Muslim Law

11/29/2016
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UNITI
1. Define Dower. What are its kinds? Discuss the nature and legal
significanceofDowerinMuslimLaw.
INTRODUCTION: As it is evident from Quran, if you separate
yourself from your wives, send them away with generosity, it is not
permittedtoyoutoappropriatethegoodsyouhaveoncegiventhem.
Thus the custom originated in ancient times with the payment which
husbandsoftenmadetotheirwivesasmeansofsupportintheiroldageor
when turned out by them. Mehr in the baal form of marriage was also
recognisedbytheprophettoamelioratethepositionofwifeinIslamandit
wascombinedwithsadaq,sothatitbecameasettlementoraprovisionfor
the wife. According to K.P.Sexena, Dower is a sum of money or any
property promised by the husband to be paid o delivered to the wife as a
mark of respect for the surrender of her person after the marriage contract
butgenerallysaidtobeconsiderationformarriage.
DEFINITION:Dower or mehr is a sum that becomes payable by the
husbandtothewifeonmarriageeitherbyagreementbetweenthepartiesor
bytheoperationoflaw.Itmayeitherbepromptordeferred.According to
Wilson,dowerisaconsiderationforthesurrenderofpersonbythewife.It
is the technical Anglo Mohammedan term for its equivalent Mehr in
Arabic. According to Amir Ali, Dower is a consideration which belongs
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absolutely to the wife. Mulla said, Dower is a sum of money or other

property which the wife is entitled to receive from the husband in
considerationofthemarriage.
KINDSOFDOWER:Dowermaybedividedintotwokinds:
1.Specifieddower:Thiskindofdowerisfurtherdividedintoa)Prompt
dowerb)deferreddower.
2.CustomaryDower.
1.SPECIFIEDDOWER:Iftheamountofdowerisstatedinthemarriage
contract, it is called the specified dower. Dower is settled by the parties to
themarriageeitherbeforethemarriageoratthetimeofthemarriageoreven
afterthemarriage.Ifthepartiestothemarriageattainedtheageofpuberty
andareofsoundmindtheyarecompetenttosettlethemselvestheamountof
dower.Guardiancansettletheamountofdowerprovidedthatatthetimeof
settlementofdowertheboyisstillminororlunatic.Specifieddowerisagain
subdividedinto:
Prompt dower: It is payable immediately after marriage on demand.
AmeerAli,awifecanrefusetoenterintoconjugaldomicileofhusbanduntil
the payment of the prompt dower. 2. Prompt dower does not become
deferredafterconsummationofmarriage.3.Itisonlyonthepaymentofthe
promptdowerthehusbandentitledtoenforcetheconjugalrights.4.Prompt
dowerispayableondemand.
Deferreddower:Itispayableondissolutionofmarriageeitherbydeathor
divorce.2.Thewifeisnotentitledtodemandpaymentofdeferreddower.3.
Thewidowmayrelinquishherdoweratthetimeofherhusbandsfuneralby
therecitalofaformula.4.Theinterestofthewifeinthedeferreddowerisa
vestedoneandnotacontingentone.
2. Customary Dover: When the amount of the dower is not fixed in the
marriage contract or even if the marriage has been contracted on the
conditionthatsheshouldnotclaimanydower,thewifeisentitledtoproper
dower. The amount of proper dower is settled by female members of the
fathersfamilysuchasherfatherssisters.
DeterminationofProperDower:theproperdowerisregulatedwith
referencetothefollowingfactors:
i)Personalqualificationofwife,herage,beauty,fortune,understandingand
virtue.
Ii)Socialpositionofherfathersfamily.
Iii)Dowergiventoherfemalepaternalrelations.
IV)Economicconditionofherhusband.
v)Circumstancesofthetime.
Thereisnolimittothemaximumamountofproperdowerunderthe
SunniLawbutundertheshialawtheproperdowershouldnotexceedthe500
dhirams.Thisamountwasfixedinthe
MarriageofFatimatheProphetdaughter.IntheshiaMuslimsitistherefore
consideredapointof
Honournotstipulateforasumhigherthanthesumofdowerfixedbythe
Prophetforhis
DaughterFatima.
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LegalSignificanceofDowerinMuslimLaw:Thefollowingarethelegal
significanceofDowerinMuslimLaw:
1.Thereasonofitssignificanceliesintheprotectionthatitimpartstothewife
againstthearbitraryexerciseofthepowerofdivorcebythehusband.
2.Dowerisarightofthewifeisfundamentalfeatureofmarriagecontractand
hasapivotalplaceinthedomesticrelationaffectingthemutualrights.
3.AccordingtoMuslimLawonthedissolutionofmarriagethewifecanclaim
herdowermoney.Itmaybehigheroritmaybelowdependsupononthe
sourceofincomeofthehusband.
4.Legislaturehasgiventhepowertomakelawprovidingthat,thecourtwill
notbeboundtoawardtheamountofdoweraccordingtomarriagedeed(Sec.
OfOudhLawAct.1876).butonlysuchsumasshallbereasonablewith
referencetothemeansofhusbandandtheIddatofthewifeasheldinacase
ofAdulRehmanv/sInayatiBibi1931.
5.AnotherSignificanceofDoweristoplaceacheckonthecapricioususeof
divorceonthepartofhusband.
6.Toimposeanobligationonthehusbandasamarkofrespectofthewife.
7.Toprovideforhersubsistenceafterthedissolutionofhermarriagesothat
shemaynotbecomehelplessafterthedeathofthehusbandorterminationof
marriagebydivorce.
2. A Muslim marriage is a civil contract. Discuss the nature of the

Muslimmarriage.
INTRODUCTION: Marriage i.e. nikah meant different forms of sex
relationship between man and a woman established on certain terms. In
ancientagewomenweretreatedaschattelsandwerenotgivenanyright
ofinheritanceandwereabsolutelydependent.ItwasProphetMohammad
who brought about a complete change in the position of women. The
improvement was vast and striking and their position is now unique as
regards their legal status. After marriage woman does not lose her
individualityandsheremainsadistinctmemberofthecommunity.Under
theMuslimLawmarriageisconsideredasCivilContract.Thecontractof
marriage gives no power to anyone over her person or property beyond
what the law defines. Woman remains the absolute owner of individual
rightsevenaftermarriage.
DEFINITION OF MARRIAGE (NIKAH):Marriage (nikah) literally
meanstheunionofsexesandinlawthistermmeans,marriage.Marriage
has been defined to be a contract for the purpose of legalising sexual
intercourseandprocreationofchildren.
InHedaya,itisdefinedas,Nikahinitsprimitivesensemeanscarnal
conjunction.Somehavesaidthat,itsignifiesconjunctiongenerallyand
finallyinthelanguageoflawitimpliesaparticularcontractusedforthe
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purpose of legalising generation. The Prophet of Islam is reported to

havesaid,ThatMarriageismysunnaandthosewhodonotfollowthis
wayoflifearenotmyfollowers.
ThusmarriageaccordingtoMuslimLawisacontractforthepurpose
oflegalisingsexualintercourseandtheprocreationoflegitimatingof
childrenandtheregulationofsociallifeintheinterestofthesociety.
NATUREOFMUSLIMMARRIAGE:Therearedivergenceofopinion
with regard to the nature of Muslim marriage. Some jurists are of the
opinion that Muslim marriage is purely a civil contract while others say
thatitisareligioussacramentinnature.Inordertobetterappreciatethe
natureofMuslimmarriageitwouldbepropertoconsideritinitsdifferent
notions.
Muslimmarriagebysomewritersandjuristsistreatedasa
mere civil contract and not a sacrament. This observation seems to be
based on the fact that marriage under Muslim Law has similar
characteristicsasacontract.Forexample:
i) Amarriagerequiresproposal(Ijab)fromonepartyadacceptance
(Qubul)fromtheothersoitisthecontract.Moreovertherecanbe
no marriage without free consent and such consent should not be
obtainedbymeansofcoercion,fraudorundueinfluence.
ii) Similarasinthecaseofcontract,enteredintobyaguardianon
attainingmajoritysocanamarriagecontractinMuslimLaw,beset
asidebyaminoronattainingtheageofpuberty.
iii)ThepartiesoftheMuslimmarriagemayenterintoanyantenuptial
or postnuptial agreement which is enforceable by law, provided
thatitisreasonableandnotopposedtothepolicyofIslam.Sameis
inthecaseofaContract.
iv) Thetermsofamarriagecontractmayalsobealteredwithinlegal
limitstosuitindividualcases.
v)AlthoughdiscouragedbothbytheholyQuranandHadith,yetlike
anyothercontract,thereisalsoprovisionforthebreachofmarriage
contract.
vi)IntheleadingcaseofAbdulQadirv/sSalima1886,itemphasise
the contractual aspect and analogy of Muslim Marriage contract
withcontractofsale.
CONCLUSION:ThusmarriageaccordingtoMuslimLawisacontractfor
the purpose of legalising sexual intercourse and the procreation of
legitimatingofchildrenandtheregulationofsociallifeintheinterestofthe
society. However it is further viewed that marriage is not purely a civil
contract but a religious sacrament too. Though sacramental nature of
marriage is considered as an orthodox view but it is also supported by the
judiciaryintheleadingcaseofAnisBegumv/sMohammadIstafa1933,
in the case Sulaiman has tried to put a more balanced view of the Muslim
marriagebyholdingitbothcivilcontractandareligioussacrament.
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3.WhatarethegroundsofdissolutionofMarriageunderDissolutionof
MuslimMarriageAct1939?
INTRODUCTION: An Act to consolidate and clarify the provisions of
MuslimLawrelatingtosuitsfordissolutionofmarriagebywomenmarried
underMuslimLawandtoremovedoubtsastotheeffectoftherenunciation
ofIslambyamarriedwomanonhermarriagetie.Theseareasunder:
i.Bystipulationinthemarriagecontractthatsheshallhavesuchrightsas
toeffectadivorce.iiByanoptiontodivorcefromthehusband.iiiBy
judicialdivorceongroundofimpotencyfalsechargeofadultery.ivBy
Lian.vByKhulaviByMubarat.
Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and clarify the provisions of
MuslimLawrelatingtosuitsfordissolutionofmarriagebywomenmarried
underMuslimLawandtoremovedoubtsastotheeffectoftherenunciation
ofIslambyamarriedMuslimwomanonhermarriageitisherebyenacted
asfollows:
2. Grounds for decree for dissolution of marriage: A woman married
underMuslimLawshallbeentitledtoobtainadecreeforthedissolutionof
her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds provided under
DissolutionofmarriageActVIIIofl939:
(i)thatthewhereaboutsofthehusbandhavenotbeenknownforaperiod
offouryears
(ii) that the husband has neglected or has filed to provide for her
maintenanceforaperiodoftwoyears
(iiA)thatthehusbandhastakenanadditionalwifeincontraventionofthe
provisions of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961 but wife is
not entitled to maintenance in the following situations and it is the
reason that she cannot present a litigation of divorce against her
husbandonthefollowinggrounds:
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a) When she lives separately without any reasonable cause. A case of
YusufSaramma1971.
b)Whensheisunchastetoherhusbandcase:Mu.Khadizav/s
Abdula1942.
(iii)thatthehusbandhasbeensentencedtoimprisonmentforaperiodof
sevenyearsorupwards
(iv)Thatthehusbandhasfailedtoperform,withoutreasonablecause,his
maritalobligationsforaperiodofthreeyears
(v)Thatthehusbandwasimpotentatthetimeofthemarriageand
continuestobeso.
(vi) That the husband has been insane for a period of two years or is
sufferingfromleprosyorvenerealdisease.Mullathewifemayobtaina
decree for the dissolution of her marriage if the husband has been
insaneforaperiodoftwoyearsandsufferingfromleprosyoraverneral
diseases.
(vii)Thatshe,havingbeengiveninmarriagebyherfatherorotherguardian
before she attained the age of sixteen years, repudiated the marriage
beforeattainingtheageofeighteenyears:Providedthatthemarriage
hasnotbeenconsummated.
(viii)Thatthehusbandtreatsherwithcruelty,thatistosay,
I.habituallyassaultsherormakesherlifemiserablebycrueltyofconducteven
ifsuchconductdoesnotamounttophysicalilltreatment,or
II.associateswithwomenofevilreputeofleadsaninfamouslife,or
III.attemptstoforcehertoleadanimmorallife,or
IV.disposesofherpropertyorpreventsherexercisingherlegalrightsoverit,or
V.obstructsherintheobservanceofherreligiousprofessionorpractice,or
VI.ifhehasmorewivesthanone,doesnottreatherequitablyinaccordancewith
theinjunctionsoftheQuran.NoorjahanBibiv/sKazimAli1977: a false
chargeofadulterybyhusbandoverwifewasconsideredtobecruelty.Begum
Zoharv/sMohammadIsfaqutMajid1955:Theuseofabusivelanguage
byhusbandanduseofdefamatorywordsbyhusbandwasheldtobecruelty.
VII. onanyothergroundwhichisrecognizedasvalidforthedissolutionof
marriages under Muslim Law. They are known as Traditional Grounds:
suchas:IIa,Zihar,Khula,MubaratandTafweez.
(a) no decree passed on ground (i) shall take effect for a period of six
months from the date of such decree, and if the husband appears either in
person or through an authorised agent within that period and satisfies the
CourtheispreparedtoperformhisconjugaldutiestheCourtshallsetaside
thesaiddecreeand
(b)beforepassingadecreeonground(v)theCourtshall,onapplication
by the husband, make an order requiring the husband to satisfy the Court
withinaperiodofoneyearfromthedateofsuchorderthathehasceasedto
beimpotent,andifthehusbandsosatisfiedtheCourtwithinsuchperiod,no
decreeshallbepassedonthesaidground.
(c) If husband converts to another religion the marriage is dissolved at the
instance, so if husband changes religion wife has ground for divorce under
section4oftheAct1939.
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3.Noticetobeservedonheirsofthehusbandwhenthehusbandswhere
aboutsarenotknown.Inasuittowhichclause(i)ofsection2applies:
(a)thenamesandaddressesofthepersonswhowouldhavebeenheirsofthe
husbandunderMuslimLawifhehaddiedonthedateofthefilingofthe
plaintshallbestatedintheplaint.(b)noticeofthesuitshallbeservedon
suchpersons,and
(c)suchpersonsshallhavetherighttobeheardinthesuit:
Providedthatpaternaluncleandbrotherofthehusband,ifany,shallbecited
aspartyevenifheortheyarenotheirs.
4.Effectofconversiontoanotherfaith:TherenunciationofIslambya
married Muslim woman or her conversion to a faith other than Islam shall
not by itself operate to dissolve her marriage: Provided that after such
renunciation, or conversion, the woman shall be entitled to obtain a decree
for the dissolution of her marriage on any of the grounds mentioned in
section2Providedfurtherthattheprovisionsofthissectionshallnotapply
toawomanconvertedtoIslamfromsomeotherfaithwhoreembracesher
formerfaith.
5. Right to dower not be affected: Nothing contained in this Act shall
affectanyrightwhichamarriedwomanmayhaveunderMuslimlawtoher
doweroranypartthereofonthedissolutionofhermarriage
6.(Repealofsection5ofAct,XXVIof1937)
Rep.bytheRepealingandAmendingAct,1942(XXVof1942),section2
andFirstSch.
4.DescribethesourcesofMuslimLawindetail.
INTRODUCTION:Muslim Law in India means, that portion of Islamic
CivilLawwhichisappliedtoMuslimsasaPersonalLaw.Itconsistsofthe
injunctionsofQuranofthetraditionsintroducedbypracticeoftheProphet
of the common opinion of the jurists of the analogical deductions of these
three Qiyas. Muslim mean who believes in Islam and Islam means,
submissiontothewillofGod.ApersonbornasMuslimcontinuestobea
Muslim until he renounces Islam after attaining majority. Any person who
professes the Mohemadan religion is Muslim that he acknowledges that,
thereisoneGodandtheMohamedishisprophet.
Queen Empress v/s Ramzan and Abraham v/sAbraham: It was held
thatapersonmaybeaMuslimbybirthorbyconversion.Ifonetheparents
of child are Muslim the child is deemed as Muslim. If Parents turned to
someotherreligionthechildisMohemadan.
ThefollowingarethesourcesofMuslimLaw:
PrimarySources
1.QURAN:TheQuranistheprimarysourceofMuslimLawinpointoftime
as well as in importance. Quran is the first source of Muslim Law. The
IslamicreligionandIslamicsocietyowesitsbirthtothewordofQuran.Itis
the paramount source of Muslim Law in point of Important because it
containstheverywordsofGodanditisthefoundationuponwhichthevery
structure of Islam rests. Quran regulates individual, social, secular and
spirituallifeofMuslims.ItcontainstheverywordsofGodascommunicated
to Prophet Mohammad through angel Gabriel. The Quran has now been
codified.Quranisdevidedinto114chapterand6666Ayats.
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2.SunnatorAhadis:Sunnathasthreeclasses:
I.Sunnatulfail:ThisisbeingdonebyProphethimself.
II.Sunnatulqual:WhichProphetenjoyedbywords.
III. Sunnatultuqrir: Things done in his presence without his
disapproval.
Ahadishasalsothreeclasses:
I. Ahadisimuturatir:Traditionsareofpublic&Universalproperty&held
asabsolutelyauthentic.
II.Ahadisimashorora:Thoughknowntoamajorityofpeopledonotpossess
thecharacterofuniversalpropriety.
III.Ahadisewahid:whichdependonisolatedindividuals?
WhenQuranissilentonanyoneofthesubjectandthenthatproblem
issolvedbyAhadisandSunnat.Butwhilegivingthesolutiontoaproblem
itmustbekeptinmindthatsolutionisnotadversetothebasicsofQuran.
Thus such type of acts which the Prophet himself did or supported it, they
cametobeknownasAdadesandSumat.
3.IJMAA:ItisthirdimportantsourceofMuslimLaw.TheoriginofIJMAA
althoughQuran,SunnatandAhadeshaddevelopedasthesourceofMuslim
Law.Ittakesplacewhennewproblemstatedarisingwiththedevelopmentof
society which were not possible to be solved by Quran. The principle of
IJMAAbaseduponthetext,ThatGodwillnotallowHispeopletoagreeon
anerrorandwhateverMuslimsholdtobegoodisgoodbeforeGod.
KindsofIJMAA:i)IJMAAofJurists.ii)IJMAAofcompanionsofthe
Prophet: It is universally accepted. iii) IJMAA of People: This kind of
IJMAAhasnotmuchimportance.
4.TheQiyas(Analogicaldeduction):ItisoriginatedsourceofMuslim
Law,whenanyproblemorquestioncouldnotbesolvedbyQuran,Sunnat,
Ahades and Ijmaa. Qiyas in the light of Holy Quran which says that
spend out of your good things because as you dislike taking back bad
things others also may dislike. In such situations the problem are being
solvedbycomparativestudyoftheabovethreesources.
i)Itisthelastprimarysource.
ii)Qiyasmeansreasoningbyanalogy.
iii) Qiyas does not purport to create new law but merely to apply old
establishedprinciplestothenewcircumstances.
iv)Hanbalsshias&shafisdonotacceptQiyas.
WhilesolvingproblemthroughQiyasithastobeconsideredthatsuch
thingsshallnotbeadversetobasicsofQuran,sunnat,ahadesandIjmma.
SecondarySources
1. UrforCustom:CustomneverrecognisedassourceofMuslimLawbut
sometimesreferredassupplementingthelaw.MuslimLawincludesmany
rules of preIslamic customary law, which have been embodied in it by
expressorimpliedrecognition.
Requirementsofavalidcustom:i)Custommustbeterritorial.ii)itmust
beexistingfrommemorabletimei.e.ancient.iii)Itmustbecontinuousand
certainandinvariable.iv)Customshouldnotopposethepublicpolicies.V)
CustommustnotincontraventionofQuran&IJMAA.
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Smt.Bibiv/sSmt.Ramkali1982:Itwasheldthatthecustomsofcaseand
sub case acquire it to be proved for their validity that they are ancient,
definiteandearnable.
2. Judicial Decisions: These includes the decisions of Privy Council, the
SupremeCourt&HighCourtsofIndia,Judgesexplainwhatlawis.These
decisionsareregardedasprecedentsforfuturecases.Itbecomesasourceof
Law. Hammeera Bibee v/s Zubaida Bibi: In India interest on loan is not
allowed, but in this case the Privy Council allowed interest on the amount
unpaiddower.
3.Legislation:InIndiaMuslimsarealsogovernedbyvariouslegislation
passedeitherbyParliamentorbystatelegislaturee.g.:i)Guardian&Wards
Act,1890.ii)TheShariatAct,1937.iii)MuslimWomanProtectionofRight
& Divorce Act, 1986. iv) The Mussalman Waqf Act, 1923. V) The
DissolutionofMuslimMarriageAct,1939.
Justice,Equity&GoodConscience:Itisalsoregardedasoneofsource.
a) Abu Hanifa: Expounded principle that rule of law based on analogy.
These principles are Isihsan or Jruistic equity. b) Maliki: IbnAnas
proposestheuseofIstiahi.e.seekingpeaceoramending&hefollowedit
up by distinct method of juristic interpretation known as Istidal. However
themainsourcesareQuran,AhadisandIjmaa.
5. Discuss the various Schools of Muslim Law and point out their
differences.
INTRODUCTION:TherearetwomainschoolsofMuslimLawtheSunni
andtheShia.InIndiathemajorityoftheMuslimsareofSunnisandhenceit
ispresumedthatthepartiestoasuitareSunnisunlessprovedotherwise.
Shia law has been applied to Shia since the decision of the Privy
CouncilinRajahDeedarHosseinv/sRaneeZuhoroonNissa1841.The
division between the Sunnis and the Shias originated in the dispute
concerningthequestionofImamatorthespiritualLeadershipofIslam.
SchoolsofMuslimLaw:AfterthedeathofProphetthequestionarosewho
would be his successor. On this point the Muslim community was divided
intotwofactions.TheShiasadvocatdthattheofficeshouldgobytheright
ofsuccessionandthusImamati.e.headshipshouldbeconfinedtoProphets
ownfamilyashisprophet.WhereasontheotherhandtheSunnisadvocated
theprincipleofelectionbytheJamatandchoseouttheirImambymeansof
votes.
The majority of Muslims suggested that there should be
election to choose successor of the Prophet. This group was led by the
youngest wife of the Prophet. Thus the difference between the two lies in
politicalevents.
Mohammadans
1Sunni2Shia3Motazila
1.1Hanafis2.1IthnaAshariaorImamia(2.1.1)Akhbari(2.1.2)
Usuli
1.2Malikis2.2Ismailiyas(2.2.1)Khoja(2.2.2)Bohra
1.3Shafeis2.3Zaidais
1.4Hanbalis
SunniSubSchools:
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(i) Hanafi: This school is the most famous school of Sunni Law. Abu
Hanifawasthefounderofthisschool,herecognisedQiyas,urf,Ijma.
(ii)Maliki:ItwasfoundedbyMalik,leanedmoreupontraditions.Hewas
notdifferentfromHanifas.
(iii)Shafei:ImamShafiewasthefounderofthisschool.Hewasthefounder
ofdoctrineofQiyasbaseduponQuran,AhadisorIjma.
(iv)Hanbali:ItwasfoundedbyIbnHanbalwhostressedontraditionsand
allowedverynarrowmargintothedoctrineofanalogy.
SHIASUBSCHOOLS:
I)AthanaAshariaSchool:Thisschoolisveryorthodox.Thesupporter
ofthisschoolisthefollowersoftwelveImamsandregardsthem.
II)IsmailiaSchool:ThesixthImamJafarusSadiqhadtwosons1.
Ismailand2.Musaulkazim.Thefollowersofthisschoolcalled
Ismailas.
III)ZaidiaSchool:ZaidwhowasthesonoffourthImam,ImamAliashgar
wasthefounderofthisschool.
CONCLUSION: Where it is not alleged not shown that the parties are
shias, there is a presumption that they are sunnies, to which sect the great
majorityofmohammedansofthiscountrybelong.Shialawisalsothelawof
theland.Inindiashialawhasbeenappliedtoshiasincethedecisionofthe
privycouncil.
DIFFERENCEBETWEENSHIA&SUNNISCHOOL
ShiaSchool
SunniSchool
MutaortemporaryMarriageisrecognised.
Mutamarriageisnotrecognised.
Father and grand father are recognised as Father and fathers father how highsoever,
legalguardiansformarriage.
brothers other paternal relations, mother are also
recognisedlegalguardiansformarriage.
Theminimumamountfordowerisnotfixed.
10 dirhams is the minimum amount of dower is
fixed.
Talaq must be pronounced orally in Arabic Talaqmaybeoralorinwriting.
language.
Divorce under compulsion or threat or Divorceundercompulsionorthreatorintoxication
intoxicationisvoid.
orjestisnotvoid.
The mother is entitled to the custody of boy Sheisentitledtothecustodyoftheboyuptoseven
upto two years and of a girl upto seven yearsandofagirluntilsheattainspuberty.
years.
Itisnotobligatorytomaintainthefatherifhe Itisobligatorytomaintainevenifheisabletoearn
isabletoearn.
himself.
Withoutdeliveryofpossessionoftheproperty Meredeclarationisenoughforavalidwaqf.
thewaqfisinvalid.
A gift of undivided share in the property is Agiftofundividedshareinthepropertyisinvalid
validprovideditiscapableofpartition.
ifitisundividedandincapablesofportion.
Apersoncanbequeathonethirdofhisestate The consent of the heirs is essential in case of
withouttheconsentoftheotherheirs.
legacyinfavourofanheir.
Therearethreeclassesofheirs:
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There are only two classes of heirs namely a.sharersb.Residuary.

sharersandresiduary.
c.Distantkindred.
6.Whatarethedifferentforms&ModesofdivorceunderMuslimLaw?
Discuss.
Introduction:Among almost all the nations of antiquity divorce was
regarded as a natural corollary or marital rights. The provisions of divorce
were recognised in all religions Islam is perhaps the first religion in the
worldwhichhasexpresslyrecognisedtheterminationofmarriagebywayof
divorce.InEnglanditwasintroduced100yearsback.InIndiaitwasallowed
onlybyHinduMarriageAct1955amongsttheHinducommunity.Before
passingthisactdivorcewasnotrecognisedbyHinduLaw.
BeforeShamimArav/sStateofU.P.2002,aMuslimhusbandhad
unlimited power of effecting Talaq without assigning any reason. But in
Shamim Aras case the Supreme Court held that the talaq must be for a
reasonablecauseandtheremustbeprecededbyanattemptofreconciliation
between her husband and the wife by two arbiters one chosen by the wife
andtheotherbythehusband.
Differentforms&ModesofdivorceunderMuslimLaw
1.CapacityforPronouncingTalaq:The only and only essential condition
forpronouncingTalaqbyaMuslimhusbandisthathemusthaveattainthe
age of puberty and must be of sound mind at that time. In view of the
positionofMuslimLawitcannotbesaidthatTalaqnamahwasnotsufficient
to dissolve the marital relations. Refer case Abdul Wahid v/s Raisa Bi
2007.
InanothercaseofMohamadSiddiquAliv/sMustt.Fatima
Rashid2007,itwasheldbythecourtthatmerepronouncementofTalaw
orallyorinwritingisnotsufficienttoterminatethemarriage.Thefactumof
theTalaqshouldbeprovedbytheindependentwitnesses.
InthecaseofIqbalBanov/sStateofU.P.2007,theApexCourt
heldthattheconclusionthatinviewofthestatementinthewrittenstatement
aboutanallegeddivorce30yearsbackbyutteranceofthewordstalaq,talaq,
talaqthreetimesissufficientinlawisnotsustainable.Amerepleasinthe
writtenstatementofadivorcehavingbeenpronouncedsometimesinthepast
cannotbyitselfbetreatedaseffectuatingTalaq.
2.TalaqulSunnat:ThisformofTalaqisrevocablehenceitisregardedas
approved form of Talaq. This form of Talaq was approved by the Prophet
bothShiaandSunnischoolsrecognisethisform.Ithastwoparts:
i)TalaqAhsan:Thisconsistsofasinglepronouncementofdivorcemade
duringatuhrfollowedbyabstinencefromsexualintercoursefortheperiod
ofIddat.ThemainrequirementsofaTalaqAhsanare:
a)FormulaofTalaqmustbepronouncedonlyoncebythehusband.
b)Ifthemarriagehasbeenconsummatedthepronouncementmustbemade
duringtheperiodofherpurity.(tuhr).Aftersuchpronouncementthehusband
shouldabstainfromsexualintercourseduringtheperiodofpurityandIddat.
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c)Whenthewifeisnotsubjecttomenstruationthepronouncementmaybe
madeevenaftersexualintercourse.
Theaboveformofdivorceisregardedasthebestformbecausethere
isachanceofreconciliationbetweentheparties.
ii) Talaq Hasan: This consists of three pronouncements made during
successivetuhrstheperiodofpuritynointercoursetakingplaceduringany
ofthesethreetuhrs.ThechiefrequirementsofTalaqHasanare:
i)Theremustbethreesuccessivepronouncementsoftheformulaof
divorce.
ii)Inthecaseofamenstruatingwifethefirstpronouncementshouldbe
made during a period of tuhr or purity the second during the next
tuhrandthirdduringthesucceedingtuhr.
iii)Inthecaseofanonmenstruatingwife,thepronouncementshouldbe
madeduringthesuccessive30days.
iv)Nosexualintercourseshouldtakeplaceduringthesethreeperiodsof
tuhr.
This is also proper form of Talaq but less proper than talaq Ahsan,
This Talaq is revocable before the third pronouncement but becomes
irrevocableimmediatelyafterthethirdpronouncement.
2.TalaqulBiddat or TalaqiBiddat: It is sinful form of divorce
recognised only under Sunni Law. It is the irregular mode of Talaq
introducedbyOmeyyadsinordertoescapethestrictnessoflaw.Itconsists
the following two modes: i) Three pronouncements made during single
tuhr either in one sentence e.g. I divorce thee, I divorce thee, I divorce
thee. Ii) A single pronouncement made during a tuhr clearly indicating an
intentionirrevocabletodissolvethemarriagee.g.divorcetheeirrevocably.
TalaqulBiddat form is recognised only in Sunni Law and not in Shia
Law.
WhenTheyBecomeIrrevocabale
1. TalaqulSunnat:TalaqAhsan:itbecomesirrevocablyontheexpiryof
theperiodofiddat.
2. Talaq Hasan: It becomes irrevocable on the third pronouncement
irrespectiveofIddat.
3. TalaqulBiddat: It becomes irrevocable immediately when it is
pronouncedirrespectiveofIddat.
UNITII
7. Discuss the provisions of Muslim Law concerning Guardianship for
marriage.Poweroflegalguardianalienationofminorsproperty.
INTRODUCTION: In chapter iv of the holy Quran it is mentioned
that,torestoretheorphanswhentheycomeofage,theirsubstancedonot
substitutebadforgood,nordevourtheirsubstancebyaddingittoyourown,
for this is an enormous crime. However the term Guardianship (wilayat)
means the guardianship of a minor. Minor is one who has not attained the
age of majority, Puberty and majority are in the Muslim Law one and the
same.Pubertyispresumedtohaveattainedonthecompletionof15years
butnowtheMuslimsaregovernedbytheIndianMajorityAct,exceptinthe
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mattersrelatingtomarriage,divorceanddower.However15yearsistheage
of majority for the purposes of marriage, dower and divorce under the
MuslimLaw.
DEFINITION OF GUARDIAN:The term guardian is defined in the
GuardiansandWardsAct,Apersonhavingcareofthepersonofaminor
orofhisproperty,orbothhispersonandhisproperty.
In Muslim Law, Quran is the basis of the law relating to guardianship and
thereforethereisverylittleroomfordifferencesbetweenShiaandSunnis.
GUARDIANSHIP IN MARRIAGE (JABAR):1.One of the most
essential part of a valid marriage that the parties are competent to enter
into marriage contract, i.e. among other things they must have attained the
age of puberty. However there is exception which is most distinguishing
featureofIslamwhichempowersafathertoimposestatusofmarriageonhis
minor children. This power of imposition is called Jabar. Under this
exceptionthemarriageiscontractedonbehalfoftheminorsbytheguardian.
2. No one can be appointed guardian by the Court in respect of marriage
guardianship.
3.TheCourtalsocannotappointWaliformarriagehoweverinsomecases
QuaziorCourtitselfcanactasamarriageguardian.
4.UndertheMuslimLawofallschools,thefatherhasthepowertogivehis
childrenofbothsexesinmarriagewithouttheirconsentuntiltheyreachthe
ageofpubertyi.e.knownasbulugh.
5.Thefollowingpersonswhocanactasguardiansinthemarriageofa
minor:
1.Father.2.Thefathersfatherhowhighsoever.3.Fullbrotherandother
male relations on the fathers side. 4. Mother. 5. Maternal relation within
prohibiteddegrees.6.TheQuaziortheCourt.
LegalGuardian:Thepersonentitledintheordermentionedbelowtobe
guardianofthepropertyofaminor:1.Father.2.Theexecutorappointed
bythefatherswill.3.Thefathersfather.4.Theexecutorappointedbythe
will of the fathers father. Thus mother, brother and uncle etc. are not
entitledasofrighttobethelegalguardiansofthepropertyofminorasheld
inthecaseofSayedShahGulamGhoshev/sSayedShahAhmad1971.
POWERS OF LEGAL GUARDIAN: 1.Regarding Immovable
Property: Legal guardian cannot alienate by sale of mortgage the
immovable property of the minor except when alienation is absolutely
necessaryorfortheclearbenefitoftheminor.
When the minor has no other means of livelihood and sale is absolutely
necessaryformaintenance.Wherethedoublepriceofthepropertycanbe
obtained by him. Where the expenses exceed he income of the property.
Whenthepropertyisfallingintodecay.Thelegalguardianhasnopower
tocarryonbusinessofhiswardespeciallyifthebusinessisonewhichmay
involvehisminorsestateinspeculationorloss.Whenthepropertyhasbeen
usurped and the guardian has reason to fear that there is no chance of fair
restitution.Alegalguardianisempoweredtoenterintocontractsonbehalf
ofminorprovidedthatsuchcontractsareforthebenefitoftheminor.
2.Powersregardingmovableproperties:Theguardianisempoweredto
sellorpledgethegoodsandchattelsoftheminorfortheminorsnecessities
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asfood,clothingandnursingetc.MuslimLawdoesnotimposeupon
minorsanyobligationtopayinterestonsumsadvancedtothem.Thelegal
guardianisboundtodealwiththepropertyascarefullyashehasdealtwith
itifitwerehisownproperty,asheldbyMadrasHighCourtinl940.
3. De facto Guardian: A person who is neither a legal guardian nor a
guardianappointedbytheCourtbuthasvoluntarilyplacedhimselfincharge
ofthepersonandpropertyoftheminorisknownasdefactoguardian.Heis
mere custodian of the minors person and property but has no right over
either as held in the case of M.Fiaz v/s Iftkhar1932. He has only the
responsibilitytowardstheminorspersonorpropertyorbothbutnorightsin
respect thereof. He has no power or authority to alienate the minors
property. However authority given by the Court is void as provided in
GuardiansandwardAct.
8WhatistheobjectbehindmakingagiftunderMuslimLaw?Whocan
makeavalidgift?ExplainIsRegistrationisnecessary?
Introduction: In India it is often assumed that term gift is the exact
equivalent of hiba and both are understood to connote all transfer of
property without consideration. Gift however an expression of much wider
explanationthanhibais.AccordingtoBaillie,Theconferringofarightin
somethingspecificwithoutanexchange.
InMuslimLaw,itistreatedasacontractconsistingofa
proposalorofferonthepartofdonortogiveathingandtheacceptanceofit
by the donee. The word hiba literally means the donation of a thing from
which the donee may derive a benefit, the transfer must be immediate and
complete.ItisalsotomentionherethemostimportantingredientofHibais
thedeclaration,Ihavegiven.
DEFINITION OF GIFT: Under Muslim Law a person is allowed to
lawfullymakeagiftofhispropertytoanotherduringhislifetimeorhemay
transferitbywayofwillwhichtakeeffectafterhisdeath.
In its technical sense, it is defined as, unconditionaltransferofproperty
madeimmediatelyandwithoutanyexchangeorconsiderationbyoneperson
toanotherandacceptedbyoronbehalfofthelatter.
AccordingtoMulla,Giftisatransferofproperty,madeimmediatelyand
without any exchange by one person to the other and accepted by or on
behalfofthelatter.
AleadingcaseinthisregardisofSmt.Hussenabiv/sHusensabHasan
1989,gistofthecasethatofferofgiftwasmadebygrandfathertohisgrand
children who were living with him and on behalf of minor children the
acceptancewasmadebythedonerbutnoexpressorimpliedacceptanceof
gift was made by the major grandson. The court held that when the three
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essentialsarenottheretocomplete,itcannotbeacompletegift.Giftdeed
wasvalidfortheminorchildrenbutthegiftinfavourofthemajorsonswas
setaside.
ObjectBehindMakingaGiftunderMuslimLaw
ThefollowingaretheobjectsformakingagiftunderMuslimLaw:
1.Theconferringofarightinsomethingspecificwithoutanexchange:
When a doner declare to make a gift to anybody, without any
considerationofit.
2. Following lawful methods while making of a gift: Some of the
importantobservationsthatthedoneradoptslawfulmethodsformaking
agiftofpropertyinthepossessionandsuchagiftisvalidprovidedthe
donereitherobtainsandgivespossession.
3. Thickness in relations comes out by making gifts: For developing
strengthensandtocreateacooperationinthesocietyitisnecessarythat
there must be transaction of gifts in between each others which will
givestrengthentothesocietyandrespecttothedoners.
4. To make a person the owner of the substance of a thing: Under
Muslim Law a person becomes the owner of the substance of a thing
withoutanyconsiderationandtomakehimtheowneroftheprofitsalso.
IsRegistrationofGiftNecessary
UnderMuslimLawwritingisnotessentialtothevalidityofagifteitherof
movable or of immovable property. Sec. 122 to 129 of the Transfer of
PropertyAct,1882,dealswithgits.AsperprovisionslaiddowninSec.123
of this act, Gift of immovable property must be effected by a registered
instrument signed by the doner and attested by at least two witnesses, and
that a gift of movable property may be effected either by a registered
instrumentsignedasaforesaidorbydelivery.ButtheseprovisionsofSec.
123donotapplytoMuslimgifts Section 129 of this act also states that
nothinginthechaptershallbedeemedtoaffectanyruleofMohammedan
Law.
AspertheRegistrationActthegiftofimmovablepropertyworthover
Rs.100/ is required to be by registered instrument. Mohammedan law
permitsoralgiftofimmovablepropertyirrespectiveofvalueoftheproperty.
Hence the provisions of sec.123 do not apply to gifts covered by
Mohammedanlaw.
9. Discuss the concept of legitimacy under Muslim Law. Mention the
conditionsofavalidacknowledgment.
Introduction: Muslim law insist on the existence of a valid marriage
betweenthebegetterandthebearerofthechildatthetimeofitsconception.
A person born in lawful wedlock is said to be the legitimate child of the
spouses. The main point in the case of legitimacy of a child is marriage
betweenitsparents.InthecaseofHabiburRahmanChoudhariv/sAltaf
Alii Choudhary: It was held that the term wife necessarily connotes
marriage, but as marriage may be constituted without any ceremony the
existence of a marriage in any particular case may be an open question.
Direct proof may be available but if there be no such proof indirect proof
maybesuffice.
MuslimLawdoesnotrecognizetheinstitutionofadoption
which is recognized by other systems. Under Hindu Law adoption is
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intimatelyconnectedwithreligionhavingrelationtothereposeofthesouls
of the departed and the preservation of the house hold divinities. Amir Ali
explainedthatinfullertermsthatadoptionsimilartowhatwaspractisedin
the Days of Ignorance created no such tie between the adopted and the
adoptingasresultedfrombloodrelationship.OntheonehandMuslimLaw
recognizes the institution of iris or acknowledgment on the other hand it
disapproveslegitimating.
Thedoctrineofacknowledgmentrelatesonlytocaseswhere
either the fact of marriage itself or the exact time of occurrence with
reference to the legitimacy of the acknowledged child is not proved in the
senseofthelawasdistinguishedfromdisproved.InacaseofMohammad
Khanv/sAliKhan1981.
ESSENTIALSOFLEGITIMACY
When there is a direct proof of marriage or there are
circumstances from which marriage may be presumed the question of
acknowledgment of legitimacy does not arise because in such cases the
legitimacyisipsofactoestablishedorpresumedtobeestablished.Ifthere
is no such direct proof of legitimacy indirect proof may suffice and one of
thewaysofindirectproofisbyacknowledgmentoflegitimacybyfather(not
mother)infavourofason.Inotherwordsthedoctrineappliesonlytocases
of uncertainty as to legitimacy and in such cases acknowledgment has its
effectbutthateffectalwaysproceedsupontheassumptionofalawfulunion
betweentheparentsoftheacknowledgmentchild.
Inthecaseofagoodacknowledgmentoflegitimacythe
marriagebetweentheparentsofthechildacknowledgedwillbeheldproved
and this legitimacy established unless the marriage is disproved as held in
thecaseofMohammadsadiqv/sMohammadHassan1943.
Incasethemarriagebetweentheparentsofthechildcouldnot
beprovedtheacknowledgmentshallcarrynoforceintheeyesoflaw.The
acknowledger must acknowledge the child specifically as held in a case of
HariburRahmanv/sAltafAli1921.
EXPRESSORIMPLIEDACKNOWLEDGMENT
Itisnotnecessarythatanacknowledgmentshouldbeexpressit
mayalsobeimpliedaswasheldinthecaseofMohammadAminv/sValil
Ahmad 1952: where a person habitually and openly treat another as his
legitimatechildthisfactmaygiverisetoavalidpresumptionoflegitimacy.
Theacknowledgmentmaybeofsonorofdaughterbutitmust
bemadethefather.Theacknowledgmentofthechildmustnotbecasual.In
acaseofMohabatAliv/sMohammadIbrahim1929:Thefathermadethe
acknowledgmentofthechildinacasualmanner.Heneverintendedthathis
acknowledgment should have serious effects. It was held that the act of
thefatherisnotsufficienttoconferthestatusoflegitimacy.
Conditions:1.Whenamanexpresslyorimpliedlyacknowledgesanotheras
his lawful child the paternity of the child will be established in the man
providedthefollowingconditionsarefulfilled:
IntentiontoConferLegitimacy:Theacknowledgmentmustbemadein
suchawaythatitshowsthattheacknowledgeristoaccepttheothernot
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onlyashissonbutashislegitimatesonasheldinHabiburRahmanv/s
AltafAli1921.
AgeoftheAcknowledger:Theageofthepartiesmustbesuchthatitis
possiblethattheymaybefatherandson.
ChildofOthers:Thechildsoacknowledgedmustnotbeknowntobe
thechildofanother.
PersonAcknowledgedshouldconfirmacknowledgment:Thechild,if
adult,mustconfirm,oracquiesceinacknowledgment.Itisveryimportant
thattheacknowledgedchildshouldverifyacknowledgment.
LegalMarriagepossiblebetweenParentsofthechildacknowledged:
The acknowledger and the mother of the child must have been lawfully
joinedinmarriageatthetimewhenthechildwasbegotten.Itisessential
toshowthatalawfulmarriageispossiblebetweentheacknowledgerand
childs mother because the child is not the fruit of an adulterous
intercourse.
Competency of the Acknowledger: The acknowledger must be
competenttomakeacontract,thatis,heshouldbeadultandsane.
OffspringofZina:AnoffspringZinaisonewhoisborneitherwithout
marriage,orofamotherwhowasthemarriedwifeofanother,orofavoid
marriage.
An acknowledgment once made cannot be revoked: In a case of
Ashrfod Dowlah v/s Hyder Hussain1886: It was held that
acknowledgment of paternity is a recognition not simply of sonship but
oflegitimacyasason.
Rules of legitimating: depends on the assumption of legitimacy and its
establishment by avoidance of the hypothesis of unlawful relationship
betweentheparents.ReferthecaseofNazibunnissaBibi1864.
ThisruleisbasedoncontractualformofmarriageunderMuslimLaw.
Noceremonyisprescribedforavalidmarriage.
Itisalsonotnecessarythatthemarriageshouldbepublished.
MuslimLawdoesnotrecognizewesternconceptoflegit
effectsofacknowledgmrnt:Acknowledgmentofpaternityraisesatwofold
presumption.B)Oneinthefavourofsonclaimant.C)Theotherinfavourof
thewifeclaimanti.e.motheroftheacknowledge.D)Itproducesallthelegal
effectofnaturalpaternityandvestsinthechildrightofinheritingfromthe
acknowledgerincaseofason.E)Themotheroftheacknowledgedsongets
thestatusoflegalwifeandhencetherightofinheritance.
10.DefineAcknowledgementandkindsofGuardianshipunderMuslim
Law.
Introduction:TheQuranisthebasisoflawrelatingtoguardianshipwhich
connotesthelookafteroftheminor.Aminorisonewhohasnotattainedthe
age of Majority. Puberty and majority are in the Muslim Law one and the
same.Thetermguardianshipmeansapersonhavingthecareofthatperson
whoisminor.Hetakescareforhispropertyandforhim.Theguardianhas
tobeappointedlawfullyunderawillinaccordancewiththelawtowhichthe
minorissubject.Guardianhastoperformhisdutiesproperlyforthecustody
oftheminorandhisproperty.
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DefinitionofAcknowledgment:Wherethepaternityofachildthatishis
legitimate descent from his father cannot be proved by establishing a
marriagebetweenhisparentsatthetimeofhisconceptionofbirth,Muslim
Lawrecognizesacknowledgmentasamethodwherebysuchmarriageand
legitimate descent can be established as a matter of substantive for the
purposeofinheritance.
Definition: The guardianship has been defined in the Guardianship and
WardsAct,Thatapersonhavingthecareofthepersonofaminororofhis
property or of both person and property. The meaning of guardianship is
that a guardianship of a minor. But there is no mention of disposal in
marriageinanypartoftheActandnothingtoindicatethatitwasintendedto
interfere with the rules of Muslim Law. The Quran is the basis of law
relating to guardianship which assigns that function under name of jabar
entitledtocareandcustodyofthe(hiznat)wardsperson(Wilson).
Who is Minor: A minor is one who has not attained the age of majority.
Pubertyispresumedtohavebeenattainedonthecompletionofthefifteenth
years.ButnowtheMuslimsaregovernedbytheIndianMajorityAct,1875
except in the matters relating to marriage, divorce and dower. In Muslim
Lawfifteenyearsistheageofmajorityforthepurposesofmarriage,dower
and divorce. At or above this age, he or she is free to do anything in the
sphereofmarriagedoweranddivorce.
As regards other matters of guardianship of person and
property, a Muslim will be governed by the Majority Act which prescribes
18 years as the age of majority. Thus in cases of wills, waqfs etc. the
minoritywillterminateonthecompletionof18years.
AppointmentofaGuardian:WhentheCourtissatisfiedthatitisforthe
welfare of a minor then an order is to be made for the appointment of a
guardianofhispersonorpropertyorbothasdeclaringapersontobesuch
guardian,theCourtmakeanorderaccordingly.UnderSection15(1)ofthe
Guardian and Wards Act1890 it permits for the appointment of joint
guardianwherethecourthasappointedjointguardianandanyoneofthem
hasdied,thesurvivorcontinuestoactasguardian.
Section20oftheactimposesadutyontheguardiantodeal
withthewardspropertycarefullyandhonestly.Section24,25and26ofthe
act provides for custody of the child by the guardian and to look minors
support,healthandeducationandsuchothermattersasthelawtowhichthe
wards subject required. Under sec. 33 guardian can seek the advice of the
courtwithregardtothemanagementofthewardsproperty.
Kinds of Guardianship: Muslim Law makes a distinction between
guardian of the person, guardian of the property and guardian for the
purposes of marriage ( willayatulnikah ) in the case of minors.
Mohammedan Law recognises three kinds of guardianship. They are as
under:
1.GuardianshipinMarriage(Jabar):Thisexceptionismainfeatureof
Islamic because it empowers a father to impose status of marriage on his
minorchildren.Thispowerofimpositioniscalled(jabar)theabstractright
ofguardianship(wilayat)andtheguardiansoempoweredisknownasWali.
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The persons entitled who can act as guardians in the marriage of a

minor:
i)Father.ii)Thefathersfather,howhighsoever.Iii)Fullbrotherandother
malerelativesonthefatherssideinorderofinheritance.Iv)Motherv)
maternalrelationswithinprohibiteddegrees.vi)TheQaziorCourt.
As mentioned in the chapter of Marriage, it is one of the essentials of a
validmarriagethatthepartiesarecompetenttoenterintomarriagecontract
i.e.amongotherthingstheymusthaveattainedtheageofpuberty.However
thisgeneralrulehasoneexceptioni.e.wherethemarriageiscontractedon
behalfoftheminorsbytheguardian.ShiaLawrecognisesonly the father
and failing him the fathers father how highsoever as guardian in the
marriageofaminor.
2. The Guardian of the person of the minor for Custody (hizanat):
Regardingthenatureandextentoftherighttocustodyofaminorchild,it
was observed by the Privy Council in the case of Immambandi v/s
Mutasaddi1918, It is perfectly clear that under the Muslim Law the
motherisentitledonlytothecustodyofthepersonofherminorchilduptoa
certain ages according to the sex of the child but she is not the natural
guardian.Thefatheraloneorifhesdeadhisexecutor(undertheSunniLaw)
isthelegalguardian.InShiaLawsheisentitledtothecustodyofhermale
childtilltheageof2yearsandtoafemalechildtilltheageof7years.
3. Guardianship for Property of Minor: If a minor owns movable or
immovable property a guardian is necessary to manage it. Muslim Law
prescribescertainpersonsinanorderofpreferencewhocanbeguardianofa
minors property. The guardianship of the property of the minor under
MuslimLawmaybeclassifiedasunder:
1.Legal(dejure)ornaturalguardian.
2.Guaradianappointedbythecourtorcertifiedguardian.
3.Defactoguardian.
UNITIII
11. DefineMaintenance.Discusstheprovisionsregardingmaintenanceofdivorced
womanaccordingtoMuslimWomenProtectionRightsonDivorce1986.ORWhat
are the arrangements for maintenance under Muslim Law? Who are entitled for
Maintenance?Discuss.ORMaintenanceofMuslimWomen.
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Introduction:TheMuslimLaw,liketheEnglishLawtreatsthepropertyas
primarily and naturally individual. It does not like the Hindu system
contemplate as the normal state of things.The existence of mass of family
propertykepttogetherthoroughseveralgenerationsascommonfundforthe
common needs. Under Muslim Law a man is bound maintain his wife
irrespectiveofhisandhermeansandhisminorchildrenifheisnotindigent.
DefinitionofMaintenance:MaintenanceisequivalenttoArabicNafqah
which means, What a person spends over his family however in legal
sensemaintenancesignifiesandincludesthreethings:(i)Food(ii)clothing
(iii)lodging.
AccordingtoHedaya:Maintenanceasallthosethingswhicharenecessary
tothesupportoflifesuchasfood,clothesandlodging.
Provisions regarding maintenance of divorced woman: In Shah Bano
Beguum v/s Mohammad Ahmed Khan1985, the five judges bench held
thataMuslimhusbandhavingsufficientmeansmustprovidemaintenanceto
hisdivorcedwifewhoisunabletomaintainherself.Suchawifeisentitledto
the maintenance even if she refuses to live with the Muslim husband. The
courtalsoheldthattheabilityofthehusbandtomaintainhisdivorcedwife
tilltheexpirationoftheiddatperiodextendsonlyincasethewifeisableto
maintainherself.Thefollowingaretherightsofmaintenanceofdivorced
wife:
1.Maintenanceduringthesubsistenceofmarriage:Thehusbandisliable
tomaintainthewifefromthedatewhenthewifeattainspubertyandaslong
as she is obedient and faithful to her husband. The husband is bound to
maintain her even though she may have the means to maintain herself. A
Muslimwifewhoislivingseparatelymayclaimmaintenanceagainsthimfor
example if the husband treats her cruelty or marries with second wife
without her consent or if he paid prompt dower to her as held in a case of
Itwariv/sAshgari1960.
2.Maintenanceofadivorcedwife:UnderMuslimLawadivorcedwifeis
entitledtoobtainmaintenancefromhusbanduptoherperiodofIddat.Ina
caseofMohammadAhmadKhanv/sShahBanoBegum1985, although
theMuslimlawlimitsthehusbandsliabilitytoprovidemaintenanceforhis
divorcedwifeuptotheperiodofIddat.Thecourtheldthatifthedivorced
wifeisunabletomaintainherselfaftertheperiodofIddatsheisentitledto
recoursetosec.125Cr.P.C.
3.MaintenanceofaWidow:AccordingtoHedayasays,Thatawidow
shallnothaveanyrightofmaintenanceafterthedeathofherhusband.Under
the Shia Law a Widow is not entitled to any maintenance though she was
pregnantatthetimeofthedeathofherhusband.Therearesomeauthorities
in Mohammadans who recognised widows right if on the death of her
husband she was pregnant to maintenance until delivery, out of share in
estateofherhusbandwhichchildbornebyherentitledtoinherit.
In order to nullify the effect of the Shah Banos decision, Parliament
passed the Muslim Womens Protection of Rights on Divorce Act1986,
thefollowingaretheprovisions:
1.Areasonableandfairprovisionandmaintenancetobemadeandpaidto
herwithintheIddatperiodbyherformerhusband.
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2.WheresheherselfmaintainstheChildrenborntoherbeforeorafterher
divorceareasonableareasonableandfairprovisionandmaintenancefora
periodoftwoyearsfromtherespectivedatesofbirthofsuchchildren.
3.Anamountequaltothesumofmehrordoweragreedtobepaidtoherat
thetimeofhermarriageoratanytimethereafteraccordingtoMuslimLaw.
4.Allthepropertiesgiventoherbeforeoratthetimeofmarriageorafterthe
marriage by her relatives or friends or the husband or any relatives of the
husbandorhisfriends.
12.discussthejurisdiction,procedureandothersalientfeaturesof
familycourtsunderact,1984.OrThejurisdictionoffamilycourts.
Introduction: The establishment of the Family court for the purposes of
exercisingthejurisdictionandthepowerstoensurethatpersonscommitted
totheneedtoprotectandpreservetheinstitutionofmarriage,declarationas
tothevalidityofamarriageorastothematrimonialstatusofanypersonand
topromotethewelfareofthefamily.
Definition of Family Court:Family Courts with a view to promote
conciliationinandsecurespeedysettlementofdisputesrelatingtomarriage
andfamilyaffairsandmattersconnectedtherewith.
Jurisdiction of Family Court:The complete detail in respect of the
jurisdictionoftheFamilyCourtunderFamilyCourtsAct,1984isasunder:
1.Thefamilycourtsmayexercisetheentirejurisdictionexercisablebyand
DistrictCourtoranysubordinatecivilcourtunderanylawforthetimebeing
inforce.
2.TheFamilyCourts have the jurisdiction to accept a suit for proceeding
betweenthepartiestoamarriagewithrespecttothepropertyoftheparties
ofeitherofthem.
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3.Family Court has the jurisdiction to suit for proceeding between the
parties to a marriage for a decree of nullity of marriage(declaring the
marriagetobenull&voidorasthecasemaybeannullingthemarriage)or
restitutionofconjugalrightsorjudicialseparationordissolutionofmarriage.
4.FamilyCourtmayacceptthesuitorproceedingforadeclarationastothe
validityofamarriageorastothematrimonialstatusofanyperson.
5. The Family Court may commence a suit or proceeding for an order or
injunctionincircumstancesarisingoutofamaritalrelationship.
6.Proceedingfordeclarationaboutthelegitimacyofanypersonisaccepted
bytheFamilyCourt.
7. The family court has the jurisdiction to suit or proceeding for
maintenanceandinrelationtotheguardianshipofthepersonorthecustody
of,oraccesstoanyminor.
PROCEDURE:
Section9ofFamilyCourtsAct,1984,laiddownthefollowingprocedures:
1. Duty of Family courts to make efforts for settlement: Every suit or
proceeding endeavour shall be made by the Family Court in the first
instance,withthenatureofcircumstancesofthecasetoassistandpersuade
thepartiesinarrivingatasettlementandfollowthoserulesframedbyHigh
Courtasdeemedfit.
2.FamilyCourtmayAdjourn:Ifanysuitorproceedingatanystageseems
tobethatthereisareasonablepossibilityofasettlementbetweentheparties,
theFamilyCourtmayadjourntheproceedingsforsuchperiodasitthinksfit
toenableattemptstobemadetoeffectsuchasettlement.
3.Thepowertoadjourn: conferred by subsec.2 shall be in addition to
andnotinderogationofanyotherPoweroftheFamilyCourttoadjournthe
proceedings.
ProcedureGenerally
1.Sec.10ofFamilyCourtsActalsoprovidessubjecttootherprovisionsof
thisactandtherulesofprovisionsoftheCodeofCivilProcedureandofany
law for the time being in force shall apply to such proceedings under
criminal procedure code. Family Courts shall deem to be a civil court and
shallhaveallthepowersofsuchcourt.
2.ProvisionsshallpreventafamilyCourtfromlayingdownitsown
procedurewithaviewtoarriveatasettlementinrespectofthesubject
matterofthesuitorproceedingsoratthetruthofthefactsallegedbytheone
partyanddeniedbytheother.Undersection10(2).
3.ProceedingstobeheldinCamera:Ineverysuitorproceedingtowhich
thisactapplies,theproceedingsmaybeheldincameraiftheFamilyCourts
sodesiresandshallbesoheldifeitherpartysodesiresu/sec.11.
3.AssistantofMedical&welfare:Undersec.12oftheAct,everysuitor
proceedings, it shall be open to family court to secure the services of a
medicalexpertorsuchperson(preferableawomanwhereavailable)forthe
purposeofassistanceindischargingthefunctionsimposedbythisact.
4.Recordoforalevidence:Insuitsorproceedingsbeforeafamilycourtit
shallnotbenecessarytorecordtheevidenceofwitnessesatlengthbutthe
judgeastheexaminationofeachwitnessproceedsshallrecordorcausetobe
recordedamemorandumshallbesignedbythewitness.
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OTHERSALIENTFEATURESOFFAMILYCOURTSUNDERACT,
1984:
1.Act to have overriding effect: One of the salient feature that the
provisions of this act that this act shall have the effect notwithstanding
anything inconsistent there with contained to any other law for the time
beinginforceorinanyinstrumenthavingeffectedbyvirtueofanylawother
thanthisact.
2.PowerofHighCourtstomakerules:sec.21ofthisactprovidesHigh
courtmaymakesuchrulesmaydeemnecessarybygazettenotifications.
3.PowerofCentralGovt.Tomakerules:Sec.22providesthatthecentral
govt.MaywiththeconcurrenceoftheChiefJusticeofIndiamakerulesfor
appointmentofJudgesbygazettenotification.
4.PowerofStateGovt.Tomakerules:Sec.23oftheactalsoprovidesthat
the State Govt. By issue of gazette notification to make rules with the
consultationwithHighCourt.
5Preferenceshallbegiventowomen.
13 Discuss the function of Social Welfare Agencies in settlement of

familydisputes.
Introduction:The State government shall in consultation with the High
Court to determine the number and categories of councillor, officers and
other employees required to assist the Family Court in discharge of its
function and provide the Family Court with such councillors, officer and
otheremployeesasitmaythinkfit.
Associationofsocialwelfareagencies:Thestategovernmentmaywith
theconsultationtheHighCourt,providebyrulesfortheassociationinsuch
a manners and for the purpose and subject to such conditions as may be
specifiedintheruleswithaFamilyCourt.
1. Institution or organisation engaged in Social Welfare or the
representative thereof:Different Institutions or organisation who are
actively engaged with the society for the welfare of the Family and are
also helping the courts in settlement of the family disputes may also be
welcomedandtoconsidertheircounsellings.
2.PersonsworkinginthefieldsofsocialwelfareoftheFamily:Persons
workinginthefieldofSocialwelfareandmakingtheirsincereeffortsfor
developingthementalityofthemembersofthesocietyfortheearlyand
better settlement of the family disputes may also be honoured by the
societysothattheytakemoreactivepartandinterestinthisfield.
3. AnyotherpeoplewhoassociationwithaFamilyCourtwouldenable
into exercise its jurisdiction mare effectively in accordance with the
purposeoftheact.
4. Person professionally engaged in promoting the welfare of the
family:Such persons who are professionally involves in promoting and
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doing efforts for the welfare of the families be encouraged by

appreciatingtheirworkbythegovernmentandmustberewarded.
5. Termsandconditions:Thetermsandconditionsof the association of
thecouncillorsandtheservicestoberenderedbytheofficersandother
employeesshallbesuch,asspecifiedbyrulesmadebygovernment.
CONCLUSION: On the nut shell it is stated that the family courts have
been established for the speedy disposal of the cases related to family
disputes. These family courts have come into force on the date as the
governmenthasnotifiedtheprovisionsinthegovt.Gazette,byincludingthe
personsworkinginthefieldofsocialwelfareofthefamily.Howeverinthe
provisions it is also provided that any other person whose association with
familycourtwouldmakethecourtsenablestoexerciseitsjurisdictionmore
effectivelyinaccordancewiththepurposeofthisact.
UNITIV
14 What are the essential conditions to solemnize the marriage under
Special Marriage Act, 1954? Discuss the consequences of Marriage
underthisAct.
Introduction:In Indian legislation enacted by the Parliament of India to
provide a special form of marriage for the people of India and all Indian
Nationalinforeigncountriesirrespectiveofthereligionorfaithfollowedby
eitherparty.Theactoriginatedfromapieceoflegislationproposedin1872
was enacted, but later it was found inadequate for certain desired reforms
andParliamentenactedanewlegislation.
Thelawlegitimatethemarriagesforthosewillingtorenouncetheir
profession of faith altogether. It is believed that the legislation encouraged
marriages based on lust which would inevitably lead to immorality. The
SpecialMarriageAct,1954replacedtheoldAct,l872.
DEFINITION: The Parliament of India to provide a special form of
marriageforthepeopleofIndiaandallIndiannationalinforeigncountries,
irrespectiveofthereligionorfaithfollowedbyeitherparty.
Objectives:
1.Toprovidedaspecialformofmarriageincertaincases.
2.Toprovideforregistrationofcertainmarriage
3.Toprovideprovisionfordivorce.
Applicability:
1. Any person irrespective of religion,Hindu, Budihist, Jains and Sikh can
alsoperformmarriageunderSpecialMarriageAct,1954
2. The Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jewish religions can also perform
marriageundertheSpecialMarriageAct,1954.
3.Intercastemarriagesareperformedunderthisact
4.TheactisapplicabletotheentireterritoryofIndiaexcludingtheStateof
J&KandextendstointendingspouseswhoarebothIndiannationalsliving
abroad.
Requirements
1.ThemarriageperformedunderSMActisacivilcontractandaccordingly
thereneedbenoritesorceremonialrequirements.
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2.ThepartieshavetofileaNoticeofintendedmarriageinthespecifiedform
tothemarriageRegistrarofthedistrictinwhichatleastoneofthepartiesto
themarriagehasresidedforaperiodofnotlessthanthirtydaysimmediately.
Proceedingthedateonwhichsuchnoticeisgiven.
3. After the expiration of thirty days from the date on which notice of an
intended marriage has been published the marriage may be solemnized
unlessithasbeenobjectedtobyanyperson.
4.Themarriagemaybesolemnizedatthespecifiedmarriageoffice.
5.Marriageisnotbindingonthepartiesunlesseachpartystatesl.Itakethee
_________tobemylawfulwife/orhusband,inthepresenceoftheMarriage
Officerandthreewitnesses.
Conditionsofmarriage
1.Theeachpartyinvolvedshouldhavenoothersubsistingvalidmarriagein
otherwordseachartyshouldbemonogamous.
2. The bridegroom must be at least 21 years old and the bride must be at
least18yearsole.
3.Thepartyshouldbecompetentinregardstotheirmentalcapacitytothe
expedientthattheyareabletogivevalidconsentforthemarriage.
4.Thepartiesshouldnotfallwithinthedegreeofprohibitedrelationship.
SpecialMarriageAct,1954
HinduLaw
Marriagesolemnizedisvoidifeitherof
thepartiestothemarriagehadnot
ThemarriageunderHindulawwouldnotbe
voidthoughpunishableundertheChild
attainedtherequisiteage.
MarriageRestraintAct.
CONCLUSION:In fact this act was introduced for the first time in 1872
and also was enacted too. After sometimes inadequate discrepancies were
noticedanditrequiressomereforms.Thelawsoughttolegitimatemarriages
forthosewillingtorenouncetheirprofessionoffaithaltogethermeansIdo
notprofesstheHindu,Christian,Jewish,etc.religion.
TheSpecialMarriageActreplacedtheoldActandnewwasenactedthe
same during the year l954, which provides special form of marriage in
certain cases and registration of marriage as well as the provisions of
divorce.
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15 Discuss the cruelty as a ground of divorce under Special Marriage

Act,1954.Discusstheconsequencesofmarriageunderthisact.
Introduction:Section27theSpecialMarriageAct1954providesfor12
grounds for divorce. One of them is cruelty. Sec.2 of the Dissolution of
Muslim Marriage Act 1939 provides for 8 grounds on which a woman
married under this act is entitled to obtain a decree for dissolution of her
mirage.Oneofthemiscruelty.
Sec.32oftheParsiMarriageandDivorceAct,1936provides11grounds
fordivorce.Oneofthemiscruelty.
Sec.13ofHinduMarriageAct,1955providesfordissolutionofaHindu
Marriagebyadecreeofdivorceon13grounds.Oneofthemiscruelty.
Itismatterofstrangethatnoneoftheseactshoweverdefineastowhat
Crueltyis.
Definition:Theideaandmeaningandtheconceptofcrueltychangesfrom
time to time varies from place to place and differ from individual to
individual. It is not the same for persons situated in different economic
conditionsandstatus.
Perhaps this is the reason why the legislature has not in any of the Acts
defined as to what cruelty is and has left it to the best judgement of the
judiciarytodecideastowhatamountstocrueltytoaparticularpersonina
particularsetofcircumstance.
Various judges have in numerous judgements defined as to what
amounts to cruelty but once again those definitions are not general but are
relatedtothefactsofthoseparticularcases.
The question of cruelty is to be judged on the totality of the
circumstancesinordertotermaconductascruelitshouldbesograceand
weighty that staying together becomes impossible. A conduct to be cruel
mustbemoreseriousthantheordinarywearandtearofmarriage.
Bycrueltywenormallythinkaconductbehaviouranactofphysical
violencethenormalideaofcrueltyinthecommonmansmindisassaulting
somebody however cruelty as a ground for matrimonial relief is just not
physicalviolence.Crueltyasagroundfordivorceneednotbephysicalonly
it may be mental .And believes me mental cruelty is of a worse kind than
thatofphysicalviolence.
Awifesconductof:
1.Humiliatingherhusbandinthepresenceoffamilymembersandfriends.
2.Tauntingherhusbandonhisphysicalincapabilities.
3.Neglectingherhusbandandavoidinghimnottosharefamilyproblems.
4.Coldnessandinsultshimopenly.
5.Deliberatelywearingclotheswhichherhusbanddislikes.
6.Purposelycookingfoodwhichherhusbandisnotfondof.
7.Visitingherparentsfamilyoffandonagainstherhusbandswishes.
8.Undergoinganabortiondespiteherhusbandaskinghernottodoso.
9.Keepinghusbandoutsidethedoorofhouse.
10.Refusingtodohouseholdwork.
11.Threateningtocommitsuicide.
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12.Disobedienceherhusbandandtheparentofthehusband.
All these are not acts of physical violence but yet it has an effect on the
husbands mind and due to this the husbands health suffers and therefore
theseactscanbetermedascruel.
Husbandsconductofcruelty:
1. Humiliating his wife, calling her frigid or cold fish making excessive
sexualdemands.
2.Comparingherwiththemaidservant.
3.Toutingherfornothavinganychildorgivingbirthtofemalechildren.
4.Demandingdowry.
5.Askinghertobringmoneyorarticlesfromherparents.
6.Objectingtohervisitingherparentsinsultingherrelativeswhentheyvisit
her. 7. Deliberately removing all servants and making her do all household
work.8.8.Denyinganymedicaltreatmentwhensheisill.
9. The above are also the acts of mental cruelty by the husband upon his
wife.
10.Inoneofthecasestheconductofawifeabusingherhusbandandhis
family members in her letters. In defamatory and derogatory language and
accusing her husband of infidelity was considered as cruelty afflicted was
consideredascrueltyafflictedbyheruponherhusband.
In a decided case a Learned Judge of High Court held that the accusation
made by the husband in his written statement opposing the petition of his
wifeandallegingthereinwithoutrovingthesamethathiswifewasleading
anadulterouslife.Wascrueltyafflictedbythehusbanduponthewife.
Inordertofindoutwhetheraparticularactiscruelornotonehastolook
upontheeffectwhichiscausedbythatact.Ifheeffectisthatbyaparticular
actharmhasbeencausedothebodyormindoftheotherthesaidactisan
actofcruelty.
Indian people of whatever race and religion they may be and to whichever
class of society they may belong to are basically tolerant. Unless the
treatmentreceivedbyapersonfromhisorherspouseisextremelygraveand
unbearable,itisnottreatedasacruelconductgivingagroundfordissolution
ofmarriage.Stillwedonothavecasesofdivorceonthegroundofhusband
snoringatnightorwiferefusingtoaccompanyhusbandtoaparty.
Conclusion:Theconceptofcrueltychangesfromtimetotimevariesfrom
placetoplaceanddiffersfromindividualtoindividual.Itisnotthesamefor
personssituatedindifferenteconomicconditionsandstatus.Thelegislature
hasalsonotinanyoftheActsdefinedastowhatcrueltyisandhasleftitto
thebestjudgementofthejudiciary.
16WhatarethegroundsofJudicialSeparationunderMuslimLaw?
AndDiscussaboutconjugalrights?
Introduction: Marriage or Nikah in Muslim Law is a contract and needs
nothinginwriting.Thereisonlynecessaryisofferandacceptancemadein
the presence and hearing of two male or female witness and recording the
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factumofthemarriageintheconcernedregistermaintainineverymosque.
Signedbythepartiesandattestedbythewitness.
MuslimMarriageLaws:UndertheMuslimPersonalLawasuithasbeen
filedbythehusbandorwifeonwithdrawalfromthesocietyofotherwithout
lawfulground.
MuslimlawrecognizedtwoformsofdivorcebymutualconsentKhul
or Khula (Divorce at the request of wife) and Mubaraa or Mubaraat (by
agreement).
No provision so far enabling parties o the marriage parties to the
marriagetoseektheremedyofJudicialSeparation.
A Muslim wife may seek Judicial Separation on the following
grounds:
i.Absenceofthehusband:WhenaMuslimwifedoesnotknowwhere
aboutthehusbandforthelastfouryears.
ii. Failure of husband to provide maintenance: when a husband is
failed to provide maintenance to his wife from the last two year. Refer
caseFazalMahmudv/sUmmaturRahim,1949.
iii.ImprisonmentofHusband:Whenahusbandhasbeensentencedof
imprisonmentforsevenyearsormore.
iv.Failuretoperformtomartialobligation:Whenahusbandisfailto
performmartialobligationinbetweenthefamilies.
v. Impotency of husband: If the husband was impotent at the time of
marriageandcontinuestobeso.
vi.Insanity,leprosy,venerealdisease:Ifthehusbandishasbeeninsane
foraperiodoftwoyearsorsufferingfromLeprosyorvenerealdisease.
vii. Repudiation of marriage by wife: If she having been given in
marriage by her father or other guardian before the attaining the age of
fifteenyear,repudiatedthemarriagebefore18yearsandmarriageisnot
consummated.SheisabletoseekforJudicialSeparation.
viii.OptionofPuberty:Optionofpubertyistherightofaminorboyor
girl whose marriage has been contracted through a guardian to repudiate
or confirm the marriage on attaining the age of puberty. Under this
obligationaboyorgirlhastheoptionofrepudiatingthemarriage.Incase
ofanynegligenceoffatherortheguardian.RefercaseAbhulKarimv/s
AminaBai,1935.
Cruelty of Husband: Judicial Separation may also be claimed by the
Muslimwifeifthehusbandtreatsherwithcruelty.
Conclusion:A Muslim women may file a suit of Judicial Separation in
courts of India on the basis of facts mention above under Muslim Law
whichhasbeenrecognizedbytheMuslimSociety.Asperprovisionlaid
down in Muslim law a husband after marriage become responsible to
maintain her wife and fulfil her reasonable requirement with in his
capacitybutnotonsakeofhispersonalimage.
10DistinguishbetweenAcknowledgmentandAdoption.
Introduction:Adoptiondiffersmateriallyfromacknowledgmentof
paternity.Inadoption,theadopteeistheknownsonofanotherpersonwhile
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oneoftheessentialsofacknowledgmentisthattheacknowledgeemustnot
beknownsonofanother.
InMohammedanLawtheacknowledgerispresumedtobethe
lawfulfatheroftheacknowledgee.Theacknowledgeeissupposedtohave
beenbornoutofalawfulwedlock.Acknowledgmentofpaternityunder
MuslimLawisthenearestapproachtoadoption,butthetwoprocessesof
filiationsarequitedifferentandtheircomparisonwillgiveaclearideaofthe
subject:
Adoption
Acknowledgment
Anadopteeisasonofanother
person.
Itisestablishedbyagiftfromthe
naturalparentstotheadoptive
parents.
Parentageoftheadoptivefamilyis
affiliatedafterrenouncingthe
naturalfamily.
Ithasnoconnectionbetweenthe
naturaldescentoftheadopteeand
theadoptivefather.
Themotiveofadoptionmaybe
religiousandspiritual.
Itproceedsonthebasisofactual
paternity.Ifthesonisprovedtobe
othersacknowledgmentis
ineffective.
Itispossibleonlywhenthe
paternityofthechildisnotknown
andatthesametimechildisnot
provedtobeachildofanother
person.
Nosuchtransplantationispossible
inacknowledgment.
Itrelatestothetheoryofactual
descentoftheacknowledgeeby
legitimatemeans.
Thereisnosuchreligiousor
spiritualmotive.
CONCLUSION:Theadoptionisthetransplantationofasonfromthe
familyinwhichheisbornintoanotherfamilybygiftmadebyhisnatural
parentstotheadoptingparents.MuslimLawdoesnotrecognizeadoption.
InAcknowledgmentthepaternityofachildthatishislegitimatedescent
fromhisfathercannotbeprovedbyestablishingamarriagebetweenhis
parentsatthetimeofhisconceptionofbirth.MuslimLawrecognizes
Acknowledgment.
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5comments:
MohammedAliShaikh 23May2016at21:04
Reallyhelpfulnotes..Thankyousomuch
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mortgagee 1July2016at20:36
supernotesveryhelpfulthankyouverymuch
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DaveKamil 12September2016at10:39
Usefulnote...Thankyousomucn
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DaveKamil 12September2016at10:41
Usefulnote...Thankyousomucn
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BhatiaSaab 24November2016at23:52
Usefulnote..thanksforhelp
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absolutely to the wife. Mulla said, Dower is a sum of money or other

2. A Muslim marriage is a civil contract. Discuss the nature of the

purpose of legalising generation. The Prophet of Islam is reported to

There are only two classes of heirs namely a.sharersb.Residuary.

The persons entitled who can act as guardians in the marriage of a

13 Discuss the function of Social Welfare Agencies in settlement of

doing efforts for the welfare of the families be encouraged by

15 Discuss the cruelty as a ground of divorce under Special Marriage

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