Anderson, Loren Runar et al "PRELIMINARY RING DESIGN"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000

Figure 2-1 Free-body-diagram

of half of the pipe cross
section including internal
pressure P.
Equating rupturing force to
resisting force, hoop stress
in the ring is,
s = P(ID)2A

Figure 2-2 Common transportation/installation loads on pipes, called F-loads.

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CHAPTER 2 PRELIMINARY RING DESIGN

The first three steps in the structural design of buried
pipes all deal with resistance to loads. Loads on a
buried pipe can be complex, especially as the pipe
deflects out-of-round. Analysis can be simplified if
the cross section (ring) is assumed to be circular.
For pipes that are rigid, ring deflection is negligible.
For pipes that are flexible, ring deflection is usually
limited by specification to some value not greater
than five percent. Analysis of a circular ring is
reasonable for the structural design of most buried
pipes.
Analysis is prediction of structural
performance. Following are basic principles for
analysis and design of the ring such that it can
support the three most basic loads: internal pressure,
transportation/installation, and external pressure.
See Figures 2-1 and 2-2.

is reached when stress, s , equals yield strength, S.

For design, the yield strength of the pipe wall is
reduced by a safety factor,

INTERNAL PRESSURE
(MINIMUM WALL AREA)

T his is the basic equation for design of the ring to

resist internal pressure. It applies with adequate
precision to thin-wall pipes for which the ratio of
mean diameter to wall thickness, D/t, is greater than
ten. Equation 2.1 can be solved for maximum
pressure P' or minimum wall area A.

The first step in structural design of the ring is to find

minimum wall area per unit length of pipe.
Plain pipe If the pipe wall is homogeneous and
has smooth cylindrical surfaces it is plain (bare) and
wall area per unit length is wall thickness. This is
the case in steel water pipes, ductile iron pipes, and
many plastic pipes.
Other pipes are corrugated or ribbed or composite
pipes such as reinforced concrete pipes. For such
pipes, the wall area, A, per unit length of pipe is the
pertinent quantity for design.
Consider a free-body-diagram of half of the pipe
with fluid pressure inside. The maximum rupturing
force is P'(ID) where P' is the internal pressure and
ID is the inside diameter. See Figure 2-1. This
rupturing force is resisted by tension, FA, in the wall
where F is the circumferential tension stress in the
pipe wall. Equating rupturing force to the resisting
force, F = P'(ID)/2A. Performance limit

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s = P'(ID)/2A = S/sf
where:
s =
P' =
ID =
OD =
D =
A =
S
t
sf

=
=
=

. . . . . (2.1)

circumferential tensile, stress in the wall,

internal pressure,
inside diameter,
outside diameter,
diameter to neutral surface,
cross sectional area of the pipe wall per
unit length of pipe,
yield strength of the pipe wall material,
thickness of plain pipe walls,
safety factor.

A = P'(ID)sf/2S

= MINIMUM WALL AREA

For thick-wall pipes (D/t less than ten), thick-wall

cylinder analysis may be required. See Chapter 6.
Neglecting resistance of the soil, the performance
limit is the yield strength of the pipe. Once the ring
starts to expand by yielding, the diameter increas es,
the wall thickness decreases, and so the stress in the
wall increases to failure by bursting.

Example
A steel pipe for a hydroelectric penstock is 51 inch
ID with a wall thickness of 0.219 inch. What is the
maximum allowable head, h, (difference in elevation
of the inlet and outlet) when the pipe is full of water
at no flow?

Figure 2-3 Free-body-diagrams of the ring subjected to the concentrated F-load, and showing pertinent
variables for yield strength and ring deflection.

Equating the collapsing

force to resisting force,
ring compression stress is,
s = P(OD)/2A

Figure 2-4 Free-body-diagram of half of the ring showing external radial pressure, P.
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Given:
E
=
S
=
sf
=
gw =
P'
=

30(106)psi = modulus of elasticity,

36 ksi = yield strength,
2 = safety factor,
62.4 lb/ft3 = unit weight of water,
hg w = internal water pressure at outlet.

From Equation 2.1, s = S/2 = P'(ID)/2A where A is

0.219 square inches per inch of length of the pipe.
Substituting in values, h = 357 ft.

TRANSPORTATION/INSTALLATION
MAXIMUM LINE LOAD ON PIPE
The second step in design is resistance to loads
imposed on the pipe during transportation and
installation. The most common load is diametral Fload. See Figure 2-2. This load occurs when pipes
are stacked or when soil is compacted on the sides
or on top of the pipe as shown.
If yield strength of the pipe material is exceeded due
to the F-load, either the pipe wall will crack or the
cross section of the pipe will permanently deform.
Either of these deformations (a crack is a
deformation) may be unacceptable.
So yield
strength may possibly be a performance limit even
though the ring does not collapse.
For some plastic materials, including mild steel,
design for yield strength is overly conservative. So
what if yield strength is exceeded? A permanent
deformation (dent) in the ring is not necessarily pipe
failure. In fact, the yield strength was probably
exceeded in the process of fabricating the pipe.
Some pipe manufacturers limit the F-load based on
a maximum allowable ring deflection, d = D/D,
where D is the decrease in mean diameter D due to
load F. Some plastics have a memory for excessive
ring deflection. In service, failure tends to occur
where excess ive ring deflection occurred before
installation. Increased ring stiffness decreases ring
deflection. It is not inconceivable that the ring can
be so flexible that it cannot even hold its circular
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shape during placement of embedment.

One
remedy, albeit costly, is to hold the ring in shape by
stulls or struts while placing embedment. It may be
economical to provide enough ring stiffness to resist
deflection while placing the embedment. In any
case, ring deflection is a potential performance limit
for transportation/installation of pipes.
So two analyses are required for transportion and
installation, with two corresponding performance
limits: yield strength, and ring deflection. See Figure
2-3. In general, yield strength applies to rigid pipes
such as concrete pipes, and ring deflection applies to
flexible pipes. See Figure 2-4.
Yield Strength Performance Limit
To analyze the yield strength performance limit,
based on experience, pertinent fundamental
variables may be written as follows:
fv's, Fundamental
bd's, Basic
Variables
Dimensions
F
= transportation/installation
FL-1
load (concentrated line load
per unit length of pipe),
D
= mean diameter of the pipe,
L
I
= moment of inertia of the wall
L3
cross section per unit length
of pipe,
c
= distance from the neutral axis
L
of the wall cross section to
the most remote wall surface
where the stress is at yield point.
S
= yield strength of pipe wall
FL-2
material
5 fv's - 2 bd's = 3 pi-terms.
The three pi-terms may be written by inspection. A
typical set is: (F/SD), (c/D), and (I/D3). This is only
one of many possible sets of pi-terms. D is a
repeating variable. Note that the pi-terms are
independent because each contains at least one
fundamental variable that is not contained in any of
the other pi-terms. All are dimensionless. The
interrelationship of these three pi-terms can be

found either by experimentation or by analysis. An

example of class ical analysis starts with circumferential stress s = Mc/I where M is the maximum
bending moment in the pipe ring due to load F. But
if stress is limited to yield strength, then S = Mc/I
where M = FD/2p based on ring analysis by
Castigliano's theorem. See Appendix A, Table A-1.
M is the maximum moment due to force F. Because
it occurs at the location of F, there is no added ring
compression stress. Substituting in values and
rearranging the fundamental variables into pi-term,
(F/SD) = 2p(D/c)(I/D3)
The three pi-terms are enclosed in parentheses.
Disregarding pi-terms,

fv's, Fundamental
Variables
d
= ring deflection = /D
D
= mean diameter of the
pipe
F
= diametral line load
per unit length of pipe
EI
= wall stiffness
per unit length of pipe
where:
D
=
E
=
t
=
I
=

bd's, Basic
Dimensions
L
FL-1
FL

decrease in diameter due to the F-load,

modulus of elasticity,
wall thickness for plain pipe,
moment of inertia of wall cross section per
unit length of pipe = t3/12 for plain pipe.

F = 2pSI/cD = F-load at yield strength, S.

4 fv's - 2 bd's = 2 pi-terms.

For plain pipes, I = t3/12 and c = t/2 for which, I/c =

t2/6 and, in pi-terms:

Two pi-terms, by inspection, are (d) and (FD2/EI).

Again, the interrelationship of these pi-terms can be
found either by experimentation or by analysis.
Table 5-1 is a compilation of analyses of ring
deflections of pipes subjected to a few of the
common loads. From Table A-1, ring deflection due
to F-loads is,

(F/SD) = p(t/D)2/3
Disregarding pi-terms,
F = pSt2/3D = F-load at yield strength S for plain
pipes (smooth cylindrical surfaces). The modulus of
elasticity E has no effect on the F-load as long as
the ring remains circular. Only yield strength S is a
performance limit.

(d) = 0.0186 (FD2/EI)

. . . . . (2.2)

This equation is already in pi-terms (parentheses).

For plain pipes, for which I = t3/12 and c = t/2, this
equation for ring deflection is:

Ring Deflection Performance Limit

(d) = 0.2232 (F/ED) (D/t)3

If the performance limit is ring deflection at the

elastic limit, modulus of elasticity E is pertinent.
Yield strength is not pertinent. For this case,
pertinent fundamental variables and corresponding
basic dimensions are the following:

The relationship between circumferential stress and

ring deflection is found by substituting from Table A1, at yield stress, F = 2pSI/cD, where S is yield
strength and c is the distance from the neutral
surface of the wall to the wall surface. The
resulting equation is:

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(d) = 0.117 (s /E) (D/c)

. . . . . (2.3)

For plain pipes,

(d) = 0.234 (s E) (D/t)
Note the introduction of a new pi-term, (s /E). This
relationship could have been found by
experimentation using the three pi-terms in
parentheses in Equation 2.3. Ring deflection at yield
stress, S, can be found from Equation 2.3 by setting
s = S. If ring deflection exceeds yield, the ring does
not return to its original circular shape when the Fload is removed. Deformation is permanent. This is
not failure, but, for design, may be a performance
limit with a margin of safety.

Steel and aluminum pipe industries use an F-load

criterion for transportation/installation. In Equation
2.2 they specify a maximum flexibility factor FF =
D2/EI. If the flexibility factor for a given pipe is less
than the specified FF, then the probability of
transportation/installation damage is statistically low
enough to be tolerated.
For other pipes, the stress criterion is popular.
When stress s = yield strength S, the maximum
allowable load is:
F = 2pSI/cD
For walls with smooth cylindrical surfaces,
F = pSt2/3D

The following equations summarize design of the

pipe to resist transportation/installation loads.
For transportation/installation, the maximum
allowable F-load and the corresponding ring
deflection, d, when circumferential stress is at
yield strength, S, are found by the following
formulas.

Ring Strength
(F/SD) = 2p (D/c) (I/D3)
For plain pipes, (F/SD) = p(t/D)2/3

. . . . . (2.4)

In another form, for plain walls, the maximum

allowable D/t is:
(D/t)2 = pSD/3F
For the maximum anticipated F-load, i.e. at yield
strength, the minimum wall thickness term (t/D) can
be evaluated. Any safety factor could be small
approaching 1.0 because, by plastic analysis,
collapse does not occur just because the
circumferential stress in the outside surfaces
reaches yield strength. To cause a plastic hinge
(dent or cusp) the F-load would have to be increased
by three-halves.

Resolving, for plain pipes,

F = pSD(t/D) /3.
2

Ring Deflection where d = (D/D) due to F-load,

is given by:

Plastic pipe engineers favor the use of outside

diameter, OD, and a classification number called the
dimension ratio, DR, which is simply DR = OD/t =
(D+t)/t where D is mean diameter. Using these
dimensions, the F-load at yield is:
F = pSt/3(DR-1)

d = 0.0186 (FD /EI), in terms of F-load . . . (2.5)

d = 0.117 (s /E) (D/c), in terms of stress, s , or
d = 0.234(S/D)(D/t), for plain pipes with smooth
cylindrical surfaces in terms of yield strength S.
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If the F-load is known, the required dimension ratio

at yield strength is:
DR = (pSt/3F) + 1

Example
Unreinforced concrete pipes are to be stacked for
storage in vertical columns on a flat surface as
indicated in Figure 2-2. The load on the bottom pipe
is essentially an F-load. The following information is
given:

distributed. OD is the outside diameter. The

resisting force is compression in the pipe wall, 2s A,
where s is the circumferential stress in the pipe wall,
called ring compression stress.
Equating the
rupturing force to the resisting force, with stress at
allowable, S/sf, the resulting equation is:
s = P(OD)/2A = S/sf

ID
OD
g
F
s

=
=
=
=

30 inches = inside diameter,

37.5 in = outside diameter,
145 lb/ft3 = unit weight of concrete,
3727 lb/ft = F-load at fracture
+ s from tests where,
= + 460 lb/ft = standard deviation of the
ultimate F-load at fracture of the pipe.

a) How high can pipes be stacked if the F-load is

limited to 3000 lb/ft? From the data, the weight of
the pipe is 400 lb/ft. The number of pipes high in the
stack is 3000/400 = 7.5. So the stack must be
limited to seven pipes in height.

. . . . . (2.6)

This is the basis for design. Because of its

importance, design by ring compression stress is
considered further in Chapter 6.
The above analyses are based on the assumption
that the ring is circular. If not, i.e., if deformation
out-of-round is significant, then the shape of the
deformed ring must be taken into account. But
basic deformation is an ellipse. See Chapter 3.
Example

b) What is the probability that a pipe will break if the

column is seven pipes high? The seven pipe load at
the bottom of the stack is 7(400) = 2800 lb/ft. w =
3727 - 2800 = 927 lb/ft which is the deviation of the
seven-pipe load from the F-load. From Table 1-1,
the probability of failure is 2.2% for the bottom
pipes. For all pipes in the stack, the probability is
one-seventh as much or 0.315%, which is one
broken pipe for every 317 in the stack.

A steel pipe for a hydroelectric penstock is 51

inches in diameter (ID) with wall thickness of 0.219
inch. It is to be buried in a good soil embedment
such that the cross section remains circular. What
is the safety factor against yield strength, S = 36 ksi,
if the external soil pressure on the pipe is 16 kips/ft2?
For this pipe, OD = 51.44 inches, and A = t = 0.219
inch. At 16 ksf, P = 111 psi. Substituting into
Equation 2.6, the safety factor is sf = 2.76. The soil
pressure of 16 ksf is equivalent to about 150 feet of
soil cover. See Chapter 3.

c) What is the circumferential stress in the pipe wall

at an average F-load of 3727 lb/ft? From Equation
2.4, F = pSD(t/D)2/3 where S = yield strength D/t =
9, D = 51 inches. Solving, s = 471 psi. This is good
concrete considering that it fails in tension.

PROBLEMS

EXTERNAL PRESSURE
MINIMUM WALL AREA
Consider a free-body-diagram of half the pipe with
external pressure on it. See Figure 2-4. The
vertical rupturing force is P(OD) where P is the
external radial pressure assumed to be uniformly
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2-1 What is the allowable internal pressure in a 48inch diameter 2-2/3 by 1/2 corrugated steel pipe, 16
gage (0.064 inch thick)?
(P' = 48.4 psi)
Given:
D = 48 inches = inside diameter,
t
= 0.064 in = wall thickness,
A = 0.775 in 2/ft [AISI tables],
S = 36 ksi = yield strength,

E
sf

= 30(106) psi,
= 2 = safety factor.

2-2 What is the allowable internal pressure if a

reinforced conc rete pipe is 60 inch ID and has two
cages comprising concentric hoops of half-inch steel
reinforcing rods spaced at 3 inches in the wall which
is 6.0 inches thick?
(P' = 78.5 psi)
Given:
S
= 36 ksi = yield strength of steel,
sf
= 2 = safety factor,
Ec
= 3(106) psi = concrete modulus,
Neglect tensile strength of concrete.
2-3 What must be the pretension force in the steel
rods of Problem 2-2 if the pipe is not to leak at
internal pressure of 72 psi? Leakage through hair
cracks in the concrete appears as sweating.
(Fs = 2.9 kips)
2-4 How could the steel rods be pretensioned in
Problem 2-3? Is it practical to pretension (or post
tension) half-inch steel rods? How about smaller

diameter, high-strength wires? What about bond?

How can ends of the rods (or wires) be fixed?
2-5 What is the allowable fresh water head (causing
internal pressure) in a steel pipe based on the
following data if sf = 2?
(105 meters)
ID = 3.0 meters,
t
= 12.5 mm = wall thickness,
S = 248 MN/m2 = 36 ksi yield strength.
2-6 What maximum external pressure can be
resisted by the RCP pipe of Problem 2-2 if the yield
strength of the concrete in compression is 10 ksi,
modulus of elasticity is E = 3000 ksi, and the internal
pressure in the pipe is zero? See also Figure 2-5.
(P = 52 ksf, limited by the steel)
2-7 Prove that T = Pr for thin-walled circular pipe.
See Figure 2-4.
T = ring compression thrust,
P = external radial pressure,
r
= radius (more precisely, outside radius).

Figure 2-5 Equivalent diagrams for uniform external soil pressure on a pipe, showing (on the right) the more
convenient form for analysis.
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