Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Cookstoves
Dean Still, Samuel Bentson, Richard H. Lawrence, Jr., CFA, Dr. Dale Andreatta
Aprovecho Research Center
2015
Preface
How much investigation and subsequent refinement of technology should precede manufacturing and
distribution? The practical answer probably revolves around the capitalization of the project, the time
needed to create a truly improved product, the receptivity of the market, and a host of other factors. An
organization like Aprovecho Research Center (ARC), which began by making a very public mistake,
may naturally lean towards the Its time well spent perspective.
When Dean Still came to Aprovecho in 1989, Dr. Larry Winiarski asked him to compare how much
wood was used to boil and simmer water using the Lorena stove and the Three Stone Fire. The test
revealed a problem for the ARC staff when the Lorena used three times more fuel. Half of the staff, who
had written books about the Lorena and taught thousands of people about their invention, were never
convinced that the problem existed. The other half became somewhat embarrassed but were fervent believers in Dr. Kirk Smiths famous saying that You get what you inspect, not what you expect.
Making a public mistake pushed ARC to go a bit more slowly, to challenge speculation, and to try to
depend on reliable data. A lot more development will be required to take the prototypes described in
this book to market readiness. The analysis of infield performance and emissions, learning from cooks,
distributors, retailers, manufacturers, and all stakeholders is needed to create successful products.
We have just started to experiment with catalytic converters, torrefied wood pellets, and increasing
combustion efficiency with jets of forced air. Natural draft TLUD stoves are cleaner burning at medium
power just like Rocket stoves. More mixing of air, wood gas, and flame seems to be needed to operate
very clean burning stoves at higher fire powers. This book describes how five stoves were developed
and how the prototypes can be constructed. The Department of Energy three year grant was incredibly
helpful and moved our understanding of clean burning stoves forward.
The next steps are lining themselves up and we look forward to new learnings and helping biomass users
to use less fuel and breathe less smoke. Fire has fascinated mankind for many generations. The complete
combustion of biomass opens up sustainable and carbon neutral applications for all passengers on Earth.
What a great challenge!
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Testing Cookstoves..........................................................................................13
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Charcoal Stove............................................................................................... 76
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
The Auto-Damper........................................................................................... 83
Chapter 18
Summary........................................................................................................ 85
References ....................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A Natural Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove CAD Drawings.................................. 90
Appendix B Kirk Harris Natural Draft Top-Lit Up Draft (TLUD) Stove CAD Drawings........ 94
Appendix C Side Feed Forced Draft Stove CAD Drawings............................................... 117
Appendix D Top Loaded Forced Draft Stove CAD Drawings.............................................136
Appendix E Charcoal Stove CAD Drawings......................................................................156
Introduction
HTE
LSC
Safety
45 (%)
0.017 (MJ/min/L)
95
HPM
High Power PM
41 (mg/MJd)
7
HCO
High Power CO
8 (g/MJd)
4
4
LPM
Low Power PM
1 (mg/min/L)
8
LCO
Low Power CO
0.09 (g/min/L)
4
4
IPM
Indoor Emissions PM
2 (mg/min)
9
ICO
Indoor Emissions CO
4
4
4
0.42 (g/min)
The ratings on nine IWA measures provide a multi-dimensional representation of stove performance.
Vented stove
CO 0.35 g/min
CO 1.45 g/min
Vented stove
CO 0.16 g/min
CO 0.59 g/min
Chapter 1
Like CO2, smoke has recently been found to be hazardous. Many of the pollutants from cookstoves add
to the warming potential in the atmosphere. CO has
a climate warming potential about 27 times greater
than CO2 and the black carbon in smoke can cause
approximately 700 times more warming compared
to CO2 by weight. The lightweight particles rise into
the upper atmosphere and like a black blanket warm
quickly, especially when they return to earth and
snow turns darker (Bond, T., et al, 2013).
Reflections on climate change, caused in some
part by burning biomass, has added new perspectives to the concept of an energy ladder. The
original paradigm had biomass near the bottom
of the ladder up which cooks climbed as they rose
towards the use of electricity and natural gas.
Whether a fuel adds CO2 or other climate forcers to the atmosphere is a new factor that may be
changing the order of fuel placement.
The European Commission has concluded that the
clean burning of biomass could reduce Europes
7
in air, water, and earth is a constant challenge, especially where mitigation is too costly or socially
difficult to enact. In China and India, and in many
developing nations where industry manufactures
a large percentage of the worlds goods, pollution
has become a by-product of economic success.
In the modern urban world, the improved cooking
stove designer cannot always depend on dilution
to protect health by lowering the levels of smoke
going up the chimney and into the polluted air.
Burning up the CO and PM 2.5 becomes all that
more important in places where the air is already
somewhat dangerous to breathe. Clean burning,
which is commonplace with natural gas and other
liquid fuels, becomes a necessity if new biomass
stoves are to help reduce human exposure.
The purpose of the DOE funded project was to
investigate how biomass could be burned very
cleanly. Coupling clean burning with optimal thermal efficiency, adding chimneys to stoves, catalytic converters, starting with clean burning fuels,
and using dilution where possible create multiple
approaches for health oriented stove interventions.
Chapter 2
trodes in the cell is proportional to the concentration of CO present. This cell has a reference
terminal as well and requires a potentiostatic
controller. The carbon dioxide (CO2) sensor uses
non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) to measure CO2
concentration and outputs voltage. It is self-calibrating, with pure nitrogen gas used for a zero
reference.
The LEMS has two particulate matter (PM) sensors:
The scattering photometer has both a laser and
a light receiver. When smoke enters the sensing
chamber, particles of smoke scatter the laser light
into the receiver. More light reaching the receiver
indicates less smoke in the chamber. The amount
of scattered light is calibrated with a laboratory-standard nephelometer. A constant is applied
to the output to estimate the mass concentration
of smoke particles. This is integrated into the data
processing spreadsheets.
The gravimetric system gives a direct and more
accurate measurement of total PM using filter-based sampling. A vacuum pump pulls a
sample through the sample line and the critical
The Laboratory Emissions Monitoring System (LEMS) set up in the stove lab
11
Sam Bentson, ARC Lab Manager, invented the gravimetric system used in the
LEMS. The IWA guidelines mandated the use of gravimetric (pump and filter)
for measurement of PM 2.5. Sam used a large filter to reduce the cost and
complication of weighing the filters.
Testing Cookstoves
Chapter 3
Testing Cookstoves
Although the various laboratory based testing
protocols bring water to boil and measure the fuel
used, emissions made, etc., they also have significant
differences. The Water Boiling Test 4.2.3 (WBT),
that was used for the ARC studies, includes bringing
the water to boil twice starting with a cold and a new
hot stove and the remaining water is simmered for
45 minutes. The Chinese and Indian protocols only
include a cold start high power phase.
The task of testing cookstoves can be split into three
categories: laboratory testing, lab/field testing where
cooks make food, and field surveys in homes. In the
lab and in the lab/field tests, fuel use and emissions
can be measured using a hood that sends samples
to a sensor that logs the data. When emissions are
measured in homes the emissions equipment often
takes samples from the room air. Testing can be
designed to provide reliable data on many variables
including fuel use, emissions, safety, price point, user
satisfaction, and durability related performance. Each
kind of test generates different data that is used for
different purposes.
International benchmarks and standards are usually based on results from the WBT. ARC has most
frequently used the WBT first published by VITA
and revised over the years by many experts. (Testing
the Efficiency of Wood-Burning Cookstoves: International Standards, VITA, 1985). The VITA WBT
has been continually revised and in 2015 the latest
version is the WBT 4.2.3. The test attempts to reduce
the variables by describing step by step how the test
should be performed.
Tests that allow for regional differences cannot be
used for the international comparison of stoves. To
predict fuel use and emissions the WBT regional
test has to accurately estimate how food is cooked,
what fuel is used, and whether fires are well tended
or not. Lab staff try to replicate how local cooks are
performing.
The controlled variable WBT is not intended to predict regional performance especially when the task is
not boiling or simmering water. Instead, the Controlled Cooking Test (CCT) informs ARC staff about
how the cook needs the stove
to perform. The two tests are
used together to evolve a stove
that uses the least amount of
wood for cooking while making
the fewest emissions and cooks
regional foods at least as well as
traditional stoves. The CCT can
also measure consumer needs
and provides the needed data to
create a successful product.
results are repeatable and experiments can determine whether a series of iterative changes in a stove
improved performance.
The WBT researcher is investigating, out of the
context of actual use, how fuel use and emissions,
for example, can be reduced. The lab test data is then
supplemented by field tests that generate the other
vital data needed to make good cooking stoves. The
information generated by the field tests (Controlled
Cooking Test and the Kitchen Performance Test)
inform the project team, including the researcher/
engineer, how the stove has to perform to interest
consumers.
A good cook knows how the stove needs to function to
prepare the local foods. Cooking is a complicated and
delicate task. The local retailer and distributor know
how to sell the stove. The competent manufacturer
knows how to make the stove. The funder has distinct
knowledge as well and may require that the stove meet
the Tier 4 metrics, for example. The various field tests
are designed to bring accurate data, so necessary for
predictive decision making, to the distinctly different
project team members.
The CCT yields results that are more directly related
to actual stove use while still offering a high degree
of repeatability. The CCT compares the traditional
and new stove on multiple measures. ARC depends
heavily on the CCT to estimate the actual emissions,
real world fuel use and other factors that need to be
known to determine whether a stove is ready for production. Cooks can be brought into a home in which
the LEMS is disguised. The cooks prepare food in as
natural as possible setting while accurate emissions
data is being generated. Many cooks are needed to
create statistically significant information.
The data from the CCT is not as accurate as results
from the larger in house surveys (Kitchen Performance Test or KPT) but ARC usually doesnt have the
funds to attempt the KPT. We tend to rely on the combination of WBT and CCT. Also, the measurement of
emissions with the hood method is more accurate than
room air techniques that can be confounded by changes in air exchange rates. The three tests (and others)
can be found at: http://cleancookstoves.org/
technology-and-fuels/testing/protocols.html
14
Testing Cookstoves
Chapter 4
Since 2012, the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves has been working closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
create an international stove standard. The preliminary work, the International Working Agreement
(IWA), resulted in a tier rating system based on
the World Health Organization (WHO) health
standards and estimates of the lowered emissions
needed to address climate change. The tiers are
drawn as follows:
Description
No Improvement over the Open Fire /
Baseline
Measureable Improvement over Baseline
Substantial Improvement over Baseline
Currently Achievable Technology for
Biomass Stoves
Stretch Goals for Targeting Ambitious
Health and Environmental Outcomes
17
Chapter 5
mated effect on indoor and outdoor air is calculated after the number of stoves, the Tier rating, the
level of pollution in the outdoor air, etc. is inputted
by the user.
Catalytic Converter
Both cars and biomass heating stoves in the
United States use catalytic converters to clean up
emissions that escape combustion. Preliminary
tests in the ARC lab have indicated that inexpensive catalysts are effective in reducing PM and CO
in cookstoves. The combination of improved combustion efficiency and a catalyst in the exhaust
stream seems to be successful in a wide range of
combustion devices. Further tests are needed to
explore this technique. Initial tests have resulted
in significant reductions when adding the catalyst.
The catalyst consists of thin sheet metal painted
with noble metals. The 5cm wide foil is formed to
create small channels less than 1.5 mm wide. The
catalytic converter cannot be exposed to flame and
is placed in the exhaust stream above 300C but
under 800C. Introduced turbulence before and
inside the catalyst is helpful.
Reducing emissions by increasing combustion
efficiency is an important step in creating clean
burning biomass cookstoves. Further reducing
emissions with a catalyst is a well-known and
effective technique, as well. Removing the emissions from the living space with a chimney is
mandatory in the United States. Even cooking
stoves that burn natural gas are placed under a
hood vented to the outside air. The clean burning
stove also uses as little fuel as possible and therefore starts by turning less solid into gas.
Chapter 6
Institutional Stoves
G = 8mm
G, Gap
G = 9mm
L, Channel
G = 10mm
Water
G = 11mm
G = 12mm
G = 13mm
G = 14mm
G = 15mm
G = 16mm
Firepower (kW)
Household Stoves
G = 6mm
G, Gap
G = 7mm
L, Channel
G = 8mm
Water
G = 9mm
G = 10mm
G = 11mm
G = 12mm
G = 13mm
G = 14mm
Firepower (kW)
21
book (Pg. 48). ARC designers improve convective and radiative heat transfer as a first step in
improving a stove. As mentioned, the narrow
channel gaps can also be helpful in controlling the
amount of air drawn into the combustion chamber.
The charts from Dr. Baldwins book on the previous page depict the relationship of channel gap
and length on thermal efficiency. Combining a
channel gap of 6mm with a length of 15cm and
a firepower of 2.5kW resulted in many different
kinds of household stoves achieving over 40%
thermal efficiency in WBT 4.2.3 tests. (See Chapter 8, A Preliminary Survey of Clean Burning
Stoves.)
When the firepower of a stove increases, the
amount of gases passing through the optimized
narrow channel gap also increases which necessitates widening the channel gaps. When too
much gas tries to pass through a channel that is
too narrow the velocity of the gas is decreased
and eventually even back drafting can occur. As
the channel gap size widens there can be less of a
beneficial effect. The hot molecules in the gases
tend to flow up the middle of the gap and fewer
hot molecules contact and replace the cold molecules close to the pot.
In the ARC experiments with a family sized pot,
when very narrow channel gaps could be used, the
percentage of heat transfer efficiency rose as shown
in the Baldwin graphs. Low kilowatt firepower
combined with very narrow channel gaps (down to
6mm) could result in close to 50% thermal efficiency. A 7 liter family sized pot has a relatively small
external surface area which limits effective heat
transfer when using wider channel gaps.
On the other hand, the larger exposed surface
area in institutional stoves can be successfully
matched with larger sized fires. Dr. Winiarski estimates that it is a useful rule of thumb to maintain
constant cross sectional area in the flow path of
the hot gases when beginning to design a stove
(Bryden, et al., 2007). ARC designers start by
creating constant cross sectional area throughout
the entire stove, including the chimney, and then
experimentally reduce the flow path area next to
22
TARP-V
T: The temperature of the hot gas contacting the
pot or griddle should be as hot as possible.
A: Expose as much of the surface area of the pot
or griddle to the hot gases as practical.
R: Increasing heat transfer by radiation is important. Move the zone of combustion as close to
the surface to be heated without increasing harmful emissions.
The Erlenmeyer flask is an example of an efficient pot shape. The large bottom is optimized for
receiving heat and the reduced water surface area
diminishes steam losses. While at simmering temperatures a pot with 5 liters of water and a pot with
9 liters of water but with equal water surface areas
will produce steam at approximately the same rate.
The 9 liter pot will lose proportionally less water
from making steam which increases the success on
measures based on specific consumption.
The pot is often ignored as an important part of
the cooking system. Typically people talk about
more efficient stoves, not more efficient pots.
However, it is a combination of many factors that
result in an improved cooking system. It is the
entire cooking system, consisting of stove, pot,
fuel and operator that work together. A stove that
works quite well on one type of fuel may function poorly using another type of fuel. Larger
pots with lids will transfer significantly more heat
than smaller pots, making the stove appear more
efficient. A careful operator can be hampered
by a high mass stove and by wet wood. On the
other hand, a careful cook can achieve over 30%
thermal efficiency using an open fire, as Dr. Tami
Bond once did in her laboratory at the University
of Illinois.
It is not meaningful to talk about the efficiency of
a stove without
including the
details of the pot
and fuel. This
is why standard
stove tests have
strict controls on
the fuel and the
pot that are used.
However, how
the stove is operated is often the
most important
variable. ARC
testers have to
concentrate and
precisely control fuel feeding
The Erlenmeyer flask
Chapter 7
Torrefaction of Wood
When torrefied pellets are burned in the new
prototype batch loaded stoves the emissions of
PM 2.5 are approximately halved compared to
the emissions from wood pellets. Torrefaction
occurs at low temperatures (200C to 320C). The
wood is toasted for relatively short periods of time
resulting in a very dry, brown/black fuel that is
energy dense (about 20 GJ/ton LHV). Some of the
volatiles are released and the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are decomposed as the volatiles are
emitted.
The torrefied biomass typically loses 20% of its
mass and 10% of its heating value, without an appreciable change in volume. The released volatiles
can be used as a heating fuel for the torrefaction
process. The final product may repel water and
can be stored in moist air without appreciable
change in moisture content or heating value, unlike the original biomass pellets.
The use of cleaner burning fuels is an important
consideration. The fuel and stove work together
in combination. Even clean, dry sticks of wood
that contain sap can make a lot of smoke in most
stoves. Pellets made from grasses can tend to
make clinkers in the combustion chamber. On the
In a preliminary WBT 4.2.3 study using the new ARC/DOE Top Loaded
Forced draft stove the torrefied pellets emitted significantly less PM2.5 at
95% confidence.
27
Combustion involves complex physical and chemical interactions. Describing the interactions
involved in burning biomass is difficult in part
because wood changes into charcoal, which combusts quite differently. ARC stove designers have
evolved rules of thumb that help to create better
experiments that move the prototype stove more
quickly towards optimized performance. Although
a complete understanding of solid fuel combustion
is difficult, the following design principles and
descriptions have proven to be useful.
Clean Combustion
Start with a biomass fuel that is as clean burning
as possible.
Sticks of fuel are metered into the fire in the
Rocket stove or a batch of fuel is burned at a
controlled rate in the TLUD. In both cases, there
is flame above the fuel. The hot biomass creates
the gaseous fuel that flows up into the flame. In a
well-designed TLUD all of the wood gas is directed to flow into the flame creating a cleaner burning technique.
In the Rocket stove sticks of wood are pushed
into the combustion chamber. The sticks get hot
enough to make gaseous fuel and it also flows up
into the flame. However, even in improved Rocket stoves, the flame only partially fills the space
above the fuel resulting in less complete combustion. Some of the gaseous fuel rises into open
spaces where there is no flame and it escapes.
Adding jets of forced air to the Rocket stove can
result in more complete mixing. In the agitated
combustion zone the air, gas, smoke, and flame
are intermixed resulting in greater combustion
efficiency. Adding jets of air to the TLUD also
makes the combustion process more robust since
the superior mixing can handle a greater degree of
variation in the air/fuel ratio.
Both the TLUD and Rocket stoves can be operated with natural draft or in the forced draft mode.
Generally for clean burning of found fuels a fan
is needed to create the required zone of superior mixing. Well-designed natural draft TLUDs,
usually burning pellets of homogenous and dried
When too much wood is pushed into the Rocket combustion chamber smoke will fill the short
chimney above the fuel. The concentrated flame
near the back wall is surrounded by smoke that
isnt combusted. The smoke is then emitted into
the external air. In the TLUD the fuel/air ratio is
adjusted by the amount of primary air entering
from the bottom of the combustion chamber. More
primary air speeds up the reactions while less primary air slows down the production of wood gas.
The color of flame can be indicative of its temperature. However, blue flame is often caused by
the burning of CO and does not necessarily mean
that clean combustion is occurring. Blue flame
may be seen when mostly charcoal is burning
which is associated with lower emissions of
PM. Flame color alone can be misleading when
searching for clean burning conditions. ARC staff
have learned to depend on pump and filter measurements of PM. Both the CO/CO2 ratio and the
light scattering methods are frequently inaccurate
compared to the more reliable gravimetric measurements.
The velocity of the jets of air is adjusted to improve the effectiveness of the zone of mixing.
With the prototype stove under the emissions
hood the velocity is raised and lowered until
both optimized thermal efficiency and combustion efficiency is achieved.
The cooling effect of the secondary air jets
is not allowed to decrease thermal efficiency
below 40%.
The amount of wood gas entering the zone of
mixing is adjusted until close to optimal combustion efficiency is obtained.
Emissions in the exhaust stream can be further
reduced with a catalyst.
Removing the emissions from the living space
in a chimney is mandatory in the United
States. The new ARC stoves have chimneys to
comply with WHO guidelines.
The cooking function of the stove is designed
by local users. The market viability of the
product is determined by field testing involving stakeholders such as distributors, manufacturers, funders, consumers, etc. Market testing
precedes and informs manufacturing.
Evolving the new stove using the CCT (with
emissions hood) in the intended market saves
time and effort.
Reducing adverse health effects requires the
new stove to be a successful intervention. The
intervention involves many infield factors
that influence the effectiveness of the effort.
Identifying these factors begins the process of
creating the successful intervention.
Chapter 8
stoves described in this book were evolved starting from the highest scoring approaches. The
stoves in the survey were tested under the LEMS
emissions hood with the WBT 4.2.3 and the stoves
were rated for performance using the IWA Tier
system.
testing results from the ARC stove survey reinforced the idea that how to improve heat transfer
efficiency in cooking stoves is relatively well
understood and can be achieved by a wide variety
of stoves. Using much less fuel compared to the
Three Stone Fire was accomplished by all of the
stoves.
( 45% for Tier 4) A majority of the stoves scored in the Tier 4 category. Dr. Sam Baldwin showed how to achieve
higher thermal efficiencies by combining smaller fires with appropriately sized channel gaps around the pot.
34
( 0.017 for Tier 4) The stoves that metered the fuel, with an adequate turn-down ratio, scored well on Low Power
Specific Consumption rate. The batch loaded stoves did well at high power but were often not able to adequately
reduce power. Closing off the primary air gave the charcoal stove the highest turn down ratio.
35
( 8 for Tier 4) Since wood burning often does not emit large amounts of CO the three IWA Tier 4 levels
of CO (based on the effects on human health) tend to be fairly easy to achieve.
( .09 for Tier 4) Again, the IWA Tier 4 levels for CO are generally achievable. CO is especially low in
stoves with an adequate turndown ratio.
36
( 0.42 for Tier 4) As in other measures of CO, the improved stoves easily achieved Tier 4 for Indoor Emissions.
In a small room with 15 air exchanges per hour these stoves would theoretically not exceed WHO standards
protecting health. The chimney stoves (Sunken Pot and Institutional Stoves) were well sealed and essentially all
emissions exited the room.
37
( 41 for Tier 4) While the Tier 4 CO levels are within reach for most of the stoves, a small amount of
PM is dangerous and therefore achieving Tier 4 performance for the IWA metrics is difficult. Only three
forced draft stoves and the charcoal stove scored in the Tier 4 High Power category in this preliminary
survey of existing stoves.
( 1 for Tier 4) In a few stoves the low power performance was better for PM 2.5. Even the natural draft
Rocket stove did well. Stoves without turn down were not as successful.
( 2 for Tier 4) Even when carefully tended and using low firepower and 6mm channel gaps around the pot, most
of the wood burning stoves did not come close to achieving the Tier 4 standard for Indoor Emissions. Reducing
the Indoor Emissions of PM 2.5 was identified as another goal for the ARC/DOE work.
Chimney stoves like the Sunken Pot and Instittional Stove help to protect inhabitants from PM
2.5 in places like the United States and Europe
when essentially all of the pollution is removed
from the room in a chimney. In this survey the
charcoal stove and one low power TLUD were the
only PM 2.5 Indoor Emissions Tier 4 stoves. Even
the best unvented fan stoves did not come close to
reducing emissions to safe levels.
The new WHO intermediate indoor guidelines
estimate that up to 7.1 mg/min of PM 2.5 can
escape unburnt in stoves with chimneys. Most of
the pollution is removed from the kitchen. Since
even the new prototype stoves did not achieve low
enough levels of PM 2.5 when measured by (mg/
min) only stoves with chimneys would meet the
WHO standards designed to protect health in real
world conditions.
39
40
Proyecto Mirador
Chapter 9
Though all stove projects will face different challenges, it is fair to say that many common ones
exist. And of course, without a good stove, you
have nothing. But aside from all the technical considerations, it is an unavoidable fact that operating a
stove project is just plain tough. Since establishing
Proyecto Mirador in 2004, we have certainly seen
our share of challenges. Working in Honduras,
where crime is extremely high and governmental
control minimal, Mirador has had to stay nimble
and flexible in order to adapt its strategies to the
adverse conditions we encounter in the field.
Our operations have evolved from a staff of three to
more than 135 employees, both direct and indirect,
making us one of the largest employers in Western
Honduras aside from the government itself. Weve
grown from a small, charity-funded operation
that built 125 stoves in 2004, to a carbon-financed
operation that has built more than 100,000 stoves.
Along the way weve had to grow, adjust and improve according to changing conditions, and at no
point have we looked up and said, This is getting
easier. But we have learned a lot of valuable lessons, and it is my hope that this chapter will offer a
general road map for stove projects to reach viability and, ultimately, sustainability.
Proyecto Mirador
Proyecto Mirador
Training of Beneficiaries
Many stove projects follow a distribution model
that ends when the stove is sold or delivered. In
many cases consumers are left to integrate a new
stove, or even a new cooking practice, with little or
no support from the provider. This often results in
stove stacking, whereby the consumer still uses
her traditional stove in parallel to the improved
cookstove, or it can lead to the abandonment of the
new technology and a return to traditional practice.
The build it and leave it business model is inadequate to address the complexities that underlie successful stove adoption. Ideally, each sale or installation should be supplemented by direct, face-to-face
training to ensure consumers understand proper
use and maintenance of the stove. Over the years
Miradors training program has evolved to the
point where each beneficiary has at least 3 points
of contact with our staff, in the form of community meetings and private visits, during which she
receives repeated training and has the opportunity
to ask questions and voice concerns. Some families,
particularly those who have had trouble maintaining the stove, will receive one to two additional
visits from Mirador to ensure adoption is successful. Follow-up visits also provide a means to assess
stove performance, fix any construction errors and
replace parts.
In the end, this creates a financial advantage from
Miradors standpoint: because we cannot collect
carbon credits on stoves that are abandoned, higher
adoption rates mean more carbon credit is generated and hence sold to support the project. In the
absence of carbon finance, high adoption rates still
help establish credibility and thus enable access to
other forms of capital. For projects that sell stoves
directly to the beneficiaries, brand value is enhanced and thus demand increases.
Effective Monitoring
Just as it is important to follow up with beneficiaries to ensure their experience is a success, it is
equally important to document these interactions
and organize the data. Mirador has chosen to monitor its stove installations and user interactions using
a comprehensive workflow built on the Salesforce.
Proyecto Mirador
Development Goals (MDGs): they reduce (respiratory) disease, reduce child mortality, improve
maternal health, alleviate poverty (by reducing investment in wood collection or purchase), promote
gender equality, help to preserve the environment
(air and forests), and encourage rural development
by creating jobs. Consequently, the stove story
resonates with a huge cross-section of demographic groups, and co-benefits create natural relationships with consumer companies. When effectively
presented, all these attributes can be quantified
and, in turn, monetized.
In order to present a convincing case to investors, it
is useful to undergo a credible, third-party valuation of the projects co-benefits. In our case, the
value of the benefits was calculated at 10x the cost
of the stove. Once the projects benefits have been
quantified and documented, the task is to cultivate
financial partners who understand the value of
co-benefits (and, where applicable, carbon credits)
to brand enhancement, and partners who comprehend the projects ability to leverage its benefits in
strictly commercial terms. The product is not simply a stove; it is also a diverse array of intangible
assets that can be marketed creatively.
More on Carbon
There is no doubt that carbon financing can fundamentally transform the economics of a stove
project. Ideally, carbon finance can provide a
self-perpetuating stream of income that grows to
sustain the projects expansion. For every stove that
is installed, the corresponding reduction in carbon
generates more income for the project. Carbon
incentivizes a project to build high quality stoves.
A more efficient stove will generate greater carbon
savings and, consequently, higher income.
While projects that rely on sales for their primary source of income must establish clientele who
can afford to buy the stove, carbon incentivizes a
project to help the poorest consumers. A carbon
project enters the room and looks for the poorest
of the poor, while a sales project has to look for
buyers who can afford the stove. People with lower
incomes tend to be more dependent on wood. Even
if they should have a gas or electric stove, which
in some cases has been donated by the government or an NGO, they will use it sparingly if they
cannot afford to sustain the cost of fuel or electricity. People with the financial means to purchase
stoves are also more likely to have the wherewithal to purchase gas or electricity and because of
convenience, may use wood less often. Thus, in
higher-income households, replacing an inefficient
stove with improved technology will generally
have less impact and generate a lower amount of
carbon savings overall.
Likewise, wherever efficient means are unavailable or too expensive to operateand thus inefficient stoves are used extensivelyeach replacement stove generates higher carbon savings and
thus, more income to the project. For this and
many other reasons, it is important to know your
target market. Research, persistence and a great
deal of trial and error is involved in determining
which consumers will be most beneficial to the
health and longevity of the project and which
consumers might present problems that threaten
its integrity.
There are many avenues available to stove projects
for carbon certification, ranging from the Clean Development Mechanism (compliance market) to the
Voluntary Carbon Standard and the Gold Standard
(voluntary market) among others. Mirador has chosen Gold Standard certification over other alternatives because of its rigorous certification of sustainable benefits in addition to carbon savings. Gold
Standard stove credits are considered charismatic
and therefore trade at a relatively high premium.
But whether or not sustainability is included in the
certification itself, quantifying the projects co-benefits will still create brand value, maximize pricing,
and open up other creative possibilities for income
generation. In fact, the value of a stove projects
co-benefits, if correctly documented, will typically
outweigh the value of the carbon.
However, while carbon finance presents a very
attractive alternative in theory, there are several
things to consider before launching on the complex task of certification. First, carbon certification requires a huge amount of capital and human
resources. It is vital to have an adequate commit-
Proyecto Mirador
Proyecto Mirador
Proyecto Mirador
Proyecto Mirador
Moving Forward
Since we started out in 2004, there have been huge
developments in the industry. ISO standards are
now in progress to codify performance and sustainability metrics, stove testing centers have sprung
up all around the world and testing equipment
keeps improving. As a next step, the industry must
collectively document and quantify the co-benefits of stoves to reduce the burden of proof and to
minimize cost to individual projects. Over time
these contributions, in combination, will serve to
streamline the process of project implementation
and improve the odds of success.
The obstacles that come up are many, and they will
differ from project to project according to cultural,
geographical, and economic constraints. But with
commitment, perseverance, and a carefully executed business plan, it is possible to grow a stove
organization that is viable in the long term. Executed properly, stove projects are a win/win for all
concerned. Just a word of caution: dont be idealistic. Be honest with yourself; this is hard work. The
soft skills that surround the hard stove are just
as important as the stove itself, and the business of
running a stove project must be approached seriously and with sincere determination.
48
Chapter 10
funds to competent businesses that can move existing stove projects to scale. ARC has helped entrepreneurs to locate situations that require added
competencies to thrive and grow. There are many
countries where existing stove manufacturers,
distributors, and retailers have proven sales. Assistance with technical advice, additional capital,
and business acumen can help move the project
to achieve mass distribution. A realistic business
plan can attract interest from banks and other
lending institutions here in the United States.
But, the most successful route to mass distribution
may be when a great idea, like Dr. Winiarskis
Rocket stove, takes off by itself. Its also inspiring and reassuring to think about the hundreds of
brave, idealistic people around the globe trying
to help humanity with better stoves. The Rocket
stove has been successful in large part because
the stove community has more than its share of
idealistic and driven entrepreneurs. Ideas that go
viral have exponential influence and take on a life
of their own but its the enthusiastic individuals
that tend to the businesses, spend the decades of
hard work, establish the new ideas and tools, and
help to make the world a better place.
Section 2
Charcoal Stove............................................................................................76
Charcoal Stove CAD Drawings.................................................................156
51
Chapter 11
Test Results
52
same for the Rocket stove and the open fire. The
improved Rocket did reduce emissions by 40%
but only because that same amount of fuel was not
burned (USAID, 2010). A review of Rocket stove
intervention impacts in the WHO Indoor Air
Quality Guidelines: Household Fuel Combustion
booklet (2014) found that PM2.5 was reduced by an
average of 260 g/m3 and CO by 3.41 ppm (3.9 g/
m3), with percentage reductions of 48% (PM) and
39% (CO). The results of the WHO review seem to
be in general agreement with the USAID reports.
Operating the household Rocket stove at medium
power seems to be necessary to produce cleaner
combustion. The fence in the back of the new
combustion chamber limits the fuel that is combusted. When 8cm of the tips of four 1cm x 2cm
sticks are burning, the firepower is around 2.7kW.
The Natural Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove
with Chimney closely follows the Winiarski
design principles. When close to optimal thermal
efficiency (49%) is combined with a well-insulated low mass combustion chamber in which only
8cm of the tip of the sticks are allowed to burn,
the Rocket stove can score fairly well on the IWA
metrics. The new stove is in the Tier 3-4 range
on most of the metrics but made 11.8mg/min of
PM 2.5 which exceeds the 2015 WHO Indoor
Air Intermediate Guideline of 7.15mg/min for a
vented stove. Adding a fan to the stove reduced
the emissions of PM 2.5 to 4.5mg/min. Emissions
of CO are typically low in improved cookstoves
and the WHO guidelines for CO are easily met in
laboratory tests.
55
Principle Eight
Do not restrict the volume of gases moving
through the stove. All of the spaces in a stove
should have about the same cross sectional area
so that the flow of hot gases through the stove is
slowed down as little as possible.
The door through which wood is pushed into the fire,
the spaces in the stove in which the hot gases flow,
and the chimney should all have about the same
cross sectional area so that the gas velocity is unimpeded. Design all the spaces in the stove so that the
same amount of gases can freely flow through the
stove and up the chimney. Gases are very light and
do not transport much heat so a lot of hot gas needs
to flow next to the pot to effectively cook food. Slowing down the gases reduces the amount of heat that
enters the pot. If less heat enters the pot then more
wood is used for cooking. Add more pot or griddle
surface area to cool exit temperatures.
Principle Nine
Use a grate under the sticks and fire.
If possible, do not place the sticks of wood on
the floor of the combustion chamber. Primary air
needs to pass under the sticks through the charcoal and into the fire. A stick support in the fuel
entrance lifts the sticks up so the air can pass
underneath them. When burning sticks of wood
it is best to have them side by side with a space
between each stick. In this way, each stick helps
to keep the other stick burning. This kind of fire
makes flame above the burning wood that can
more effectively burn up the made wood gas.
Principle Ten
Force as much heat as possible into the pot(s) or
griddle by using properly sized channels gaps.
It is necessary to force the heat to flow close to
the pot or griddle by making narrow channels
next to the surface to be heated. However, if the
spaces are too small then the velocity of the gases
is reduced and there can even be a back draft. It is
necessary to use the right sized spaces around the
pot(s) or griddle. If the hot gases flow through big
spaces next to the pot(s) or griddle the gases flow
up the middle of the space avoiding the surface to
56
The stick support is not solid to reduce the heating of the wood sticks outside of the combustion
chamber by conduction. The high R-value insulation can be made from ceramic fiber, rock wool or
separated sheets of aluminum and stainless steel
foil. The air spaces between the sheets and the
shiny surfaces are also very effective in reducing heat loss. The shiny side of the foil is facing
away from the fire to reduce losses from radiation.
Shiny surfaces have low emissivity. The combustion chamber is 10cm in diameter and the depth of
the fuel magazine is shortened to 11cm.
Decreasing the mass surrounding the fire and
increasing the effectiveness of the insulation
increases the temperature of the fire resulting
in a higher velocity draft and more flame above
the sticks. The higher velocity incoming air also
burns the charcoal at a faster rate and the greater amount of flame is more likely to capture and
combust the gaseous fuel. In a Rocket combustion
chamber the incoming air pushes the flame against
the back wall and any gaseous fuel that does not
enter the flame will escape into the room air. For
this reason, the mixing above the fire is only partially effective in a natural draft Rocket stove.
The hot gases flow next to the pot in a 6mm channel gap.
Chapter 12
In this TLUD, the primary combustion chamber is filled below the level of the secondary air holes with closely packed
biomass pellets. A plate can be lifted and lowered by an
external lever to control the amount of primary air entering
the combustion chamber. The secondary air is pre-heated and flows horizontally across the top of the fuel bed
increasing mixing.
Test Results
61
Dr. Tom Reed, Dr. Alexis Belonio, and Dr. Paul Anderson
(left to right) have developed many of the Top Lit Up Draft
stove designs.
Gasifier stoves, where made gas from solid fuels is transported and then burned, have a long
history including the early 1800s system that sent
coal gas to the street lights in London. In 1985
Dr. Thomas Reed invented a natural draft variation intended for cooking food. In 1998, Dr. Reed
began work on a smaller, forced draft model and
marketed the successful WoodGas camp stoves
in 2003. In 2015, the WoodGas stove was chosen
as the clean burning stove in the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves sponsored round robin
testing project.
Independently, Norwegian Paal Wendelbo developed the Peko Pe, a natural draft TLUD cook
stove in Uganda in the 1990s. Since 2001, Dr. Paul
Anderson has been working with many experimenters in the United States and around the world
as TLUDs have become more successful and popular. Dr. Ron Larson assisted Dr. Reed for decades
and promotes the bio-char produced by the TLUD
as a possible method to address climate change.
Dr. Alexis Belonio has developed clean burning
62
Chapter 13
Test Results
67
The PM2.5 emissions rate is related to the firepower. 3kW is enough power to boil 9 liters of
water in 30 minutes using a 6mm channel gap
resulting in 47% thermal efficiency. The firepower
is controlled by (1) the number of sticks inserted
into the combustion chamber, (2) how far the sticks
are pushed into the combustion chamber, and (3)
the amount of made charcoal in the combustion
chamber.
71
Chapter 14
The fan blows jets of primary and secondary air into the
batch loaded fuel in the combustion chamber. A door located below the pot support facilitates the metering of fuel.
The Sunken Pot version of the Top Loaded Forced Draft
Stove includes a chimney that removes CO and PM2.5
from the kitchen. The stove also has an Auto-Damper
that directs the pollution up the chimney when the pot is
removed.
Test Results
72
with an external diameter of 15cm. The combustion chamber is 13.5cm high with an inner
diameter of 13cm. The cast iron stove top is 26cm
in diameter. A 10cm x 10cm computer fan is
powered by being plugged into the wall electrical
socket. The fan blows air up a narrow channel and
then through ten 2mm holes around the perimeter
near the bottom of the combustion chamber and
through thirty 4mm holes near the top of the combustion chamber.
As in some other TLUD batch fed stoves, too
much fuel can be used during the simmering
phase. Just turning down the fan speed does not
decrease the primary air enough to sufficiently
lower firepower. The excess steam production
coupled with the higher fuel use lowers the IWA
low power scores. The low power IWA emission
metrics are based on the amount of CO and PM
made per minute per liter, so losing water by making excess steam also lowers the emissions scores.
ARC developed two ways to improve the fuel use
when simmering with batch fed stoves. The batch
of fuel can be measured to only bring the water
to boil. Then chunks of wood can be metered
into the charcoal in the bottom of the combustion
chamber creating the lower firepower needed to
keep the simmering water at 3C below full boil.
The second method is to use more fuel and to then
burn the made charcoal for the simmering phase.
Several of the top loaded stoves in the initial
survey scored well on the IWA metrics for high
power operation. Most of the high power scores
in the initial stove survey were in the Tier 3 to 4
range. The Philips forced draft stove and the British Petroleum Oorja forced draft stove are similar
to the Reed stove described in the open source
literature in 1996.
The Reddy Enterprises stove, also made in India, is an example of an easy to construct type of
forced draft stove. A computer fan (8cm x 8cm)
blows room air into the large plenum created between a sheet metal combustion chamber and the
inside of the sealed stove body. The sealed plenum
pressurizes the air, which then enters the combustion chamber at a high velocity through larger
holes around the perimeter near the top (secondary air) and smaller holes close to the bottom
(primary air) of the combustion chamber.
Placing the fan directly on the side of the Reddy
stove exposes it to the heat from the combustion
chamber. ARC researchers inserted insulation
(aluminum foil and ceramic fiber) in between the
fan and combustion chamber. The best level of
IWA emissions performance was achieved with
the fan at high power. When operated as a batch
stove the Reddy, like other top loaded stoves, was
unable to turn down the firepower resulting in
higher than necessary fuel use at low power.
The simplicity of the Reddy stove is interesting.
The large plenum does not seem to negatively influence the effectiveness of the forced draft. ARC
researchers were pleasantly surprised that large
plenums could be used in fan stoves. Manufacturing a low cost Reddy type stove with a refractory
cement combustion chamber seems to be an interesting possibility.
A small amount of primary air enters the combustion chamber to control the rate of production of wood gas. Forceful
jets of pre-heated secondary air create a zone of mixing
above the fuel bed.
The added fuel door in the ARC stove is an innovation that hopefully will make feeding the fuel
easier for cooks. In the Philips, WoodGas, Reddy,
and Oorja stoves the pieces of metered fuel are fed
under the pot which seems a bit awkward. Feeding
75
Chapter 15
Charcoal Stove
High Power PM 2.5: 1.8mg/min @ 2.3kW
The ARC/DOE charcoal stove has an air tight door to control primary air. Very little air is required for simmering. The
combustion chamber is made from a cylinder of refractory metal. Secondary air rises in an annulus and jets of
pre-heated air create a zone of mixing above the fuel bed.
The stove is very well insulated which raises temperatures
quickly above the auto-ignition temperature of CO in the
combustion chamber.
Test Results
76
stove that did average 4 on the eight IWA measures. ARC Laboratory Manager Samuel Bentson
and ARC researcher Ryan Thompson led the development effort. (The prototype stoves were not
rated for safety.)
The latest charcoal prototype stove is 26cm high
with a diameter of 27cm. 3cm of insulation made
from sheets of stainless and aluminum foil isolate
the stove body from the combustion chamber that
has a diameter of 12cm and is 13.5cm deep. A refractory sheet metal cylinder creates a plenum that
allows pre-heated secondary air to enter the combustion chamber above the burning batch of fuel.
Thirty 0.5cm holes evenly spaced near the top of
the combustion chamber direct jets of pre-heated
air above the charcoal creating a zone of mixing.
A cast iron grate is located in the bottom of the
combustion chamber. The amount of primary air
is controlled by a door and the primary air enters
the charcoal from underneath.
A Winiarski cast iron stove top that maintains
constant cross sectional area increases heat trans-
Primary air enters the fuel bed from below. The large door
is completely open for high power operation. Jets of secondary air create a zone of mixing above the fuel. The door
can be almost completely closed to create a large degree
of turn down for simmering. Much less primary air entering
the fuel reduces the rate of reactions including the production of CO.
Principle 3
A Tier 4 Prototype
Chapter 16
After the WHO published the indoor air guidelines, ARC added chimneys to three of the five
prototype stoves to come into closer compliance
with the standards. The sunken pot approach was
applied to the side feed (below left) and top feed
(below right) forced draft stoves. The natural draft
Rocket stove already had a chimney (top left).
top feed forced draft stoves were built at Shengzhou Stove Manufacturer in China. Mr. Shen, the
factory owner, is an expert in manufacturing and
is tremendously helpful when designing and building new stoves.
Unfortunately, the flat top approach results in lower thermal efficiency. The high temperature and
fast velocity gases in the forced draft stoves now
only contact a portion of the bottom of the pot.
With careful tending the flat top can achieve up
to 30% thermal efficiency but 25% is more likely.
Although the stove is clean burning, the flat top
approach is considerably less fuel efficient compared to the sunken pot stoves.
The hot gases contact the bottom of the pot and
then pass between the pot support and the flat top
next to the inner wall of the stove body. The gases
flow down and enter the chimney. Both the flat top
and the sunken pot versions of the side feed and
The SSM Side Feed Forced Draft Flat Top Stove with
Chimney.
In the Flat Top added chimney design the hot gases flow
under the removable plates (or under the pot that sits on
the stove top). The gases then pass out of the stove in the
chimney.
82
The Auto-Damper
Chapter 17
The Auto-Damper
Adding a chimney to a cooking stove may not
decrease exposure to PM 2.5 enough to protect
health. When the pot is removed from the stove
top the cook can be exposed to the escaping
emissions and smoke can pour into the kitchen
instead of going up the chimney. ARC designers
wondered if an automatic device that immediately
diverts the smoke up the chimney when the pot
is removed might help to reduce exposure. Andy
McClean developed the working models used in
the prototype stoves.
Any stove will require maintenance to be a part of
an effective health oriented intervention. Chimneys have to be cleaned on a regular basis and
the stove pipe can corrode fairly quickly. The
auto-damper might add one more layer of protection to the system. The damper quickly blocks the
combustion chamber and keeps smoke going up
the chimney when the pot is removed. It is possible to place a cover over the hole in the cook top
but a lot of smoke can reach the cook and family
even in a short span of time.
The pot blocks the removed section of the cook top. However, when the pot is removed smoke can quickly enter the
kitchen. The Auto-Damper directs smoke up the chimney
when the pot is removed.
The Auto-Damper
A
SECTION E-E
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SECTION F-F
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FIG. 7
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84
11/17/15
SHEET
OF
Chapter 18
Summary
Protecting public health has become a major motivation for investigating how improved cookstoves
might function as a viable intervention. So far,
studies of cookstoves in use have not proven the
case. Many of the stoves for sale in 2015 were not
designed for this purpose but instead success was
based on criteria such as reduced fuel use, affordability, and ease of use. Clean burning stoves, hopefully with chimneys, are just starting to be marketed. Field studies with the new stoves will begin the
process of identifying all of the necessary parts of a
successful health oriented intervention.
In laboratory tests, the five stoves described in this
book met most of the criteria for top tier ratings
specified in the International Organization for
Standardization International Workshop Agreement (IWA) 11:2012, Guidelines for Evaluating
Cookstove Performance.
The World Health Organization recently published
intermediate and next step indoor air guidelines
for vented and unvented stoves. Their strong recommendation is to direct governments and implementers to only advocate technologies and fuels
that are proven to protect health. This would be a
very large change in a world that is faced with a
plentitude of challenges. Certainly change will be
incremental. How to accomplish the transition to
health protecting cooking is a real world problem
that will be approached from many perspectives.
Three of the four wood burning stoves described
in this book also met the WHO intermediate emission rate vented stove targets for PM 2.5 and CO.
The charcoal stove also emitted acceptable levels
of emissions. However, the stoves were tested
in the laboratory and in-field emission rates are
often higher. Chimneys and an auto-damper, that
directs emissions up the chimney when the pot is
removed, were added to the prototype stoves. The
stoves now need to go into further field testing to
determine if they meet the WHO in use emission
guidelines.
The benefits of improved stoves include fuel saving, better safety, increased effectiveness among
others. Stoves are a necessity and cooking with
biomass will continue to be a significant part of
human life. The carbon neutral use of biomass
may reinforce the current efforts to modernize
traditional energy. Discovering and manufacturing devices that burn biomass cleanly may be
helpful in developed and developing countries as
the relevance of rising levels of CO2 becomes a
greater issue.
What innovations allowed the prototype stoves to
meet the clean burning and fuel efficiency guidelines?
(1) The depth of the natural draft Rocket
combustion chamber was reduced to burn
8cm of the tips of the wood sticks and the
insulation was improved. The new stove has
a limited high power of 2.5kW which allows the use of a 6mm channel gap around
the pot. A chimney helps to reduce fugitive emissions while an automatic damper
directs emissions up the chimney when the
pot is removed. Improved mixing lowered
the emissions of PM 2.5 to acceptable levels
in a forced air version of the Rocket stove.
All of the five stoves easily met the IWA
and WHO guidelines for CO.
(2) ARC developed a natural draft TLUD
stove that was a top performer in EPA tests
(Jetter, 2011). An initial survey of best
performing stoves showed that batch loaded
TLUDs were generally unable to turn down
the firepower effectively and used too much
fuel when simmering. Mr. Kirk Harris
invented a natural draft TLUD that had an
adequate turn down ratio created by controlling the supply of primary air into the
combustion chamber. A secondary combustion unit on top of the primary combustion
chamber added more secondary air and
85
Results
The Three Stone Fire was dramatically outperformed on all measures by the cleaner burning
stoves.
A large range of stoves achieved over 40%
thermal efficiency when tested at medium
power with a 6mm pot skirt.
86
Dean Still has worked at ARC since 1989. He is the Executive Director of ARC and the principle author of this book.
87
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89
Appendix A
Appendix A - CAD Drawings of Natural the Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove
90
Appendix A - CAD Drawings of the Natural Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove
91
92
Appendix A - CAD Drawings of Natural the Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove
Appendix A - CAD Drawings of the Natural Draft Sunken Pot Rocket Stove
93
Appendix B
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Appendix C
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Appendix D
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Appendix E
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