DE WAVES

1
OMDE 601 9040 - Skill Builder 8 Final Group Grid
Team Threes (R)evolutionary Chart Waves of Distance Education

Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)
First Wave:
Correspondenc
e / Independent
Study - 1850's1970's

Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE

Theories/Ways of Understanding DE

Institutional and organizational

development (systems; ways of

Team 3 Findings
Letters from St. Paul - Bible, New Testament [Holmberg, 2005]
1728 - Caleb Phillips Correspondence Course for Short Hand
[Holmberg, 2005]
1775 - Establishment of the United States Postal Service
[USPS,1981]
1800s - Compositions Course via Lunds Weckoblad, a Swedish
Newspaper [Holmberg, 2005]
1800's - Great Britain National Postal System [Moore & Kearsley,
2012]
1800's - Skerrys College, Folulks Lynch Correspondence Tuition
Service for Accounting, University Correspondence College,
Diploma Correspondence College [Holmberg, 2005]
1800's to early 1900's - Establishment of railway and roads,
factory system and mass written materials production (printing
press technology) [Holmberg, 2005]
Early 1920's - introduction to educational radio broadcasting
[Buck, 2006]
Publicly established educational institutions relying on
correspondence education methods sparked awareness and
credibility of DE [Holmberg, 2005] & [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
Empathy approach to DE - Correspondence [Holmberg, 2004]
Education and commoditization, trade taken into consideration
[Knight, 2006]
Industrialization of DE [Peters, 2011]
Independent Study [Holmberg, 2005]
1840 - Isaac Pitman of England - Phonographic Correspondence
Society/Sir Isaac Pitman Correspondence College [Kentnor,

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

2
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Team 3 Findings
2015]

operating)

1873 Anna Eliot Tickner - The School to Encourage Study at

Home [Holmberg, 2005]
1891 Thomas J. Forster - International Correspondence Schools
(ICS) [Holmberg, 2005]
1892 - William Harper - Structured correspondence study at The
University of Chicago [Holmberg, 2005]
1922 Sir Henry Thornton - Canadian National Railways (CNR) >
CNR Transmitters > CNR Radio Network > CRN Educational
Radio Broadcasting [Buck, 2006]
1962 - University of South Africa officially established as a
distance teaching university [Holmberg, 2005]
1971 - UK Open University [Peters, 2010]
Letter writing and physical mail delivery [Holmberg, 2005]

Prevailing teaching/learning
theories/methodologies/Prevailing view
of role of teacher and role of learner

Predominant technologies
Key authors

Written feedback and one-on one interaction with instructorstudent [Holmberg, 2005]
Two-way teaching and correspondence [Holmberg, 2005]
Didactic teaching style or Guided didactic conversation
[Holmberg, 2004] [Anderson & Simpson, 2012]
Separation of learner and teacher [Holmberg, 2005]
Breaking time and space barriers to learning [Peters, 2011]
Decentralized learning [Peters, 2010]
Factory printing for economies of scale, transportation of DE
materials through railway systems, radio broadcasting [Holmberg,
2005]
William Harper - Correspondence Education, the father of
American Distance Education, founder of The University of
Chicago [Holmberg, 2005]
Brje Holmberg - Empathy and DE, Guided didactic
conversation/teaching [Holmberg, 2004]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

Second Wave:
Systems
Approach to
Education /
Distance
Teaching
Institutions

3
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE

Theories/Ways of Understanding DE

Institutional and organizational

development (systems; ways of
operating)

Team 3 Findings

Otto Peters - Industrialization theory and DE [Peters, 2011]

Isaac Pittman - Correspondence Education by postcards, founder
of Sir Isaac Pitman Correspondence College [Kentnor, 2015]
1976 only 8% of cohort went on to higher education in UK [Bates,
2011]
Need more teachers to expand access to students. [Bates,2011]
& [Peters, 2010]
Began with a Strong political push, need from the public for
higher education, [Bates, 2011]
Large spread media coverage, and development of better
technologies [Bates, 2011]
Decision to hire scholars to do research and materials designed
by sound design principles [Bates, 2011]
Economy of Scale- large course enrollment =good resource use
[Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
Systems approach to ID [Bates, 2011]
ADDIE approach spread to UK [Bates, 2011]
Move to a student-centered learning approach due to
developments by Knowles and Piaget [Bullen, 1995] & [Knowles,
2011]
Transactional Distance [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
Increase in scholarly study and research-lead to large open
universities and new, better forms of broadcast education such as
PBS [Miller, 2014] [Anderson, 2015] & [Bates, 2011]
Systematic with teachers being the driving force behind the
education [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
More egalitarian form of education emerged [Peters,2010] &
[Bates,2011]
Education became easier to access through admission policies
[Bates, 2011]
More student support - due to Knowles theories and adult
learning concepts [Knowles, 2011]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

4
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Prevailing teaching/learning
theories/methodologies/Prevailing view
of role of teacher and role of learner
Predominant technologies

Team 3 Findings
UK Open University [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
1950 - The Australian School of the Air [Anderson & Simpson,
2015]
The New Zealand Correspondence School [Anderson & Simpson,
2015]
International Council for Distance Education (ICDE) [Anderson &
Simpson, 2015]
1987 - Commonwealth of Leaning (COL) [Anderson & Simpson,
2015]
U.S. Department of Education: Star Schools Program [Star
Schools Program, 2007]
Teacher was still separated but becoming closer. Teacher is still
seen as the predominate force behind the learning [Anderson &
Simpson, 2015]
Malcolm Knowles develops Adult Learning Theory or Andragogy
[Bullen, 1995]
Broadcast television [Bates, 2011] , [Kentnor,2015] & [Miller,
2014]
Radio [Bates, 2011] & [Miller, 2014], [Kentnor , 2015]
Video [Bates, 2011] & [Miller, 2014]
Video-conferencing [Bates, 2011] & [Miller, 2014]
Charles Wedermeyer-distance education, team development and
teaching materials, ideas were adopted by the UK Open
University [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
Satellite [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Cable [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Microcomputer [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Videodisc [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Fax [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Fiber Optics [Star Schools Program, 2007]
Digital Compression [Star Schools Program, 2007]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

5
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Key authors

Team 3 Findings
Charles Wedermeyer-distance education, team development and
teaching materials, ideas were adopted by the UK Open
University [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]
Constructivism-Piaget- end of wave 2 [Swan, 2010]
Malcom Knowles-Adult Learning Theory [Bullen, 1995] &
[Knowles, 2011]
John Daniel [Anderson & Simpson, 2015]

Third Wave:
Internet / Webbased

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE

Theories/Ways of Understanding DE

Institutional and organizational

development (systems; ways of
operating)

Job market demand for highly skilled/ educated workforce in postindustrial era [Bates,A 1995]
Convergence of face-to-face and distance teaching [Anderson &
Simpson 2010]
Globalization of electronic media devices [Swan, K. 2010]
Emergence of competitors to the traditional University institution,
i.e for profit institutions. [Swan, 2010]
Methods of presenting subjects [Dyrud, 2000]
Communications between teacher and student; student and
student [Dyrud, 2000]
Increased access to information [Dyrud, 2000]
Surge of students/users and demographics [Dyrud, 2000]
Reduction of technology cost [Dyrud, 2000]
Collaboration and Conversation [Jonassen, et al 1995]
Andragogical approach [Knowles,M 1980]
Theory of Transactional Distance (dialogue, structure, and
autonomy) [Moore & Kearsley, 2012]
Constructivism [Crawford, 2009] [Huang, 2002]
Universities / College with open admissions / enrollments [Bates,
2011]
Dual- and the mixed-mode universities [Guri-Rosenblit, S. 2009]
Computer-mediated environment [Huang, 2002]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

6
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Prevailing teaching/learning
theories/methodologies/Prevailing view
of role of teacher and role of learner

Predominant technologies

Key authors

Current Trends:
New theories,
new roles, new
applications of
technology

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE

Team 3 Findings
Anderson's (2015) Interaction Equivalency Theorem (studentcontent, student-student, and student-instructor) Scaffolded
learning, procedural facilitation [Jonassen, D.1995]
Instructor's role change to facilitator to consultant to guide to
resource provider [Huang, 2002]
Interactive, collaborative, facilitating, and authentic learning
[Huang, 2002]
Disks or CD-ROMs, Computer-supported intentional learning
environments (CSILEs), electronic mail, on-line databases,
Computer conferencing synchronous (real-time) or asynchronous
(delayed) [Jonassen, D 1995, pg.8]
Web-based training [Huang, 2002]
Hypertext and hypermedia [Huang, 2002]
Moore, M. G. (2006Garrison, R. (2009) Implications of online
learning for the conceptual development and practice of distance
education. Journal of Distance Education). Evolution of theory
and transactional distance. Peters, O. (2010). Garrison, R (2010)
The revolutionary impact of distance education. Distance
education in transition: Developments and issues. Swan, K.
(2010). Teaching and learning in post-industrial distance
education.
Application of technology for interactive, online classroom
settings available globally [Clark, 2011]. Open universities and
free courses available to anyone around the globe with access to
internet [Clark, 2011]. Net-aware theories of learning for
"epistemic engagement" [Anderson, 2010, p.30]. The preference
of mobile devices for information.
Due to exponential growth, increase of DE regulations and
accreditation standards. [Shearer, 2015]
Presentational view, which focuses on visualizations and data,
and the cross streams of information effect on cognitive
processing [Mayer, 2001]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

7
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Theories/Ways of Understanding DE

Institutional and organizational

development (systems; ways of
operating)

Team 3 Findings
Performance tutoring focusing on learning support and
scaffolding provided by AI or human mechanisms helping to
ensure self-reliance in the learning. [Vygotsky & Lauria, 1981]
Learning management systems (LMS), learning systems
environments [Shearer, 2015]
Development of the global Distance Education market [Bozkurt,
et al, 2015]
Institutional policies and legal issues (e.g. copyright and
intellectual property) [Bozkurt, et al, 2015]
The failure of many of the For-Profit institutions [Bates 2001;
Collis & Moonen 2001; Guri-Rosenblit, 2005]
Instructor-learner, learner-learner, learner-subject matter, and
vicarious interaction [Caspi et al., 2003].
Social constructivism learning theories of DE practices [Bozkurt,
et al, 2015]
Complexity theory, focusing on how independent complex
organisms adapt to environments and how behaviors change
when forced to interact with other independent organisms. This
interaction can spur creativity and innovation [Anderson, 2010].
Pedagogy of nearness focuses on the learners ability to move
from human interaction to online environments and how learners
experience in each can provide deepened learning and relevance
in each environment [Anderson, 2010]
Textbook free, open content learning [Kamenetz, 2010]. Online
Degrees [Kamenetz, 2010].
Mobile Learning [Bozkurt, et al, 2015]

DE WAVES
Waves of
Distance
Education (DE)

8
Various dimensions of
development of DE per each Wave

Prevailing teaching/learning
theories/methodologies/Prevailing view
of role of teacher and role of learner

Predominant technologies

Key authors

Team 3 Findings
Heutagogy and life long learning in online environments
[Blaschke, 2012]. Connectivism and constructivism in online
classroom settings [Siemens, 2004]. Internet being utilized as a
pedagogical engine for innovative learning [Clark, 2011].
Asynchronous learning, moving away from traditional f2f
synchronous learning [Clark, 2011]. Social Media based learning
through shared posts and experiences [Clark, 2011]. Action
Learning focusing on problem solving via multiple peer groups
and facilitators taking a back seat to the learning [Kemmis &
McTaggart, 1998].
New pedagogical practices; crossover learning, learning through
argumentation, incidental learning, context-based learning,
computational thinking, remote science labs, embodied learning,
adaptive learning, analytics of emotions, and stealth assessment
[Sharples, et al, 2015]
Quality assurance and high quality learner support [Bozkurt, et al,
2015]
Emergence of Mass Open Online Courses (MOOCs) [Cormier,
2011]. Open Educational Resources (OERs) [Cohen, et al.,
2007]. Learning Analytics for Technology and Education [Schwier,
2011]. Online courses being utilized to spark cross-cultural
collaborative learning [Kamenetz, 2010].
Devices are more versatile and ubiquitous [Howel, et al, 2003]
Wireless, mobile laptop computing, personal digital assistants
(PDAs), videoconferencing, video streaming, virtual reality,
gaming environments, and enhanced distributed learning [Howel,
et al, 2003]
George Siemens - connectivism theory [Siemens, 2004]. John
Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jermone Bruner & Lev Vygotsky constructivism theory [Anderson, 2010]. Michael G. Moore - three
methods of learning interaction [Moore, 1989]. Stewart Hase &
Chris Kenyon - heutagogy [Hase & Kenyon, 2000]. Keith Morrison
- complexity theory [Anderson, 2010].

DE WAVES

Wave 1 References
Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2015). History and heritage in distance education. Journal of Open, Flexible, and Distance Learning, 16(2).
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080085.pdf
Buck, G. H. (2006). The First Wave: The Beginnings of Radio in Canadian Distance Education. Journal Of Distance Education, 21(1), 75-88.
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ807814.pdf
Holmberg, B. (2004). The empathy approach to distance education. [Lecture video]. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/mXRMKkHe9yE
Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education. 13-36. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von
Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg. Retrieved from http://www.box.com/shared/y97qyc7m0t
Kentnor, H.E. (2015). Distance education and the evolution of online learning in the United States. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 17
(1/2), 21-34. Retrieved from https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/173054/viewContent/7531763/View
Knight, J. (2006). Higher education crossing borders: A guide to the implications of the general Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) for
Cross-border Education. COL/UNESCO. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001473/147363E.pdf
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance education: A systems view of online learning. USA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning.
[eReserves].
Peters, O. (2010). The revolutionary impact of distance education. Distance education in transition: Developments and issues, 5(5). 43-56.
Retrieved from: http://www.box.com/s/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct
Peters, O. (2011). Industrialization theory and distance education. Parts 2,3. [Video interviews]. Retrieved from: http://vimeo.com/33523216,
http://vimeo.com/33525745
Peters, O. (2010). The greatest achievement of industrialized education: Open universities. Distance education in transition: Developments
and issues, 5(5), 57-81. Retrieved from: http://www.box.com/s/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct

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United States Postal Service (1981). History of the U.S. Postal Service, 1775-1980. Office of the Postmaster General, U.S. Postal Service.
Retrieved from https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112105194283;view=1up;seq=3
Wave 2 References
1990 Cycle 2 Abstracts -- Star Schools Program. (2007, November 11). Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/programs/starschools/cycle2.html
Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2015). History and heritage in distance education. Journal of Open, Flexible, and Distance Learning, 16(2).
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080085.pdf
Bates, A. W. (2011, November). The second wave of distance education and history of the Open University United Kingdom [Online video].
Retrieved from http://vimeo.com/32292234 (Transcript: http://www.box.com/s/cvygk4334sub0i6atrn8)
Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. Paper presented to the 17th conference on the International Council
for Open and Distance Education, Birmingham, UK. Retrieved from http://www.box.com/s/ap4nq2zf1jujkyo65pz0
Kentnor, H.E. (2015). Distance education and the evolution of online learning in the United States. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 17
(1/2), 21-34. Retrieved from https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/173054/viewContent/7531763/View
Knowles, M. S., Swanson, M. A., & Holton, E. F. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource
development (7th ed.). Taylor & Francis.
Miller, G.E. (2014). Lessons from the old media: The value of sharing. [Weblog.]. Here We Are. Retrieved from:
http://garyemiller.blogspot.de/2014/05/lessons-from-old-media-value-of-sharing.html
Moore, M., & Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance education: A systems view of online learning (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Peters, O. (2005). Distance education in transition: Developments and issues 5(5), 57-81. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von
Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg. Retrieved from: http://www.box.com/shared/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct
Swan, K. (2010). Teaching and learning in post-industrial distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An
introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 113-114). New York & London: Routledge.

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Wave 3 References

Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2015). History and heritage in distance education. Journal of Open, Flexible, and Distance Learning, 16(2).
Retrieved from https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/173054/viewContent/7531769/View
Bates, A. W. (2011, November). The second wave of distance education and history of the Open University United Kingdom. Retrieved from
http://www.box.com/s/cvygk4334sub0i6atrn8)
Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. Paper presented to the 17th conference on the International Council
for Open and Distance Education, Birmingham, UK. Available from http://www.box.com/s/ap4nq2zf1jujkyo65pz0
Crawford, J. (2009, April 28). Learning Theories that Encompass Distance Education. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from
http://edtech2.boisestate.edu/crawfordj/portfolio/files/5_Learn_theories.pdf
Dyrud, M. A. (2000). The Third Wave: A Position Paper. Business Communication Quarterly, 63(3), 81-93.
Garrison, R. (2009) Implications of online learning for the conceptual development and practice of distance education. Journal of Distance
Education 23(2), 93-104. Retrieved from http://www.jofde.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/471/889
Guri-Rosenblit, S. (2009). Diverse models of distance teaching universities. Encyclopedia of Distance Learning, 2, 727-733. Retrieved from
http://www.box.com/s/51sbixtccnccfxboh1uk
Huang, H. (2002). Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. British Journal Of Educational Technology.
Retrieved from http://umsl.edu/~wilmarthp/modla-links-2011/Toward-a-constructivism-for-adult-learners--in-online-learningenvironments.pdf
Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Bannan Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in
distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26. Retrieved from
http://www.box.com/s/i9y1f17cii6zmb0pi4qd
Knowles, M (1980) The modern practice of adult education: from andragogy to pedagogy. Chicago: Associated. Retrieved from
https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/173054/viewContent/7531774/View

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Moore, M. G. (2006). Evolution of theory and transactional distance. Presentation at the Fourth EDEN Research Workshop, 25-28, October,
2006, Castelldefels, Spain. Retreived from: http://www.box.com/s/4vtt915puckx6lnnel6n
Wave 4 References
Anderson, T. (2010). Theories for learning with emerging technologies. In G. Veletsianos (Ed.), Emerging technologies in distance education.
23-40. Canada: Athabasca University Press. Retrieved from http://www.aupress.ca/books/120177/ebook/99Z_Veletsianos_2010Emerging_Technologies_in_Distance_Education.pdf
Blaschke, L.M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International
Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1), 56-71. Retrieved from:
http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1076/2113
Bozkurt, A., Akgun-Ozbek, E., Yilmazel, S., Erdogdu, E., & Ucar, H. (2015, February). Trends in Distance Education Research: A Content
Analysis of Journals 2009-2013. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1953/3192
Caspi, A., Gorsky, P., & Chajut, E. (2003). The influence of group size on non-mandatory asynchronous instructional discussion groups. The
Internet and Higher Education, 6(3), 227-240. Retrieved from:
https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/173054/viewContent/7531773/View
Clark, D. (2011). More pedagogic change in 10 years than last 1000 years all driven by 10 technology innovations. [Blog post.] Retrieved
from http://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/2011/12/more-pedagogic-change-in-last-10-years.html
Cohen, N., Dimsdale, D., Kowalski, M., Nash, B., & Rascoe, F. (2015, July). An introduction to open educational resources. Georgia Institute
of Technology: SMARTech - Scholarly Materials and Research at Georgia Tech Podcast. Podcast received from
http://hdl.handle.net/1853/53719
Cormier, D. (2011). What is a MOOC? [5 minute YouTube video.] Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eW3gMGqcZQc
Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. In UltiBase Articles. Retrieved from http://pandora.nla.gov.au/nphwb/20010220130000/http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/Articles/dec00/hase2.htm

DE WAVES
Howell, S. L., Williams, P. B., & Lindsay, N. K. (2003). Thirty-two Trends Affecting Distance Education: An Informed Foundation for
Strategic Plannning. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall63/howell63.html
Kamenetz, A. (2010). Edupunks, edupreneurs, and the coming transformation of higher education. Canada: Chelsea Green Publishing
Company.
Kemmis,S.andMcTaggart,R.(1988)TheActionResearchPlanner,DeakinUniversityPress,Geelong.
Mayer, R. (2001). MultimediaLearning.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 16.
Schwier, R. (2011). Connectivism. 30 minute video interview with George Siemens. Retrieved from
http://rickscafe.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/interview-with-george-siemens-about-connectivism/
Sharples, M., Adams, A., Alozie, N., Ferguson, R., & FitzGerald, E. (2015). Innovating Pedagogy 2015 - Open University. Retrieved from
http://proxima.iet.open.ac.uk/public/innovating_pedagogy_2015.pdf
Shearer, R. (2015, January 12). Four Evolving Trends that May Shape the Future of Distance Education. Retrieved from
https://evolllution.com/opinions/evolving-trends-shape-future-distance-education/
Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. elearnspace.com. Retrieved from
http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.html

Vygotsky,L.,&Lauria,A.(1981).egenesisofhighermentalfunctions.InJ.V.Wertsch(Ed.),eConceptofActivityinSoviet
Psychology(pp.144188).Armonk,NY:Sharpe.

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