Franchesca Jones

TSL 612 Professor Burnett

Spring 2016
Options in the Teaching of Grammar Notebook
Week 1 Reaction & Notes: Jan 18 - 22
1 40

Global Trends in English Grammar Pedagogy p.

REACTION WEEK # 1
Throughout the process of completing this weeks reading, it was my inclination to relate
the information back to my personal experiences as well as the experiences of my students. As
an ESL teacher in the United Arab Emirates, it became clear after this reading, that I have
experienced different concentric circles (Kachru) in my lifetime thus far.
I grew up in what Kachru would refer to as an inner circle. In the United States, English
is the national language and the most commonly used language. However, in Southern
California, the native Spanish speaking population is quite high. So much so, that in many cities
there are bilingual education programs, teaching in Spanish and English. I had the opportunity to
complete a bilingual education program from K-12th grade, and become fluent in reading,
writing, listening, and speaking in both languages. I grew up in a bilingual household, with a
bilingual education; I had exposure to both languages everywhere that I went. I was fortunate to
have dual language support everywhere, but not all of my classmates where quite as lucky. My
classmates experienced situations of disglossia; their homes where either English only or
Spanish only homes, but they were required to study both English and Spanish. In the same
learning environment there were students learning English as a Second language and students
learning Spanish as a foreign language.
Now I am living in what Kanchu refers to as an outer circle. The United Arab Emirates
is only 44 years old, and was originally an Arabic monolingual society. As it has grown and

developed, it has flourished into a multilingual society, with residence from all over the world.
As the educational system developed, the integration of English in education increased,
eventually leading to Academic English being the primary language of instruction. In the public
education system, there is more emphasis on Arabic, and as the grade level increases, so does the
emphasis on the English language. Undergraduate and Graduate level courses are taught in
English.
The UAE has also put in place gatekeeping test often from the British Council, as the
preferred method of demonstrating proficiency in academic English. This has influenced cultural
changes in the U.A.E. Native Arabic speakers are opting to pay for private education to ensure
that their children are receiving quality Academic English educations. Additionally, the country
itself has become quite a bilingual environment. Every government building, store, restaurant,
street sign, etc. offers bilingual speakers or texts. Socially, English and Arabic are the languages
that permit this multilingual community to operate and communicate. Because of such a high
English Speaking expatriate community, because English is a global language and spoken in so
many of the countries expats are from, and because of an increase in English education, English
has become the Language of Wider Communication in the U.A.E. In observation of these
factors, I would say that the United Arab Emirates could be evolving into a hybrid culture as
Promodou discusses in the overlapping of the concentric circles.
The UAE outsources native English speakers from countries such as the United States,
United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Canada, and Australia, to expose Emirati students to
authentic language, as well as to provide them with a tool which will grant them access to the
global world of English. In my experiences as a student and teacher, I have seen the power and
accessibility gained through proficiency in the English language.
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NOTES WEEK # 1
Chapter 1: Global Perspectives on English
Academic English is not a native language of anyone; its features are so specialized and
conventionalized that it is a different variety of English pg. 1
English as LINGUA FRANCA : Meet the challenges of globalization and empower them to
resist the HEGEMONY of one culture over another
VOCAB - Hegemony: a political or cultural dominance or authority over others- predominancecontrol
English in the world today:
1) WORLD ENGLISHES: used by all types of users monolinguals, ESL, bilingual etc.
2) ELF ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCE: among speakers of various levels of
proficiency
3) ACADEMIC ENGLISH: English that will empower learners to accomplish the
professional education purpose they have set for themselves.
LWC: language of wider communication: Allow speakers to communicate with people beyond
their local context and setting
LWCs are at the center of linguistic constellations and galaxies
Q = Communication value the product of its centrality multiplied by its prevalence SWAN
More and more texts created by people across the globe are in English pg. 5
VOCAB-Disglossia: a social and cultural situation in which there are dual linguistic systems
one in home and one in school AE academic English is the language learned in school.
Academic English is not the native language of anyone!!!
Global Metaphors
Constellations: The languages of the world together constitute a global system held together by
multilingual people who can communicate with several language groups.
Diffusion and Resistance: For some people English is still a language that is associated with
Anglo-American culture and the good that the association entails. For some, English means
access to and progress in intellectual pursuits, education, science, technology, and material wellbeing.
For others, the diffusion of English is to be resisted.
Concentric Circles: 3 concentric circles

KACHRU

1) The inner circle: countries where English is spoken natively by populations

historically tied to England by colonialism and immigration (including: Australia,
Cananda, Ireland, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, and the USA).
2) The outer circle: where people of other ethnicities speak varieties of English along
with other local language in multilingual societies (ex: Bangladesh, Hong Kong,
India, Kenya, Nigeria, Pakistan, or the Philippines).
3) The Expanding circle: refers to the speakers who learn English in the classrooms.
Their countries do not have a history of colonialism by English-speaking countries.
Intersection of Circles: PRODOMOU
Prodomou redraws Kachrus concentric circles model he overlaps circles of English speakers,
with ELF as a linguistic commodity shared among them. English is used as a lingua franca by
anyone who knows it or knows part of it. In this area of common ground among all English
users, there is room for hybrid cultures that are culturally de-Englishized or de-Americanized, reIslamized etc.
VOCAB - Registers: are the different words and grammar used in different types of situations,
for example in telephone conversations, spontaneous speeches, personal letters, fiction, official
documents, and academic prose.
Standards and Tests
The standards for academic English across the globe are close to those of formal English in the
inner circle countries. Academic English is what prepares English learners to pass the
gatekeeping test that they may need to take.
TESTS: Gatekeeping tests are proficiency tests that serve to distinguish two groups of people:
those who are included in employment and higher education because of their superior English
knowledge and those who are excluded from opportunities because of their inferior fluency and
accuracy.
Exams consist of listening, speaking, reading and writing and their focus is accuracy and fluency
in standard varieties of formal English.
Controversial because they become money makers and dont take into account diverse usages
form other circles or expanding circles of English varieties for the present these tests reflect
inner circle norms.
Chapter 2: New Trends in Grammatical Theory
Language specific properties must be derived from input over a number of years
Language Acquisition Hypothesis:

1) Innatist (1960): babies are born with a mental capacity that allows them to map the
words they have and lean into predetermined universal grammatical structures Critical
period ***
2) Usage/Exposure Hypothesis: Requires only one mechanism to explain language
acquisition
VOCAB- Grammaticality is defined on pg. 23 as: an utterance or sentence is grammatical if it
conforms to a set of rules that describes or generates a language, or part of the native speakers
competence.
Heterogenous speech community community of many languages vs. Homogenous community
- monolingual community
1.

Language users may not want to become native-like speakers; instead they may want to
acquire just the amount of language to suit their needs and no more.

VOCAB- Naturalness is defined as: An utterance or sentence is natural if it conforms to peoples

knowledge of their normal usage and exposure or if the words occur together with a certain
frequ3ency or probability.
MODELS OF CONSTRUCTION: how language users construct utterances using their
linguistic system
1. The Open Choice Principle: At each point where a unit is completed ( a word or phrase
or clause), a large range of choice opens up and the only restraint is grammaticalness
Sinclair
VOCAB- Colligation is defined on page 26 as: The grammatical company a word or word
sequence keeps or avoids keeping, the grammatical functions preferred or avoided by a group in
which the word participates, the place in sequence that a word or word sequence prefers or
avoids = Hoey 2005.
2. The Idiom Principle: a language user has available a large number of semi-preconstructed phrases that constitute segments.
VOCAB- Collocations are defined on page 27 as: prefabricated phrases that allow speakers to
construct and comprehend utterance more easily in real-time communication.
As people construct sentences, they may choose to access a prefabricated phrase as a whole unit
from memory instead of constructing a phrase word by word using the open choice principle.
Wrays Idiomatic Paradox: The dual nature of the language system colligation and collocation
presents a paradox in second language acquisition
Language learners make good use of idioms or prefabrications early on, bus as they advance,
there isnt enough usage and exposure for them to learn enough collocations. Instead, they must
rely on the open choice principle to create new utterance or sentences- thus it sounds less natural

VOCAB- Constructions defined on page 29 as: cognitive symbols that encode the connections
between language forms (e.g. words, phrases, colligations, collocations) and communicative
functions or meanings relevant to something in the world.
Acquisition and Attunement
Item based constructions:

Single word: cookie

Two words: eat cookie
Three words: daddy eats cookie

Mixed Construction: (x) eats (z)

Pattern-Based Construction: (NP) (V) (NP-vp) = sentence
VOCAB - Priming defined on page 32 as: The phenomenon in which prior exposure to specific
language forms or meanings either facilitates or interferes with a speakers subsequent language
processing.
Semantic Priming: refers to facilitation in the processing of a response word because of similar
or related meanings.
Repetition priming is facilitation in processing words because of prior exposure to those words.
Repitition priming operates at the level of prefixes and suffixes, individual words, collocations,
colligations or sentences.
Lexical Priming: the tendency for people to process a word, phraswe, or collocation more
quickly and more accurately because they have had previous exposure to that construction.
Syntactic priming: Affects the likelihood that a speaker will produce a construction when
compared with an equally acceptable alternative.
Analytic processing: involves a greater use of mixed and pattern-based constructions with
variables
In contrast
Holistic processing makes use of time-based constructions closely related to each other through
nested priming associations with high probabilities of appearing together.
Pg 36 Language learning is a process of attunement in which people us general cognitive
abilities to process large amounts of language data in usage and exposure. The linguistic system
is always being modified by experience. Grammar is not mastered once and for all; instead, it
must be used, replenished, and maintained through new contexts and negotiations of meaning.
The learning curve is steeper for children than it is for adults
L1/L2 similarities: Learning a second language is similar to learning a first language because it
involves exposure and usage to acquire constructions.
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Similar task: to continuously update and maintain item-based, and pattern-based constructions
throughout the life-span.
L1/L2 differences: First language learners have unpressured time and high motivation to acquire
their language, but the amount of exposure and repetition that first language learners enjoy
cotrasts with the poverty of the language-learning environments of most second language
learners.
L1 normally takes place with massive amounts of interaction, input, and natural feedback,
offering the learner multiple exposures as fodder for generalization, analogy, and internalization.
Most L2 takes place in a classroom for a few hours a week and offers reduced exposure and
fewer repetitions of experience.
L2 learners are usually older so they have more cognitive capacities ex. Greater memory, welldeveloped cognition, better abilities to analyze, more world and culture knowledge to facilitate
language learning.
Instruction and Purpose:
There are limitations for teachers, typically they have at least these purposes

To find shortcuts to acquisition that can make up for the inevitable lack of usage and
exposure
Ta take advantage of all cognitive capacities for learning including memorization, rote
practice, inductive or data-based earning
Balance vocab and grammar through holistic and analytical methods
Provide ops for individualized practice
Make grammar instruction register-specific

Week 2 Reaction & Notes: January 19 22

Pedagogy p. 41-78

Global Trends in English Grammar

REACTION WEEK # 2
In most L2 situations, the learner does not receive sufficient exposure to the L2 to learn
the language implicitly. This weeks reading focused on addressing this issue by describing
methods for teachers to guide students as they learn an L2 explicitly. Amongst the new trends in
second language acquisition discussed in the reading, three that appealed to me dealt with focus
on form, the importance of repetition, and feedback methods.
The text emphasizes Focus on Form interactions as it raises learners awareness of forms
by drawing attention to words, collocations, grammatical structures, pragmatic patterns, but as
they come up in lessons whose main focus is on meaning or communication (p.48). Here we
can gather that the main focus should be the ability to express meaning, even though form is also
important. The focus should not explicitly be form however, issues with form are discovered
through attempts at communicating meaning, and dealt with as they arise. This teaching method
of negotiated interactions, should result in modified output by the learner. This focus on form
methodology is also discussed in chapter 4 when discussing post method language teaching. As
the text states, sequencing of grammar instruction should be secondary to the subject matter and
tasks in the classroom. Grammatical terms and explanations occur in response to something in a
reading or writing assignment and to meet the needs and questions of the leaner (Nassaji &
Fotos). It is emphasized that grammar should no longer be the sole focus or primary focus of
teaching, but be dealt with in pieces as it arises naturally.
Chapters 3 and 4 also discuss repetition in different ways. Chapter three discusses
priming and automatization, and the importance of explicit instruction to initiate both. Because
of lack of sufficient exposure in daily life to learn an L2 implicitly, students must explicitly learn
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grammatical constructions and patterns. Learners must be made aware of the linguistic feature,
practice the feature, and obtain feedback. The initial exposure to the linguistic feature, the stage
of practice and feedback, and up until the stage in which learners can utilize the construction
correctly, is the process of automatization. Students must be guided, yet fully involved in this
process. The repetitive exposure to the linguistic feature leads to the likelihood of
automatization. Chapter 4 also emphasizes that repetition is the key to automatization, and
provides several types of activities which include repetitions, such as various drill types. The
instructor is warned however to and make practice mindful and not mind-numbing.
Lastly, another topic that caught my attention was direct feedback versus indirect
feedback. Providing the learner with direct feedback takes away a learning opportunity for them.
Identifying and correcting the errors learners make directly, takes them out of the process. By
guiding them through indirect feedback, not only are they involved in correcting the error, but
they are more likely to retain this correction for future use. The text states that indirect feedback
leads to greater accuracy because learners who pay attention to feedback make corrections on
their own may become better at producing correct forms and self editing(p.71). The text also
provides a self editing workshop as a strategy incorporating indirect feedback in instruction.
Overall the new trends in grammar pedagogy place more of an emphasis on the learner
versus the teacher. The teacher takes a step back, and guides the students through their learning
process. Focusing on form, repetition, and providing indirect feedback are all methods which
lead to the student being more involved in the instructional and learning process, and gets further
away from traditional lecture style instruction. It is clear how all of these methods can improve
the process of L2 acquisition.

NOTES WEEK # 2
Chapter 3: New Trends in Second Language Acquisition
Multicompetence: an individuals knowledge of a native language and a second language, that is,
L1 linguistic competence plus L2 interlanguage. Superior metalinguistic awareness of d
interactions shoumultilingual people.
Multilinguality: the cognitive style of a multilingual person, different from a monolingual person
and perhaps even a bilingual person. This cognitive style includes differences in identity,
attitudes, abilities, resources, cognition, and social ties that shape or are shaped by a sociocultural
and historical setting.
Factors in language learning
-

Interaction: students need meaningful and motivating activities with a focus on form so
that they receive feedback and practice for explicit learning. Pg. 47
Focus on Form: interaction designed to raise learners awareness of forms by drawing
students attention to words, collocations, grammatical structures, pragmatic patterns and
the like at the time that they come up in lessons whose main focus is on meaning or
communication. Pg 48
Focus on form aka negotiated interactions: are meant to result in modified output on the
part of the learner
Uptake: term used to refer to a learners ability to notice and learn from interactions.
Uptake is the first step in learning: noticing a form, representing a form in short term
memory, storing the form in memory so that it can be retrieved later. It takes a number of
such episodes of exposure and usage to learn pg. 49
Scaffolding: interlocutors create conversations by helping each other construct utterances
from words, collocations, and colligations they only partially know.

Natural Order Hypothesis pg. 50-51 Krashen IMPLICIT

1. Single words or units
2. SVO word order
3. Preposing
4. Yes/no questions
5. Wh questions
6. Inversions with do
7. Inversions with modal
8. Tag question
9. Negative question
10. Embedded question
HOWEVER, most L2 learners do not receive sufficient exposure and practice to learn the
language implicitly, and therefore need EXPLICIT instruction to supplement.
Priming and automatization
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Priming holds promise as an important factor leading to success in language learning, the
persistence of syntactic priming across intervening material and time has led some researches to
suggest that it might represent a form of implicit learning.
For many second language learners, learning relies heavily on automatization of explicitly
learned constructions and patters, and not implicit learning, because there is not enough usage
and exposure for implicit learning to take place.
Automatization: what happens in the learners mind between the initial presentation of a
construction and the final stage of spontaneous and accurate use of that constructions.
Practice
Practice improves riming associations among item and pattern based constructions for greater
fluency and accuracy.
1: awareness/presentation, to draw attention to the linguistic feature to be learned
2: practice
3: feedback
Both implicit and explicit learning must be factored into classroom activities through negotiated
interaction, deliberate focus on form and meaning, practice, and feedback for maximal uptake
pg. 54
Language Awareness Approach
-

Context
Description
Usage

Consciousness raising activities (e.g. activities that combine a deliberate focus on form with
analysis) help learners become aware of the lexical, grammatical, and discursive choices
available in different texts.
Consciousness-raising in linguistic analysis: sound, word formation, vocabulary, phrases,
sentences, and above. Bottom-up (data and detail driven) and top-down (pattern and rule
driven).
Metalinguistic Awareness Development Activities

Relate language, thinking, knowledge, and skill

Use authentic language or languages in socioculturally grounded spoken and written texts
Problematize sociocultural concepts such as standr or non=standard language, correct or
incorrect grammar, accuracy, fluency, native speaker, and so on
Focus on both meaning and messages
Analyze abstract structure and relationships among lexis for analytical colligation and
holistic collocation
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Encourage learners to develop a personal subjective response to language through notice

and reflection
Lead to improvement in personally identified language skills

CHAPTER 4: NEW TRENDS IN POST-METHOD GRAMMAR PEDAGOGY

Kumaravadivelu argues that there is a gap between methodology as advocated by researchers and
theorists and the practical methods put into practice by teachers because methodologies are based
on idealized theories for idealized classroom settings.
Stakeholders and Settings for learning are different, no methodology stretches to cover local
needs, wants, and situations. Pg. 59
Post method language teaching: based on more general strategies that teachers can adapt to their
own setting
The sequencing of grammar instruction should be secondary to the subject matter and tasks in
the classroom. Grammatical terms and explanations occur in response to something in a reading
or writing assignment and to meet the needs and questions of the learner.
Mini-lectures should take place within a social and functional context about how the linguistic
feature functions in a text with a specific writing purpose and context.
INDUCTIVE PRESENTATIONS: pg. 64
1) Draw learners attention to the grammatical point and show its connection to already
learned material
2) Give a series of examples taken from reading or writing assignment, and then invite
learners to say what consistent patterns they notice.
3) Once learners have identified the patterns as well as they can, rephrase the generalization
correctly and ask for other examples that follow the generalization.
4) Discuss the most common exceptions to the generalization
EXCEPTIONS: garden path method: teachers cause learners to create errors and then correct
them. The garden path method is effective because it helps learners notice the exception and
remember it.
2 types of translation activities benefit students grammar learning and hence their metalinguistic
awareness pg 66
1) Literal, formal, or structural translation or morpheme by morpheme gloss.
2) Meaning to meaning producing translation equivalents
Individualization: Learners practice only what they need to practice. CALL: computer assisted
language learning
Drills: oral practice should be mindful and not mind-numbing.
Substitution drills are oral exercises where one or more words are inserted to substitute for
another word and learners receive immediate feedback as the teachers repeat the correct answer.
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The drill starts with simple substitutions, then moves up to combinations that result in new
sentences. Substitutions drills are done as choral work first and then by calling on individuals to
make substitutions.
Transformation drill: changes something about the sentence. A past sentence is transformed into
present progressive or vice versa, an affirmative sentence is changed to a negative or a question.
Chain drill: the teacher models the first question and cues the type of answer needed. The
answers and responses are relatively free but they must be accurate. The chain drill goes around
the class with less teacher control.
REPITITION is the key to automatization
Teachers do the same activity several times with a slightly different focus each time
EDITING SKILLS DEPENDENT ON THE STUDENT
Direct feedback occurs when the instructor identifies the error and supplies the correction
Indirect feedback means that the instructor identifies that an error has occurred but does not
supply the correct form
Indirect feedback leads to greater accuracy. Learners who pay attention to feedback and make
corrections on their own may become better at producing correct forms and self-editing than
learners who receive their correction from the instructor pg. 71
Global error: I went to the library to get a book (meaning book store) global errors cause a
reader to misunderstand what the author is trying to say
Local error: I going to the bookstore to buy a book. Local errors do not impede comprehension.
Self-editing strategies:
Editing workshop:

Stage one: the learners read their diagnostic essay and take 20 minutes to find as
many errors as they can.
Stage two: the teacher highlights any remaining problems that were not found by
the learners.
Stage three: the learners try to correct the errors and return the paper ro the
teacher
Stage four: the teacher analyzes the students success in finding and correcting
errors, gives the learners an editing report, and explains any remaining problems
or grammatical issues.

Peer editing: the main purpose is not to improve the writers text but to improve the readers
proofreading and editing abilities. Proofreading and editing are very useful metalinguistic skills
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Model the editing for the class

Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms: Integrating Form-Focused Instruction
in Communicative Context

Week 3 Reaction & Notes: February 1 5

Grammar p. 1 67

Input-based Options on Focus on

REACTION WEEK # 3
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In this weeks reading, we were exposed to additional information about focusing on

form. In the previous weeks reading, we were introduced to the concept of focusing on meaning
over form, and dealing with issues with form as they arise. This week we were presented with
more detailed information about FonF and FonFs.
FonF (Focus on Form) draws the learners attention to linguistic forms in the context of
meaningful communication. This differs from FonFs (Focus on Forms) which is an pproach
that represents an analytic syllabus, and is based on the assumption that language consists of a
series of grammatical forms that can be acquired sequentially and additively. Based on what we
have read thus far, I think a FonF approach is definitely more effective than a FonFs approach. It
combines the important components of language acquisition, grammar and meaning. The FonFs
approach seems to focus too much on grammar, which as a result will limit the learners
exposure to the various components needed for L2 acquisition. Learners need opportunities to
experience implicit and explicit L2 acquisition of all aspects of an L2, not just one.
Additionally, I see the FonF approach as one that is modifiable, and therefore applicable
to learners of various levels. Learners at every age and every age of L2 acquisition need
exposure to authentic sources of the L2. Introductory learners would benefit from FonF, in
learning greetings for example. They would be exposed to both the correct grammar and
meanings of basic language structures. They will begin to understand the structure of the
language as well as attain usable vocabulary that is meaningful.
I have been able to see this application with my own students in the United Arab
Emirates. For the past year I have been teaching L1 Arabic speakers to read, write, listen, and
speak in English. The main objective of the course has been to prepare them for a Cambridge
exam called the KET Key English Test. I think the text I was provided does a good job of
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applying a FonF approach. Each unit focused on building vocabulary, a grammar point, spelling,
and also gave authentic context such as texts and audio recordings to provide additional meaning
to the information learned in the Unit. After this weeks reading, I would definitely select FonF
over FonFs.
NOTES WEEK # 3
Chapter 1: The Changing View of Grammar Instruction
Without grammar, language does not exist- role of grammar in teaching very controversial
(explicitly or implicitly?)
Grammar-Based Approaches:
Language teaching was equated with grammar teaching and grammar was used as content as
well as organizing principles for developing curriculum and language teaching material (2)
It was believed that the best way of learning an L2 was through studying first language grammar.
Grammar Translation Method, Audio Lingual Method and other structure based methods are
based on the assumption that the major problem in learning a second or foreign language is
learning its structure and that this aspect of language must receive exclusive attention.
Grammar Translation and Audio-Lingual Methods
Based on categories of Greek and Latin grammar, the target language was segmented into
various parts of speech which were taught deductively through an explicit explanation of rules,
with memorization and translations of texts from the L2 to the L1.
Focus shifted from studying grammar in terms of parts of speech toa description of its strucktural
and phonological characteristics. As a consequence of World War II, a need arose for oral
communication and the ability to speak foreign languages fluently. This, in addition to
developments in behavioral psychology, led to the emergence of the Audio Lingul and Direct
Methods.
Behavioral Psychology viewed learning as a process of habit formation and conditioning, it
considered memorization of structural patterns essential for L2 learning. It was believed that
such memorization formed and reinforced language habits. Focus was oral skills rather than
written skills
PPP Models Presentation, Practice, Production
Language is learned b processing information available through input and then accessed for
subsequent comprehension and production.
Communication-based approaches
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The recognition of the inadequacies of approaches that focused exclusively on presentation and
manipulation of grammatical forms, and the realization that knowing a language is more than
knowing its grammar, led to a shift away from an exclusive focus on language forms to a focus
on meaning and language use in communicative contexts (pg. 6)
The communicative Approach: acquiring communicative aility interpret and use meaning in
real-life communication
Hymes theory of communicative competence Hymes distinguished between linguistic
competence (knowledge of grammar rules) and communicative competence (knowledge of
language use and ability to use language).
Krashens model of L2 learning and the distinction he made between acquisition and learning.
Krashen defined acquisition as an unconscious and implicit process, and learning as a conscious
and explicit one. He argues that learners should acquire language unconsciously and implicitly
as a result of exposure to comprehensible input rather than learn it consciously through explicit
teaching of grammatical rules. Pg. 7
Savignon characterized it as a theory ofcommunicative competence to be used in developing
materials and methods appropriate to a given context pg. 8
Wilkins instruction is organized in terms of the purposes for which language is used rather than
in terms of its constituent forms. Pg. 8
Inadequacies of Communication-Based Approaches
Earlier approaches to communicative language teaching advocated exclusive attention to
meaning, alter conceptualizations did not rule out the possibility of a focus on linguistic forms,
with more recent proposals all emphasizing the need for attention to form in L2 task-based
teaching.
There are shortcomings to approaches which focus solely on meaning and dont give attention to
grammar:

Students do not fully acquire many aspects of the target language available in the input

Positive effects of instruction focused on linguistic forms:

Contributes importantly to language learning

Significant effects on the rate of acquisition and the attainment of accuracy
Substantial gain in the target structures and that the gains are substained over time

SLA researchers have argued that explicit knowledge contributes, if not leads, to acquisition.
Some researchers have argued that explicit knowledge may even turn into implicit knowledge if
learners are developmentally ready. It also helps:

Producing output

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Facilitating the production of unanalyzed language that may contribute to a kind of

knowledge that the learners may incorporate into their interlanguage system at a later
time
Learners will be able to maintain conversations, provides them more comprehensible
input
Gives learners the opportunity to practice and produce structures taught explicitly
through grammar lessons or implicitly through frequent exposure.

Focus on Form pg. 10

Long proposed an approach which he termed focus on form(FonF), which is based on the
assumption that language consists of a series of grammatical forms that can be acquired
sequentially and additively. Focus on meaning is synthetic and is based on the assumption that
learners are able to analyze language inductively and arrive at its underlying grammar.
FonF instruction that draws the learners attention to linguistic forms in the context of
meaningful communications (combination).
FonF can occur both reactively by responding to errors, proactively by addressing possible
target language problems before they occur.
Planned vs. Incidental in both types attention to form occurs while learners primary focus is on
meaning (incidental reactively or preemptively)
Communicative Approaches Revisited pg. 11
Larsen-Freeman proposed a communicative model of grammar teaching that includes 3
dimensions: form/structure, meaning/semantics, and use/pragmatics.

For/structure: development of knowledge about formal structure of a language including

its syntactic morphological, and phonological structures.
Meaning/semantics: knowledge about when, where, and how to use that form

Grammaring: a process whereby the learner becomes able to make use of grammar
communicatively
Task-based Approaches Revisited pg. 12
Skehan outlines 3 goals for SL task-based pedagogy: accuracy, complexity and fluency.

Accuracy: how well language is produced

Complexity: the elaboration or ambition of the language which is produced
Fluency: the ability to produce language without undue pausing or hesitation

D. Willis proposes a task-based model with focus on form component Fluency, accuracy,
analysis, and conformity.

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Accuracy: promoting accurate use of language when used for communicative purposes
Analysis: activities that inform learners of the patterns and regularities in language
Conformity: activities that are teacher controlled and are used to promote consciousnessraising such as those related to controlled repetitions of fixed phrases

J. Willis proposes a task-based framework very similar to the grammar based PPP model, with
the difference that the order of the meaning-based and form-based activities is reversed. It
consists of 3 cycles: pre-task, task, and language focus.

Pre-task: expose students to the task or prepare them to carry out the task through
brainstorming, pictures, highlighting new vocab etc.
Task cycle: give them opportunities to use the language for spontaneous communication
The language focus phase: to help them develop an awareness of how language works
through various language-based activities i.e. repetition, sentence completion, matching
exercises, dictionary work.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION

4. How do you distinguish between task-based instruction and communicative language
teaching? In what ways are they similar? In what way are they different? Some may
argue that a task-based approach suffers from the same problem of narrowness of
approach that a grammatical approach suffers from, except with an emphasis on
meaning at the expense of form, as opposed to form at the expense of meaning. What do
you think?
There are two main differences between TBI and CLT. Task-based instruction focuses on
learning through tasks/activities, whereas Communicative language teaching focuses on learning
through communication activities. Another main difference is that TBI incorporates a focus on
form (grammar), where CLT ignores the focus on grammar. They are similar in their
incorporation of exposure to authentic language, and both models will utilize activities in which
communication is emphasized.
Recent work on TBL, such as the work done by Skehan, modify the traditional task based
approach to incorporate more of a balance between meaning and grammar. Skehan suggests
obtaining this ba lance by outlining three goals in L2 pedagogy: accuracy, complexity and
fluency.
PART I: Input-based Options in Focus on Grammar (Chapter 2)
Focus on Grammar through Processing Instruction
Processing instruction is a particular approach to teaching grammar that is based on how learners
interperet and process input for meaning. Rests on the assumption that the role of input is central
to language acquisition and that grammar can best be learned when learners attend to it in inputrich environments.
Input and its Role in Language Learning
19

Gass described input as the single most important concept of second language acquisition.
Input can be defined as the language that learners hear or see to which they attend for its
propositional content (message)
Input can be oral (radio, tv) or written (reading, newspaper)
Universal Grammar theory human beings are biologically endowed with an innate ability to
learn language (emphasizes importance of input)
Declarative knowledge is knowledge about language, procedural knowledge is knowledge of
how to use it.
Input Processing
Input processing (VanPatten): strategies that learners use to link grammatical forms to their
meanings or functions.
Processing refers to the mechanism used in drawing meaning form input
Perception refers to the registration of acoustic signals present in an utterance that the learner
hears
Noticing refers to the conscious registration of those forms in memory
Intake refers to that part of the input that the learner has noticed and has store in his or her
working memory for further processing.
One problem L2 learners have in processing input is the difficulty in attending to form and
meaning at the same time. VanPatten argues students should be taught how to process input
correctly so that they can learn the underlying grammar while their attention is on meaning.
Van Pattens Input Processing Model
1. Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form.
2. For learners to process form that is not meaningful, they must be able to process
informational or communicative content at no or little cost to attention.
3. Learners possess a default strategy that assigns the role of agent (or subject) to the first
noun (phrase) they encounter in a sentence/utterance. This is called the first noun
strategy.
4. Learners first process elements in sentence/utterance initial position.
Processing Instruction
Processing instruction is a pedagogical technique that is based on the principles of the input
processing model. By understanding how learners process input, we will be able to devise
effective instructional activities to aid input processing for acquisition and, at the same time,
learn the forms that are contained in the input.
The key components of processing instruction as a pedagogical intervention are as follows:
20

1. Learners are provided with info about the target linguistic form or structure.
2. They are informed of the input processing strategies that may negatively affect their
processing of the target structure
3. They carry out input-based activities that help them understand and process the form
during comprehension
Processing instruction may have superior effects over traditional grammar instruction because
the former provides learners with opportunities to convert input to intake pg. 25.
Empirical Evidence for Processing Instruction
Hypothesis: processing instruction may have superior effects over traditional grammar
instruction because the former provides learners with opportunities to convert input to intake.
Processing instruction: Input (Input strategies/focused practice) intake developing system
output
Traditional instruction: Input Intake developing system (focused practice) output
Some studies have also shown that while input-based instruction may be more effective for
improving comprehension skills, output-based instruction may be more effective for improving
production skills.
Conclusion** Combination of explicit and processing instruction may be helpful in enhancing
learners abilities to comprehend the target form.
Structured Input
Classroom activities that are used in input-processing instruction are called structured input.

They are specifically designed to contain input that facilitates form-meaning connections.
They are designed to force students to focus on the target structure and to process it for
meaning.
They are designed to discourage learners from using processing strategies that negatively
affect comprehension

VanPatten: input processing strategies are context neutral, used in all circumstances. Structured
input activities are useful for both ESL and EFL contexts.
2 main types: referential and affective.
Referential activities: Activities for which there is always a right or wrong answer (i.e. choose
between two noun phrases singular or plural).
Affective activities: activities that do not have any right or wrong answer, where the learners are
required to provide an affective response by indicating their agreements or opinions about a set
of events (i.e. agree, disagree).

21

Both oral and written i.e. students read a series of sentences and attempt to respond to them or
listening activities in which learners listen to a set of sentences and try to process the correct
meaning.
Guidelines for Developing Structured Input Activities

Keep Meaning in Focus: enhance form-meaning connections

Present One Item at a Time: this ensures that there is no need for too much explicit
explanation students are not drained or overwhelmed
Use Oral and Written Input: address learners individual differences
Move from Individual Sentences to Connected Discourse: short sentences are easier to
process- gradually expose them to connected discourse
Have learners do something with the input: learners should be required to take some
action in response to the input to ensure that they are processing the input for meaning.
(i.e. true or false, agree disagree, matching statements, words, or phrases with pictures.
Keep Learners Processing Strategies in Mind: the teacher should keep faulty input
processing strategies in mind when developing appropriate activities that can assist
learners to process the input correctly.

Questions for Reflection

How do you distinguish between structured input activities and other listening or reading
activities that teachers use in their classrooms? What are the differences and Similarities?

Structured input

They are specifically designed to contain input that facilitates form-meaning connections.
They are designed to force students to focus on the target structure and to process it for
meaning.
They are designed to discourage learners from using processing strategies that negatively
affect comprehension

These activities are designed strategically to address the problems where students focus solely on
meaning and not form or vice versa. Other listening or reading activities do not necessarily
contain input which draws their attention to making form-meaning connections from the start.
An activity that involves input does not indicate that the activity is a structured input activity. It
should be able to push the learner to bypass an unhelpful processing strategy and then attend to
the form while processing the input for meaning.

Chapter 3: Focus on Grammar through Textual Enhancement

Introduction

22

Textual Enhancement: The aim of this approach is to raise learners attention to linguistic forms
by rendering input perceptually more salient. Textual enhancement aims to achieve this by
highlighting certain aspects of input by means of various typographic devices, such as bolding,
underlining, and italicizing in written input, or acoustic devices such as added stress or repetition
in oral input. P. 36
Theoretical Background
Schmidt Noticing: The part of the input that the learner notices
Learners conscious awareness of linguistic forms is necessary for language learning.
Recently Schmidt has separated conscious awareness and noticing now it is more like
Detection (Tomlin and Villa)
Conscious attention is not necessarily needed and that learners are able to acquire linguistic
forms with minimum levels of, or even without, attention (Tomlin and Villa) p. 37
Alertness: concerns learners readiness to receive the incoming stimuli.
Orientation: directing attentional resources to a particular type of input without paying
attention to other input.
Detection: Selection and registration of sensory stimuli in memory
Input Enhancement
***How do we facilitate the noticing of a certain form?
Perceptual Salience: features of the target structures that are easily noticed. The process through
which the salience of input is enhanced is called input enhancement. (Sharwood Smith) p. 38
Types of Input Enhancement
2 dimensions of enhancement: Explicitness and Elaboration p. 39
Explicitness: concerns the degree of directness in how attention is drawn to form.
Elaboration: the duration or intensity with which enhancement procedures take place
Examples of Enhancement:
Repeated explanation
Correction of an error over an extended period of time
Brief single explanation of correction
Visual gesture
Indirect clue
Positive vs. Negative enhancement p. 40
Positive input enhancement/positive evidence: strategies that make a correct form salient,
highlighting what is correct.
Negative input enhancement: highlights given forms as incorrect, thus signaling to the learner
that they have violated the target forms (corrective feedback)
23

Internal vs. External

Internal enhancement: the learner notices the form himself or herself through the outcome of
internal cognitive processes or learning strategies.
External enhancement: the form is noticed through external agents, such as the teacher or
external operations carried out on the input.
Textual Enhancement as an External Input Enhancement Technique
Textual enhancement does not involve any explicit instruction. Learners attention is drawn to
forms implicitly and unobtrusively. It falls under the focus on form approach because it involves
highlighting forms in meaning-bearing texts. P. 40
Different Forms of Textual Enhancement
Textual Enhancement in Written Texts
Accomplished by typographically highlighting certain target words embedded in the text
by means of textual modification, such as underlining, boldfacing, italicizing,
capitalizing, color coding or a combination of the aforementioned. P. 41
Textual Enhancement in Oral Texts
Oral input can be made more noticeable through various intonational and phonological
manipulations, such as added stress, intonation, or repetitions of targeted form, or even
through gestures, body movement or facial expressions. P. 42
Input Flood
Learners are provided with numerous examples of a certain target form in the input
(written or oral). Repeated exposure of the same target form makes it perceptually
salient, thus drawing the attention of the students to the form. P. 43
Effectiveness of Textual Enhancement
Studies examining the effectiveness of textual enhancements show an overall positive effect for
techniques on noticing, however they do not provide proof of learning.
Questions for Reflection p. 47
Chapter 4: Focus on Grammar through Discourse
Introduction
Widdowson (1978) p. 49
The parts of a text or speech that learners must understand are discourse-based, consisting of:
1. The form of the text/speech
2. The proposition, or what is being written/said
3. The illocutionary force, or the actual functional/pragmatic intent of the speaker/writer
within a particular context
4. Function which is actually performed by the speech or text
24

What Are Discourse and Discourse Competence?

Discourse: a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a
coherent unit (Crystal, 1992, p.25).
Discourse-based pedagogy: attempts to integrate grammar forms into larger interactive contexts.
Discourse Competence: the ability to process and create coherent discourse, and to argue for the
necessity of moving beyond a sentence-level analysis of utterances to analyzing language as
unified discourse.
Halladay (SFG) Systematic Functional Grammar: grammar is a tool to achieve communicative
goals through expressing particular meaning according to the requirements of the context.
Sentence-Level Versus Discourse-Level Grammar
The discourse view of language focuses less on analysis of the grammatical structure and more
on analysis and description of the interaction between the linguistic and pragmatic conditions.
Learners need discourse-level input an output to promote noticing and ultimate acquisition of the
target structures.
The focus is grammar as language use not grammar as syntax.
From the discourse perspective, grammar is therefore the complex process of making contextbased choices of syntax, vocabulary, and the social and psychological variables necessary for the
intended meaning to be conveyed (Edlund, 1995, p.98). p. 51
The Need for a Discourse-Based Focus on Grammar Teaching
Rutherford 4 possible positions regarding the relationship between grammar structure and
function in L2 pedagogy:
1. Grammar teaching is structural only, with no functional focus.
2. It is grammar-based and has a functional focus.
3. It is functional and has a grammar focus.
4. It is functional without any grammar focus.
Strong support for combining 2 and 3, in extended contexts providing opportunities for learners
to receive meaningful input and output.
Ways to teach discourse-level: listening to extended dialogues and talks, watching movies and
videos, having meaning-focused conversations, doing muti-paragraph readings and writing
essays and journals. P. 53
Corpus Linguistics and a Focus on Grammar
25

Corpora have been used extensively to develop vocabulary lists and lists of usages of the target
term.
Items studied include: vocabulary, collocations, syntax, cohesion, metaphor, connotation,
register, synonyms, stylistic rules, usages contradicting prescriptive grammar rules.
Corpus linguistics has important implications for a discourse-based approach to L2 instruction in
the areas of syllabus design, materials development and classroom activities. P. 54
DDL: Data-driven learning
Discourse Analysis and Grammar
Discourse Analysis: concerned with the relationships between language forms and the context in
which they are used. It consists of identifying the structural patterns that form connections
across sentences.
p. 56 Celce-Marica & Olshtain describe discourse as:
An instance of spoken or written language that has describable internal relationships of form and
meaning that relate coherently to an external communicative function or purpose and a given
audience/interlocutor.
The Grammar of Oral Versus Written Discourse p. 57-58
Speech is characterized by the following most frequent grammar structures:
Questions
The pronouns you and I
Contractions
Present tense verbs
Speech fillers
Slative verbs
Negatives formed b adding nt to the auxiliary

Week 4 Reaction & Notes: February 8-12 Input-based Options on Focus on Grammar p.
69 87
REACTION WEEK # 4
While I know that feedback is important to encourage students, engage students, and
provide students with areas to improve, I never realized how essential feedback actually is to the
26

acquisition of an L2. Having information about accurate and current methods of providing
feedback is important, as education continues to become more and more learner-centered. In the
past, feedback consisted of more direct feedback, in which the error and the correction were both
provided by the instructor. This takes the student out of the process of correction, as well as
results in the loss of a teaching/learning opportunity. Current methods advocate indirect or
interactional feedback, which place the work of correcting the problem on the student. Through
self-correction of their errors, students become better at retaining and producing correct forms.
The text provides various methods for instructors to encourage the process of negotiation
in which students are required to pay attention to their input and output. Chapter 5 defines
clarification requests, repetition, metalinguistic feedback, direct elicitation, direct correction,
nonverbal feedback, as well as addresses feedback on written errors. Reading through all of
these definitions was beneficial, as it not only allowed me to identify the interactional feedback
methods I already apply, but provided me with strategies for additional methods. It also clarified
for me that direct feedback is a hindrance for learners.
Another critical component of the reading, was defining the difference between mistakes
and errors, as well as global errors versus local errors. We learn that errors occur because of lack
of knowledge, whereas mistakes occur due to performance errors. An even more important
distinction is the difference between global and local errors. Local errors do not affect the
message the speaker is trying to communicate, whereas global errors interfere with effective
communication. This distinction is important, because as instructors, we should focus on those
errors which impede meaning and understanding (global errors), thus we must understand the
difference between the two.
The chapter closes nicely with some final suggestions for instructors in incorporating
interactional feedback in their instruction. First, we should focus on only form at a time as to not
overwhelm students. We must provide them with feedback that they are developmentally ready
can for, so they can actually retain it. One of the best methods of interactional feedback are
elicitations, as they lead to self-corrections. Lastly we should ensure that the correction is
understood and salient. The information provided in this chapter will be of great benefit to me,
and I enjoyed writing a reflection about my personal feedback methods after completing the
reading.
27

NOTES WEEK # 4
PART II: Interaction- and Output-based Options in Focus on Grammar
Chapter 5: Focus on Grammar through Interactional Feedback
Introduction p.71
-Negotiated interaction is essential for language acquisition. Through negotiation learners not
only communicate their meaning, but can also receive corrective feedback on their il-formed
utterance through the use of conversational strategies such as clarification requests, confirmation
checks, repetitions, recasts etc., that take place during interaction.
Theoretical Background p. 71
Corrective Feedback: utterances that indicate to the learner that his or her output is erroneous
in some way (Lightbown & Spada, 1999).
Negative evidence: information that tells the learner what is not possible in a given language,
and has been contrasted with positive evidence: information that tells the learner what is
possible in a given language.
Negative evidence grammatical explanations or various forms of explicit and implicit
corrective feedback on learners non-targetlike utterances (Long, 1996)
Positive evidence exposure to correct models of language in the input.
L2 learners need both negative and positive feedback in order to acquire an L2 successfully.
Interactional Feedback p. 72
When learners interact with a native speaker, they receive negative feedback through various
forms of modification and negotiation strategies, such as clarification requests, repetitions,
confirmation checks, etc. that occur in the course of interaction.
Longs Interaction Hypothesis: Interaction has positive effects on L2 learning. These effects
occur through a process called negotiation, defined as interactional modifications that occur
when learners and their interlocutors anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message
comprehensibility. Negotiation for meaning is facilitative of L2 acquisition because it
connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in
productive ways.
Pica: negotiation assists L2 development in three ways: by making message comprehensible, by
enhancing L2 input and by facilitating the production of modified output (learners revisions of
their erroneous output following feedback).
FonF occurs either reactively in response to learners errors or proactively in pre-planned
manner. Interactional feedback constitutes a kind of reactive FonF as it occurs in reaction to
learners non-target-like utterances.
28

Different Types of Interactional Feedback p. 73

Reformulations and Elicitations
Reformulations (input providing): feedback strategies that rephrase a learners erroneous
production, providing the learner with the correct form. Elicitations, on the other hand, do not
provide learners with the correct form.
Elicitations (output prompting): push or prompt the learner directly or indirectly to selfcorrect.
Recasts: utterances that reformulate the whole or part of the learners erroneous utterance into a
correct form while maintaining the overall focus on meaning (Nicolas, Lightbown, & Spada
2001). P.74
This type of feedback draws learners attention to mismatches between input and output, and
causes them to focus on form. Exp: and they found out the one woman was run away ok, the
woman was running away.- running away
Uptake (learner response to feedback) can be successful when the learner correctly modifies his
or her original utterance or unsuccessful when the learner does not correct his or her erroneous
output. The student can also be just repeating what the person/instructor is saying, without
necessarily retaining or acquiring the correction.
Types of Recasts p.75
Clarification Requests: when the teacher or an interlocutor does not fully understand a
learners utterance and then asks the learner to rephrase the utterance so that it can be clearer.
Examples: pardon me? Sorry? Excuse me? Can you say that again please?
Repetition: Interactional feedback in the form of repetition of all or part of the learners
erroneous utterances with a rising intonation. The correct form is not provided to the learner, but
there is an indication due to intonation that there is an error present in the learners output.
Metalinguistic Feedback: feedback that provides the learner with metalinguistic comments (i.e.
comments about language) in the form of a statement or a question about the correctness of an
utterance. (can you correct the verb? You need an adverb.)
Direct Elicitation: feedback strategies that attempt more overtly to elicit the correct form from
the learner. This may take the form of repeating the learners utterance up to the point where the
error has occurred and waiting for the learner to complete the utterance. (He went.where?)

29

Direct Correction: feedback that identifies the error and then overtly corrects it. This type of
feedback has the advantage of providing the learner with clear information about how to correct
the error, but does not provide the student with opportunity for self-repair.
Nonverbal Feedback: providing nonverbal feedback through body movements and signals such
as gestures, facial expressions, head, hand, and finger movements.
Interactional Feedback on Written Errors: Teachers can address errors on written work
through interactional negotiations conducted after the task is completed in the same or in
subsequent lesson. Example: when I sit down with my students and read the writing work aloud,
or have them read it, and when there is an error perform one of the aforementioned methods of
feedback)
Errors: Occur because of a lack of knowledge
Mistakes: Performance Errors
Local errors: do not affect general understanding of the message and usually have to do with
minor errors such as those related to the omission of morphological markers or function words.
Global errors: cause problems in communication and include errors such as wrong word order
or inappropriate uses of lexical items.
** Teachers should pay attention to errors than mistakes and to global errors rather than local
errors.
Suggestions for Teachers p.82
Learners must notice the corrective force of the feedback (make it salient)
Target single linguistic features
Elicitations lead to self-correction if the learner already has knowledge of the target form.
Learners learn best when they are developmentally ready. Give them feedback at their
developmental level.

QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION p.85

#2) INERACTIONAL FEEDBACK IS OFTEN IMMEDIATE AS IT OCCURS IN RESPONSE
TO AN ERROR AT THE TIME IT IS COMMITTED. HOWEVER, STUDENTS MAY ALSO
RECEIVE FEEDBACK ON THEIR ERRORS WITH SOME DELAY, AFTER THEY HAVE
COMPLETED THE CLASSROOM TASK. WHICH OF THE TWO FEEDBACK TYPES DO
YOU THINK IS MORE EFFECTIVE; IMMEDIATE OR DELAYED, AND WHY?

30

It is my instinct as a teacher, to address errors in student output immediately upon noticing

them. Whether it be a writing task or a speaking/conversational task, when I observe an error I
must provide interactional feedback for the student. When providing immediate feedback, I
apply many of the various recast methods discussed in this weeks reading.
If it is a mistake I feel they are capable of self-correcting due to prior instruction, I use the
direct elicitation technique to signal to them that they have made a mistake, where the mistake is,
and that they need to correct it. In these instances, fellow students also chime in to provide the
correct output, to assist a student that cannot think of the correct form, however, I only provide
the correct form as a last resort. If the error lies in pronunciation, I often apply direct correction,
so that the student can hear the correct pronunciation and then repeat it. I also incorporate the
use of facial expressions and changes in intonation to indicate that something said was
erroneous, so that the student can stop, think about his/her error, and self-correct. When it
comes to speaking feedback I find immediate feedback to be more effective, and the instinctual
choice as a teacher. However when it comes to writing tasks, I tend to rely more on delayed
feedback.
I think the tendency to used delayed feedback for writing tasks, comes from my attempt to
allow them to demonstrate their abilities and try independently, before I come and in and address
their errors. I feel that this allows them to focus not so much on the form, but more on the
meaning of their output. After their writing tasks are complete, I will sit with each student and
read to them, or have them read aloud what they have written. When we come across an error, I
will often re-read what they wrote but change my intonation, emphasis the error portion, and
facial expression to signal to them that something is incorrect. Then the student will self-correct
and notice the previously made error and correction.
I think that just as learning styles differ, feedback intake can differ from student to student. I
have students that are so focused on what the output they are producing, that an interjection
made by myself to provide feedback will not interrupt their train of thought on what they are
trying to express. However some students will put their thoughts on pause, and focus on the
specific correction being made by teacher. At times when students are in the middle of writing,
some students like to pause mid-sentence and seek correction on spelling or grammar errors,
while other prefer to wait until the product is finished, so they can focus all of their attention
onto the corrections, and are more likely uptake the corrections. I dont think I could rely on one
31

method over the other; it is the combination of immediate and delayed correction which has been
more effective for me.

Week 5 Reaction & Notes: February 15 19

Input-based Options on Focus on
Grammar p. 88 118
REACTION WEEK # 5
In this weeks reading, we begin to go more into task-based learning, and specifically
structured grammar focused tasks. The text provides definitions for the term task as defined by
Nunan, Ellis, Willis and Willis and Skehan. All definitions basically entail that a task is a goal32

oriented, meaning or communication focused activity, which should result in an outcome. In

summary, in task-based instruction, the acquisition of the target structures is promoted through
opportunities to hear meaningful input, to produce the target language in response to the input,
and to receive feedback on learner production (89).
The chapter text goes on to inform the reader that structured grammar focused tasks
contain three main features. The first is an information gap task, where the students
communicate with one another to exchange information. The second is a step in the process
where students should agree upon a task solution, for example, identifying the grammatical rule
they have unknowingly been exposed to. The third element is that student should have the
opportunity to think through their responses so they can process and plan their answers.
One of the best features of this text is that after providing background and detailed
information about a methodology, it then provides numerous examples of applications. This
particular chapter provides eight examples of activities which are implicit and explicit structured
grammar-focused tasks. One of the tasks that I thought would be a great exercise to utilize with
my students is Activity 5 on p.97. In this activity is entitled Discovering Rules for Word Order
in the Target Language, students are given two texts, one in the target language (in my case
English), and one in the L1 (Arabic). The students work in small groups and mark the verbs and
subjects in both texts. As a result they would not only notice the difference between structure of
the L1 and L2, they would also identify a rule about word order for the L2. Being that I teach
18-28 year olds, I think this is an activity that is on their level, that would challenge them, and
that they would enjoy.
Another activity which appealed to me, and which I wrote about in my reflection for this
week, was activity 7 on p.98. In this activity students work together to notice adverb placement,
33

and the general structure of the activity can be used as a template to notice placement of other
parts of speech as well. All of the activities provided as examples contain the three main
elements grammar focused tasks, whilst engaging the learners. I look forward to utilizing them
in my own classroom.
NOTES WEEK # 5
Chapter 6: Focus on Grammar through Structured Grammar-Focused Tasks
Grammar Consciouness-rasing tasks
Uptake is especially successful when negotiated interaction occurs, when form focused activities
are complex rather than simple, and when interaction is student initiated. P. 88
Task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating,
producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form (Nunan). p.88-89
Task: a work plan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve
an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional
content has been conveyed (Ellis) p. 89
Task: Activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose
(goal) in order to achieve an outcome (Willis and Willis). P. 89
Task: Activities which have meaning as their primary focus and generally bear some
resemblance to real-life language use (Skehan) p. 89
Convergent Task: when learners agree on a task solution through information exchange vs.
Divergent task where learners take a stand on an issue and present their argument.
In task-based instruction, the acquisition of the target structures is promoted through
opportunities to hear meaningful input, to produce the target language in response to the input,
and to receive feedback on learner production.
Unfocused tasks: Focus on real-life language use vs. focus on form focus is communicating a
message p. 90
Focused tasks: designed to have a particular linguistic focus p. 90
Structure-Based Focused Tasks
Although learners attention is drawn to the nature of the target structure, the tasks are
communicative, since learners are engaged in meaning-focused interaction.
Three types: (1) structure-based production tasks, (2) comprehension (interpretation) tasks, (3)
consciousness raising tasks.
34

1.

Structure-based production tasks: require the use of the target form to complete a
communicative activity. May also include grammar tasks that require learners to practice
certain target structures through various forms of production exercises.
2. Comprehension tasks: designed so that learners must notice then process the target form
in carefully designed input, usually a stimulus that requires a learner response containing
the target item.
a. Enable learners to identify the meaning realized by a specific grammatical feature
(grammar comprehension vs. message comprehension)
b. Enhance input so that learners are induced to notice a grammatical feature that
they might otherwise ignore- facilitate noticing
c. Enable learners to carry out cognitive comparisons- notice the gaps between input
and output
3. Consciousness-raising tasks: requires learners to communicate directly about grammar
structures, perhaps by generating a rule for their use. P.91 The aim is to promote
noticing and develop declarative knowledge vs. procedural knowledge.
Grammar consciousness raising tasks: activities that will seek to get a learner to understand a
particular grammatical feature, how it works, what it consists of, but not require that the
learners apply it in practice VS. Practice tasks: learners practice the use of grammatical
structures through production activities.
a. Isolate specific linguistic feature for focused attention
b. Leaners are provided with data which illustrate the targeted feature, and an
explicit rule describing or explaining the feature
c. Learners utilize intellectual effort to understand the targeted feature
d. Misunderstanding leads to clarification
e. Learners may be required to articulate the rule describing the grammatical
structure
The 3 aforementioned strategies are effective in promoting negotiation of meaning and
awareness of target structure***
Design Method: involves constructing tasks that have a deliberate focus on form component.
The teacher will decide what form will be focused upon and then design with this form in mind.
Process Method: the form comes to the attention of the learner as a result of completing the task
(i.e. spot the difference tasks- requiring both comprehension and production of the form).
Implicit Grammar-Focused Tasks p.93
Those tasks which have an information gap and the need for a single, agreed-upon solution tend
to produce the most task talk, and the increased output leads to a greater frequency of use of the
target structure, which enhances noticing. i.e. asking students to present comparison about two
cities thus focusing on comparative forms via a grammatical mini-lesson.
Explicit Grammar-Focused Tasks p. 94
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It is communicative, involving meaningful language exchange taking place as a primary task

component, yet there is an explicit focus on form since the task content is the grammar structure
itself. Leaners are required to solve grammar problems through meaning-focused interaction and
are often given task cards with sentences using the target structure to read to their group. Then
after listening to each other, the group collaboratively constructs a rule of the use of the structure.
The Selection of Target Forms for Structured Grammar-Focused Tasks p. 95
How to decide what form should be the focus of the task? Examine Elliss 2 factors:

Problemticity: concerns the nature of the problem that the learner has with a particular
target structure.
Learnability: the extent to which learners are able to integrate the target structure into
their linguistic system.

Learner Output during Structured Grammar-Focused Tasks p. 95

When learners discuss the language they are producing during task performance, it will increase
their consciousness of the relationship of meaning and form, and improve their accuracy.
Learners noticing and proficiency gains achieved solely through grammar-based task
performance.
Examples of Implicit and Explicit Structured Grammar-Focused Tasks p.96
Example of Implicit grammar-focused tasks: Picture of a living room- groups of three or four,
learners are given task cards with questions about the location of different items, such as a book,
a table or a chair. The other learners answer the questions. The target structure is the use of the
prepositions of location.
Examples on p. 96-99
3 main features:
1. Information gap tasks where students have to exchange information.
2. The students should agree upon a task solution
3. Students should have a chance to think through what they are going to say, in order to
plan their language.
REFLECTION QUESTION:
#5) GIVEN CLASSROOM TIME CONSTRAINTS, IS A TASK-BASED APPROACH AN
EFFECTIVE CHOICE FOR MAXIMIXING LANGUAGE LEARNING? WITH REGARDS
TO EFL CONTEXTS, HOW WOULD YOU INCOPORTATE A TASK-BASED APPROACH
FOR STUDENTS WHO ARE ULTIMATELY INTERESTED IN PASSING A WRITTEN
EXAM?
I chose this reflection question, because this coming block I am teaching only writing classes
to my L1 Arabic speaking students. I am currently planning for the courses, and I want to
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incorporate task-based lessons to the elementary level grammar points they need to learn, and I
need to teach. I am ultimately preparing my students for the writing exam of their 6 week block,
which is definitely a time constraint. I would like to see the benefits of incorporating task-based
activities.
I would say time constraints are one of the greatest challenges that teachers face. As a
teacher, I want my students to demonstrate growth and competence after having taken my class,
and at times the limitation of class time can be a hindrance. I cannot count on my students doing
homework, as it is not that much a part of the lifestyle here. I have to get everything I can from
my students in our 50 minute class periods. With that being said, I think a task-based lesson is
actually ideal for this time frame. It would actually be of benefit to the students as well as the
teacher to incorporate this methodology.
First of all, as many studies continue to show, teacher-centered lessons are nowhere near as a
effective as student-centered learning. Lessons should not be about teacher lecture, they should
be about the experience of the students, and task-based learning definitely focuses on the student.
Additionally, task-based learning would assist with keeping students engaged and participatory.
As summarized in the conclusion of the chapter, task-based activities are broken down into three
stages, which would be a great breakdown of a 50 minute class. The students will not get bored
doing something repetitive or mundane; they will be actively participating and differing stages of
the task-based learning process.
I think this method would be beneficial and applicable to my elementary writing classes in
the following way. By modifying to activity 7 on p. 98 for example, the activity could promote
the development of writing and speaking. The goal of the activity is for students to notice adverb
placement. This activity for low level students could be an, activity where the goal is simply to
identify and incorporate adverbs in sentences. Students would work in small groups, and each
student could receive a minimum of four sentences. Each simple sentence would include an
underlined adverb. The students would take turns reading their sentences, and asking a particular
group member to identify the adverb. Each group would have to identify the function of the
adverb and provide their explanation or definition to the class. The next stage would be to
require students to write simple sentences but leaving a space for an adverb. Then the students
could mix up the cards in the middle, and select four at random. Here they can either write in the

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adverbs and repeat step 1, or read the sentences aloud and request that a group member orally
and written fill in the adverb.
There are many benefits to incorporating grammar-focused task-based activities to an ESL
classroom. Reading this chapter, and writing this reflection have encouraged me to attempt to
incorporate this structure/methodology into my classroom. I look forward to utilizing even the
aforementioned activity created for this reflection in my writing classes this block.
Chapter 7: Focus on Grammar through Collaborative Output Tasks p. 103-118
Collaborative Output Tasks: instructional options that push learners to produce output accurately
and also consciously reflect on, negotiate, and discuss the grammatical accuracy of their
language use. (When working collaboratively, students get guided support and help through
interaction) p. 103
Output Hypothesis
Krashen proposes that speaking and writing are just signs of learning whereas input is the cause
of the learning.
Swain argues that output plays an important role in L2 acquisition because it forces learners to
move from semantic processing due to comprehension to syntactic processing needed for
production. P. 104
Swain identified three functions of output in L2 acquisition:
1. Noticing Function
2. A hypothesis testing function
3. A metalinguistic function
Skehan states contributions of output are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Output generates better input

Output promotes syntanctic processing
Output helps learners test their hypotheses about grammar
Output facilitates automatization of existing knowledge
Output helps the development of discourse skills
Output helps learners develop their personal voice by focusing on topics they are
interested in **

Sociocultural Perspective p.106

At every stage of the learning process, peers who negotiate within their ZPD are likely to reach
a more sophisticated developmental level within their potential ability (Nassaji & Cumming)
Scaffolding: the supportive environment created through the guidance and feedback that
learners receive through collaboration.

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Collaborative interaction helps learners progress from lower to higher order mental functions.
New knowledge begins in interaction and also becomes internalized and consolidated through
collaboration with others.
Collaborative Output Tasks p.108
Dictogloss: collaborative output task that encourages students to work together and produce
language forms by reconstructing text presented to them orally. The teacher reads a short text
while students jot down any words or phrases related to the content they listen to. Students work
in pairs or small groups to reproduced the text as closely as possible to the original text.
Four stages of dictogloss:
1.
2.
3.
4.

The preparatory stage

The dictation stage
The reconstruction stage
The analysis and correction stage

Reconstruction Cloze Tasks p.110

Reconstruction close task: similar to dictogloss but in the reconstruction phase, learners receive a
cloze version of the original text (certain linguistic forms are removed from the text). The
students try to reconstruct the text by supplying missing items.
Text-editing Tasks p.110
Requires students to correct a text in order to improve its accuracy and expression of content.
When done collaboratively, this task type has shown to generate more attention to form and
promote learning.

Collaborative Output Jigsaw Tasks p. 111

Jigsaw tasks are a of two-way information gap task in which students hold different portions of
the information related to a task. Students must collaborate to complete the task successfully.
Steps:
1. The teacher reads the original passage to the students.
2. Pairs receive modified version (a and b)
3. Students attempt to choose the correct order of individual sentences as they appear in the
original version.
4. Students attempt to choose between different sentences in versions A and B and find
those that are the same in terms of grammatical accuracy as those in the original text.
5. Students compare their assembled passage with the original
Studies have shown positive effects on learner grammatical accuracy as a result of collaborative
output tasks.

39

Week 6 Reaction & Notes: February 22 26

Grammar p. 119 - 141

Input-based Options on Focus on

REACTION WEEK # 6
Something I found very interesting in this reading was the discussion about instructors
being native speakers versus non-native speakers. This topic gained my attention because I can
relate my past and present experiences to the subject. The text examines if native speakers
should be preferred over non-native speakers. In many of the MATL courses, including this one,
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it is brought up that authentic samples of the language lead to better acquisition, and how can
you get more authentic than having a native speaker as your instructor. However the text states
that having a native speaker as an instructor is not necessarily always the best. The reader is
provided with pros and cons to the native speaker and non-native speaker instructors.
Because English instruction is so wide spread in multilingual contexts, non-native
speaker instructors are increasing. Not only are they more accessible in certain region, but in
many scenarios they could also be speakers of the students L1, allowing them to use both
language to instruct or simply clarify points. Also because they have studied English thoroughly
as it is their second language, they might have more access to rules and grammar that a native
speaker might have just learned implicitly. Just because native speakers know how to use the
language, does not mean that they are superior information about the language. While native
speakers can be disadvantaged in the aforementioned ways, they have the advantage of having
exemplary pronunciation of the language.
Ive witnessed and experienced the advantages and disadvantages listed above and in the
book. For example, when I was the ELL Coordinator at a school district in Southern Mississippi,
I was fortunate to have predominantly Spanish speaking ELL students. This was convenient for
me, as I am fluent in Spanish. This allowed me to do much more work, provide supplemental
support, and clarify many confusions and obstacles for students. When they were newcomers to
the United States, I was able to transition them into English immersion with a period of bilingual
assistance first. This allowed for them and their families to feel more comfortable, and thus
more engaged in the education process.
Another example is my current teaching situation. At the Technical Institute I work for,
many teachers were hired out of different countries, to teach English to Arabic speakers. I have
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coworkers from Whales, Canada, England, Cyprus, India and Africa. It is a diverse blend of
native and non-native speakers of English. In many cases I have been impressed with the nonnative speakers ability to explain to me a language feature that I cant express easily. Although I
took English in school and minored in English, it was not enough to be familiar with every rule
that is necessary to teach. While I know how to speak the language, I dont always know how to
justify the proper rule for why structures are the way they are. My non-native speaking
coworkers are always able to provide me with the rule I need.
Finally at my current job I have also seen a wide range of variety in pronunciation and
even spelling. Each group of students is remains in one classroom, and the teachers rotate in and
out of the room to teach their classes throughout the day. Students can be exposed to 4 accents in
one day, each day of the week. They often express to me that it is easier for them to understand
my American accent versus some of the other accents they listen to throughout the day. This is
such a challenge for them, especially because they begin at a low proficiency of English. At
times it even interferes with their comprehension of the lesson and the subject matter. I have
seen how the native speaker accent is easier for the students to understand.
It was interesting to read these advantages and disadvantages and reflect upon them in my
own personal experience. After my reflection, I can say that I agree with the listed information
about non-native, and native speakers in the text.
NOTES WEEK # 6
PART III: Instructional Contexts and Focus on Grammar
Chapter 8: The Role of Context in Focus on Grammar p.121
Second language vs. foreign language

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SL learners are exposed to the target language everywhere as they live in an environment
which speaks the target language.
There are a variety of ways to teach with implicit approaches that ensure a focus on grammar can
be achieved through communicative contexts.
Languaging: discussions or self-reflection in the L1 about L2, a process shown to lead to
acquisition of target forms by promoting attention to them, thus enhancing processing. It also
consists of paraphrasing in the L1, inferencing , self-assessment, and rereading. Swain p.122
Native Language
Competent bilingual instructor rather than a native speaker has shown to be more effective.
Classroom learners often fail to develop much functional language ability
Non-Native Speakers Versus Native Speakers: World Englishes p.126

The prevalence and importance of the NS teacher of English has declined due to
widespread teaching of English throughout international and multilingual contexts.
NS do not have a more profound access to understanding the language, and are not
necessarily more reliable informants or teachers than NNS.
Often lack knowledge of local culture.
NS are often disadvantaged because they often lack explicit knowledge of English
grammar and are unable to provide the necessary detailed explanations of grammar
points.
NS have superior pronunciation.

World Englishes: refers to a theoretical framework which holds that there is a repertoire of
models for English; localized versions of English have pragmatic bases; English now belongs to
the nations and peoples who use it as a second language or lingua franca, not exclusively to
countries such as the UK, Austrailia, or North America where it is the native language.
EFL Learner Proficiency Level
Teachability Hypothesis Pineman
While certain developmental sequences are fixed and cannot be altered by grammar teaching,
other structures may respond to instruction.
The Age of the Learner
Chomskys theory of the language acquisition device (LAD) within the human brain. Critical
period hypothesis suggest that there is a time in childhood when the brain is especially capable of
success in L2 learning. This period ends somewhere around puberty!
The younger the child is, the better he/she learns the target language. P.129

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On the other hand, older children or young adults might learn a language more effectively and
quickly because of their superior cognitive ability and their ability to process metalingutistic
instruction.
Length of Exposure is a contributing factor to L2 acquisition.
Classroom Learning Environments: submersion, immersion, pull-out, and sheltered Englis
Subemersion has shown to be least effect, and is the most ineffective context for language
acquisition (Baker 2000, 2006; Harklau, 1994) p. 132
Immersion is thought to be very effective but should teach learners with form-focused instruction
to instruct them with output opportunities to practice the form and subsequent feedback on form
correctness followed by opportunities for correction of errors.
Pull-out situations are not favorable because the limited and occasional instruction was not
sufficient to allow L2 mastery. Sheltered English environment is also insufficient instruction.
Chapter 9: Conclusion Focus on Grammar in L2 Classrooms
Point 1: Not all Grammar Forms and Structures Respond Equally to Instruction
Point 2: Successful Instruction is Multifaceted
Point 3: SLA Theory and Research can Provide Proposals that can be Tested and
Examined in language Classrooms, not Final Solutions
Point 4: Teachers Should be Eclectic in their Instruction Approach
Point 5: Teachers are not Agents to Learn and Apply Methods, but Professional
Decision-Makers

Week 7 Reaction & Notes: February 29 March 4

REACTION WEEK # 7
As soon as I started doing this weeks reading, I knew that this is the point in the class
where were going to begin getting to the specifics of grammar for English (ESL). Being that I
studied Spanish and only took one grammar class for my English minor, and did not have
classes on teaching in my minor, I was not necessarily prepared to teach, or teach English. I

44

participated in the Mississippi Alternate Path to Quality Teachers, and in that short program and
in my internship, that began to learn how to teach. I became certified to teach Spanish, but as
there was a need for a Spanish and English bilingual teacher for the ELL program, I fell into this
role. I have had to research and learn many things to be able to instruct my students to do the
same. Sometimes, I face a road block trying to figure out how to clearly articulate correctly how
a grammar element functions. The readings for this week did a great job of breaking down
grammatical points to their most basic element, so that they are comprehensible.
One of the points addressed was an important distinction between adjectives. The
example used was boring and bored. It has always been a challenge for me to explain this
difference to students, and after reading it became so simple and clear. The difference between
these two adjectives is that bored is derived from a verb that describes feeling or emotion. For
example, when I go to work, I feel bored. In this my se we would not be able to say when I
go to work, I feel boring, which is what my students feel inclined to say. The first step in
remedying this error, is to explain the difference between source and experiencer. The source it
what causes an event, and the experiencer is what is affected by the event. Once these terms are
understood, then I could explain that when referring to the source we utilize the ing form, when
referring to the experiencer we utilize the ing form. Supplemental steps would be to provide
the students with the table included in the text which includes other verbs like boring and bored.
The teacher could also do an activity in which the students provide examples of events which
cause feelings. Then they could practice using the correct form of the experiencer adjective.
I saw great uses for these texts in my own teaching. The texts serve almost as reference
encyclopedias that an English instructor could refer back to for quick definition or explanation of
a grammatical term. Just having the texts on hand, and using post-its to save the place of
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important rules could be a life saver for any teacher. I look forward to utilizing these text within
my classes and teaching experiences.
NOTES WEEK # 7
Explaining English Grammar by George Yule p. 1-20
Pronouns take the place of a noun phrase, not just the noun.
(*) is a way of marking forms as Ungrammatical (using forms and structures in ways that they
are no generally used, and for which no special context of use can be imagined).
Prescriptive: how it should be used
Descriptive: how it generally seems to be used
Conjunction: a form that connects two clauses
In the most typical cases, the subject (e.g. the woman, she) comes before the verb, and the object
(e.g. the books, them) comes after the verb p.5
Structural description: concerned with listing all the forms in a language and being able to say
whether a particular form is correct or incorrect. p.5
Functional description: concerned with what meaning distinction is conveyed by the use of one
form rather than another. P.5
Animate: non-human entities (animals) vs. Non-Animate: non-human entities (objects, ideas)
I am more interesting in English grammar p. 6
These adjectives are derived from verbs that express emotions or feelings.
Source: who or what causes it

Experiencer: who or what is affected by it

When you talk about the source use the ing form, when you talk about the experiencer use the
ed form.
*Table with examples is on p. 7 Summary Box 1.1 Adjectives like boring and bored
Given an opportunity to teach or focus learners attention on these forms, the teacher might be
able to give greater emphasis to the ed forms, providing or inviting examples in contexts where
participants are affected (emotionally) by events p.7
This point is emphasizing what was discussed several times in Nassaji & Fotos, grammar-based,
task-based, and FonF teaching which provides the students with a better opportunity to notice
and uptake the grammar point.

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 the added difficulty sometimes experienced in dealing with genuine texts will be balanced by
the benefits of becoming more familiar with actual examples of grammatical constructions as
they are used in contemporary English p.8
Again as Nassaji & Fotos did, Yule is emphasizing the importance of authentic text in L2
learning. Although it can be challenging to obtain, select, and teach with authentic texts, it
exposes learners to the language as it is used.
Why can I say I shot the shriff, nut not I smiled the sheriff? p.9
Core Elements: central elements of structure (subject, verb, object), main components of events
(agent, action, theme).
The preposition at indicates that the object is not directly affected by the action of the verb.
Objects of prepositions are interpreted as not being directly affected by the verb action, as
illustrated with other prepositions.
The meaning of objects with and without prepositions are summarized in Objects after kick and
kick at p. 11
Linguistic Distance p.11
Linguistic distance: can be measured by the amount of language between one element and
another (number of words).
Conceptual distance: distance with less control between the action of the subject and the object.
Discussion topics and projects p. 16
Eyewitness accounts: using picture sequences to help teacher and students identify appropriate
grammatical forms for marking given and new information p.19

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