DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

SHSS
HUM-PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE MATERIAL

GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY

SYLLABUS
HUM 201

Module 1
Definition and scope of psychology, Psychology as a science,
Personality - Definition, types of personality, measurement of
personality, Psychological Process, Perception, Motivation
and Learning.

Module II
Application of psychology: Stress management, wellbeing,
Self development: Application of: psychology in building
memory and creativity

Definition and
Scope of
Psychology

AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
As human beings our curiosity drives us to know the reasons
behind various events happening around us. Whenever we meet
somebody or see someone doing something we immediately try
to understand as to why this person is doing this kind of activity.
Similarly we often try to understand our own experiences and
behaviors in different situations. The eagerness and curiosity
guide us to think as to how people are different from each other
in terms of their intellect, aptitude and temperament: Why do
they become happy or sad? How do they become friendly or
develop antagonistic relationships? How do some people learn
anything quickly while others take relatively more time? The
answer to all these questions may be given by a novice as well
as a person who has learned psychology. The answer of the
novice can be guided by common sense but a psychologist can
study the reasons behind such activities in a systematic way and
can provide scientific answers to these questions which can be
tested time and again. In this lesson we will try to understand the
nature and scope of psychology in detail.
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS DEFINITION
In simple words psychology is a systematic and scientific study of
mental processes, experiences and behaviors - both overt and
covert. The word psychology has itsorigin in two Greek words
psyche and logos. The word psyche in Greek language refers
to spirit or soul and the word logos refers to discourse or
study. During earlier times it was considered as a discipline
which deals with the study of soul. In India the study of such
questions was the main concern during Vedic and Upanishadic
period. Various aspects

of mental

processes

were

analyzed.

Subsequently the schools of Yoga, Samkhya, Vedant, Nyaya,

Buddhism, and Jainism provided detailed accounts of mind,
mental processes and methods to control mind. In modern period
it started at Calcutta University in 1916 with establishment of the
Department of Psychology.
In the western world, the formal beginning of psychology as an
independent discipline goes back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt
established the first experimental laboratory at the University of
Leipzig, in Germany. Since then the growth of psychology has
covered a long journey.
Today it is one of the very popular subjects among social
sciences.

It

studies

all

the

shades

of

experiences,

mental

processes and behaviours. A comprehensive analysis of all these

aspects provides a scientific understanding of human nature. In
the

following

sections

we

will

try

to

understand

all

the

components which collectively define psychology.

(A) Study of experience
Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are
mainly personal or private in nature. They may range from
experiences of dream, conscious experiences at different stages of
life and experiences when the consciousness is altered through
meditation or use of psychedelic drugs. The study of such
experiences helps the psychologist to understand the personal
world of the individual.
(B) Study of mental processes
Psychology as the study of mental processes tries to investigate
the activities happening in the brain which are primarily non
physiological

in

nature.

These

mental

processes

include

perception, learning, remembering and thinking. These are internal

mental activities which are not directly observed but inferred from
the behavioural activities of the person. For example, we can say
that somebody is thinking if he or she displays certain activities
related to finding solution to a mathematical problem assigned to
him or her.
(C) Study of behaviour
The range of behaviours studied in psychology is very broad. It
includes simple reflexes (e.g. eye blinking), common response
patterns such as talking to friends, verbal reports about feelings
and internal states and complex behaviours such as handling
computers,

playing

piano

and

addressing

crowd.

These

behaviours are either observed directly through naked eyes or are

measured through instruments.
In short Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of
behavior and mental processes
They are generally exhibited verbally or nonverbally (e.g. facial
expression) when an individual reacts to a stimulus in a given
situation. Thus in psychology the main unit of investigation is the
individual human being and his or
processes and behaviours.

her

experiences,

mental

UNIT-I
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The scope of psychology constantly extends to include a wide
range of phenomena of scientific interest. The interest of the
investigators ranges from interest in astrology, graphology to
parapsychology.

The

psychological

studies

range

from

investigations of individuals to studies of groups, organizations

and nations. Psychology studies all sorts of individuals, from
mentally retarded to genius, from mentally ill to people who are
self-actualizing.

The

spectrum

of

phenomena

of

interest

to

psychologists include everything from egotism to altruism, from

truancy, delinquency, criminality, psychopath to spiritualism, from
peace to violence, terrorism and war, from behavior of animals
and human beingsetc.

SCOPE /APPLICATION/ FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY

During its journey of more than a hundred years, psychology as a
field of enquiry has grown in many directions. In contemporary
times a number of specialized fields with focused area of
application have developed. The emergence of different fields in
psychology indicates the importance and relevance of these areas
in our daily life. In this section we will briefly learn about some of
these fields.
Abnormal Psychology: This branch of psychology tries to describe,
assess, predict and control those categories of behaviours which
are considered as unusual and non-normative. It also deals with
various categories of psychological disorders which affect the
mental health of the individual. It assesses abnormality in the

individual

through

standardized

psycho-diagnostic

tools

and

suggests problem specific treatment.

Cognitive

Psychology:

It

deals

with

acquisition,

storage,

transformation and application of information the individual uses

to understand and interpret events happening around him/her.
Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is primarily concerned with
diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders. A
clinical psychologist is trained in psychotherapeutic techniques
which are used to treat people suffering from psychological
disorders. They are employed in hospitals and clinics dealing with
mental health problems.
Counseling Psychology : The counseling psychologist deals with
mild problems pertaining to adjustment in social and emotional
life,

and

provides

specialized

services

to

deal

with

marital

problems, stress oriented problems and career choice.

Educational

Psychology:

This

field

of

psychology

is

mainly

concerned with academic performance. It studies the role of

various factors which influence learning processes in classroom
setting. It focuses on assessing the aptitude, skills and intellectual
potential of the students and evaluating their performance. An
educational psychologist also helps students to overcome learning
difficulties.
Environmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study
of interaction between physical environment and human behaviour.
It studies the impact of noise, heat, humidity, pollution and
crowding on human performance. It also focuses on the impact of
physical environment on psychological health of individuals.
Health Psychology: This field focuses on the impact of various
psychological factors (e.g. stress) on the onset progress and

treatment of illness. It also deals with various life style diseases

such

as

hypertension,

coronary

heart

disease,

cancer

and

diabetes.
Organizational Psychology: This field is concerned with application
of psychological principles and models to study the selection and
performance ofemployees in organizational settings. It also studies
the

concepts

of

leadership,

motivation,

job

satisfaction

and

performance appraisal.
Developmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study
of various physical and psychological factors which influence the
systematic changes which the individual experiences across the
different stages of life.
Emerging Fields: In addition to the fields mentioned above a
number of new areas have emerged. Some of these fields are
sports

psychology,

military

psychology,

aviation

psychology,

forensic psychology, peace psychology, neuropsychology, political

psychology, feminist psychology and positive psychology.

Psychology
as a
Science

UNIT-I
Psychology as a science
The definition of psychology claims that psychology contains the
features of science. First of all it is important to know what
science is. Second, if psychology is a science, i: it a natural
science like physics, chemistry, and biology or a social science
like sociology and economics? As you will read later, psychology
has evolved out of the combined influences of natural science
and philosophy. Hence, ii contains some of the elements of
natural science.

What is science?
Science

refers

to

systematic

process

of

acquiring

and

organizing knowledge. Science is defined not by its subject matter,

but by the methods employed to acquire knowledge. The methods
used in science are systematic, objective, and verifiable. The
objective of science is to gain an understanding of the causeand-effect relationship among variables under carefully controlled
observations.
The controlled observations, called be experiments, usually take
place in the laboratory with the help of scientific instruments.
While

using

experimental

procedures,

certain

variables

or

conditions are changed by the experimenter to observe their

effects on another an, variable. The variables changed by the
experimenter are called 'independent variables'; the variables on
which their effects are observed are called 'dependent variables'.
The process of gaining knowledge follows certain defined stages
in scientific enquiry:

(a) identification and analysis of a problem,

(b) formulation of a hypothesis which states the expected finding
of an investigation,
(c) preparing a design or strategy,
d) collection and analysis of data,
(e) interpretation of the findings, and
(f) developing or revising a theory.
Since Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879
at Leipzig, psychologists are claiming a scientific status for their
discipline. In the early years, psychology emulated the methods of
physics and biology, it was also considered to be a life science
as it was connected with biology. Recently, neurophysiology has
emerged as a discipline, which studies the relationship between
biological structure of the brain and its psychological functions.
Thus psychology contains a few elements of natural sciences. Let
us take an example of how method of learning influences
retention of the learned material. ^ Here, the 'method of learning'
is the 'independent variable'; 'the amount of retention' is the
'dependent variable'. The method of learning may be massed (no
interval between learning trials) or distributed (a specific interval
between .' learning trials). After the problem is identified, a
hypothesis is formulated.
In this case, the hypothesis may be, ' The amount of retention
would be more for distributed than for massed method of
learning'. The design followed is an experimental design with two
conditions. In one condition, the subjects are exposed to 'massed'
learning trials, and in the other, they are given 'distributed'
learning trials. Other variables such as laboratory setting, number

of trials, nature of materials etc. are controlled, which means that

they remain the same for two groups. After learning, the subjects
are asked to recall what they learned.
Thus data are collected, analysed, and interpreted. If the findings
show that the distributed condition results in better retention
compared to the massed condition, the hypothesis is supported; if
it does not, the hypothesis is rejected. In this example, the
procedures and steps of natural sciences are followed. The
researcher has been objective and has collected information
systematically. The findings can also be verified by another
scientist, who would probably obtain the same result. These
findings can be generalized to form scientific laws. Using these
laws, scientists can understand and make predictions.
Can we call psychology a science?
Yes, we can, because it fulfills many conditions of science. It has
systematic and objective methods; its findings can be verified; it
examines cause-and-effect relationships to produce universal laws
governing human behaviour.
The question arises, Is psychology an exact science like physics,
chemistry, and biology? Perhaps, not. Unlike natural sciences,
psychology deals with behaviors and mental processes. Behavior
is

very

complex,

dynamic,

and

ever

changing.

The

mental

processes are very abstract, and are in a state of dynamic

interaction. Hence, the laws in psychology are not as exact and
precise as those in physics.
One cannot expect that psychology would conform to the laws of
natural sciences. Human beings not only live in their natural
environment; they live in a community having its unique socio-

cultural aspects. The cultural influences vary immensely from one

setting to another.
Hence it is difficult to come up with universal laws that would be
applicable

in

all

contexts.

Furthermore,

many

issues

of

psychological interest cannot be studied in laboratory set up

under

artificially

controlled

conditions.

Considering

all

these,

psychology can best be described as a social science, devoted to

the

scientific

processes.

study

of

behaviors,

experiences,

and

mental

Personality Definition, Types

of Personality,
Measurement of
Personality

What Is Personality?
Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of the
people around us. Whether we realize it or not, these daily
musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar
to what personality psychologists do.
While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more
on individuals, personality psychologists instead use conceptions
of personality that can apply to everyone. Personality research
has led to the development of a number of theories that help
explain how and why certain personality traits develop.

Definition:
The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona
meaning a mask.
Definition: Personality refers to relatively stable qualities that
characterize an individuals behavior across different situations
over a period of time.
It refers to our characteristic ways of responding to situations
over a period of time.
According to Gordon Allport (1937) Personality is a dynamic
organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine his unique adjustment to his environment
Thus, personality is a sum of the ideas, attitudes and values of a
person which determine his role in society and form an integral
part of his character.
Personality is acquired by the individual as a result of his
participation in group life. As a member of the group he learns

certain behavior systems and symbolic skills which determine his

ideas, attitudes and social values. These ideas, attitudes and
values which an individual holds comprise his personality.
In brief it can be said:
Personality is not

related

to bodily structure alone.

It

includes both structure and dynamics.

Personality is an indivisible unit.
Personality is neither good nor bad.
Every personality is unique
Personality is acquired.
Personality refers to persistent qualities of the individual that
are stable over time.
Personality is influenced by social interaction.
"Although no single definition is acceptable to all personality
theorists, we can say that personality is a pattern of relatively
permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a person's behavior."
(Feist and Feist, 2009)
Components of Personality
So what exactly makes up a personality? As described in the
definitions above, you would expect that traits and patterns of
thought and emotion make up an important part. Some of the
other fundamental characteristics of personality include:

Consistency - There is generally a recognizable order and

regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same
ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

Psychological

and

physiological -

Personality

is

psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also

influenced by biological processes and needs.

It impacts behaviors and actions - Personality does not just

influence how we move and respond in our environment; it
also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions - Personality is displayed in more than

just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings,
close relationships and other social interactions.

PERSONALITY TYPES

I-Psychobiological Approach

A. Hippocrates' view -- According to Hippocrates, temperament is

determined

by a

person's

level

of

different

body

fluids,

called humors.
1)Blood was associated with a cheerful,
or sanguine temperament.
2)Phlegm associated. with a calm,or phlegmatic temperament.
3)Black bile was associated with a depressed,
or melancholic temperament.
4)Yellow bile was associated with a n irritable,
or choleric temperament.

B.

Physique

and

Personality --

Somatotypes

(body

types)

--

Constitutional theory of personality -- William Sheldon. According

to this view, there is alink between a person's body type and
personality.
1) ectomorph -- thin, frail body; believed by Sheldon to
reveal a shy, restrained, and introspective temperament
called cerebrotonia.
2) mesomorph -- muscular, strong body; believed to display
a

bold,

assertive,

and

energetic

temperament

called somatotonia.
3) endomorph -- large, soft body; believed to display a
relaxed,

sociable

and

easygoing

temperament

called viscerotonia.

II. The Psychoanalytic Approach

A. Psychodynamic Theory of Personality
(rooted

in

the

psychobiological approach)

this

theory

is

extremely popular, and was developed by SigmundFreud.

1) Id (Latin for "it") -- contains innate biological drives, seeks
immediate gratification, and operates by the pleasure principle
(seeking gratification of impulses).
2) Ego (Latin for "I") -- helps the individual adapt to external
reality by making compromises between the id, the superego, and
the environment. Operates by the "reality principle" -- directs the
individual to express sexual and aggressive impulses in socially
acceptable ways.

3) Superego (Latin for "over the I") -- acts as our moral guide;
contains the conscience, which makes us feel guilty for doing or
thinking something wrong; also contains the ego ideal, which
makes us feel good for wanting or doing something good.
4) Defense Mechanisms -- distort reality to protect the ego from
anxiety caused by id impulses. There are many different types of
defense mechanisms:
a) repression -- this is the most often used and central
main defense mechanism; it is common to all the others.
Repression can be defined as the banishment of threatening
thoughts, feelings, and memories into the unconscious mind.
b) denial -- refusal to admit a particular aspect of reality.
c) regression -- individual displays immature behaviors that
have relieved anxiety in the past
d) rationalization -- providing socially acceptable reasons for
our inappropriate behavior
e)

intellectualization --

reducing

anxiety

by

reacting

to

emotional situations in a detached, unemotional way.

f) projection -- attributing our undesirable feelings to others.
g) displacement -- expressing feelings toward something or
someone

besides

the

target

person,

because

they

are

perceived as less threatening.

h) reaction formation -- acting in a manner opposite our
true feelings.
i) compensation -- reacting to a personal deficiency by
developing another talent.

j) sublimation -- expression of sexual or aggressive impulses

through indirect, socially acceptable ones.

B. Analytic Theory of Personality

According to Jung's theory of Psychological Types we are all
different in fundamental ways. One's ability to process different
information is limited by their particular type. These types are
sixteen.
People can be either Extroverts or Introverts, depending on the
direction of their activity; Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive,
according to their own information pathways; Judging or
Perceiving, depending on the method in which they process
received information.
Extroverts vs. Introverts
Extroverts are directed towards the objective world whereas
Introverts are directed towards the subjective world. The most
common differences between Extroverts and Introverts are shown
below:

Extroverts

Introverts

are interested in what is

happening around them

are

open

and

often

talkative

compare their own opinions

are interested in their own

thoughts and feelings

need to have own territory

often appear reserved, quiet

and thoughtful

with the opinions of others

friends

like action and initiative

easily make new friends or

say what they think

are

interested

in

new

like concentration and quiet

do

easily

not

like

unexpected

visits and therefore do not

people

have difficulties in making

new contacts

adapt to a new group

usually do not have many

make them
break

unwanted

relations
Sensing

work well alone

vs.

Intuition

Sensing is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its

physical qualities and its affection by other information. Intuition
is an ability to deal with the information on the basis of its
hidden potential and its possible existence. The most common
differences between Sensing and Intuitive types are shown below:

Sensing types

see

Intuitive types

everyone

and

sense

everything

in the future

live in the here and now

quickly

adapt

to

like

pleasures

based

physical sensation

worry

about

the

future

more than the present

any

situation

are mostly in the past or

are interested in everything

new and unusual

on

do not like routine

are practical and active

are

realistic

and

theory than the practice

self-

confident

Thinking

are attracted more to the

often have doubts

vs.

Feeling

Thinking is an ability to deal with information on the basis of its

structure and its function. Feeling is an ability to deal with
information on the basis of its initial energetic condition and its
interactions. The most common differences between Thinking and
Feeling

type

are

Thinking types

shown

Feeling types

are interested in systems,

structures, patterns

expose everything to logical

are

relatively

cold

and

evaluate things by intellect

have

people

easily

pass

their

own

difficulties

pay great attention to love

evaluate

things

by

ethics

and good or bad

talking

about feelings

in

and passion

and right or wrong

interested

moods to others

unemotional

are

and their feelings

analysis

below:

do not like to clear up

arguments or quarrels

can

be

touchy

or

use

emotional manipulation

often give compliments to

please people

Perceiving

vs.

Judging

Perceiving types are motivated into activity by the changes in a

situation. Judging types are motivated into activity by their
decisions resulting from the changes in a situation. The most
common differences between Perceiving and Judging types are
shown

below:

Perceiving types

Judging types

act impulsively following the

situation

can start many things at

properly
prefer

to

have

freedom

are curious and like a fresh

work

often

leave

productivity

depends

act

without

preparation

III. The Dispositional Approach

A. Type Theories (Eysenck)
1. Unstable/Stable

any

plan work ahead and tend

do not like to change their

have

relatively

stable

workability

on their mood

to

decisions

look at things

like

to finish it

from obligations

not

unanswered questions

once without finishing them

do

easily

follow

discipline

rules

and

2. Introverted/ Extroverted
B. Trait Theories -- (Allport, Cattell) -- a trait is a relatively
enduring, cross-situationally consistent personality characteristic
that is inferred from a persons behavior.
1) Allport -- indicated that there is a hierarchy of 3 basic trait
types:
a) cardinal (similar to types) - this is the big one. Cardinal traits
are dominant traits that characterize most of (or almost all) of a
person's behavior. Cardinal traits completely dominate a person's
sense of self. For example, Charles Manson's evilness could be
identified as a cardinal trait or Mother Teresa's altruism.
It is important to note that cardinal traits are not common. Most
people do not have these traits...people with cardinal traits are
considered rare.
b) central (humorous, kind) - these traits are central, prominent
traits that everyone has (unlike cardinal traits). Our personalities
are built upon the central traits. They are influential, but don't
dominate like the cardinal traits.
c) secondary (food preferences, etc.) - these are traits that are
only exhibited in some situations. For example, someone may be
kind most of the time, but become very selfish in other situations.

Robert McCrae & Paul Costa

i.

Extraversion Outgoing, Sociable, Upbeat, Friendly, Assertive.

ii.

Neuroticism

Vulnerable.

Anxious,

Hostile,

Self-Conscious,

Insecure,

iii. Openness to Experience Curiosity, Flexibility, Imagitiveness,

Artistic, Unconventional.
iv.

Agreeableness Sympathetic, Trusting, Cooperative, Modest,

Straightforward.
v. Conscientiousness Diligent, Disciplined, Organized, Punctual,
Dependable.

MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
Psychologists

seek

to

measure

personality

and

behavioral

responses through a number of methods. The most common of

these methods include self-report measures, behavioral measures,
and projective measures.
i. Self-report measures
Self-report measures rely on information provided directly by
participants about themselves or their beliefs. These measures are
in

question-and-answer

formats,

but

each

one

format.Thereare
requires

the

number

respondent

to

of

test

provide

information about their own personality. Usually, the measure

requires an individual to indicate to what extent a statement
describes his or her personality.
Self-report

measures

are

used

for

both

psychiatric

and

nonpsychiatric populations. These measures can be used for a

variety of reasons, from diagnostic purposes to helping with
career guidance. Some of the more widely used personality selfreport measures are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Neo Pi-R,
MMPI/MMPI-2, 16 PF, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.
MMPI/MMPI-2
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the
most widely used personality inventory both with psychiatric
and nonpsychiatric populations.
version of the MMPI.

The MMPI-2 is a revised

The MMPI-2 provides 2 to 3 number

code types for interpreting an individual's personality. This

test is commonly used to help with the diagnosis of
personality disorders.

 16 PF
The 16 PF (personality factor) inventory measures personality
according Cattell's 16 factor theory of personality. The test
also

provides

four

second-order

indices

of

personality.

According to Cattell, surface traits emerge from cluster

responses

on

the

test.

The

16

PF

is

intended

for

nonpsychiatric populations.
ii. Behavioral Measures
Behavioral measures focus on behavior itself, rather than traits or
other underlying factors.

Behavioral measures often employ a

large number of reports such as self-report measures, behavior

observations, and ratings provided by people familiar with the
individual (parents, peers, teachers, sibling, etc.).

These measures

focus specifically on behaviors rather than traits. Examples of

behavioral

inventories

include

the

Alcohol

Beliefs

Scale, Binge Eating Questionnaire, Compulsive Activity Checklist,

Daily Sleep Diary, and Panic Attack Questionnaire. These are just
a small sample of the numerous behavioral assessments that are
used.The goal of behavioral measures is to assess behaviors
which are maladaptive in order to create therapy plans to target
these behaviors.
iii. Projective Measures
Projective measures are founded in psychoanalytic theories of
personality and involve using ambiguous stimuli to reveal inner
aspects of an individual's personality. Projective measures are
criticized for having poor reliability and validity, for lacking
scientific evidence, and for relying too much on the subjective
judgment of a clinician; however, they continue to be popular.

Two

of

the

most

popular

projective

measures

are

the

Thematic Apperception Measure and the Rorschach test.

Rorschach Test
The Rorchach test consists of ten inkblots. The inkblots were
created by Herman Rorschach dribbling ink on paper and
then folding over the paper to create a symmetrical design.
During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and
asked what each one might be.

This test can be used to

examine a person's personality charactersitics and emotional

functioning,

and

is

thought

to

measure

unconscious attitudes and motivations. It has been employed

to detect underlyng thought disorder.

Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 30 cards
(including one blank card) depicting ambiguous drawings.
Test takers are asked to tell a story about each picture,
including the background that led up to the story, and the
thoughts and feelings of the characters. Like the Rorschach
test,

the

results

are

thought

to

indicate

personality characteristics and emotional functioning.

person's

Psychological
Processes
Motivation, Perception,
and Learning

Psychological Processes
Motivation, Perception, motivation and Learning
Psychological Processes performing any type of activity that
we use variety of processes like thinking, remembering,
problem solving, interpretation etc. Thus whether you study
lesson, view cinema, talk on topic, we are using
psychological processes of which we may or may not be
aware.
Motivation
person has many needs at any given time. Some are
biological

arising

from

hunger,

thirst

and

discomfort.

Maslows hierarchy of needs has long been used as

framework for classifying basic motivations. Five groups of
needs are stacked one on top of other and form
progression. Having achieved satisfaction on the lowest level,
the individual can progress to strive to achieve the goals of
the next level up.
Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides,
and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is what
causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to
reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
It involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive
forces

that

activate

behavior.

In

everyday

usage,

the

term motivation is frequently used to describe whya person

does something. For example, you might say that a student
is so motivated to get into a clinical psychology program
that she spends every night studying.

"The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct,

and sustain goal-directed behavior... Motives are the "whys"
of behavior - the needs or wants that drive behavior and
explain what we do. We don't actually observe a motive;
rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we
observe."
(Nevid, 2013)
Psychologists have proposed a number of different theories
of motivation, includingdrive theory, instinct theory, and
humanistic theory.
Components of Motivation
Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose ten
pounds or wanting to run a marathon) probably immediately
realizes

that

simply

having

the

desire

to

accomplish

something is not enough. Achieving such a goal requires the

ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep
going in spite of difficulties.
There are three major components to motivation: activation,
persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such

as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even

though obstacles may exist, such as taking more psychology
courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Finally, intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor
that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student
might coast by without much effort, while another student

will study regularly, participate in discussions and take

advantage of research opportunities outside of class.
Extrinsic Vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Different types of motivation are frequently described as
being either extrinsic or intrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are
those that arise from outside of the individual and often
involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition
or praise. Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from
within the individual, such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of solving a
problem.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Content theory of human motivation includes both Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy

of

needs and Herzberg's

two-factor

theory. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed

theories of motivation.
The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow
developed

the

hierarchy

hierarchic

classes.

of

According

needs
to

consisting

Maslow,

of

five

people

are

motivated by unsatisfied needs. The needs, listed from basic

(lowest-earliest)

to

most

complex (highest-latest) are

follows:

Physiology (hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.)

Safety/Security/Shelter /Health

Belongingness/Love/Friendship

Self-esteem/Recognition/ Achievement

Self actualization

as

The basic requirements build upon the first step in the

pyramid: physiology. If there are deficits on this level, all
behavior will be oriented to satisfy this deficit. Essentially, if
you have not slept or eaten adequately, you won't be
interested in your self-esteem desires. Subsequently we have
the second level, which awakens a need for security. After
securing those two levels, the motives shift to the social
sphere, the third level. Psychological requirements comprise
the fourth level, while the top of the hierarchy consists of
self-realization and self-actualization.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory can be summarized as
follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their

behavior. Only unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied
needs do not.

Needs are arranged in order of importance to human life,

from the basic to the complex.

The person advances to the next level of needs only after

the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied.

The

further

the

progress

up

the

hierarchy,

the

more

individuality, humanness and psychological health a person

will show.
(B) Perception: - Perception is the process of selecting,
organizing and interpreting information inputs to produce
meaning. motivated person is ready to act. How that
person acts is influenced by his or her perception. The
perceptual process allows us to experience the world around
us. Take a moment to think of all the things you perceive
on a daily basis. At any given moment, you might see
familiar objects in your environment, feel the touch of
objects and people against your skin, smell the aroma of a
home-cooked meal and hear the sound of music playing in
your next door neighbor's apartment. All of these things help
make up our conscious experience and allow us to interact
with the people and objects around us. Perception is our
sensory experience of the world around us and involves
both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in
response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process,
we gain information about properties and elements of the
environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not
only creates our experience of the world around us; it
allows us to act within our environment.
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, taste smell
and taste. It also includes what is known as proprioception,
a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in

body positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive

processes

required

to

process

information,

such

as

recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar

scent.

Laws of perception
Gestalt laws of grouping

Law of proximity

Law of similarity

Law of closure

Law of symmetry
A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that
the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than
the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and
organized

using

grouping

laws.

The

various

laws

are

called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they

appearbut

for

simplicity's

sake,

this

article

uses

the

term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality vision.
However,

there

are

analogous

laws

for

other

sensory

modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory

(Bregman GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping
were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s
and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of
the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.
Law of ProximityThe law of proximity states that when an
individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive
objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For
example, in the figure that illustrates the Law of proximity,
there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles
in groups. Specifically, we perceive there is a group of 36
circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12
circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used
in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events
are associated.
Law of SimilarityThe law of similarity states that elements
within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped

together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can

occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other
qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of
similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from
one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the
circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles are shaded
light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together, and
the light circles as grouped together forming six horizontal
lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is
due to the law of similarity.
Law of ClosureThe law of closure states that individuals
perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as
being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when
parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in
the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind
completes a regular figure that is not perceived through
sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli.
For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure
portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the
image and a rectangle on the right side of the image.
However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of
closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment
of

different

lines

with

different

lengths,

rotations,

and

curvaturesbut with the law of closure, we perceptually

combine the lines into whole shapes.
Law of SymmetryThe law of symmetry states that the mind
perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around
a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects
into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when
two

symmetrical

elements

are

unconnected

the

mind

perceptually connects them to form a coherent shape.

Similarities

between

symmetrical

objects

increase

the

likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined

symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law
of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled
brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe
three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual
brackets.
Law of Common FateThe law of common fate states that
objects

are

smoothest

perceived
path.

as

lines

Experiments

that

using

move

the

along

visual

the

sensory

modality found that movement of elements of an object

produce paths that individuals perceive that the objects are
on. We perceive elements of objects to have trends of
motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The
law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects
that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on
the same path. For example, if there are an array of dots
and half the dots are moving upward while the other half
are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving
dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units
Law of ContinuityThe law of continuity states that elements
of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore
integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within
an object. In cases where there is an intersection between
objects, individuals tend to perceive the two objects as two
single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with
overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp
abrupt directional changes as being one object
Law of Good GestaltThe law of good gestalt explains that
elements

of

objects

tend

to

be

perceptually

grouped

together if they form a pattern that is regular, simple, and

orderly. This law implies that as individuals perceive the
world, they eliminate complexity and unfamiliarity so they
can observe a reality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating
extraneous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This
meaning created by perception implies a global regularity,
which is often mentally prioritized over spatial relations. The
law of good gestalt focuses on the idea of conciseness,
which is what all of gestalt theory is based on. This law has
also been called the law of Prgnanz Prgnanz is a German
word that directly translates to mean "pithiness" and implies
the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderliness.
Law of Past ExperienceThe law of past experience implies
that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized
according to past experience. If two objects tend to be
observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals,
the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For
example, the English language contains 26 letters that are
grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual
reads an English word they have never seen, they use the
law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as
two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of
closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as
an uppercase U.
The gestalt laws of grouping have recently been subjected
to modern methods of scientific evaluation by examining the
visual

cortex

using

cortical

algorithms.

Current

Gestalt

psychologists have described their findings, which showed

correlations

between

physical

visual

representations

objects and self-report perception as the laws of seeing

of

(C)Learning
Learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and
reinforcing,

existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values,

orpreferences and may involve synthesizing different types

of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans,
animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to
follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory; it is
contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon
and is shaped by what we already know. To that end,
learning

may be viewed

as a process,

rather than a

collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning

produces

changes

in

the

organism

and

the

changes

produced are relatively permanent.[1]

Human

learning

may

occur

as

part

of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It

may be goal-orientedand may be aided by motivation. The
study

of

how

learning

occurs

is

part

of educational

psychology, neuropsychology,learning theory, and pedagogy.

Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical
conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of
more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively
intelligent

animals.[2][3]Learning

may

occur consciously or

without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event

can't

be

avoided

helplessness.[4] There

nor
is

escaped

evidence

for

is

called
human

learned
behavioral

learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed

as

early

the central

as

32

nervous

weeks

into gestation,

system is

sufficiently

indicating

that

developed

and

primed for learning and memory to occur very early on

in development.
Play has been approached by several theorists as the first
form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn
the

rules,

and

Vygotsky agrees

learn
that

to
play

interact
is

through

pivotal

for

play. Lev
children's

development, since they make meaning of their environment

through play. 85 percent of brain development occurs during
the first five years of a child's life.

Types
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify
the

occurrence

and

form

of

behavior. Operant

conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in

that operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment to
alter an action-outcome association. In contrast Pavlovian
conditioning involves strengthening of the stimulus-outcome
association.
Elemental theories of associative learning argue that
concurrent stimuli tend to be perceived as separate units
rather than 'holistically' (i.e. as a single unit)
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that seeks to
alter

behavior

successful

by

changes

arranging
and

to

the

environment

arrange

to

consequences

elicit
to

maintain or diminish a behavior. Behaviorists study behaviors

that can be measured and changed by the environment.
However, they do not deny that there are thought processes

that interact with those behaviors (see Relational Frame

Theory for more information).
Delayed

discounting

is

the

process

of

devaluing

rewards based on the delay of time they are presented. This

process is thought to be tied to impulsivity. Impulsivity is a
core process for many behaviors (e.g., substance abuse,
problematic

gambling,

OCD).

Making

decisions

is

an

important part of everyday functioning. How we make those

decisions is based on what we perceive to be the most
valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined by what
we find to be the most reinforcing stimuli. So when teaching
an individual a response, you need to find the most potent
reinforcer for that person. This may be a larger reinforcer at
a later time or a smaller immediate reinforcer.
Classical conditioning
The

typical

repeatedly
unfailingly

paradigm
pairing
evokes

for

an
a

classical

conditioning

unconditioned
reflexive

stimulus

response)

with

involves
(which
another

previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke

the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs
both to the

unconditioned stimulus and to the

other,

unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned

stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is
termed

a conditioned

response. The classic example is

Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder naturally will make a dog
salivate when it is put into a dog's mouth; salivating is a
reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned

stimulus

(US)

and

the

salivation

is

the

unconditioned response (UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before

presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the

bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but
once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to
salivate. After numerous pairings of the bell and the food
the dogs learned that the bell was a signal that the food
was about to come and began to salivate when the bell was
rung. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the
conditioned response (CR).
Another influential person in the world of Classical
Conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was very
influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical
behaviorism.

Watson's

behaviorism

(and

philosophy

of

science) stood in direct contrast to Freud. Watson's view

was that Freud's introspective method was too subjective,
and that we should limit the study of human development to
directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the
article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views," in which he
argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best
as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial,
experiment,

"Little

psychologists can

Albert",

where

he

demonstrated

how

account for the learning of emotion

through classical conditioning principles.

Imprinting is the special type of learning in which
young animals, particularly birds, make a strong association
with another individual or in some cases, an object. In 1935,
the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain
birds will follow and form a bond with a moving object
shortly after hatching. Under normal conditions, the object is
the mother. Thus imprinting has a survival value because it
ensures that the young birds will not wander off away from
their mother's

protection. Under experimental conditions,

however, the young hatchling will imprint on just about any

moving object (even human beings), particularly if the object
makes sounds.

Applications of Psychology:
Stress-management, Wellbeing; Self-development

Applications

of

Psychology:

Stress-

management, Well-being; Self-development:

STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stress management encompasses techniques intended to
equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing
with psychological stress.
Definition of Stress:
stress precisely as a person's physiological response to an
external stimulus that triggers the "fight-or-flight" reaction.
Causes

of

stress:

Many

things

can

trigger

the

stress

reaction, including danger, threat, news, illness, as well as

significant changes in one's life such as the death of a
loved one.

Techniques of stress management include:

Self-understanding (e.g. self-identification as a Type A or as

a Type B personality)

Self-management (e.g. becoming better-organized)

Conflict resolution

Positive attitude

Self-talk

Breathing exercises

Meditation

Exercise

Altering your diet

Taking more regular and effective rest

Some techniques of time management may help a person to
control stress. For example:

Becoming more organized and reducing the generation of

clutter
Setting priorities can help reduce anxiety
Using a "to do" list of tasks that a person needs to
complete

can

give

a person

a sense

of

control

and

accomplishment.
WELL-BEING
Well-being

or welfare is a general term for the condition of

an individual or group, for example their social, economic,

psychological, spiritual or medical state; high well-being
means

that,

in

some

sense,

the

individual

or

group's

experience is positive, while low well-being is associated with

negative happenings. Although there has not been a clear
definition established for well-being, it can be defined as a
special case for attitude. This definition serves two purposes
of well-being: developing and testing a [systematic] theory
for the structure of [interrelationships] among varieties of
well-being and integration of well-being theory with the
ongoing cumulative
attitude

of

related

theory development
research. Ones

in

the

well-being

fields

of

develops

through assessments of their environment and emotions and

then developing an interpretation of their own personal self.
There

are

two

different

types

of

well-

being: cognitive and affective.

Cognitive well-being
Cognitive well-being is developed through assessing ones
interactions

with

their

environment

and

other

people.

Welfare economics ultimately deals with cognitive concepts

such as well-being, happiness, and satisfaction. These relate
to

notions

such

as aspirations and needs, contentment and disappointment.

People tend to assess their cognitive well-being based on
the

social

classes

that

are

in

their

community.

In

communities with a wide variety of social statuses, the lower

class will tend to compare their lifestyle to those of higher
class and assess what they do and do not have that may
lead to a higher level of well-being. Whenever someone
interprets their needs and wants as to being satisfied or not,
they then develop their cognitive well-being. Applications or
types are as below:
Affective well-being
These are the different levels of affect on well-being: high
negative affect is represented by anxiety and [hostility]; low
negative affect is represented by calmness and relaxation;
high

positive

affect

is

represented

pleasant arousal enthusiasm and

low

by

state

of

positive

affect

is

represented by a state of unpleasantness and low arousal

(dull, sluggish). Well-being is most usefully thought of as the
dynamic process that gives people a sense of how their
lives

are

going,

through

the

interaction

between

their

circumstances,

activities

and

psychological

resources

or

mental capital."or "You may say that it is a state of

complete wellness.
Psychology in well-being
The correlation between well-being and positive psychology
has been proven by many social scientists to be strong and
positive

one.

According

to

McNulty

(2012)positive psychology at the subjective level is about

valued subjective experiences. Well-being is an important
factor in this subjective experience, as well as,contentment,
satisfaction
happiness

of
in

the
the

past, optimism for

present.

People

are

the

future

more

and

likely

to

experience positive psychology if they take in the good

things in each experience or situation. Even in the past if a
person only focuses on the negative the brain will only be
able to recognize the negative. The more the brain has
access to the negative the easier, it becomes because that
is what is more memorable. It takes more effort for the
brain to remember the positive experiences because typically
it is the more smaller actions and experiences that are the
positive ones. James McNulty (2012)

research looks at this

idea a little bit closer. She argues that, well-being is not

determined solely by peoples psychological characteristics
but instead is determined jointly by the interplay between
those

characteristics

environments.

When

and
people

qualities
have

of

peoples

well-being

social

they

are

experiencing a sense of emotional Freedom[disambiguation

needed]. There is nothing negative that is holding them back
from experiencing positive emotions. This is true if a person
is in a certain setting because it has been proved in a past
research that a certain setting can hold a lot of memories

for an individual just because of what was shared there and

the meaning of it. For this well-being is often equated with
the experience of pleasure and the absence of [pain] over
time.

The

less

psychological

pain

an

individual

is

experiencing them more he or she is going to experience

well-being.
When

someone

is

positively

well-being

they

are

also

experiencing a few other things. It involves a sense of selffulfillment, which is the feeling of being happy and satisfied
because one is doing something that fully uses your abilities
and talents (Merriam-Webster). The feeling of having a
purpose

in

life

and

connection

with

others

are

also

contributors to the idea of well-being. When people feel as

though they have a [purpose] in the world they feel like they
belong; they feel like they matter.
Education and well-being
When talking about the school system, the idea of well-being
gets a little foggy. It is argued that school should only be
about learning and education but kids learn so much about
social skills and themselves in school. When a child feels
like they belong they are more likely to perform better in
school. As well as being taught an education, they have to
learn how to believe in themselves and create a purpose for
themselves. If well-being is established in kids at a young
age then it is more likely to play a part in their life as they
get older. John White (2013) looked at public schools in
Britain now and in the past. In the past schools only
focused on knowledge and education but now Britain has
moved to more of a broader direction. They started a
program called Every Child Matters initiative, that seeks to

enhance children's well-being across the whole range of

children's services
Subjective well-being
Subjective well-being is based on the idea that how each
person

thinks

and

feels

about

his

or

her

life

is

important. This idea is developed specifically in a persons

[culture]. People base their own well-being in relation to their
environment and the lives of others around them. Well-being
is also subjective to how one feels other people in their
environment view them, whether that be in a positive or
negative view. Well-being is also subjective to pleasure and
whether or not basic human needs are fulfilled, although
ones needs and wants are never fully satisfied. The quality
of life of an individual and a society is dependent on the
amount of happiness andpleasure, as well as human health.
Whether or not other cultures is subjective to their culture is
based on what kind of culture it is. Collectivistic cultures
are more likely to use norms and the social appraisals of
others in evaluating their subjective well-being, whereas those
[individualistic] societies are more likely to heavily weight the
internal

[frame

of

reference]

arising

from

ones

own

happiness.
Ethnic identity and well-being
Ethnic identity plays a crucial role in someones cognitive
well-being. Studies show that both social psychological and
developmental perspectives suggest that a strong, secure
ethnic

identity

makes

positive

contribution

to cognitive well-being. Those in an acculturated society are

able to feel more equal as a human being within their

culture, therefore having a better well-being. This is also a

crucial aspect when adapting to a new society.
Individual roles and well-being
Individual roles play a part in cognitive well-being. Not only
does having social ties improve cognitive well-being, it also
improves psychological health. Having multiple identities and
roles helps individuals to relate to their society and provide
the

opportunity

for

them

to

contribute

more

as

they

increase their roles, therefore creating a better cognitive

well-being. Each individual role is ranked internally within
a hierarchy of

salience. Salience[disambiguation

needed] is

the subjective importance that a person attaches to each

identity. Different roles an individual has have a different
guidance to their well-being. Within this hierarchy, higher
roles offer more of a source to their well-being and define
more meaningfulness to their overall role as a human being.
Sports and well-being
According to (Bloodworth and Colleagues, 2012) sports and
physical activities is a key contributor to the development of
people's well-being. Sports being such a big influence on
well-being it is conceptualized within a framework. These
frameworks include impermanence, its hedonistic shallowness
and

its epistemologicalinadequacy.

Arguments

arise

from

these that the value of sports needs to be argued so

humans

can

researching

flourish.
sports

There

effecting

can

be

well-being

problems

from

because

some

societies are not able to play sports. This is a deficiency in

studying this sort of phenomenon.

SELF DEVELOPMENT
It seems that an increasing array of self improvement ideas
have roots in psychology. This is probably because more
and more self help gurus (including Dr. Wayne W Dyer and
Jack

from The

Canfield

Secret) have

backgrounds

as

counselors and therapists.

And psychology's influence on self help is only likely to
increase

thanks

to

former

president

of

the

American

Psychological Association, Martin Seligman. At the turn of

the century he formalized a new branch of study called
Positive

Psychology;

an

inquiry

into

what

creates happiness and fulfillment in mankind.

Following

are

some

psychological

self

improvement

ideas that I've discovered via the self help arena. Try them
out. I have found all of these useful.

Cognitive Reframing
Of all the self improvement ideas I share on this site,
cognitive reframing is by far my favorite. It's easy to practice
and is a powerful way to challenge long-held beliefs, even
the kind that we stubbornly hold onto at all costs. By
learning how to reframe the stories we tell ourselves we can
shift our perception of the world as a limited, fixed place to
a universe of endless possibility and potential.

Defense Mechanisms
We all have inbuilt defense mechanisms that help us distort
reality in such a way that it makes it easier for us to cope

with existence. But if a person's defense mechanisms go

unchecked, they can wreak havoc in their life. Read about
the most common types of defense mechanisms and see if
you

can

identify

how

you

use

them

--

and

possibly overuse some -- in your life.

Selective Perception
Many

self

help

gurus

talk

about

the

importance

of

focus. Selective perception explains why conscious focus is

so important. There is simply too much stimulus in our
environments for our conscious mind to process. Because of
this, selective perception filters certain stimulus out of our
awareness. What makes it into our awareness depends on
our beliefs and values.

The Theory of Self Efficacy

Self-efficacy is a psychological concept about the power of
personal beliefs. Developed by Canadian psychologist, Albert
Bandura, the theory states that people with high levels of
self-efficacy have a greater chance of success in any given
task. That's irregardless of talent and skills! Find out here if
you have high self-efficacy and what a low self-esteem or
lack of belief in yourself is costing you.
Self Criticism
Being

truthful

about

your

strengths

and

weakness

is

important. But too much focus on your negative traits can

slowly wear you down. A critical predictor of success is
deciding

where

you

put

your

emphasis.

If

you

focus

on improving

your

weaknesses you

will

at

best

reach

mediocrity. If you focus on honing your strengths, your

potential for success is virtually unlimited.
Neuro Linguistic Programming
NLP, or Neuro-Linguistic Programming, is a model for self
development that was created in the 1970's at the University
of California. Anthony Robbins has since become an avocate
of the approach and much of his earlier work drew on NLP
techniques. At its core, NLP provides a framework for an
individual to model the behaviors and mindsets of successful
people in order to replicate them in themselves.
Other strategies
- Regular exercising
- Life skills development
1) improving Relationships
2) Self care
3) Regular Exercising
4) Healthy Eating Habits
5) Assertiveness
6) Time management
7) Rational Thinking
8) Positive thinking
9) Overcoming unhelpful habits
10)

Healthy Reading Habits

11)

Providing and seeking social support

MEMORY

In psychology, memory is the process in which information is

encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information
that is from the outside world to reach our senses in the
forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we
must change the information so that we may put the
memory into the encoding process. Storage is the second
memory stage or process. This entails that we maintain
information over periods of time. Finally the third process is
the retrieval of information that we have stored. We must
locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval
attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.
From an information processing perspective there are three
main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:

Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and combining

of received information

Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded

information

Retrieval, recall or recollection:

calling

back

the

stored

information in response to some cue for use in a process

or activity.

Three Types of Memory

I. Sensory memory
Sensory memory holds sensory information for less than one
second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an
item and remember what it looked like with just a split
second of observation, or memorization, is the example of
sensory

memory.

Three

exist. Iconic memory is a

types

of

sensory

fast decaying store

memories
of visual

information; a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an

image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic
memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information,
another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds
that

have

been

perceived

for

short

durations.[2] Haptic

memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a

database for touch stimuli.
II. Short-term memory
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several
seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also
very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell
Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store
of short-term memory was 72 items (the title of his famous
paper, "The magical number 72"). Modern estimates of the
capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the
order of 45 items;

however, memory capacity can be

increased through a process called chunking. For example, in

recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk
the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as
123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit
chunk

(7890).

This

method

of

remembering

telephone

numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember

a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk

the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may
be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display
telephone

numbers

as

several

chunks

of

two

to

four

numbers.
Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic
code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual
code. Conrad (1964) found that test subjects had more
difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically
similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically
similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that
the letters were encoded acoustically.
III. Long-term memory
The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory
generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which
means

that

information

is

not

retained

indefinitely.

By

contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities

of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes
a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. For
example,

given

random

seven-digit

number

we

may

remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting,

suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the
other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many
years through repetition; this information is said to be
stored in long-term memory.
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically,
long-term

memory

encodes

it

semantically:

Baddeley

(1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had

the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had
similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term.

Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory,

"which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when'
and 'where'". With episodic memory, individuals are able to
recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.
Improving memory
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of
the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that
people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency
through

simple

lifestyle

changes

such

as

incorporating

memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress

reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17
subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance.
Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet,
relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and
verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they
showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to
their baseline performance. No long term follow up was
conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has
lasting effects on memory.
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles
and techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory
known as the Art of memory.
The International

Longevity

Center released

in

2001

report which includes in pages 1416 recommendations for

keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age.
Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually
active

through

learning,

training

or

reading,

to

keep

physically active so to promote blood circulation to the

brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time

regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to

observe good nutrition.
Levels of processing
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method
and depth of processing that affects how an experience is
stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.

Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of

word cards and asked them to sort them into any number
of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When
they were later asked to recall as many of the words as
they could, those who used more categories remembered
more words. This study suggested that the organization of
memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011).

Distinctiveness -

Eysenck

and

Eysenck

(1980)

asked

participants to say words in a distinctive way, e.g. spell the

words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better
than those who simply read them off a list.

Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of

anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT).
The

participants

recalled

the

difficult

anagrams

better,

presumably because they put more effort into them.

Elaboration -

Palmere et

al. (1983)

gave

participants

descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There

were some short paragraphs and some with extra sentences
elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in
the elaborated paragraphs.
Methods to optimize memorization

Memorization is

method

of

learning

that

allows

an

individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the

method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have
been the subject of much discussion over the years with
some

writers,

such

as Cosmos

Rossellius using

visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual

is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is
spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this
is cramming: an intensive memorization in a short period of
time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that
people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better
than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses
spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.

CREATIVITY

Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new

and in some way valuable is created (such as an
idea, a joke, an artistic or literary work, a painting or
musical composition, a solution, an invention etc).
The range of scholarly interest in creativity includes
a multitude of definitions and approaches involving
several

disciplines; psychology, cognitive

science,

education, philosophy (particularly philosophy

of

science), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics,

business studies, song writing and economics, taking
in the relationship between creativity and general
intelligence,

mental

and

neurological

processes

associated with creativity, the relationships between

personality type and creative ability and between

creativity

and

mental

health,

the

potential

for

fostering creativity through education and training,

especially as augmented by technology, and the
application of creative resources to improve the
effectiveness of learning and teaching processes.
Creativity profiles
Creativity can be expresses in a number of different forms,
depending on the unique people and environments it exists.
A number of different theorists have suggested models of
the creative person. One model suggests that there are
kinds to produce growth, innovation, speed, etc. These are
referred to as the four "Creativity Profiles" that can help
achieve such goals.
(i) Incubate (Long-term Development)
(ii) Imagine (Breakthrough Ideas)
(iii) Improve (Incremental Adjustments)
(iv) Invest (Short-term Goals)
Research by Dr Mark Batey of the Psychometrics at Work
Research Group at Manchester Business School has suggested
that the creative profile can be explained by four primary
creativity traits with narrow facets within each
(i) "Idea Generation" (Fluency, Originality, Incubation and
Illumination)
(ii) "Personality" (Curiosity and Tolerance for Ambiguity)
(iii) "Motivation" (Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Achievement)

(iv) "Confidence" (Producing, Sharing and Implementing)

This model was developed in a sample of 1000 working
adults using the statistical techniques of Exploratory Factor
Analysis

followed

by

Confirmatory

Factor

Analysis

by

Structural Equation Modelling.

An important aspect of the creativity profiling approach is to
account for the tension between predicting the creative
profile

of

an

individual,

the psychometric approach,

as

and

characterised

the

evidence

that

by
team

creativity is founded on diversity and difference.

One characteristic of creative people, as measured by some
psychologists,

is

what

is

called divergent

production. divergent production is the ability of a person to

generate a diverse assortment, yet an appropriate amount of
responses

to

measuring divergent

given

situation. One

production is

by

way

of

administering

the

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. The Torrance Tests of

Creative

Thinking

assesses

the

diversity,

quantity,

and

appropriateness of participants responses to a variety of

open-ended questions.
Other researchers of creativity see the difference in creative
people as a cognitive process of dedication to problem
solving and developing expertise in the field of their creative
expression. Hard working people study the work of people
before them and within their current area, become experts in
their fields, and then have the ability to add to and build
upon previous information in innovative and creative ways. In
a study of projects by design students, students who had
more knowledge on their subject on average had greater
creativity within their projects.

The aspect of motivation within a person's personality may

predict creativity levels in the person. Motivation stems from
two

different

sources,

intrinsic

and

extrinsic

motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is an internal drive within a person to

participate or invest as a result of personal interest, desires,
hopes, goals, etc. Extrinsic motivation is a drive from outside
of a person and might take the form of payment, rewards,
fame, approval from others, etc. Although extrinsic motivation
and intrinsic motivation can both increase creativity in
certain cases, strictly extrinsic motivation often impedes
creativity in people.
From a personality-traits perspective, there are a number of
traits that are associated with creativity in people. Creative
people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more
self-confident, are more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive,
driven, dominant, and hostile, compared to people with less
creativity.

Fostering creativity
Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book A Whole New Mind, repeating
arguments posed throughout the 20th century, argues that
we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming
increasingly important. In this conceptual age, we will need
to foster and encourage right-directed thinking (representing
creativity

and

emotion)

over left-directed

thinking (representing logical, analytical thought). However,

this simplification of 'right' versus 'left' brain thinking is not
supported by the research data.

Nickerson provides
techniques

that

summary

have

been

of

the

various

proposed.

creativity

These

include

approaches that have been developed by both academia

and industry:
1. Establishing purpose and intention
2. Building basic skills
3. Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge
4. Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration
5. Building motivation, especially internal motivation
6. Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks
7. Focusing on mastery and self-competition
8. Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity
9. Providing opportunities for choice and discovery
10.

Developing self-management (metacognitive skills)

11.

Teaching

techniques

and

strategies

for

facilitating

creative performance
12.

Providing balance

Some see the conventional system of schooling as "stifling"

of

creativity

and

attempt

(particularly

in

the pre-

school/kindergarten and early school years) to provide a

creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering environment for
young children. Researchers have seen this as important
because

technology

is

advancing

our

society

at

an

unprecedented rate and creative problem solving will be

needed to cope with these challenges as they arise. In
addition to helping with problem solving, creativity also helps

students identify problems where others have failed to do

so. See the Waldorf School as an example of an education
program that promotes creative thought.
Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two
areas where educators can foster creativity in students.
Students are more creative when they see a task as
intrinsically motivating, valued for its own sake. To promote
creative thinking educators need to identify what motivates
their students and structure teaching around it. Providing
students with a choice of activities to complete allows them
to

become

more

intrinsically

motivated

and

therefore

creative in completing the tasks.

Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well
defined answers is another way to foster their creativity. This
is accomplished by allowing students to explore problems
and redefine them, possibly drawing on knowledge that at
first may seem unrelated to the problem in order to solve it.
Several different researchers have proposed methods of
increasing the creativity of an individual. Such ideas range
from

the psychological-cognitive,

such

as

Osborn-

Parnes Creative Problem Solving Process, Synectics, Sciencebased creative thinking, Purdue Creative Thinking Program,
and Edward

de

Bono's lateral

thinking;

to

the

highly

structured, such as TRIZ(the Theory of Inventive ProblemSolving)

and

its

variant

Solving

(developed

by

Algorithm
the

of

Russian

Inventive

Problem

scientist Genrich

Altshuller), and Computer-Aided Morphological analysis.