Non-Arc Welding Processes Overview

Non-Arc Welding Processes
Introduction

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Electrical resistance heating, chemical reactions,

focused light and electrons, sound waves, and
friction can also be used to join materials
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Resistance welding
Laser and electron beam welding
Friction welding
Brazing and soldering
Plastics joining
Adhesive bonding
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Many processes used today do not rely on an electric arc. Fusion welding (complete
melting and mixing of the weld area) as well as solid-state welding (no melting of the weld
area) can be accomplished by using several different processes, depending on the situation
or application.
Resistance welding, used mostly in the production of automobiles, is a fast and reliable
means of joining thin sheets of metal together. The weld is created by first applying
pressure on the two parts to be joined. Once the correct amount of pressure is applied,
current is passed between the two (or more) overlapped sheets. Resistive (I2R) heating
results in melting and the formation of a weld nugget.
Chemical reactions are also used in joining materials together. Thermite reactions induce
extremely high temperatures, add filler metal, and produce a slag. This process is widely
employed in the joining of railroad rails. The chemical reaction is as follows:
metal
oxide + aluminum => aluminum oxide + metal + heat
If a high precision, low distortion, or a fast, deep single pass weld is needed, then a High
Energy Density (HED) welding process can be used. Both electron beams and lasers can
accomplish this. To create an area of high density, a beam is focused down to a spot on the
surface of a material. When the energy density is great enough, melting occurs. The beam
intensity at the point of welding falls in the range of 105 W/cm2 for laser beam welding to
about 107 W/cm2 for electron beam welding.
Introduction to Welding Engineering
Non-Arc Welding Processes - 49
Courtesy American Welding Society
Hierarchy
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Resistance Welding
Resistance Welding
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The electrical resistance of

metal to the localized flow
of current produces heat
(Joule heating = I2 R)
Process variables
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Current
Time (Number of cycles)
Force
Spot and seam welding

Spot welding
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electrode
electrode
Resistance spot welding is the most common of the resistance

welding processes. It is used extensively in the automotive, appliance,
furniture, and aircraft industries to join sheet materials. In this process,
water-cooled, copper electrodes are used to clamp the sheets to be
welded into place. The force applied to the electrodes insures intimate
contact between all the parts in the weld configuration. A current is
then passed across the electrodes through the sheets.
The contact resistance between the two pieces of sheet metal to be
joined is much higher than the bulk resistance of the copper electrodes
or of the sheet metal itself. Therefore, the highest resistive heating
occurs between the two pieces of sheet metal. As current continues to
flow, melting occurs and a weld nugget is formed between the two
sheets. On termination of the welding current, the weld cools rapidly
under the influence of the chilled electrodes. This causes the nugget to
resolidify, joining the two sheets of metal.
Resistance spot welding is used extensively because it is a simple,
inexpensive, versatile, and forgiving process. It has been shown to be
adaptable to some degree of feedback control.
Resistance Welding
Resistance Welding Advantages

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Can be used with virtually

all metals
High speed, < 0.1
seconds in automotive
spot welds
Excellent for sheet metal
applications, < -inch
No filler metal
Easily automated
Seam welding
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Resistance seam welding is a variation on resistance spot welding. In this case, the
welding electrodes are motor-driven wheels rather than stationary caps. This results in a
rolling resistance or seam weld. There are three independent parameters in configuring
seam welding machines: power supplies and controls, welding wheel configuration, and
sheet configuration.
The major concern with power supplies and control is the frequency with which current
is applied to the workpiece. Depending on this frequency and the speed with which the
material is being welded, the weld will be either a continuous seam weld, an overlapping
seam weld, or a roll spot weld.
Roll spot weld
Overlapping seam weld
Continuous seam weld
Seam welds are typically used to produce continuous gas- or water-tight joints in sheet
assemblies, such as automotive gasoline tanks. The process is also used to weld
longitudinal seams in structural tubular sections that do not require leak-tight seams. In
most applications, two wheel electrodes, or one translating wheel and a stationary mandrel,
are used to provide the current and pressure for resistance seam welding.
Resistance Welding
Time (cycles of current)
Operating Window - Lobe Curve
Nugget
too small
Acceptable
nugget
size
Expulsion
Constant electrode
force
Current (1000s of amperes)

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Acceptable-sized weld nuggets can be produced over a range of currents. At the low end
of this current range is the minimum nuggets size, which can be found in a resistance
welding manual and is based on the diameter of the electrode face. At the upper end of the
current range is the expulsion limit. Expulsion is a condition in which the weld nugget
grows to a size which cannot be contained by the electrode force; molten metal bursts out of
the weld seam. The current range over which an acceptable nugget size is obtained is a
measure of the robustness of the welding process. A wide current range indicates that
significant variations in the process can occur while maintaining some minimum weld
quality. A narrow range, on the other hand, indicates that minor variations in process
conditions can result in unacceptable weld quality.
The weldability lobe graphically represents the range of acceptable welding currents as a
function of welding time. The minimum and expulsion currents are determined for a
number of welding times at a particular electrode force. Separate lines are drawn to connect
the minimum-weld-size currents and the expulsion currents. The weldability lobe is given
as the range of acceptable currents between the two lines.
The required current level for making a consistently-sized weld (presumably just below
expulsion) is probably the simplest method of defining weldability. This measure of
weldability is an indication of the size of welding transformers required to weld the
materials of interest. For uncoated steel with a thickness of 0.8-mm (6.1-mm electrode
diameter, 12-14 cycles of welding current) the welding current is 9000 amperes (A). The
same sheet with a hot-dipped galvanized coating requires 13,000 A.
Resistance Welding
Electrodes
Truncated cone
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Dome
Pointed
Copper-based alloys with hardening agents (tungsten)

Electrode tip wear during service results in changing
nugget size
Reaction with metal to be welded (Zn-coated steels react
to form brass)
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The basic electrode geometry is usually selected to improve the electrical-thermalmechanical performance of an electrode. This is generally a geometry in which the crosssectional area increases rapidly with distance from the workpiece, thereby providing a good
heat sink. The diameter of the electrode contact area is also a consideration: too small an
area will produce undersized welds with insufficient strength; too large an area will lead to
unstable and inconsistent weld growth characteristics.
Electrodes must be able to: conduct current to the workpiece, mechanically constrain the
workpiece, and conduct heat from the workpiece. Electrode materials must be able to
sustain high loads at elevated temperatures, while maintaining adequate thermal and
electrical conductivity. A range of copper-based or refractory-based electrode materials are
used based on the application. Three groups of electrode materials are outlined below.
Within each group, the Resistance Welding Manufacturers Association (RWMA) sorts
electrode materials into classes. Group A contains copper-based alloys. Common examples
are:
Class 1 (99% copper, 1% cadmium; 60 ksi UTS (forged); conductivity 92% IACS)
Specifically recommended, because of its high electrical and thermal conductivity, for spot
welding aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, brass and bronze.
Class 2 (99.2% copper, 0.8% chromium; 62 ksi UTS (forged), 82% IACS) General
purpose electrode material for production spot and seam welding of most materials.
Group B contains refractory metals and refractory metal composites. Group C contains
specialty materials such as dispersion-strengthened copper.
Resistance Welding
Process Advantages and Limitations

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Advantages
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High production rates

Easily automated
Very reproducible under
controlled conditions
Large process window for
most materials
Minimal welder training
Environmentally friendly
Limitations
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Higher equipment costs

than arc welding
Power line demands
Nondestructive testing is
difficult
Low tensile and fatigue
strength
Not portable
Electrode wear
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Several disadvantages are associated with this process. Resistance welding equipment is
more expensive than arc welding equipment. The process lacks the portability of arc
welding. Although individual spot welding guns may have limited movement on the
assembly line, the power source is fixed.
Parts to be joined are limited to a thickness of less than 1/4 of an inch due to current
requirements. Thicker base materials have a greater ability to dissipate heat away from the
weld area. Also, the resistance welding process is limited to overlapping joints, which
requires more material than a butt joint.
The process can produce unfavorable power line demands, particularly with single-phase
as opposed to 3-phase transformers. Short time, high power demands can cause lights to
dim and computers to reset if the electrical system in a factory is not properly prepared for
the introduction of resistance welding equipment.
The lack of a simple, in-process nondestructive testing technique for resistance spot and
seam welding is also a limitation. Because resistance welds are produced between
overlapping sheets, there can be no visual examination if the finished weld. Also, the time
required for ultrasonic inspection of individual spot welds would be unacceptable in a high
production environment such as the automotive industry.
Spot welds have low tensile and fatigue strength; the notch around the periphery of the
nugget between the sheets acts as a stress concentrator.
Electrode wear acts to increase the diameter of the electrode face. During production,
current values must slowly rise to compensate for the decreased current density, else nugget
size drops.
High Energy Density Processes

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Energy focussed to a
small area
Laser
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CO2 laser welding
CO2 gas type

Nd-YAG crystal
Electron beam
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High energy density welding is used in a wide variety of applications and is capable of
producing welds with a high degree of precision. The low heat inputs of each process make
it possible to control the weld width and depth and act to reduce distortion and residual
stress.
The word LASER is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. A laser beam that becomes highly focused is an excellent source of concentrated
energy. This energy is used for many welding applications and also cutting and heat
treating. Two basic types of lasers are used in welding: solid-state and gas lasers. The
choice of laser type depends on the type of material to be welded (how it absorbs certain
wavelengths of light) as well as the required speed and penetration. Non-metallic materials,
such as plastics, can be laser welded.
Nd:YAG (a doped crystal of neodymium with yttrium, aluminum, and garnet) is the most
common solid-state laser used for welding today. The end surfaces of its elongated crystal
rod are ground flat and parallel. These ends usually have a reflective coating placed on
them; one end is totally reflective, the other end is partially reflective, leaving a small area
for photons to escape. The Nd ions excite their electrons to a higher energy level. By doing
this, photons are emitted at a wavelength of 1.06 micrometers. After the photons are
emitted, the electrons are allowed to return to their original state.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

shielding
gas nozzle
(optional)
Laser beam
Plasma plume
Plasma
keyhole
Molten
material
workpiece motion
Keyhole welding
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Single pass weld

penetration up to 3/4 in
steel
Materials need not be
conductive
No filler metal required
Low heat input produces
low distortion
Does not require a
vacuum
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The most common gas laser is the carbon dioxide laser, which emits light at a
wavelength of 10.6 micrometers. Most metals absorb its wavelength of light from a
Nd:YAG laser (1.06 micrometers) better than that of a CO2 laser. Also the Nd:YAG laser
can be delivered by flexible fiber-optic cable, making it more versatile than the fixed
delivery system for a gas laser. Factors affecting the choice between gas and solid state
lasers are summarized below.
CO2 lasers: higher power, better beam quality in terms of focusability, higher speeds and
deeper penetration for materials that dont reflect its light, lower start-up and operation
costs.
Nd:YAG lasers: versatile fiber-optic delivery, easy beam alignment, easier maintenance,
smaller equipment, more expensive safety measures than CO2 because of its wavelength.
A typical laser can be focused to a spot size of 0.1-0.8 mm (0.004-0.035 inch), with
power densities greater than 107 W/cm2. At these power densities, a phenomenon referred
to as keyholing occurs, which allows continuous, deep-penetration welding of metal. The
metal melts and vaporizes upon interaction with the beam; the pressure of the metal vapor
pushes molten metal out of the way and forms a keyhole or cavity.
Focusing the Beam
Heat
treatment
Surface
modification
Welding
Cutting
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The presence of contaminants in the weld joint such as grease or rust can lead to porosity
in the weld itself and to spatter. It is spatter which can greatly affect the choice of operating
parameters for a laser. In general, a specific focal point size can be obtained over a range of
focal lengths. Larger focal lengths are considered in instances where soot and weld spatter
are likely.
In laser welding, the beam can be focused for different applications. Usually, a small
focus size is used for cutting and welding, while a larger focus is used for heat treatment or
surface modification. The focal spot of the beam can also be varied based on the
application.
A defocused larger spot diameter can be used for surface heat treatment. Localized
surface modification can be achieved by focusing on the surface of the spot. The crosssection of laser weld exhibits an hourglass shape. This shape arises because the focal spot
of the laser is within the material being welded, with the beam converging to and diverging
from this spot. For laser cutting, the focus of the beam is toward the bottom or back side of
the plate.
Limitations of Laser Welding

Weld penetration, mm
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6 kW CO2
10
2 kW Nd:YAG
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4
2
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Welding speed, m/min
High initial start-up costs

Part fit-up and joint
tracking are critical
Not portable
Metals such as copper
and aluminum have high
reflectivity and are difficult
to laser weld
High cooling rates may
lead to metallurgical
problems
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There are some disadvantages to laser welding. Laser welders are very expensive.
Typical capital costs include ~ $100K-150K for a C02 laser and another $150K for the
fixturing required to move the part under the stationary beam. The overall laser set-up
involves large machines that can not be transported to the job site. All fabrication must be
completed at the shop.
As light reflects off mirrors, lasers can also reflect off shiny materials. Thus, highly
reflective metals, such as aluminum and copper, can be difficult to laser weld. The high
cooling rates associated with laser welding can lead to materials problems. With steels, for
example, there is the potential to form martensite adjacent to the weld zone.
Tight tolerances are required on joint fit-up, as would be expected when the focused spot
can be 0.004 inches across. For a butt joint, the maximum gap shouldnt exceed 0.1 mm
(0.004 inch), with lass than a 0.2 mm (0.008 inch) vertical mismatch between the
workpieces. The beam focus position needs to be accurate within 0.25 mm (0.01 inch).
The beam must track the joint within 0.05 mm (0.002 inch).
Rofin Sinar Laser is acknowledged as a source of much of the information on lasers in

this section.
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

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Deepest single pass weld

penetration of the fusion
processes
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14-inch-thick steel
20-inch thick aluminum
High travel speeds

Low heat input welds
produce low distortion
No filler metal required
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An electron beam welding machine is made up of a power supply, electron beam gun,
vacuum chamber, and gun/work motion equipment. The gun produces accelerated
electrons. It contains a filament (usually tungsten) as the cathode, the cup, an anode, and
beam focusing parts. Electrons are liberated from the surface of the tungsten. The beam
collects and semi-focused by its natural attraction to the anode. As it passes through the
anode, the beam receives a final focus by magnetic deflection. The beam exits the gun and
travels through the work.
The deep penetration, single pass capability and fast travel speeds of electron beam
welding can prove very economical in industrial situations. As with laser welding, electron
beam welding provides low distortion due to low heat input. Most conductive materials are
weldable.
Drawing from Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Volume 2, American Welding Society.
Limitations
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Extremely high equipment and maintenance costs

Not portable - part must come the the machine
Part size limited by size of vacuum chamber
Long turnaround due to chamber pumpdown
Part fit-up is critical
High solidification and cooling rates may lead to
metallurgical problems
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Electron beam and laser welding have some similar disadvantages. These include: price,
inability of the unit to be portable, part fit-up tolerance, and materials problems associated
with high cooling rates. The vacuum chamber has limited space; therefore a part to be
welded is limited to its size. The most crucial factor of them all is that the unit produces xrays. Heavy shielding is necessary to produce a safe working environment.
Friction Welding
Friction Welding Processes

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Inertia friction welding - inertia of the rotating mass

generates frictional heat
Continuous drive friction welding - connected to a
direct drive system for control of rotational velocity
Linear friction welding - parts translated linearly to
allow joining of non-symmetrical shapes
Friction stir welding - non-consumable pin rotated
along joint to promote frictional heating
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Friction welding is a solid-state welding process that uses the frictional heat generated by
rubbing two materials together to create a weld. This is a form of forge welding where heat
and a forging force are applied simultaneously.
There are a number of different types of friction welding. Most commonly, the parts to
be welded are rubbed together to create the frictional heating. Within friction stir welding,
a separate tool is rotated to create frictional heat between two abutting materials.
Friction Welding
Friction Welding - Advantages

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For correct part geometry,

friction welding is faster than
most other processes
Extremely reproducible
Forging action reduces need
for joint preparation
Joining dissimilar materials
Easily automated for high
volume production
Can join plastics
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Solid-state welding is a group of welding processes that produce a weld with the
application of pressure at a temperature below the solidus of the base materials. By joining
materials in the solid state, many of the difficulties of the fusion processes are avoided.
When dissimilar metals are joined, the thermal expansion mismatch between the two
materials becomes of less importance since the bonding temperature is decreased in solid
state processes.
Friction welding is a process which produces a weld under a compression force. The
workpieces are brought into contact. One part is held stationary and the other is rotated
rapidly against it to produce heat. The two parts are forced together as rotation is stopped.
Hot material and impurities are squeezed from the interface in the form of a flash. The flash
can be trimmed off in the machine to produce a smooth surface, which is ready for further
processing such as painting.
Geometries that have a rotational symmetry are particularly suitable for friction welding.
These can include round bars and tubes, as well as bars-sheet and tube-sheet applications.
Linear friction welding is used for parts with non-rotational symmetry. In this
application, one part is translated back and forth against the other.
Friction Welding
Limitations of Friction Welding

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Equipment cost is
high
Application limited by
part geometry and
size
Difficulty in joining
dissimilar materials
with large differences
in properties
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Friction welding requires part geometries with rotational symmetry. The speed of the
process, as well as its ease of automation, promotes high volume production.
The joining of dissimilar metals can often be accomplished by the friction process,
despite that fact that the metals cannot be joined by conventional fusion processes. For
example, copper and steel cannot be joined by arc welding because they are incompatible
when melted together. A friction weld between the two metals, however, results in a strong
bond.
The process is not limited to metals. Friction welding is a major method for the joining
of plastics.
Despite its advantages of speed and range of materials, the friction welding process has
its limitations. As has been mentioned, the parts must be able to rotate on an axis of
symmetry. Although linear friction welding is an option, the equipment and fixturing is
more expensive.
Non-forgeable metals cannot be friction welded. These materials tend to crumble upon
the application of heat and pressure. Also, free-machining alloys are often difficult to weld.
The inclusion content, which promotes chip formation during cutting, leads to difficulties as
the parts are spun and forged together.
Friction Stir Welding

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Application of heat and

deformation
No melting
Dynamic metallurgical
reactions
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Friction stir welding is a relatively new solid-state joining process that relies on
the frictional heat of a tool rotating between the two pieces to be welded. This
friction heats the material to a temperature where it flows easily and the abutting
pieces are joined by this metallic stirring action - analogous to a metallic dough.
No melting takes place, and a high integrity, solid-state joint is formed.
Brazing and Soldering

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In these processes, the

base metals are heated
but do not melt; only the
filler metal melts
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Brazing filler metals have a

melting point above
840 F (450C)
Soldering filler metals have
a melting point below
840F (450C)
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Brazing and soldering are processes where only the filler metal melts and flows into the
joint; the base material remains unmelted. The parts are fitted together with tight
tolerances, which produce capillary action to draw filler metal into the joint.
Wetting, the ability of a liquid filler to spread over a free surface, becomes critical
during this process. Wetting can be related to wax on a car. If a car is waxed, the water
beads off the car. In brazing and soldering, this would be referred to as poor wetting. If a
car has no wax on it, water spreads over the surface of the car. This is a necessary condition
for brazing and soldering. Any oxides or other film must be cleaned off the parts to be
joined, generally by a fluxing agent, in order to ensure good wetting.
Advantages
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Used for incompatible

base metals
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Base metals dont melt

Can be used on metals and
ceramics
Joined parts can be

disassembled at a later
time
Batch furnace can easily
process multiple parts
Portable when joining
small parts
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The base metals remain intact and do not melt during brazing and soldering. Therefore,
bonds can be made between otherwise unweldable materials. If at a future time, one of the
joined parts needs to be replaced, the entire assembly can be reheated, taken apart, and
rejoined with a new part.
Batch processing involves the simultaneous production of large numbers of parts. Before
the parts are placed in the furnace, or on the conveyor belt to the furnace, filler metal and
flux is placed in the joint. In the furnace, the filler metal melts and flows over the free
surfaces by capillary action. As the part leaves the furnace, the filler solidifies rapidly and
the part, either brazed or soldered, becomes one rigid piece.
Soldering of electronic components, such as on computer circuit boards, would not be an
economical process if each circuit element was individually soldered. In this instance, the
circuit boards are passed over the surface of open vats of molten solder. All the connections
are made in this one operation.
Although ceramics are not welded by fusion metals, they can be joined by brazing. In
metal to ceramic bonds, there is a great difference in the thermal expansion of the two
materials. Ceramics expand on the order of ten times less than metals during similar
heating. As such, an interlayer of intermediate thermal expansion is often used to transition
between the metal and ceramic. Low-expansion, iron-nickel alloys such as Invar and Kovar
are often used.
The major limitation of brazing and soldering is joint tolerance. The parts to be joined
must be fit to tight tolerances in order to promote capillary action. If the piece fit-up is too
wide, capillary action will not take place. AWS A5.8 gives suggested joint design gap
spacings for the different filler metals. These dimensions are generally ~ 0.002-0.006
inches.
Parts must be clean, so that the filler metal can wet the surface of the pieces being joined.
This can involve degreasing and the removal of any surface oxide layer. Fluxing agents are
often employed for this purpose.
Welding of Plastics
Joining Plastics
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Polymer - a single building

block (mer) is repeated to
form a long chain molecule
z
Thermoplastic polymers soften

when heated, harden when
cooled
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2-liter bottles, leisure suits
Thermosetting polymers dont

soften when heated
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Car tires, caulking compound
(Poly)ethylene
H
H
C=C
H
H
add H2O2
HH
-C-C-
HH
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The need to produce larger, more complex, and reinforced parts from polymers (plastics)
has increased the need for joining in this area. To date, most semi-structural polymer parts
have been made from thermoset polymers which are joined by mechanical fasteners and
adhesives. However, greater impact resistance, processing ease, and potential for recycling
are increasing the interest in thermoplastic parts. While adhesives and mechanical fasteners
are used for joining thermoplastic parts, thermosetting polymers offer an alternative joining
possibility, fusion bonding.
Fusion processes for joining thermoplastics and thermoplastic composites involve
heating the polymer to a viscous state and physically causing polymer chains to interdiffuse,
usually by pressure induced flow. The fusion welding processes can be divided into the
following two groups:
Processes involving external heating (hot plate, hot gas, infrared).
Processes involving mechanical movement (vibration, ultrasonic).
Welding of Plastics
Hot Plate, Infrared Welding

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Advantages
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z
z
Provide strong
joints
Reliable
Used on difficult to
join plastics
Limitations
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z
Slow
Limited
temperature range
Hot plate welding
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Hot plate and infrared welding are all welding processes that involve applying external
heat to the the area of the polymer parts that are to be joined together. The joint area is
heated to a viscous state without burning or vaporizing. The melted or softened polymer
surfaces in the weld area are then forged together resulting in interdiffusion of the molecular
chains, which produces a weld.
In hot plate welding the two parts to be joined together are clamped onto a machine with
a vertical heated plate called a platen. The ends of the parts are forced against the heated
platen until melted or viscous. At this time the parts are automatically pulled back from the
platen, the platen is removed, and the parts are forged together to make the weld.
Infrared heating uses infrared radiation as a heat source. The radiation is focused on a
weld face and causes melting of the polymer surface. Removing the infrared source and
forging the surfaces together forms a weld.
Welding of Plastics
Hot Gas Welding

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Thermoplastics (hotmelts)
z
Adhesive is heated until it

softens, then hardens on
cooling
Hot gas softens filler and

base material
Filler is pulled or fed into
the joint
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Hot gas or hot air welding uses a stream of heated gas or air directed at a filler rod and
the joint area to fuse the surfaces. The filler rod is then pushed or fed into the joint area
causing the fused polymers to contact. Best results are obtained when the filler rod is the
same material as the base material. For example polypropylene would be joined with
polypropylene filler material.
Welding of Plastics
Vibration Welding
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Advantages
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Speed
Used on many materials
Limitations
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z
z
Size
Requires fixturing
Equipment costly
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Vibration or linear friction welding involves the rubbing of two thermoplastics together
under pressure at a suitable frequency and amplitude until enough energy is expended to melt
the polymer. The vibration is stopped at that point, the parts are aligned, and the molten
polymer allowed to solidify creating a weld. The vibration can be in a linear motion or a
circular motion.
The amplitude of the vibrations ranges from about .010 to .100 inch. The frequency of the
vibrations ranges from 100 to 500 Hz. Vibration welding is attractive because a typical
vibration weld takes only a matter of seconds to complete. However, vibration welders are
expensive, as are the required fixturing needed to hold the parts in the vibration welder. The
size of parts that can be vibration welded is limited to approximately an 8-inch by 8-inch
square.
The automotive and domestic appliance industry is using vibration welding extensively.
Automotive applications include front and rear light assemblies, fuel filler doors, spoilers,
instrument panels, and power steering and vacuum systems.
Welding of Plastics
Ultrasonic Welding
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Advantages
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z
Fast
Can spot or seam weld
Limitations
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Equipment complex, many

variables
Large parts difficult to weld
due to energy required
Cannot weld all plastics
ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-73
Ultrasonic welding processes occur when vertical oscillations at frequencies of 10 to 50

kHz are transmitted through polymers and dissipated in a bond line. The parts to be joined
are held together under pressure and are subjected to ultrasonic vibrations at right angles to
the contact area. The high-frequency stresses produce heat in the material and, if the
components are properly designed, this heat can be selectively generated at the joint
interface. Heat is generated through a combination of friction and hysteresis.
The amplitude of the oscillations can be in the range of 20 to 60 microns, significantly
less than the amplitude of movement in friction welding. The sound energy oscillations are
generated by the ultrasonic welder and transferred to the parts being welded by what is
called a horn. The design of the horn as well as the anvil or base of the ultrasonic welder is
critical to the success or failure of the process as it must transmit a specific wavelength of
sound into a specific joint geometry. Ultrasonic welding equipment is typically costly,
which makes it impractical for short production runs.
Ultrasonic welding is probably the most commonly used method to join thermoplastics.
It is fast (a few seconds or less), clean, and usually produces welds that are relatively free of
flash. In addition, ultrasonic welding is relatively easy to automate since fixtures can act as
anvils and the horn can be applied outside the part to produce a weld on an inside surface.
Items commonly made by ultrasonic welding include, dashboard assemblies for
automobiles, and 3-inch computer disks. Note that most of these items are small; size is a
limitation of the process.
Adhesive Bonding
Why Adhesive Bonding?

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Part fit-up not critical

Coverage of large areas
Dissimilar materials
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Plastic to metal
Metal A to metal B
Materials that can be damaged by mechanical

attachments
Shock absorption or mechanical dampening
Laminate structures
Hybrid joints
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couple resistance spot welding with adhesive bonding

ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-74
Adhesive bonding is used as an alternative to such mechanical fastening methods as

screws, rivets and spot welds. It provides greater stiffness and a more uniform stress
distribution. Adhesives are used to bond widely differing materials, including those with
poor weldability, large differences in thermal expansion, or complete dissimilarity, e.g.
plastics to metals.
They are used for materials that cannot withstand the added stresses of holes for bolts or
rivets. Also they can be used where, due to poor design, the joint cannot be reached for
assembly in a complex part or where there is no room for mechanical fasteners.
Adhesive bonding can act as a shock absorber or mechanical dampener by dissipating
vibrations throughout a structure. They are also used to hold pieces together while
mechanical attachments are made.
Adhesives are used when substrates are too thin to be welded or too cumbersome to be
mechanically fastened (skin to honeycomb). The entire area of the adhesive bond
participates in stress dissipation, as opposed to bonding techniques such as spot welding.
Whenever stress distribution is important, adhesive bonding is indicated.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive Selection
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Adhesive selection is based primarily on

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Type of substrate
Strength requirements, type of loading, impact requirements
Temperature resistance, if required
Epoxy
Cyanoacrylates
Anaerobics - metals
Urethanes
Silicones
Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs)
ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-75
The selection of an adhesive involves several steps. An initial selection is based upon the
substrate. There may be only one or two general classes of adhesives that can be used with
a given substrate. Strength, loading, and impact requirements come into play in
determining the exact composition. Additives can be added to a brittle adhesive, such as
epoxy, in order to improve its flexibility and improve its performance under peel or
cleavage. The composition in turn determines the service temperature of the adhesive. The
remaining properties of the adhesive, humidity resistance, chemical resistance, electrical
resistance, are set by the composition that was selected. Having determined the adhesive
composition, surface preparation is undertaken to comply with the application and
production speed.
Anaerobics are one-part adhesives that harden on contact with metal and in the absence
of air. Cyanoacrylates are one-part adhesives that cure by reacting with moisture. Epoxies
are the most widely used adhesives and are available as one (cure by heating) or two-part
(warm or cold cure) systems. They have good gap-filling properties. Urethanes can be used
with a wide variety of substrates, but are limited to service temperatures below 200F.
Silicones are inorganic adhesives and have a broad temperature range of application, -40 to
500F. Pressure sensitive adhesives include tape and label adhesives and contact cements.
PSAs contain two polymer resins, one for strength and the other for tack (stickiness).
Adhesive Bonding
Curing of Adhesives
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Thermosets form long

polymer chains by
chemical reaction (curing)
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Heat (epoxy)
Ultraviolet light, oxygen
(acrylics)
Moisture (super glue)
ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-76
Most adhesives are thermosetting polymers, which form and/or crosslink chain
molecules by a chemical reaction. Thermoplastics were discussed in the previous section
on polymer welding. They do not cure in the traditional sense, they simply change physical
state from solid to liquid on heating and back to solid on cooling. The chemical reaction of
curing can involve three types of materials. 1) A catalyst causes a reaction to begin but is
not consumed in the reaction. 2) A hardener (curing agent) becomes part of the chain
molecule or forms crosslinks between the chains. An initiator can be used with catalysts or
hardeners to accelerate the initial reaction stages.
Too much catalyst can result in excessive heat generation and a brittle, low-strength
adhesive. Excess hardener might not be consumed in the reaction and act to degrade
performance; too little hardener can result in shorter chains or unreacted crosslinking sites.
Ambient temperature cures: Epoxies, urethanes, acrylics, RTV (room-temperaturevulcanized) silicones, and most cements can cure at ambient temperatures (45-105F).
Except for some RTV silicones, ambient cure systems are almost always two-part systems
(2-part epoxy).
Accelerated temperature cures: One-part and two-part epoxies and phenloics cure above
250F, while urethanes, acrylics and silicones cure < 250F.
Free radical cures: An initiator is added to an adhesive that has unsatisfied bonds to begin
the curing process. These initiators can be formulated to: work only in the absence of air
(anaerobic), be sensitive to ultraviolet light, require moisture for initiation (cyanoacrylates
or superglues).
Adhesive Bonding
Limitations
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Adhesives dont do work, they distribute work; they are

not structural materials
Environmental degradation
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Temperature
Oxidation
Difficult to repair
Curing or setting time
Surface preparation critical
ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-77
Adhesives shouldnt be used as substrate materials; they are used to distribute stress.
Good joint design and minimization of bondline thickness help to avoid this pitfall.
Excessive service temperature and corrosive atmospheres can degrade some adhesives.
The selection of an adhesive should be made with consideration of the service environment
of the part.
To make a repair in a failed component requires complete removal of the old, oxidized
material and proper treatment of the surfaces prior to repair. As in the brazing or soldering
process, the adhesive must wet the materials being joined. This can require surface
preparation such as a solvent degrease followed by grit blasting.
- ( C - C )x O
- ( C - C )x OH
C=O
CH3
Polyvinylacetate
Polyvinyl alcohol
A low volume percentage of

these polymers is used to
produce white glue and wood
glue. Water and fillers
such as clay constitute the bulk of
these adhesives.
Welding Process Selection
Factors that Influence Process Selection

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Required properties of joint

Materials to be joined
Equipment and production costs
Reliability
Environmental compatibility
Welder skill level required
Part fit-up
ISE311-2005
IntroWE/3-78
A number of factors determine the type of welding process that is most appropriate. The
materials to be joined and the required properties of the welded structure are generally the
first consideration, followed by welding costs. Other factors are often considered
depending on the application.
Most structural welding is done using arc welding processes, since they are very versatile
and equipment costs are low. More sophisticated processes, such as electron beam welding,
laser beam welding, and friction welding are only considered for depending applications or
where the special characteristics of these processes warrant their use.

Non-Arc Welding Processes Overview

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Non-Arc Welding Processes