Basic Definitions and Properties of Groups PDF

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups
Subject: Mathematics
Lesson: Basic Definition and Properties of Groups
Lesson Developer: Pragati Gautam
Department / College: Assistant Professor, Department
of Mathematics, Kamala Nehru College
University of Delhi
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
pg. 1

Table of contents:
Chapter: Basic Definition and Properties of Groups
1 : Learning outcomes
2 : Introduction
3 : Prerequisites and Notations
4: Groups
5 : General Properties of Groups
6 : Definition of a Group based upon left Axioms
7: Composition Table for Finite sets
8 : Modular Arithmetic
9 : Order of an element of a group.
Exercises
Summary
References
pg. 2

1. Learning outcomes
After you have read this chapter, you should be able to
Define Groups and understand its concept
Understand general Properties of groups and relate them to theorems and

questions
Differentiate between sets which form a group and which do not form a group.
Form a Composition Table and solve examples based on them
Understand the concept of Order of an element of a group.
pg. 3

It [group theory] provides a sensitive instrument for investigating
symmetry, one of the most pervasive and elemental phenomena of the
real world.
M.I. Kargapolov and Ju.I. Marzljakov,
Fundamentals of the theory of groups.
2. Introduction:
Towards the end of the 16th Century, Algebra emerged as a branch of
Mathematics. Francois Viete was associated with this work. The word "algebra" is
derived from the Arabic word Al-Jabr and this comes from the treatise written in
Baghdad in about 825 A.D by the medieval Persian Mathematician, Mohammed ibn-Musa
al-khowarizmi in his book "Hidab al-jabr wal-muqubala". The words jabr (JAH-ber) and
muqubala (moo-KAH-ba-lah.) were used by al-khowarizmi to designate two basic
operations in solving equations. Jabr was used to transpose subtracted terms to the
other side of the equation where as muqubalah was to cancel like terms on opposite
sides of the equation.
The origin of algebra can also be traced to the ancient Babylonians who
developed a positional number system which helped them in solving their rhetorical
algebraic equations. The Babylonians were always interested in approximate solutions so
they used linear interpolation to approximate intermediate values.
Algebra is a very unique discipline. It is abstract and it is this abstractness of the
subject that causes the brain to think in totally new patterns. The thinking process
sharpens the working of brain resulting in a better performance. Once the brain is
stimulated to think it can do more complex things as the dendrites of the brain grow
more complex and make good connections with other brain cells. As it is rightly said by
someone," The study of algebra helps in building more highways upon which future
cargo can be transported."
Algebra is the essential language of mathematics. It deals with two ideas namely
Variables and functions. Variables are symbols that can represent not only a number but
also a changing quantity whereas a function is a well defined relationship between two
variables in which change in one value causes the change in other value. The concept of
variables and functions help us to define the physical laws that govern our universe and
help us to understand how our world works.
In the present chapter we will be dealing with very vital area of Groups and Subgroups in Algebra. Groups are of great interest for mathematicians because they are
pg. 4

widely used in several branches of mathematics and they also possess a rich theory and
unify several different contexts.
Groups are used to classify symmetrical objects. It is of great use in
Crystallography and in study of molecular structures. Group theory is the mathematics of
symmetry a fundamental notion in science, maths and engineering. There are many
important practical applications of modular arithmetic that are best understood by
viewing the modular arithmetic in a group theory framework. Examples include the
check digits on UPC codes on retail items, ISBN number on books and credit card
numbers. The Hamming code used in communication systems for automatic error
correction are groups.
The present chapter illustrates the importance of Groups and Sub-groups as one
of the most classified topics in Algebra. We will discuss various properties of Groups and
Subgroups and examples related to them.
3. Prerequisites and Notations

Before we formally define a group we should know that group is a system
consisting of a non-void set G and binary composition on G satisfying some postulates.
We will discuss some basic definitions and concepts without going into depth as they are
in fact the building blocks for the development of the fascinating theory of groups.
3.1. Definition : Sets : A collection of well defined objects is called a set. The concept
of set is most basic in mathematics. Almost all mathematical systems are certain
collection of sets.
3.2. Definition : Binary Relation: Let X and Y be two non- empty sets. Then any
subset of X Y is called a binary relation of X to Y. It is also called a "Correspondence.
If X = Y = S, then a subset of SS is called a Binary relation on S.
3.3 Definition : Mappings : Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. A subset T of XY is
called a mapping of X into Y if for each x X, there exists one and only one y Y such
that (x, y) T. A mapping is also known as a function.
If (x, y) T then y is called the value of T at x for any x X or y is said to
correspond to x under T and we write y = T(x). If T describes the mapping of X into Y,
then X is called the domain of T. The set {yY | y = T (x) for x X} is called the range
of T (range T) and Y is called co-domain of T.
pg. 5

3.4. Definition: Binary operation on a set:
Let G be a non-empty set. Then GG = {(a, b): a G, b G}. If
f : GG G, then f is said to be a binary operation on the set G. Various Symbols like
+,, ., o, *, etc. are used to denote binary operation on a set. It is sometimes also called
binary composition in the set G. If * is a binary composition in G, then ab G a, b
G.
3.5. Definition: Algebraic structure :
A non-empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations is called an
algebraic structure.
Suppose * is a binary operation on G. Then (G, *) is an algebraic structure. (N,
+), (I, +), (R, +, ) are algebraic structures. Here (R, +, ) is an algebraic structure
equipped with two binary operations.
3.6. Definitions: Semi-group: An algebraic structure (G, *) is called a semi-group if
the binary operation is associative in G i.e. if
(ab)c = a(bc)
a, b, c, G.
The algebraic structures (N, +); (I, +); (R, +); etc are all semi-groups.
4. GROUPS:
4.1 Definition: Group: Let G be a non-empty set equipped with a binary operation
denoted by , then the algebraic structure (G, ) is a group if the binary operation .
satisfies the following properties:
1. Closure property i.e., a.b G a, b G
2. Associativity i.e. (a.b).c = a.(b.c) a , b, c G
3. Existence of Identity: e is called the identity element if there exists an element e
G such that e.a = a =a.e a G
4. Existence of Inverse : If a G, there exists an element b G such that b.a = e =
a.b. Then element b is called the inverse of a and it is written as b = a1.
4.2. Definition : Abelian Group or Commutative Group:
A Group G is said to be abelian or Commutative if in addition to all the properties
of a group, it also satisfies commutative property.
pg. 6

i.e.,
a.b = b.a
a, b G.
Value Addition : Note

A commutative group is also called Abelian after the famous mathematician N.H.
Abel. A group is said to be non-Commutative or non-abelian if it is not commutative.
Value Addition : Remarks
1) According
to the definition of a binary operation if is a binary operation on G, then
a.b G, a, b G. Therefore it is not necessary to mention the closure axiom in the

definition of a group. It is self-understood.
2) A
group is not only a set but it is an algebraic structure i.e. a set equipped with a
binary composition which satisfies certain properties.
3)
Any symbol like *, o, +, etc can be used as a binary composition. For example, if we
use the additive notation + to denote the composition in G then it is written as a +
b G.
4) In
additive notation, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of an element a G is
denoted by the symbol a i.e., we have

(a) + a = e = a + (a)
In multiplicative notation, the identity element is 1 and inverse of a is
1
1
1
, i.e. .a 1 a.
a
a
a
5) For
multiplicative composition, if a, b G then a.b represents the element obtained
on multiplying a and b. But generally we will omit the dot (.) and write simply ab in
place a.b.
4.3
Definition: Finite and Infinite Groups

If a group consists of finite number of distinct elements, then it is called a finite
group otherwise an infinite group.
pg. 7

4.4.
Definition: Order of a Finite Group:

The number of elements in a finite group is called the order of the group. For an
Infinite group the order will be infinite. It is denoted by o(G).

Example 1: Show that the set I of all integers is a group with respect to the addition of
integers.
Solution: Set I of all integers will be a group with respect to the addition of integers if
the following properties are satisfied.
1) Closure Property: Sum of two integers is also an integer i.e.
a bI
for all a, b
I. So I is closed with respect to addition.

2) Associativity: Addition of integers is an associative composition.
3) Existence of Identity: 0 is the additive identity and 0 I. We have
0a a a0
a I .
4) Existence of Inverse: If a I then a I. Also

(a) + a = o = a + (a).
So every integer possesses additive inverse. So I is a group with respect to
addition. Addition of Integers is also a commutative composition, so (I, +) is an abelian
group. In fact (I, +) is be an abelian group of infinite order as it has infinite number of
elements.
Example 2. Prove that the set
Q0 of all non-zero rational numbers forms a group under
the operation of multiplication of rational numbers.

Solution: Set
Q0 of all non-zero rational numbers will form a group under multiplication
if it satisfies the following properties:

1) Closure Property: The product of two non-zero rational numbers is also a rational
number. So
Q0 is closed with respect to multiplication.
2) Associativity: Multiplication of rational numbers is always associative.

3) Existence of Identity: Rational number 1
Q0 . Also, 1.a = a = a.1 a Q0 . So,
rational number 1 is multiplicative identity.
pg. 8
4) Existence of Inverse: If a
Therefore
1

a
Q0 then
1
Q0 . Also
a
1
1
a 1 a .
a
a
is the multiplicative inverse of a. Hence
Q0 is a group with respect to
multiplication.
It will be an abelian group because ab = ba a, b
Q0 .
Value Addition: Note:

The set Q of all rational numbers will not be a group with respect to
multiplication because 0 Q, but there exists no rational number a Q such that
0.a = 1 and 0.a = 0 a Q. So rational number 0 does not possess
multiplicative inverse.
Example 3: Show that the set N of all natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, does not form a
group with addition or multiplication.
Solution: Set N of all natural numbers does not form a group with respect to addition
because it has no additive identity as 0 N.
It will not form a group with multiplication also as it will not possess multiplicative
inverse.
5. General Properties of Groups:
Let us consider some general properties of groups which consists of a non-empty
set G equipped with multiplication as a binary operation.
Theorem 1: The identity element in a group is unique,
Proof: Let us assume there exists two identity elements in G say e and e.
ee = e if e is the identity.
........ (1)
And
ee = e if e is the identity
........ (2)
But ee is the unique element of G.

So from (1) ad (2).
e = e
pg. 9
The identity element is unique.
Theorem 2: The inverse of each element of a group is unique.

Proof: Let 'a' be any element of a group G and let 'e' be the identity element. Suppose x
and y are two inverses of a.
xa = e = ax and ya = e = ay
Let us take x(ay) = xe = x
........(1) [as ay = e and e is identity element]
Also
........ (2)
(xa)y = ey = y
[as xa = e]
But a group has associative property.
x(ay) = (xa) y
So from (1) and (2)
x=y
Inverse of each element is unique.
Theorem 3: If the inverse of a is a1, then the inverse of a1 is a or in other words (a1)1
=a
Proof: If e is the identity element, then
a 1a e
........ (1)
[By Definition of Inverse]
Multiplying both sides of (1) by (a1)1.
(a 1 )1[a 1a] (a 1 )1 e
[(a 1 )1 a 1 ]a (a 1 )1
[Because composition in G is associative

and e is the identity element]
ea (a 1 )1
a (a 1 )1
The inverse of
[Because
a 1
(a 1 )1
is inverse of
a 1 ]
is a.
Theorem 4: The inverse of the product of two elements of a group G is the product of
the inverses taken in the reverse order, i.e.,
pg. 10
(ab)1 b1a 1
a, b G.
Proof: Suppose 'a' and 'b' are any elements of G. If a1 and b1 are the inverses of 'a'
and 'b' respectively then
a 1a e aa 1
and
b1b e bb1
Let us take,
Also,
(ab)(b1a 1 ) [(ab)(b1 )]a 1
[By associative Law]
[a(bb1 )]a 1
(ae)a 1
[As
aa 1 = e
........
(b1a 1 )(ab) b1[a 1 (ab)]
bb1 e ]
(1)
[By associative law]
b1[(a 1a)b]
b1 (eb) b1b e
........
(2)
From (1) and (2)
(b1a 1 )(ab) e (ab)(b1a 1 ) .

Therefore, by definition of inverse, we have
(ab)1 b1a 1
Theorem 5: If a, b, c are any elements of G, then
and
ab ac b c
(Left cancellation law)
ba ca b c
(Right cancellation law)
Proof: If a G
There exist
a 1 G
a 1a e aa 1
(as G is a group) such that
where e is the identity element.
pg. 11

Now, ab = ac.
Multiply both sides of (1) by
........ (1)
a 1
a 1 (ab) a 1 (ac)
(a 1a)b (a 1a)c
eb = ec b = c
[As a1a = e and e is the identity]
Similarly for ba = ca
(ba)a1 = (ca)a1
b(aa1) = c(aa1)
be = ce b = c
6. Definition of a Group based upon Left Axioms:

The algebraic structure (G, .) is a group if the binary operation '' satisfies the
following properties:
1.
Closure Property i.e., a.b G a, b G.
2.
Associativity: (a.b).c = a.(b.c) a, b, c G.
3.
Existence of Left Identity: There exists an element e G such that

ea = a, a G. Here 'e' is called the left identity.
4.
Existence of Left Inverse: Each element of G possesses left inverse. For all a
G, there exists a1 G such that a1a = e. Here a1 is called the left inverse of a.
Value Addition: Note

Both the definitions of Group are equivalent. If the postulates of Definition of Group
based upon Left Axioms holds true then even it will be true for original definition of
Group and Vice Versa.
Let us have a look at some theorems in which starting from the left axioms we
can prove that left identity is the same as right identity and left inverse is the same as
right inverse.
Theorem 6: (Left Cancellation Law): If a, b, c G then
pg. 12

ab = ac b = c.
Proof: If a G, then there exists
a 1 G
such that
a 1a e
where e is the left
identity.
Given ab = ac
a 1 (ab) a 1 (ac)
(a 1a)b (a 1a)c
[By Associative Property]
eb ec
[Because a1 is inverse of a]
b=c
[As e is the left identity]
Theorem 7: The left Identity is also the right identity.

Proof: Let a G and e is the left identity.
Here a G a1 G such that a1a = e
a 1 (ae) (a 1a)e
[By Associative Property]
= ee
[Because a1a = e]
=e
[Because e is the left identity]
= a1a
Now if,
a 1 (ae) a 1a .
ae = a
[By left cancellation law]
e is also the right identity.
e can be called just the identity as

ea = a = ae a G.
Theorem 8: The left inverse of an element is also its right inverse i.e., aa
e.
Proof: Let a G and e be the identity element. Let a1 be the left inverse of a i.e. a1a
= e.
We have,
pg. 13
a 1 (aa 1 ) (a 1a)a 1
[By Associative law]
= ea1
[Because a1a = e]
= a1
[Because e is the left identity]
= a1e
[Also e is the right identity]
a 1 (aa 1 ) a 1e .
aa 1 = e
a 1
is also the right inverse of a.
a 1
is just the inverse of a as
[By Left cancellation law]
a 1a e aa 1
Value Addition : Note :
1) In order to prove (G, ) is a group it is sufficient to prove that the operation is
associative, the left identity exists and also the left inverse of each element of G
exists. Same way it can be done with right axioms also.
2) But we cannot assume the existence of left identity and existence of right
inverse or the existence of right identity and of left inverse.
Example 4: Prove that the set
G {x y 2 : x, y Q}
is a group with respect to
addition.
Proof: (1) Closure Property: Let p, q be any two elements of G.
then
p x y 2
Now,
q w z 2
where x, y, w, z Q.
p q ( x y 2) (w z 2)
=
( x w)
and
and
Therefore,
( x w) ( y z ) 2
( y z)
are elements of Q
( x w) ( y z ) 2 Q .
pg. 14
p q G
p, q G
G is closed with respect to addition.
2) Associativity: The elements of G are real numbers and addition of real numbers is
associative.
3) Existence of Left Identity: If
0 0 2 G
since 0Q then for
x y 2 G ,
we
can say
(0 0 2) ( x y 2) (0 x) (0 y) 2
=
00 2
x y 2
is the left identity.
4) Existence of Left Inverse:

If
x y 2 G ( x) ( y ) 2 G
since
x, y Q x, y Q
[( x) ( y) 2] [ x y 2]
=
[( x) x] [( y) y] 2
00 2
= Left identity.
( x) ( y ) 2
x y 2
is the left inverse of
Hence G is a group with respect to addition.

Example 5: Show that the set C of all non-zero complex numbers is a group with
respect to multiplication of complex numbers
Solution: Here
C {a ib : a R, b R and a 0 and b 0} .
1) Closure Property: Product of two non-zero complex numbers is also a non-zero

complex number. Therefore C is closed with respect to multiplication.
2) Associativity: Multiplication of complex numbers is always associative.
3) Existence of Left Identity: We have
1 i0 C
since
1 i0
is a non-zero complex
number.
pg. 15

Now,
a ib C
1 i0
Therefore,
then
(1 i0)(a ib) a ib .
is the left identity.
4) Existence of Left Inverse

We know
Let
x iy
a ib C a R, b R and a 0, b 0 .
be the left inverse of
a ib . Then
( x iy)(a ib) 1 0i
( xa yb) i( xb ya) 1 i0
xa yb 1;
xb ya 0
Solving these equations we get
x
Since
a
b
; y 2
2
a b
a b2
2
a 2 b2
0, therefore x and y are real numbers not both equal to zero. Therefore,
a b
i 2
C
2
2
2
a b a b
and it is the multiplicative left inverse of a+ib. Therefore, C is a group with respect to
multiplication.
Since multiplication of complex numbers is commutative, therefore this group will
be Abelian.
Example 6: Prove that the set of all m n matrices having their elements as integers
(rational or real or complex numbers) is an infinite abelian group with respect to addition
of matrices.
Solution: Let M be the set of all m n matrices with their elements as real numbers.
1) Closure Property: Addition of two matrices will again give us a matrix of the type m
n whose elements are real numbers. So M is closed with respect to addition of
matrices.
2) Associativity: Addition of two matrices is always associative.
pg. 16

3) Existence of Left Identity: The null matrix 0 is the left identity because for
0 M,
0 + A = A A M.
4) Existence of Left Inverse: If A M then A M where A is the matrix whose

elements are just negative of corresponding elements of A.
Also,
A + A = 0 = the left identity.
So A is the left inverse of A.

Also addition of matrices is commutative and the set M is an infinite set. So (M,
+) is an infinite abelian group.
7. Composition Table for Finite Sets

A Binary Composition in a finite set which can be shown in a tabular form is
known as Composition Table.
Suppose A = {a1, a2,a3, ., an} be a finite set of n elements denoted by
multiplication as a binary composition. Elements of A are written in a horizontal row as
well as in a vertical column. Then the element
associated to the ordered pair (ai, aj)
ai a j
is placed at the intersection of the row headed by
ai
and the column headed by aj.
Example 7 : Show that the four fourth roots of unity given by 1, 1, i, i form a group
with respect to multiplication.
Solution: Let S = {1, 1, i, i}
Composition Table
X
1) Closure Property: Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of set
G, therefore G is closed with respect to multiplication.
pg. 17

2) Associativity: All the elements of G are complex numbers and multiplication of
complex numbers is associative.
3) Existence of the Left identity: From the composition table we see that the row
headed by 1 is same as the top row.
Therefore 1(1) = 1; 1(1) = 1; 1(i) = i; 1(i) = i. Therefore, 1 is the left identity.
4) Existence of Left Inverse: Here identity element is its own inverse. So left inverse
of 1 is 1. Now from the composition table we have to look at the entries where 1 i.e.
identity element is occurring. The multiplication of those two numbers which gives us
identity element are the inverse of each other.
Therefore, 1 is the left inverse of 1; i is the left inverse of i and i is the left inverse of
i. Thus each element of G possesses left inverse.
Hence G is a group with respect to multiplication. The number of elements in the
set G is 4 and also multiplication of complex numbers is Commutative. Therefore G is an
abelian group of order 4 with respect to Multiplication.
To check that the composition is commutative from the composition table,
the entries in the first, second, third and fourth rows of the table should coincide
with the corresponding entries in the first, second, third and fourth columns.
Example 8: Show that the four matrices
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 ; 0 1 ; 0 1 ; 0 1
forms a multiplicative group.

Solution: Let us denote these matrices by P, Q, R, S respectively. Let
G {P, Q, R, S} .
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
QQ
P
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Similarly;
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
QR
S
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Similarly, finding all the required products we can prepare a Composition Table.
pg. 18

Composition Table
1) Closure Property: All the entries in the composition table are elements of the set G,
therefore G is closed with respect to multiplication of matrices.
2) Associative: We know multiplication of matrices is an associative composition.
3) Existence of left identity: From the composition table we see that row headed by P
is
identical
to
the
top
row
of
the
table.
So
we
have
PP
=P;
PQ =Q; PR = R; PS = S.
Therefore matrix P is the left identity.
4) Existence of Left Inverse: The left inverse of P is P since PP = P. Similarly, the left
inverse of Q is Q since QQ = P which is a left identity. Similarly the left inverse of R is R
and of S is S.
Therefore G is a group with respect to multiplication. The entries in the first,
second, third and fourth rows of the composition table coincide with the corresponding
entries of the first, second, third and fourth columns. So the composition in G is
commutative.
So G is a finite abelian group of order 4 as the number of elements in the set G
is 4.
8. Modular Arithmetic
8.1 Addition Modulo 'm' :
Addition modulo 'm' is written as
a m b
where 'a' and 'b' are any integers and m
is a fixed positive integer.

It is defined as
a m b
= r, 0 r < m where r is the least non-negative
remainder when a+b (i.e. simple sum of a and b) is divided by 'm'. For example, to add
15 57, the result will be 2 because 15+7 = 22 = 4(5) + 2 as 2 is the least nonnegative remainder when 15+7 is divided by 5. Other examples are 5
3 = 2; 9 12
3 = 0; etc.
pg. 19

When a and b are two integers such that a b is divisible by a fixed positive integer
'm', then it is written as a b (mod m) as it is read as "a is congruent to b modulo m".
Example : 9 4 (mod 5) since 9 4 is divisible by 5.
8.2
Multiplication Modulo 'p'

Multiplication modulo 'p' is written as a p b where a and b are any integers and
'p' is a fixed positive integer.

It is defined as a pb = r, 0 r < p where r is the least non-negative remainder
when ab (i.e. ordinary product of a and b) is divided by 'p'. For example, 4 72 = 1
since 42 = 8 = 1(7) + 1. It is also written as a pb = ab (mod p). For example, if we
have 5 3 4 = 2 and 5 4 = 20 so 2 20 (mod 3).
8.3
Additive group of integers modulo 'm':
The set G = {0, 1, 2, .m 1} which is formed by first m non-negative integers will be a

group where the composition being ordinary addition reduced modulo 'm'.
8.4
Multiplicative group of integers modulo p where p is prime: The set G =
{1, 2, 3, . p 1} of (p 1) integers where p is prime is a finite abelian group of order

p 1, the composition being multiplication modulo 'p'.
Value Addition: Note
(1) For a set G to be a group with the composition being multiplication modulo p,
then p should necessarily be prime. If p is composite, then there exists two
integers 'a' and 'b' such that 1 < a p 1 and 1 < b p 1 and ab =p a pb = 0
but 0G. Then G will not be closed with respect to composition multiplication
modulo 'p'.
(2) If we include 0 in the set G, then also for this composition G will not be a
group as inverse of 0 does not exist.
Example 9: Prove that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a finite abelian group of order 6
with respect to addition modulo 6.
Solution: First we will construct Composition Table
pg. 20

0
1) Closure Property: All the entries in the Composition table are elements of set G.
Therefore G is closed with respect to addition modulo 6 ( 6).
2) Associativity: If a, b, c are any three elements of G, then
a 6 (b 6 c) a 6 (b c)
[Because
b 6 c b c(mod 6)]
= least non-negative remainder when a + (b + c) is divided by 6.

= Least non-negative remainder when (a + b) + c is divided by 6.
= (a + b)
= (a
6 c
6 b) 6 c
[As a + b a 6 b (mod 6)]
Thus, the composition is associative

3) Existence of Identity: 0 is the additive identity and 0G, therefore 0 6 a = a = a
6 0.
4) Existence of Inverse: From the composition table we can see that inverses of 0, 1,
2, 3, 4,5 are 0, 5, 4, 3,2, 1 respectively.
5) Commutative Property: The composition is Commutative as the corresponding rows
and columns are identical.
The set G has 6 elements. Therefore, (G,
6) is a finite abelian group of order
6.
Example 10: Prove that the set G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is a finite abelian group of order
6 with respect to multiplication modulo 7.
Solution: Let us form the Composition table.
pg. 21
1) Closure Property: All the entries in the Composition table are elements of set G,
therefore G is closed with respect to multiplication modulo 7 i.e. ( 7).
2) Associative : If a, b c are any three elements of G, then
a 7 (b 7 c) a 7 (bc)
[Because
= least non-negative remainder when
a(bc)
b 7 c bc(mod 7) ]
is divided by 7.
= least non-negative remainder when (ab)c is divided by 7

=
(ab) 7 c (a 7 b) 7 c
[Because
a 7 b ab(mod 7)
3) Existence of Identity: 1 is the multiplicative identity and 1 G as we can see
1 7 a a a 7 1
4) Existence of Inverse: From the composition table we see that inverses of 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 are 1, 4, 5, 2, 3, 6, respectively. So every element has an inverse.
5) Commutative Property: The composition is Commutative as the corresponding rows
and columns in the composition table are identical. The set G has 6 elements. Hence (G,
7) is a finite abelian group of order 6.

9. Definition: Order of an element of a group
Suppose G is a group and the composition has been denoted multiplicatively. The
order of an element a G is defined as the least positive integer n, if one exists such
that
an e
(identity of G).
pg. 22

If there exists no positive integer n such that
an e ,
then 'a' is of infinite order
or of zero order. It is denoted by o(A). In additive notation we denote it by na = e in

place of an = e.

If there exists a positive integer m such that
am e ,
then the order of a is
definitely finite and it is written as o(a) m. If m itself is the least positive integer
such that
am e
then we have o(a) = m.
In any group the identity element e is always of order one and it is the
only element of order one.
Example 11: Find the order of each element of {1, 1, i, i}

Solution: Since 1 is the identity element, therefore o(1) = 1.
For (1) we have
(1)1 = 1; (1)2 = 1 (i.e. identity element)
Therefore o(1) = 2
Now (i)1 = i; (i)2 = 1; i3 = i; i4 = 1 (i.e. identity element)
Therefore o(i) = 4
and similarly o(i) = 4.
Value Addition : Note:
1) A group G is called a Torsion group or a Periodic group if every element of
the group is of finite order.
2) A group G is called a Torsion free group if no element other than identity
element is of finite order.
3) A group G is called a Mixed Group if there exists atleast two elements other
than the identity element in which one of them is of finite order and other one is
of infinite order.
pg. 23
Theorem 9: The order of every element of a finite group is finite.

Proof: Suppose a is any element of a finite group G and e be the identity element in G.
a, a 2 , a3 , a 4 ,....
Now,
be the positive integral powers of the element a and then by
closure property we can say the elements

The group is finite so the elements
Suppose
Then
am an
a, a 2 , a3 , a 4 ,....
a, a 2 , a3 , a 4 ,....
etc. are all contained in G.
cannot be all distinct.
where m > n.
a m (a n )1 a n .(a n )1
a m .a n e
a m n e
O(a) m n
[Because a
G (a n )1 G ]
which is finite as m n will be a +ve integer.
So the order of a is finite and since a was any chosen element of G so we can say
that the order of every element of a finite group is finite.
Theorem 10: The order of an element of a group is always equal to the order of its
inverse.
Proof: Let m and n be the orders of an element 'a' and its inverse 'a 1' respectively of a
group G.
By Definition of Order of a group we can say that
am e
and
(a 1 )n e , where e is the identity in G.
Now,
a m e (a m )1 e1
(a 1 )m e
o(a 1 ) m
nm
Again,
(a 1 )n e
....... (1)
[Because
e1 e and (a m )1 (a 1 )m ]
[Because
o(a 1 ) n ]
pg. 24
(a n )1 e
[Because
[(a n )1 ]1 e1
[Taking inverses of both sides]
an = e
[Because e1 = e and
o(a) n
mn
.......
(a 1 )n (a n )1 ]
[(a n )1 ]1 a n ]
(2)
From (1) and (2), we get

m=n
Order of an element of a group is always equal to the order of its inverse.

The order of an element of a group will also be equal to the order of its inverse in
case of infinite order.
Let us prove by contradiction.
Suppose the order of a is infinite and let order of a1 is finite say 'n', then
(a 1 )n e (a n )1 e
[(a n )1 ]1 e1
an e
o(a) n
Order of a is finite which is a contradiction because given that order of a is
infinite.
Therefore, o(a) is infinite
o(a 1 )
is infinite.
Theorem 11: If a and b are any two arbitrary elements of a group G, then the orders of
the elements a and
b1ab
are the same.
Proof: Let m be the order of the element 'a'.

am e
where e is the identity element.

pg. 25

Now,
(b1ab)m (b1ab)(b1ab)....(b1ab)
b1abb1abb1ab....b1ab
upto m factors
(by associativity)
b1a(bb1 )a(bb1 )....ab
b1aeaeae....ab .
b1a mb
b1b
[Because
am e ]
= e.
Also there is no positive integer n less than m, such that
is no positive integer n less than m such that
integers such that,
Hence
a n e . So consequently, there
(b1ab)n e .
So m is the least positive
(b1ab)m e .
o(b1ab) m o(a) .
Theorem 12: The order of ab is the same as that of ba for every two arbitrary elements
a and b of a group G.
Proof: Let us take 'ba'
ba = e(ba)
ba = (a1a)(ba)
[As a1a = e]
= a1(ab)a
Order of ba = order of a1(ab)a

= Order of ab.
Theorem 13: The order of any integral power of an element of a group can never
exceed the order of the element.
Proof: Let a be any arbitrary element of a group G and let K be any positive or negative
integer then to show that
o(a k ) o(a) .
If o(a) is infinite then the result obviously holds.
pg. 26

Suppose o(a) is finite and let o(a) = m.
a m e ; where e is the identity element in G.
(a m ) k ek
[Taking the integral power K]
a mk
[As
(a k ) m e
o(a k ) m o(a)
Hence
o(a k ) o(a)
=e
(a m )k a mk and ek e ]
Theorem 14: If the element a of a group G is of order n, then
am e
iff n is a divisor of
m.
Proof : Let n be a divisor of m. Then there exists an integer q such that nq = m.
Now
a m a nq (a n )q eq
[As
o(a) n a n e ]
Conversely,
Let
am e
Since m is an integer and n is a positive integer therefore by division algorithm there

exists integers q and r such that
m nq r
where
0r n.
a m a nqr a nq .a r (a n )q .a r
=
eq .a r
ea r a r
a r e as a m e .
As 0 r < n and ar = e r must be equal to zero otherwise o(a) will not be equal to 'n'.
So if o(a)= n, then there exist no positive integer r < n such that ar = e.
pg. 27
m = nq n is a divisor of m.

An element a of a group G is said to be idempotent if a2 = a.
Theorem 15: If a is an element of order n and p is prime to n, then ap is also of order n.

Proof: Let m be the order of ap.
Now, o(a) = n an = e
(a n ) p e p e
(a p ) n e
o(a p ) n
m n.
.......
(1)
Here p, n are relative primes so there will exist integers x and y such that
px ny 1
a a1 a pxny a px .a ny a px (a n ) y
a px .e y a px .e a px (a p ) x
Therefore,
a m [(a p ) x ]m
(a p )mx [(a p )m ]x
ex
[As
o(a p ) m
(a p ) m e ]
=e
o(a) m
nm
......
(2)
From (1) and (2)

pg. 28

We get m = n.
Example 12: Prove that if G is an abelian group then for all a, b G and all integers n,
(ab)n a nbn .
Solution: We can consider three different cases.
(i)
If n = 0, then
we have (ab)0 = e
[By Definition of Order of an element of a
group]
a0b0 ee e
therefore (ab)0 = a0b0
(ii)
If n > 0, say n = 1, then
(ab)1 ab a1b1
Let it be true for all n = k, then
(ab)k a k bk
Now let us check it for n = k + 1
(ab)k 1 (ab)k (ab)

=
a k bk ab
a k abk b
a k 1bk 1
[Because G is abelian bka = abk]
So the result is true for n = k + 1

So by mathematical induction it is true for all n > 0.
(ab)n a nbn .
(iii)
If n < 0, say n = m, where m is a positive integer.
Then
(ab)n (ab) m [(ab)m ]1
pg. 29
(a mbm )1
(bm a m )1
[Because G is abelian]
(a m )1 (bm )1
[Because
(ab)1 b1a 1 ]
a mb m
=
a nb n
Hence it is true for all n where n is an integer.

Example 13: Prove that if for element a in a group G, a2 = e, then G is an abelian
group.
Solution: Suppose 'a' and 'b' are two elements of the group G.
ab G
Therefore , (ab)2 = e
(ab)(ab) = e
(ab)1 = ab
b1a1 = ab
But
.....
(1)
a2 e aa e a1 a
Similarly
b2 e b1 b .
Substituting these values in (1) we get
ba ab
a, b G .
Therefore G is an abelian group.

Example 14: Show that if a, b are any two elements of a group G, then
(ab)2 = a2b2 iff G is abelian.
Solution: Suppose G is abelian
(ab)2 (ab)(ab) a(ba)b

= a(ab)b
[As G is abelian ab = ba]
pg. 30

= (aa)(bb)
= a2 b 2
For converse,
If a, b be any two elements of G.
Then
(ab)2 a 2b2
(ab)(ab) (aa)(bb)
a(ba)b a(ab)b
ba = ab
G is abelian.
[By left and right cancellation law]
Example 15: Prove that a group G is abelian if
b1a 1ba e a, b G .
Solution: We Have
b1a 1ba e
(b1a 1 )(ba) e
(b1a 1 )1 ba
[Because if ab = e a1 = b]
(a 1 )1 (b1 )1 ba
[Because (ab)1 = b1 a1]
ab ba
[As
G is abelian.
(a 1 )1 a ]
Exercise:
pg. 31

1.
Show that the set G = { ..., 4m, 3m, 2m, m, 0, m, 2m, 3m, 4m, ...} of
multiple of integers by a fixed integer m is a group with respect to addition.
2.
State the properties which a set must obey so that it may form a group.
3.
Show that the set of all rational numbers forms a group with respect to addition.
4.
Show that the set of all n n non-singular matrices having their elements as
rational (real or complex) numbers is an infinite non-abelian group with respect
to matrix multiplication.
5.
Show that the set of matrices
cos
A
sin
sin
cos
where is a real number, forms a group under matrix

6.
multiplication.
Does the set I of all integers form a group with respect to the binary operation *
defined on it as follows:
a b a b 1,
7.
a, b I .
Show that the set G = {1, 1} is a finite abelian group of order 2 under
multiplication as composition
8.
Show that the set of all matrices
a b
b a ,
where a and b are real numbers not
both equal to zero, is a group under matrix multiplication.

9.
Prove that the set of all n nth roots of unity forms a finite abelian group of order
n with respect to multiplication.
G {1,5,7,11} is a group under multiplication modulo 12.
10.
Prove that
11.
Prove that the set {1, 2, 3, 4} is a finite abelian group of order 4 under
multiplication modulo 5 as composition.
12.
Find the orders of elements of the group {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, the composition being
addition modulo 6.
13.
What is the difference between the order of a group and the order of an element
in a group. Prove that if a, x G then a and x a x1 have the same order in G.
pg. 32

14.
Prove that if a2 = a, where a G, then a = e.
15.
If the two elements a, b of a group commute and o(a) = m, o(b) = n where m

and n are relatively prime, prove that o(ab) = mn
Summary:
In this chapter, we have emphasized on the following:
Definition and Properties of a Group.
Theorems based on General Properties of a Group.
Composition Table for Finite sets.
Basic
Concept
of
Modular
Arithmetic
in
terms
of
Addition
Modulo
and
Multiplication Modulo.
Definition and Concept of Order of an element of a Group and Theorems related

to them.
References:
1.
Gallian, Joseph A., "Contemporary Abstract Algebra", Narosa Publishing House,

New Delhi, Indian Reprint 1999.
2.
Herstein, I.N., "Topics in Algebra", Wiley India Edition Publications, Third Reprint,
2007.
3.
Tabak, John; "The History of Mathematics", Facts on File (An Infobase Learning
Company), New York, 2011.
4.
Rotman, Joseph J., "An Introduction to the Theory of Groups", Springer Verlag,
Fourth Edition, 1995.
5.
Dummit, David S.; Foote, Richard M., "Abstract Algebra", John Wiley and Sons
(Asia) Pvt. Ltd., Singapore, 2004.
6.
Khanna, Vijay K.; Bhambri, S.K., "A Course in Abstract Algebra", Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1993.
pg. 33

7.
Raisinghania, M.D., Aggarwal, R.S., "Modern Algebra", S. Chand & Company Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1983.
8.
Singh, Surjeet; Zameeruddin, Qazi, "Modern Algebra" Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, Seventh Revised Edition, 1990.
9.
Singal, M.K.; Singal, Asha Rani, "Algebra", R. Chand & Co. Publishers, New Delhi,
Eighth Revised Edition, 1977.
10.
Sharma, Rajendra Kumar; Shah, Sudesh Kumari; Shankar, Asha Gauri, "AlgebraI: A Basic Course in Abstract Algebra", Dorling Kindersley (India). Pvt. Ltd.,
Licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia,2012.
11.
Narayan Shanti; Satpal, "A Text Book of Modern Abstract Algebra", S.Chand &
Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1992.
12.
Sharma, J.N.; Vasishtha, A.R., "A Text Book of Modern Algebra", Kedar Nath and
Ram Nath Publishers, Meerut, Fifth Revised Edition, 1978-1979.
13.
Vasishtha, Vipen: "Text Book on Modern Algebra, Krishna Prakashan Media (P)
Ltd., Meerut, Fifth Revised Edition, 1996-1997.
pg. 34

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Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

3 : Prerequisites and Notations

5 : General Properties of Groups

6 : Definition of a Group based upon left Axioms

7: Composition Table for Finite sets

9 : Order of an element of a group.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Define Groups and understand its concept

Understand general Properties of groups and relate them to theorems and

Form a Composition Table and solve examples based on them

Understand the concept of Order of an element of a group.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

3. Prerequisites and Notations

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Value Addition : Note

Value Addition : Remarks

to the definition of a binary operation if is a binary operation on G, then

a.b G, a, b G. Therefore it is not necessary to mention the closure axiom in the

binary composition which satisfies certain properties.

additive notation, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of an element a G is

denoted by the symbol a i.e., we have

multiplicative composition, if a, b G then a.b represents the element obtained

Definition: Finite and Infinite Groups

group otherwise an infinite group.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

Definition: Order of a Finite Group:

Infinite group the order will be infinite. It is denoted by o(G).

I. So I is closed with respect to addition.

4) Existence of Inverse: If a I then a I. Also

Q0 of all non-zero rational numbers forms a group under

the operation of multiplication of rational numbers.

Q0 of all non-zero rational numbers will form a group under multiplication

if it satisfies the following properties:

Q0 is closed with respect to multiplication.

2) Associativity: Multiplication of rational numbers is always associative.

Q0 . Also, 1.a = a = a.1 a Q0 . So,

rational number 1 is multiplicative identity.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

is the multiplicative inverse of a. Hence

Q0 is a group with respect to

Value Addition: Note:

But ee is the unique element of G.

Basic Definition and Properties of Groups

The identity element is unique.

Theorem 2: The inverse of each element of a group is unique.

Let us take x(ay) = xe = x

........(1) [as ay = e and e is identity element]

But a group has associative property.

So from (1) and (2)

Inverse of each element is unique.

[By Definition of Inverse]

Multiplying both sides of (1) by (a1)1.

[Because composition in G is associative