Isthereanyevidenceofmechanicalabuse(brokenandjaggededgesorholes)?
Didthematerialfailduetotheoperationoftheequipment,furnace,orboiler?
Wastherefractorymaterialinstalledimproperly(i.e.,porousorpopcornliketexture)?
CollectingSamplesforTesting:Samplesoftheexistingrefractorymaterialshouldbegatheredandsentoutfora
coldcrushtest,whichwillverifythestrengthoftheinstalledmaterial.Theresultscanbecomparedtothe
manufacturersmaterialdatasheets.Ifthestrengthoftheexistinginstalledmaterialislow,itisprobablethatthe
mixwastoowetwheninstalled.
Samplesoftheexistingslagandashclinkersshouldbegatheredandsentoutforchemicalanalysis.Theslagsamples
shouldalsohaveapyrometricconeequivalent(PCE)testperformedtoverifytheminimumtemperaturethatthe
refractorymayhavebeenexposedto.

FIGURE10

Furnacewallsinsidea
fluidizedbedboiler
withoutrefractory

STEP3:CALCULATETHEBASETOACIDRATIO

Thenextstepistodocumenttheenvironmenttowhichtherefractorymaterialwasexposed.Onewaytodothisisby
calculatingthebasetoacidratio(b/a),usingvaluestakenfromtheinformationreceivedfromthechemicalanalysis
testmentionedinStep2.Thisb/avaluewillgiveastartingpointastowhattypeofrefractorymaterialshouldhave
beenchosen.

FIGURE11

Spalledrefractoryinside
onfurnacefloor

Hereisonewaytocalculatethebasetoacidratio:
Whenthebasetoacidratioislessthanorequalto.25,itindicatesanacidcondition.Anacidconditionwould
indicatethataSiO2typerefractoryshouldbeconsidered.
Whenthebasetoacidratioisgreaterthan.25butlessthan.75,itindicatesaneutralcondition.Aneutralcondition
wouldindicatethatanAl2O3,SiC,orchrometyperefractorymaterialshouldbeconsidered.
Whenthebasetoacidratioisgreaterthanorequalto.75,itindicatesabasiccondition.Abasicconditionwould
indicatethatanMgOorDolomitetyperefractorymaterialwouldbeconsidered.

FIGURE12

Gunapplicationof
refractory

STEP4:THEREVIEWPROCESS

NowitistimetoanalyzealltheinformationgatheredinSteps1and2.Alloftheserviceconditionsmustbereviewed
andanalyzedthoroughlyinordertoseehowtheycouldaffecttheinstalled/failedmaterial.Thisincludesthefuelor
rawmaterialsbeingburned,startupfuelused,ashandslagcontent,gastemperatures,andplantoperationsand
procedures.Forexample:
Moisturecontentinthefuelcanaffecttherefractorymaterial.Highmoisturecontentorcombinedmoisture
contentinthefuelwithareducingatmospherecancauseaseparationofsiliconcarbidebasematerials
(grain).Thisseparationcanoccurwhenthetotalpercentageofthemoisturecontentfoundinthefuelis
greaterthanfifteenpercent,orwhenthecombinedtotalpercentageofthemoisturecontentinthecoaland
thereducingatmospherepercentagearegreaterthanfifteenpercent.
Certainamountsofchemicals(ironoxide,potassium,orsulfur)foundinthefuel,slag,orashcouldreactwith
cements(calciumaluminate)thatarepresentinacementbondedtyperefractory,especiallyifareducing
atmosphereispresent.
Certainstartupfuel(i.e.,#6oil)maycontainvanadium,whichcouldreactwiththesilicaandlimeinthe
cementfoundinacementbondedtyperefractory.Whenvanadiumispresent,itcancauseachemicalattack
andsurfacefailure,orcauseacompleterefractoryfailure(norefractorypresent).

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STEP5:REVIEWOFINSTALLATIONPROCEDURES

Thefinalanalysisalsomusttakeintoaccountproperinstallationprocedures.Alloftheitemslistedbelowcould
preventarefractorymaterialfromreachingitsproperstrength.Arefractorymaterialthatisnotabletoreachits
designedstrengthhasthehighestpotentialforfailure.
ProperlyManufactureDateandStorage:Refractorymaterialshouldbemanufacturedinthepropertimeperiodbased
ontheinstallationdateandmanufacturedate.Oneyearisrecommendedforacementbondedmaterialusedfor
conventionalsealsinsideboilers,andthreemonthsorlessformaterialsusedinhightemperatureandabrasionareas
suchasthosefoundinsidefluidizedbedboilers,cyclonefireboilers,orwetbottomashhoppers.Refractorymaterial
alwaysshouldbestoredindry,wellventilatedconditions.Usefreshrefractorymaterialsandfollowproperstorage
procedurestoensurethattherefractorywillnotlosestrength.
ProperWaterforMixing:Manycommonindustrialcompoundscaneasilycontaminatearefractorymixandseriously
affectitsstrength.Certainsaltscanreactwiththerefractorycementtomakethematerialalmostuseless.Itis
recommendedbymostrefractorymanufacturesthatpotablewater(suitablefordrinking)shouldbeusedformixing.
Theuseofthewrongtypeofwater(e.g.,riverwater)willhindertheabilityoftherefractorymaterialtoreachits
properstrength.
EquipmentandPotLife:Usingtherighttypeofmixer,followingpropermixingprocedures,andbeingawareofthe
materialspotlifealsomustbeconsidered.Usingthewrongmixerorpneumaticgunalsocouldimpactthestrengthof
therefractorymaterial.Forexample:
Manypneumaticallyappliedrefractorymaterialsrequirethematerialtobeprewettedpriortotheactual
mixingandinstallation.Iftheinstallingcontractorhadusedacontinuousfeedmixer(i.e.,onethataddsdry
materialintoahopperandthewaterisaddedonlyatthenozzle),thematerialcouldnotbeprewetteddoto
thenatureorcharacteristicsofusingacontinuousfeedmixer.Thiscouldreducethestrengthoftheinstalled
material.
Everyrefractorymaterialhasapotlife,whichdesignateshowlongamixedrefractorymaterialcanbeused
aftermixing.Failuretofollowrecommendedpotlifetimescouldresultinarefractorymaterialnotreaching
itsproperstrength.Ifthepneumaticinstallationoftherefractoryisinterruptedforaperiodoftimelonger
thantherecommendedpotlifetimeperiod,thematerialfoundinthemixerandhosesshouldbediscarded
andnotreused.
AmbientConditions:Coldorhotweathercouldadverselyaffectthestrengthofarefractorymaterial.Itis
recommendedbymostrefractorymanufacturersthatthefinalmixtemperatureshouldbeinaspecificrange.Though
theyalldifferslightly,itisrecommendedthatthefinalmixtemperatureshouldbeinarangeof40to90F.Itis
alsoveryimportanttoprotecttheinstalledmaterialsfromfreezingforaminimumoffortyeighthoursoruntil
thoroughlydried.Failuretotakeintoconsiderationtheambientconditionsatthetimeofinstallationcouldimpact
theabilityoftherefractorymaterialtoreachitsproperstrength.
Thefollowingformulaisonewaytoestimate/adjustthevariablesrelativetomixingarefractorymaterial(e.g.,water
temperature,airtemperature,storagetemperature):
X=[(W*T)+.22(Wc*Ts)]/(W+.22Wc)
W=weightofwater(aquartofwaterweighs2.08pounds)
Wc=weightofdryrefractory
T=temperatureofwater(degreesF)
Ts=temperatureofsolids(degreesF)
X=temperatureofmixedrefractory(degreesF)
Usingtheaboveformulaandknowingtheambientconditionsatthetimeofinstallationcanhelpdetermineifthe
installedmaterialwasadverselyaffectedbytheambientconditions.
CuringProcedures:Onlyaftertherefractorymaterialhasbeencuredand/ordriedwillitbeatitsproperstrength.
Almostallrefractorymaterials(exceptthosethatarephosphatebonded)mustbecuredpriortothedryingprocess.
Failuretoproperlycureacementbondedrefractorymaterialisthenumberonecontributortorefractoryfailureand
lackoflongevity.Curingallowsthechemicalactiontotakeplaceinsidetherefractoryandhelpsensurethatthe
refractorycanreachitsmaximumstrengthwhenproperlydried.Itisrecommendedthatthesurfaceoftherefractory
bekeptmoist(curingcompound,wetcanvasbags,orsprayingwater)orthesurroundingatmospherehumidfora
periodofatleasttwentyfourhours.
DryingProcedures:Thedryoutorbakeoutoftherefractorywilltakeplaceafterthecuringperiodandremovesall
mechanicalandchemicalwaterleftintheinstalledmaterial.Itallowstherefractorymaterialtoreachitsproper
strength.Unlikethecuringofrefractory,whichisdonerightaftertheinstallation(usuallybytheinstalling
contractor),thedryoutcanbecompletedanytime.Thisdoesnotapplytophosphatebondedrefractorymaterials,
however,asaphosphatebondedmaterialmustbecuredanddriedatthesametime.Aphosphatebondedmaterial
mustbedriedwithinthefirsttwotothreeweeksafterinstallationbecausesuchamaterialwillbegintoabsorb
moisturefromthesurroundingatmosphere.Eventually,overaperiodoftwoorthreeweeks,thematerialwillbeginto
slumpandfalloff.
Newliningshouldbeheatedgraduallytoletthemoistureescapeandreduceinternalstresses.Theruleofthumbis
tobasetheholdtimeonthethicknessofthethickestareaofrefractoryliningfoundontheentireworkproject.For
example,ifthethickestareaisfourinchesthick,theholdtimeisfourhours.
Thefollowingheatingscheduleisofageneralnatureforidealconditionsforaoneinchthickrefractoryliningon
fluidizedbedfurnacewalls:
Raisetemperatureat75Fperhourto250to400Frange.Holdfortwohoursat250to400F
Raisetemperatureat75Fperhourto600to800F.Holdfortwohours
Raisetemperatureat75Fperhourto1,050to1,200F.Holdfortwohours
Raisetemperatureat75Fperhourtooperatingtemperature
Inmanyapplications,conservativeheatingratescanbefollowedwithoutgreatpenaltybutinsomecases,suchrates
areuneconomicalfromaproductionstandpoint.Eachmaterialhasitsownallowabledeviationforconservative
heatingschedules.Checkwiththerefractorymanufacturerorrefractoryexpertforacompromisebetweensafe

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heatingratesandoperatingcosts.Followingimproperdryoutprocedurescanhavethefollowingadverseeffects
upontherefractory:Itwillneverreachitsmaximumstrength,anditwillcontributetoaspallattherefractory
surface.
KnowYourQuantities:Finally,tohelpensurethattherefractorymaterialisnotinstalledtoothicklyortoosparsely,it
isimportanttoknowthequantityofmaterialrequiredforproperinstallation.Thisquantitythencanbecomparedto
theamountthatwasinstalled.Forexample:
Insufficientmaterialinstalledonthelowerfurnacewallsinsideafluidizedbedboilercouldcontributeto
excessivestudandtubewallfailure.
Excessivematerialinstalledonthelowerfurnacewallsinsideafluidizedbedboilerinconjunctionwithnot
followingpropercuringand/ordryingprocedurescouldcontributetoacompleterefractorymaterialfailure.
FinalAnalysis
Findingtherootcauseofarefractorymaterialfailuremusttakeintoaccountmanydifferentfactors,suchasmaterial
selectionandmanufacturedate,plantoperations,materialstorage,mixing,installation,curing,anddrying.Onlyby
understandingallaspectspertainingtothedesignandinstallationoftherefractorymaterialcanonefindtheroot
causeofthefailureandhelpeliminatefuturefailures.Arefractoryfailureisthenumberonecauseofboiler
inefficiencyandamajorcontributortoboilershutdowns.Refractorythatisproperlyselectedandinstalledwill
alwayslastlonger,helpminimizetheamountofshutdownsrequired,andleadtosavingsinannualfuelcost.Experts
agreethatrefractorydesignedandinstalledtosaveenergyalsosavesmoneyataratethatisessentialforefficient
plantoperation.
1ASTMC64.

2RefractoriesintheGenerationofSteamPowerMcGrawHillBookCompany,F.H.Norton(1949).

ThisarticleappearedintheAugust2006issueofInsulationOutlook.

Author
GaryBases
GaryBasesisthePresidentofBRILInc.,anindependentconsultingfirmspecializinginbrick,refractory,insulation,
andlagging.HeisalsotheauthorofTheBrilBook(acompleteguidetobrick,refractory,insulation,andlagging
systems),TheBrilBookII(atechnicalmanualthatincludesbrilapplicationdrawingsforthepowergenerating
industry),TheBrilBookIIItheBookofBril,TheBrilBookIVBoilerConstruction,andthesoontobereleasedThe
BrilBookVBoilerLagging.GaryBasescanbereachedatbrilinc@roadrunner.com.

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