Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301929282
Positive Psychology
Article December 2016
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-397045-9.00049-5
READS
54
2 authors, including:
Carmelo Vazquez
Complutense University of Madrid
179 PUBLICATIONS 2,841 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing
copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institutions website or repository, are prohibited.
For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elseviers permissions site at:
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial
Vzquez C., and Chaves C., Positive Psychology. In: Howard S. Friedman (Editor in Chief), Encyclopedia of Mental
Health, 2nd edition, Vol 3, Waltham, MA: Academic Press, 2016, pp. 290-299.
Copyright 2016 Elsevier Inc. unless otherwise stated. All rights reserved.
290
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-397045-9.00049-5
Hedonic Well-Being
The hedonic dimension of psychological well-being has been
called subjective well-being (Diener et al., 2003) and includes
both affective and cognitive ingredients. Affective components
291
Eudaimonic Well-Being
The second main component of the architecture of human
well-being is eudaimonic well-being. Eudaimonic well-being
would come from actions that are coherent with personal
values that imply a full commitment with which people feel
alive and real (Ryan and Deci, 2001). Thus, well-being consists
in the harmonious development of an individuals capacities
which would lead to a virtuous life. This perspective of the
nature of eudaimonic well-being is one of the reasons why the
identication, development, and putting into action psychological strengths has become a central target in PP (Peterson
and Seligman, 2004). A fullled life is one in which we have
the opportunity to express and develop our maximum potentials which would bring benets not only for ourselves but
also for society at large (Waterman, 2008).
Models of eudaimonia in psychology emerged out of early
work on self-actualization by researchers such as Allport or
Maslow. The self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci,
2001) is probably the most inuential current theory in this
regard. It argues that healthy psychological functioning is
based on: (1) an adequate satisfaction of basic psychological
needs (basically, autonomy, relatedness, and competence); (2)
a system of consistent and coherent goals (i.e., intrinsic goals,
better than extrinsic ones) and (3) goals which are consistent
with the persons interests and values. Self-determination
theory asserts that when these needs are satised, motivation
and well-being are enhanced, and when they are limited, there
is a negative impact on our well-functioning (Deci and Ryan,
2000). There is a general agreement that these three needs are
amongst the most basic ones, although meaning of life
(Frankl, 1946) or safety (Maslow, 1943) have also been
proposed.
If these are the basic needs, what are the key indicators of
human optimal functioning? Based on traditional models of
eudaimonic well-being, Carol Ryff proposed what she called
the Psychological Well-being Model, conceptualizing
eudaimonia as a six-factor structure (Ryff, 1989; Ryff and
Singer, 1998): Autonomy, Personal Growth, Self-acceptance,
Purpose in Life, Environmental Mastery, and Positive Relations
with others. Although this factor structure has been debated
(Springer et al., 2006; Ryff and Singer, 2006), it has generated
much research in well-being and health. Importantly, Ryff also
produced scales for assessing psychological well-being with
good psychometric properties (Ryff, 1989).
Research suggests that psychological well-being (in the way
dened by Ryffs model) and subjective well-being (in the way
Positive Psychology
Table 1
Virtues in Action (VIA) classication of virtues and
character strengths
293
all angles
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
knowledge
Perspective: being able to provide wise counsel to others
Courage
Integrity: speaking the truth and presenting oneself in a
genuine way
Bravery: not shrinking from threat, challenge, difculty, or pain
Perseverance, persistence: nishing what one starts
Passion: approaching life with excitement and energy
Humanity
Kindness: doing favors and good deeds for others
Love: valuing close and intimate relations with others
Social intelligence: Good understanding of the motives and
feelings of self and others
Justice
Fairness: treating all people the same according to notions of
fairness and justice
Leadership: organizing group activities and seeing to that
they happen
Loyalty: working well as member of a group or team, dedicated to
your colleagues
Temperance
Modesty: letting ones accomplishments speak for themselves, not
seeking to be the center of attention
Prudence: being careful about ones choices; not saying or doing
things that might later be regretted
Self-regulation: Good regulation of desires, needs, and impulses
Forgiveness: forgiving those who have done wrong
Transcendence
Appreciation of beauty and excellence: noticing and appreciating
beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performance in all domains
of life
Gratitude: being aware of and thankful for the good things
that happen
Hope, optimism: expecting the best and working to achieve it
Humor: liking to laugh and joke; bringing smiles to other people
Spirituality: having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and
meaning of life
Positive Psychology
Pressman and Cohen (2005) proposed two specic pathways through which positive affect inuences an individuals
health. One pathway highlights the direct effects of positive
affect on the physiological system, in which positive affect
impacts behaviors and biological systems relevant for health.
For example, individuals with a high trait of positive affect
may be more likely to engage in healthy behaviors, have
greater social support and have lower levels of catecholamines
or glucocorticoid hormones. By contrast, in a stress-buffering
pathway, positive affect works as a buffer of stress by reducing
the negative stress effects on health. According to this model,
people enjoying more positive affect do not have so many
social conicts, so they have a fewer stress factors to manage.
When coping with potentially stressful situations, people
with more positive affect have better social networks on which
they can rely. Therefore, they use more effective coping strategies which, in turn, also lead them to feel that they can cope
with problems. Furthermore, positive affect makes it possible
for physiological responses to return faster to a normal state
after a stressful event (Fredrickson, 2009).
Most studies on the inuence of positive affect on health
indicate that it is associated with lower morbidity, lower
mortality, greater survival, better life quality and functioning,
fewer symptoms, less experience of pain and less severity
(Pressman and Cohen, 2012; Diener and Chan, 2011). Yet,
some studies have found an inverse relation, especially in
people with serious diseases. This reverse nding can be explained by the fact that people with more positive affect who
are suffering from serious diseases can sometimes underestimate the number of symptoms, tend to be excessively
optimistic about their prognosis development and so are less
strict in following medical prescriptions (Derogatis et al., 1979;
Pressman and Cohen, 2005).
With regard to eudaimonic well-being, there are also
growing data about its association with health-related biological indicators. Surprisingly, this type of well-being has
been found to have a more consistent relation with physical
health than hedonic well-being. The research group led by
Carol Ryff has found some of the most interesting results in
this area. In samples with older women, they have found that
those with higher levels of life purpose, more feelings of personal growth and better interpersonal relationships showed
lower cardiovascular risk (Ryff et al., 2006) and a lower inammatory response (Friedman et al., 2007). An especially
important issue about the role of eudaimonic well-being in
biology and health is its stress-buffering capacity when facing
adverse effects of negative experiences (Fredrickson, 2009).
The reasons for these fascinating ndings are unclear. A
plausible hypothesis is that eudaimonic well-being may be
related to short- and long-term affect regulation mechanisms
through the search for survival behaviors and adjusting to the
long-term environmental demands.
There is ample evidence that links well-being with better
health (Diener and Chan, 2011). There is evidence that although medical or psychological problems have a signicant
effect on life satisfaction, this effect is consistently higher in the
case of psychological problems, even after controlling
comorbidity and the effect of depression (Vzquez et al.,
2014b). This nding is coincident with the recent World
Happiness Report (Helliwell et al., 2013), which states that
295
mental illness is the single most important cause of unhappiness, with huge costs in terms of misery and
economic waste.
There is a broad range of cross-sectional and longitudinal
evidence showing that people who are emotionally happier,
who have more satisfying lives, and who live in happier
communities, are more likely to be healthy, productive, and
socially connected. The implications of the relations between
positive emotional and health are not restricted to individuals.
There are also implications at a country-level. Interestingly,
there already are some countries that are using well-being data
to improve policy making in domains of health, transport, and
education (Helliwell et al., 2013).
Positive Psychology
See also: Empathy. Gratitude. Happiness and Subjective WellBeing. Hardiness Enhances Effectiveness and Fulllment. Hope.
Optimism, Motivation, and Mental Health. Positive Illusions.
Posttraumatic Growth. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Resilience.
Responses to Natural Disasters. Stress-Related Growth. Wisdom
References
Almedom, A.M., Glandon, D., 2007. Resilience is not the absence of PTSD anymore
than heath is the absence of disease. Journal of Loss and Trauma 12,
127143.
Antonovsky, A., 1979. Health, Stress and Coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice, 2006. Evidence-based
practice in psychology. American Psychologist 61, 271285.
Aspinwall, L.G., 2001. Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation,
and health. In: Tesser, A., Schwarz, N. (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of
Social Psychology: Intraindividual Processes. Malden, MA: Blackwell,
pp. 591614.
Avia, M.D., Vzquez, C., 2011. Optimismo Inteligente. Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
Barakat, L.P., Alderfer, M.A., Kazak, A.E., 2006. Posttraumatic growth in adolescent
survivors of cancer and their mothers and fathers. Journal of Pediatric
Psychology 31, 413419.
Beddington, J., Cooper, C.L., Field, J., et al., 2008. Mental wealth of nations. Nature
455, 10571060.
Bellizzi, K.M., Blank, T.O., 2006. Understanding the dynamics of post-traumatic
growth in breast cancer survivors. Health Psychology 25, 4756.
Bonanno, G.A., 2004. Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated
the human capacity to thrive after extremely adverse events? American
Psychologist 59, 2028.
Brdar, B., Kashdan, T., 2009. Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An
empirical investigation of structure and correlates. Journal of Research in
Personality 44 (1), 151154.
Brown, N.J.L., Sokal, A.D., Friedman, H.L., 2013. The complex dynamics of wishful
thinking: The critical positivity ratio. American Psychologist 68, 801813.
Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R.G., 1999. Facilitating Posttraumatic Growth. A Clinicians
Guide. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Calhoun, L.G., Tedeschi, R.G. (Eds.), 2006. The Handbook of Posttraumatic Growth:
Research and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Chambless, D.L., Hollon, S., 1998. Dening empirically supported therapies. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, 718.
Chaves, C., Vzquez, C., Hervas, G., 2015. Positive interventions in seriously-ill
children: Effects on well-being after granting a wish. Journal of Health
Psychology.
297
Cho, D., Park, C.L., 2013. Growth following trauma: Overview and current status.
Terapia Psicolgica 31, 6979.
Christopher, J.C., Hickinbottom, S., 2008. Positive psychology, ethnocentrism,
and the disguised ideology of individualism. Theory and Psychology 18,
563589.
Cohen, S., Alper, C.M., Treanor, J.J., Doyle, W.J., 2006. Positive emotional style
predicts resistance to illness after experimental exposure to rhinovirus or
inuenza A virus. Psychosomatic Medicine 68, 809815.
Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M., 2000. The what and why of goal pursuits: Human
needs and the selfdetermination of behaviour. Psychological Inquiry 11,
227268.
Derogatis, L.R., Abeloff, M.D., Melisaratos, N., 1979. Psychological coping
mechanisms and survival time in metastatic breast cancer. Journal of the
American Medical Association 242, 15041508.
Diener, E., Chan, M.Y., 2011. Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being
contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being
3, 143.
Diener, E., Helliwell, J.F., Kahneman, D. (Eds.), 2010. International Differences in
Well-Being. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Diener, E., Scollon, C., Lucas, R., 2003. The evolving concept of subjective wellbeing. Advances in Cell Aging and Gerontology 15, 187219.
Dunn, E.W., Gilbert, D.T., Wilson, T.D., 2011. If money doesnt make you happy,
then you probably arent spending it right. Journal of Consumer Psychology 21
(2), 115125.
Emmons, R.A., McCullough, M.E., 2003. Counting blessings versus burdens: An
experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, 377389.
Fang, C.Y., Miller, S.M., Bovbjerg, D.H., et al., 2008. Perceived stress is associated
with impaired T-cell response to HPV16 in women with cervical dysplasia.
Annals of Behavioral Medicine 35, 8796.
Fava, G.A., Ruini, C., 2003. Development and characteristics of a well-being
enhancing psychotherapeutic strategy: Well-being therapy. Journal of Behavior
Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 34, 4563.
Fernndez-Ballesteros, R., 2002. Light and dark in the psychology of human
strengths: The example of psychogerontology. In: Aspinwal, L.G., Staudinger, U.
M. (Eds.), A Psychology of Human Strength: Perspectives on an Emerging Field.
Washington, DC: APA.
Fordyce, M.W., 1977. Development of a program to increase personal happiness.
Journal of Counseling Psychology 24, 511520.
Forgeard, M.J.C., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M.L., Seligman, M.E.P., 2011. Doing the
right thing: Measuring well-being for public policy. International Journal of
Wellbeing 1, 79106.
Frankl, V. (1946). Man's Search for Meaning. New York, NY: Washington Square Press.
Fredrickson, B., 2009. Positivity. Nueva York: Crown.
Fredrickson, B.L., 1998. What good are positive emotions? Review of General
Psychology 2, 300319.
Fredrickson, B.L., 2001. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist 56,
218226.
Fredrickson, B.L., 2003. The value of positive emotions. American Scientist 91,
330335.
Fredrickson, B.L., 2013. Updated thinking on positivity ratios. American Psychologist
68, 814822.
Fredrickson, B.L., Tugade, M.M., Waugh, C.E., Larkin, G., 2003. What good are
positive emotions in crises?: A prospective study of resilience and emotions
following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, 365376.
Friedman, E.M., Hayney, M., Love, G.D., Singer, B.L., Ryff, C.D., 2007. Plasma
interleukin-6 and soluble IL-6 receptions are associated with psychological wellbeing in aging women. Health Psychology 26, 305313.
Grubaugh, A.L., Resick, P.A., 2007. Posttraumatic growth in treatment-seeking
female assault victims. Psychiatric Quarterly 78, 145155.
Hayes, S.C., 2013. The genuine conversation. In: Kashdan, T.B., Ciarrochi, J. (Eds.),
Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Positive Psychology: The Seven Foundations for
Well-Being. Oakland, CA: Context Press, pp. 303319.
Heine, S.J., Lehman, D.R., Markus, H.R., Kitayama, S., 1999. Is there a universal
need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review 106, 766794.
Helliwell, J.F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. (Eds.), 2013. World Happiness Report. New
York, NY: The Earth Institute, Columbia University (Mandated by the General
Assembly of the United Nations).
Hervs, G., Vzquez, C., 2013. Construction and validation of a measure of
integrative well-being in seven languages: The Pemberton Happiness Index.
Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 11, 66.
Positive Psychology
Seligman, M.E.P., 1999. The President's address. APA 1998 Annual Report.
American Psychologist 54, 559562.
Seligman, M.E.P., 2011. Flourishing. New York, NY: Free Press.
Seligman, M.E.P., Csikszentmihalyi, M., 2000. Positive psychology: An introduction.
American Psychologist 55, 514.
Seligman, M.E.P., Rashid, T., Park, A.C., 2006. Positive psychotherapy. American
Psychologist 61, 774788.
Seligman, M.E.P., Steen, T.A., Park, N., Peterson, C., 2005. Positive psychology
progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist 60,
410421.
Senf, K., Liau, A.K., 2013. The effects of positive interventions on happiness and
depressive symptoms, with an examination of personality as a moderator. Journal
of Happiness Studies 14, 591612.
Sheldon, K., Kashdan, T.B., Steger, M.F. (Eds.), 2011. Designing Positive
Psychology: Taking Stock and Moving Forward. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Sheldon, K.M., Lyubomirsky, S., 2006. How to increase and sustain positive
emotion: The effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves.
Journal of Positive Psychology 1, 7382.
Shryack, J., Steger, M.F., Krueger, R.F., Kallie, C.S., 2010. The structure of virtue:
An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory
of strengths. Personality and Individual Differences 48, 714719.
Sin, N.L., Lyubomirsky, S., 2009. Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive
symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly
metaanalysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology 65.467487.
Snyder, C.R., Lopez, S.J. (Eds.), 2002. Handbook of Positive Psychology. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
Springer, K.W., Hauser, R.M., Freese, J., 2006. Bad news indeed for Ryff's six-factor
model of well-being. Social Science Research 35, 11201131.
Tedeschi, R.G., Calhoun, L.G., 2004. Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations
and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry 15, 118.
Tugade, M.M., Fredrickson, B.L., 2002. Positive emotions and emotional
intelligence. In: Barrett, L.F., Salovey, P. (Eds.), The Wisdom in Feeling. New
York, NY: Guilford Press, pp. 319340.
Vaillant, G.E., 2002. Aging Well. Boston, MA: Little Brown.
Vallerand, R.J., Verner-Filion, J., 2013. Making peoples life most worth living: On
the importance of passion for positive psychology. Terapia Psicolgica 31,
3548.
Vzquez, C., 2005. Stress reactions of the general population after the terrorist
attacks of S11 (USA) and M11 (Madrid, Spain): Myths and realities. Annuary of
Clinical and Health Psychology 1, 925.
Vzquez, C., 2013a. Positive psychology and its enemies: A reply based on
scientic evidence. Papeles del Psiclogo 34, 91115.
Vzquez, C., 2013b. A new look at trauma: From vulnerability models to resilience
and positive changes. In: Moore, K.A., Kaniasty, K., Buchwald, P., Sese, A.
299