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150

ELECTIONS, ETC.

[Minutes of

Aesociute Members.
REQINALD
FRANCIS
BAKER, Stud.Inst.
C.E.
BELL, B.Sc. (VicCHARLESDICXBON
tm*u),stud. Inst. C.E.
WILLIAX ALEC
BOOTHROYD,
Stud.
Inst. C.E.
RAYMOND CARPMAEL,
Stud. Inst. C.E.
JOEEPII
CAPEL CORNOCK,
Stud. Inst.
C.E.
MAURICE
BRYHAX
FRIEDBERGER,
Stud.
Inst. C.E.

HAROLD
TUORNTHWAITE
HINCKS.

CHARLES
EDWARD
INGLIS,
B.A. (Cantab.), Stud. Inst. C.E.
SENTARO KONDO.
JAYES
WARREN
MCCROSKY.
JOHN
ROWLAND
JONES
MOLEAN.
WILLIAEHENRY
MEYRICK.
MAGNUS
MOWAT, Jun., Stud. Inst.

C.E.
WILLIAXHENRY
LAWBON
PYBUS.
SAMUEL STANSFIELD,
B.Sc. (Victoria.)
WILLIAX ROBINSONTOWNSEND TUCKEY,

B.E. (Royal.)

(Paper No. 3207.)

The Present Condition and Prospects of the Panama


CanalWorks.
By JAXES
THOMAS
FORD,
M. Inst. C.E.

ITis perhaps necessarx as an introduction to this Paper


to make a
few general remarks by way of apology for the presentation of so
time-worn asubject as the Panama Canal. I n many quarters i t
has been regarded as a foolish undertaking, associated with fraud,
and doomed to failure from its inception. The Author,who has
enjoyed peculiar advantages in the study of this great work, is
desirous of modifying an unjust estimate of the character of a
former distinguished honorary member of the Institution, and of
removing a large amount of misapprehension regarding his last
great work, its present condition, and its prospects of completion.
He approaches thequestion from anentirelyindependentand
impartial standpoint, having hadoccasion to investigate the entire
work on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Colombia,
for theirguidance on thetechnicalquestionsarising
in their
dealings with the new Company, which has undertaken the completion of the canal.
Although it would be beyond the scope of this Paper to discuss
the geographical or historical featuresof the Isthmus of Panama,
or the operations which led to such disaster to the enterprise of
the old Company, and still further to discuss the necessity of the
canal from a political or commercial standpoint, yet a short sketch

* For information as to early plans for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans, see Papers i n the Minutes of Proceedings by J. Glynn (vol. vi. p. 399),
Lieut.-Col. J. A. Lloyd (vol. is. p. 58), and F. M. Kelly (vol. xv. p. 376).SEC. INST. C.E.

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FORD ON TIIE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

151

of the salient featuresof the romarkable first attempt to pierce the


Central American Isthmus may not be out of place. An International Congress of Engineers, summoned by Mr. de Lesseps, was
held at Paris 1879,
in and, afterconsidering the several projects for
a canal across the isthmus with the data then
before them, the
Panama routewas decided upon by a large majority,several eminent
men, however, dissenting. The great personal influence of Mr. de
Lesseps, fresh from the success of the Suez Canal, carried all before
it, and, as events have
proved, the scheme for a sea-level canal was
undertaken with imprudenceand undue haste, and without proper
surveys. The work was commenced i n 1881, after the formation of
the Company and after obtaining the
necessary concessions from the
Government of the Republicof Colombia, Mr. de Lesseps estimatirg
the total cost for a sea-level canal a t S34,000,000 sterling, and the
time of construction at 8 years. After working on these plans for
8 yeare, and spending a total sum of about L50,000,000 sterling,
the Company went into a rather shameful bankruptcy in 1880,
when a Receiver wasappointedbytheFrench
Courts, with
unlimited powers to make the best of the Companys assets for the
benefit of the shareholders. All work was practically abandoned
i n 1890. After considerable negotiationandinvestigation,the
Receiver obtained from the Colombian Government extensions of
the old concessions i n favour of a new Company, and made over to
this Company i n 1894 the whole of the property under conditions
extremely favourable to the new investors, but also safeguarding
as mubh as was possible the interests of the old shareholders in
the event of the completion of the canal, and its earnings being
i n excess of a stipulated amount. The new Company was organised
under the general lawsof France, and the strictestpossible supervision of the Receiver, as well as its financial stability, afforded an
ample guarantee that a t least a serious attempt would be made to
complete the work if careful investigation
should show it to bepracticable in every sense. The cash capital guaranteedwas ;E2,580,000
sterling, and the operations of the Company nave been necessarily
limited to the experimental work hereafter described and a series
of careful surveys to be laid
before the International Technical
Commission invited by the Company to deliberate on them.
The labours of the new Company have thus extended over a
period of nearly 5 years, but in this Paper it has been thought
best to limit the discussion to the aspects of the work to-day,
together with an examinationof the labours of the new Company,
and the conclusions of the Technical Commission ;with their bearing on the all-important questionas to whether or noti t is better

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152
-as

FORD ON TKE PRESENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS [IIiuutcu of

the opponents of the Panama route have always

insisted-

t o abandon all thought of the completion of the Panama Canal, as

being a practical or commercial impossibility, in spite of what has


really been accomplished there already, and to look elsewhere for a
more feasible, and in all.respects better, routefor the great waterway, which no doubt everyone who has ever thought about the
question is convinced must some day be constructed, to connect
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. I t is the Authors opinion that
this some day is not so remote as is generally believed, and
that the prospects i n favour of Panama are much better than is
generally supposed. For convenience and order in the investigation, it has been thoughtbesttodividethe
subject into five
sections, which, although leaving aside much that is of the most
fascinating interest to the general student or financier, cover the
ground from the engineers point of view, as to theuse of studying
the Panama Canal at all. These are as follows :l. The actual condition of the works, after their practical abandonment and neglect for upwards of 8 years, in its bearing on
the question of t.he stability or permanency of such work in that
particular region, in the eventof the Canal being completed ; also,
the present condition of encampments, and provision for the large
number of labourers tobe employed on different sections.
2. The fitness for service in continuation of the work, of the
existing plant, machinery and materials generally, judging from
their condition as to state of preservation, more or less obsoleteness of pattern, etc., and the extent to which new material would
be required.
3. The extent to which the investigations andpublished reports
of the New Panama Canal Company inspire confidence in the
solution of the physical and technical problems admittedly left
doubtfulbythe old Company, and the nature of the essential
pointsthat caused adverse criticismand honest differences of
opinion among eminent engineering authorities
as to thepossibility
or otherwise of constructing the Panama Canal all.
at
4. A general description of the essential features of the pl.ans
finally adopted bytheInternational
Commission of Engineers,
invited by the newCompany to decide upon various projects after
making their own independent and detailed investigations, with
dimensions of the several sections of the work, etc.
5. The Authors estimate of the proportion of the total work
already completed, thetimerequired
for completion, andthe
reasons for his conclusions.
1. Referring to the accompanying general map and longitudinal

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OB THE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

153

section, Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 6, it willbe seen thatthe two


maritime sections of the canal, beginning at the termini in the
bays of Panamaand Colon, underanyplan
of construction,
whether with locks or without, would be stretches a t sea-level.
Hence the dredging work already done on these sections is necessarily below that level, and is consequently far more subject to
injury from the accumulatedeffects of drainage, from the enormous
flood outflows of the River Chagres on the Atlantic side and the
Rio Grande on the Pacific during the periods of torrential rainfall
on the isthmus;besides being peculiarly subjectto tidal inflnences,
especially a t Panama on the Pacific side, where the maximum tidal
variation of springs amounts to 20 feet, while on the Atlantic
side at Colon the maximum variation does not exceed 18 inches.
To obtain the depth
necessaryfor the transit of deep draught
ocean vessels at all states of the tide in the Panama section, the
acwal excavation for the canal begins at a point in the Bay of
Panama about 35 miles from the shore (the canal proper enters the
land at a point known a s L a Boca on the west side and some
distance away from the town of Panama}, that is, 33 miles have
to be dredged in the bay tothe presentdeep-wateranchorage
used by ocean vessels under shelter of the Island of Naos. This
extension of the canal has so far been excavated to a depth of
30 feet below mean tide (the adopted datum of the Companys
plans) for its entire length, a short length of about 400 yards
contiguoustothenewrailwaypier
at La Boca beingfurther
excavated to a depth of 363 feet, forming a basin alongside the
wharf for immediate use, inwhich vessels can remain at all
timeswhentheyhavehadtoawaitthetidetoenter.This
depth gives only 25 feet a t low tide a t present. This deeper excavation has been carried out, as most of the future work will have
to be on this section, through a stratum of solid rock that underlies
the greater partof the Bay of Panama at slightly varying depths
;
and in the plans finallyadopted by the new Canal Company it is
proposed to attain a depth of 40 feet below mean tide throughout
the maritime section, thus giving a clear depth of 30 feet a t low
tide. These figures are sufficient to give an idea of the work yet
to be done in the Bayof Panama.
From the shore line at La Boca to the last lock on the Pacific
side a t Miraflores is 4& miles, making a total length of 8 miles
subject to tidal action as well as
to the floods of the Rio Grande
anditstributaries.Thecanalwas
excavated to Corozal, over
23 miles inshore, to a depth of about 30 feet below mean tide level,
the remaining2 miles to Miraflores being excavated down to about

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154

FORD ON THE PBESEET CONDITION AND P1iosPEcTs

[Minutes of

high-tide level, no dredges having penetrated beyond Corozal ; dry


excavation was well advanced at the time of the abandonment of
the works, and considerable lock excavation had been carried out
a t Corozal, which is now useless, the site having been changed to
Miraflores. The full width of the canal had beenexcavated by
the dredges to Corozal, and it is interesting to observe the confor 8 years under the
dition of the channel after abandonment
action of a 20-foot tide and of the floods of the Rio Grande, the
diverting channels of which, parallel with the canal, had never
been completed. From soundings taken by the Author here and
there in an inspection of the whole length of this section, the
siltinghas
been comparatively slight except atcertain spots
from the incursion of the river, and i n one place from a sunken
dredge. Thebanksat low tidebearlittletrace
of scour. The
tideintheBay
of Panama is free from any"bore"
or destructive wave, the banks of the canal and
low-lyingforeshore
remaining covered withtheir deposit of very fine softmud,
which so far has but little affected the canal excavations either
in the bay or inland, and this circumstance gives security for the
permanence of such works executed in that section.
Proceeding to the maritime section on the Atlantic side, from
Colon to Bohio, the site chosen for the first lock, 15 miles from the
zero point, the works on this side of the isthmus have, since their
interruption, been subjected to a much more aevere test than those
on the Pacific side ; although, of course, the tidal element being
no tide), the damage has
eliminated(therebeingpractically
beensolely due totheRiver
Chagres. Of the 15 miles from
the entrance to the canal at Fox River
(Christophe Colon) the
channel had been dredgedpracticallyto
its full width and to
an average depth of about 30 feet,fora
distance of 114 miles
through the marshy flats. On the 32 miles further to Bohio, the
land being somewhat higher, the excavation in dry earth hadbeen
carried down considerably, but not quite to sea-level, and is now,
as elsewhere, covered withundergrowth.This
11i miles, however, is still navigable for the greater part of its length; and
soundingstakenbytheAuthorgavedepthsvarying
between
20 feet and 30 feet, though banks at a depth of only 3 feet are
encountered a t occasional spots where the
incursions of the Chagres
and its tributaries have silted up the channel for short stretches
of
-notably
wheretheMindiRiverenterstheinnerBay
Colon. Thebanks
of thecanalremain
i n a good state of
preservation, with adense
fringe of aquaticgrowth,
almost
sufficient to render stone pitching unnecessary except a t certain

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OF

THE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

155

spots. I n estimatingtheamount of work done on this section


by the old Company, no figures available at the present day can
be considered accurate ; hence it is difficult to form an opinion,
even in the most general way, as to what portion of the canal
stillleft tobeexcavated
on these maritime sections is due to
silting,andwhathasreallynever
been done. The 3% miles
near Bohio, being above water,havenot
suffered a t all,and
on the whole length of 15 miles the deviations of the Chagres
by means of lateral channels on both sides of the canal formed as
important a feature, bothi n respect of volume of excavation and of
necessity for the permanence of the work, as the main canalitself.
A large amount of this work was done, but as these diverting
channels were still incomplete at the time of suspension of the
work, they were useless for carrying off the water of the Chagres
floods, and consequentlyfor
thegreaterpartduringthelast
8 years the canal has become the real bed of the Chagres, being
so much deeper and more direct to the sea. The state of preservation of this canal under such conditions guarantees the stability
of the work when the lateral channels shall havebeen completed,
to discharge the overflow of the Chagres entirely outside of the
harbour of Colon, on the eastern side of Manzanillo Island, on
which Colon is built, and on the western side at the old mouth
it
of the Chagresbeyond therange of lowhillsthatdivides
from theBay
of Colon. Themain
overflow of the Chagres
will go through this
channel, the great weir being situated
at
Gigante, above Bohio, a site peculiarly favourable to the accepted
plans based upon the later surveys of the new Company. It has
been estimated that on this section, including all the work on the
harbour and the lateral
canals, a t least five-sixths of the entire
work was done at the time of suspension of the works, and that
silting and other damage from the careless deposit of excavated
material at certain pointsstill leave it fully three-fourthscomplete.
The foregoing general estimate is all that can be attempted a t
present by averaging the figures and judging from appearances,
but is, in the opinion of theAuthor, a fairstatementafter
a
careful inspection, and gives an idea of the large amount of work
done, in spite of the popular impression that practically nothing
in the shape of real work was ever done for the enormous sum
of money expended.
of
Theport of Panama, sheltered by islandsintheBay
been so recognized
Panama, is perfectly safe, andhasalways
bytheshipping
of the Pacific. .Thetidal
flow carries out
to sea the silt from therivers coming intoit,andtherefore

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156

FORD ON THE PRESENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS [Minutes of

t.hereneed be no fear for its eEciency


as the terminus of the
canal. Theharbour of Colon isunder somewhatdifferent conditions. There is practically no tide; hence the necessityfor
dischargingthe Chagres entirelyoutside of the shallow inner
bay. The outer bay, now used by the shipping, with its various
wharves, is exposed to the north, from which direction at certain
seasons come the heaviest gales, making i t necessary sometimes
Thework
for theshipping toleave and go to sea forsafety.
done and projected by the Canal Company consists, first, in the
location of the canal entrance on the inner bay at the mouth of
to the westward, andis
theRiver Fox, whichcurvesround
protected by the stone breakwater and the point of land on which
theFrenchtown
of Christophe Colon stands;whilst a much
enlarged section of the canal for a length of 2 miles gives ample
protection and good quay accommodation for alltheshipping
thatmayenter.
I t hasnot suffered, nor is it likely to suffer
deterioration when completed. The increased width of the basin
of the suspension of
was not more than half given at the time
the work, but if thecanalneveris
constructed, even inits
present condition, i t would certainly be substituted eventuallyfor
thepresentharbour
of Colon bythe removal of the wharves,
warehouses, and railway connections of Colon with the Fox. I n
thus describing the unfavourableconditions of the present harbour
of Colon, it is only fair to state the fact that,
beyond the occasional
inconvenience from northerly gales already alluded to, the port
hassafely accommodated for manyyearsthelargestshipping
traffic of any port on the south and central American coast, from
Yucatan to North Brazil.
As to the condition of the central o r main section of the canal,
between theextreme locks a t Bohio (15 miles) and nliraflores
( 3 5 2 miles), it is necessary to say but little, the route being all
considerably above sea-level. The work executed by the old and
new companies is consequently much i n evidence throughout its
entire length (and far greater in quantity than is generally supposed), and is in perfect preservation, unaffected by the cessation
of work and lapse of time, save here and there an insignificant
slide in the upper layers of the summit cut at Culebra, or some
badly placed spoil bank which may have intercepted
local drainage.
As the great Culebra cut will be treated o f later, it is unnecessary
to say more at this point than that all fears for the stability
of
the cut when made have been proved groundless, and that, as it
stands to-day, it is undoubtedlythe most impressive piece o f
work executed anywhereinthe
world bythe hand of man.

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OF THE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

157

Mention should here be made of the extensive establishments for


housing the labour force, and the various encampments and workshops erected by the old Company along the line of the canal in
such unprecedented profusion, besides hospitals, residences, etc.,
In the
beautifullysituated,and
of considerablepretensions.
Authors opinion they constitutean element of capital importance
for the continuation of the work, and are absolutely necessary o n
this or any other route for an inter-oceanic canal-at an outlay
i n cost and time, which i n estimates for work of this character
and magnitude, i n such climates, is not always provided for as
fully as is required.
2. The most importantpoint
forconsideration
inthe continuance of the work is the plant already on the ground. The
liquidator and the new Company have made the preservation of
all that can beutilizedhereaftertheir
special care. Thisthey
have done most efficiently by housing the machinery and rolling
stock as muchas possible, cleaningandpaintingbrightparts,
and carefullylistingeverythingunder
perfect
a
system
of
storekeeping. Of course thereis much inthe enormous total
spread all along the works that is comparatively useless, but the
manythousands of tons of railsandother
materials, miles of
earth wagons, locomotives, dredges, cranes, and excavators, fully
equipped workshops and foundries, etc., must certainly be taken
into account as of considerable value,andthehasty
opinion
sometimes expressed that it can only be regarded as a gigantic
scrap-heap is certainly not borne out by an impartial investigation. It would certainly be advantageous, upon the resumption
of work on a large scale, to obtain some new dredgers and other
machinery, excavators and carriers of more modern type and of
greater capacity, such as those which have proved so successful
on works like the Manchester and the Chicago canals. But the
new Company, with limited capital, has actually
been in operation
for the past 3 years on some difficult, important andeffective work,
practically using nothing but the plant found on the ground.
3. To show thattheinvestigationsand
published reports of
the New Panama CanalCompany inspire confidence in the solution
of the physical and technical problems admittedly left doubtful
by the old Company, it is almost sufficient to refer to the list of
engineers of internationalreputation, composing thetechnical
commissio,n engagedbythe
new Company ; theirablereport,l

Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama : Rapport presente au Conseil


dAdrninistration par le Comite Technique, etc. Paris, 1899.
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158

FORD ON THE PRESENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS pfinutcs of

recently published,establishesbeyonda
donbtthefeasibility
of thecanalonthelinesthey
propose. Thisreport is in fact
a r6sum6 of numerous independent investigations on the ground,
experimentsandactualsurveys,andcareful
discussions of the
features of a multitude of projects submittedto
them. By a
process of elimination of all that could be considered hazardous
for want of precedent, it presents three equally practicable plans,
of which one is selected which contains no feature that has not
alreadythesanction of experience elsewhere. When it is considered that this distinguished body of men, aided by a competent
force of engineers in thefield, hare made an exhaustive investigation with borings and meteorological and tidal observations over
an extended period, and have profited by experiment in construction, it may fairly be assumed that nothing in the wayof data is
wanting to warrant definite conclusions as to the Panama canal.
I t is not the purpose of this Paperto transcribe themass of detailed
information contained in the report, but some of this matter will
be found in the Appendix. The Author ventures to
express his
chosen by the Compreference for an alternative plan to that
mission, which, however, they declare to be equally practicable.
His reason is the conviction that considerations of economy and
expediency, which to a large extent undoubtedly governed their
choice under the existing conditions of general public distrust i n
the whole enterprise, will soon have altered in importance; that
with returning confidence the construction of the canal is really
assured,and will inspirea greater effort on the partof the Governments or capitalists who undertake it, to approach still nearer to
the ideal sea-level canal than theCommission is inclined to recommend ;and consequently, the immediate adoptionof the lowest locklevel practicable, in the Authors opinion, would not cost appreciably
more than themedium summit levelrecommended by the Commission, and would give infinitely superior results for navigation.
Before proceeding to discuss the plans, it may be well to state
clearly the difficulties inherent in any form of canal through the
isthmus at Panama. The Technical Commission having rejected
as impracticable, or rather imprudent, under present
circumstances,
the recommendation of the ideal solution of a sea-level canalbeing excessively costly, andpeculiarly subjectto thedangers
of an overflow from the Chagres and other torrential streams, was
limited to a choice of various altitudes of summit level for a canal
with locks. I n this connection the popular idea that a sea-level
canal, without locks, is an impossibility at Panama, on account of
the difference of tide-level in the two oceans, is erroneous. It is
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OF TEE P A N A l h CANAL WORKS.

159

scarcely necessary to point out to engineers that a 6-hour interval


of ebb and flow, and amaximum possible difference of 10 feet
(half the total range) ina total distance of nearly 50 miles, could
produce no continuous current from one ocean to the other, but
only such alternating currents as
occur elsewhere under similar
conditions i n tidal canals, rivers or lagoons. Tidal reaches in all
tidal canals or estuaries must be subject to alternating currentsof
greater or less velocity, and if there were no locks in the Panama
Canal,probably the greatest distance to which the
Pacific tide
would be felt would be far short of the middle of the isthmus.
Therefore i n this, as in some other serious questions raised as to
thestability of theCulebracut,there
would be no physical
obstacles to a sea-level canal ; cost alone making such a canal a t
Panama a present impossibility, and this may not always
be so
inthefuture.Butputtingthissolutionentirelyout
of the
question, as the Commission has done, the essential difficulties in
the construction of a lock canal are three-(1st) It is doubtful if
at any elevation of the summit level of the proposed canal there
could be obtained and stored sufficient water to supply the needs
of sucha canal for lockage, evaporation,etc., having regard to
long seasons of drought. This the investigations of the Technical
Commission have settled beyond question, and the description of
their projects will show how water is to be obtained and stored i n
quantities far more than sufficient to cope with the most exacting
conditions likely to be encountered, and this by natural meansthat is to say, without the rather doubtful expedientof pumping,
proposed bythe old Company for the Eiffel locks. (2nd) The
danger of an excess of waterduringthe
flood seasons of the
Chagres must be considered. This question is also satisfactorily
met by any
one of the three solutions of the Technical Commission, based on data and calculations that are trustworthy in
every respect. (3rd) On account of the nature of the subsoils, and
the heavy rainfall tending to produce landslips, the possibility of
makingthegreatCulebraandEmperadorcutswasdoubtful.
From extensive borings and actual
work in the cuttingit has been
proved that no special difficultyneed be anticipated on this account.
A most exhaustive and accurate series of observations, explorations and surveys of all features that could affect the final completion of the canal and render
a decision possible, were made
by the new Company i n order to arrive at the best location and
plansto
be adopted;streamswere
gauged, therainfall was
measured, and borings, in all cases into solid rock and, where
necessary, down to and below sea-level, weremade at intervals
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FORD ON THE PREBENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS

Winutcs of

along the canal from end t o end and at all possible dams and lock
sites. As any excavation that could be done on the Culebra and
Emperador cuts would be so much to the good towards its completion, whatever final plans might be adopted, it is here that the
greatest amount of workhasbeen
done by the new Company.
The force omployed on this work has averaged about 1,500 men
for the past three years; the cut hasbeen carried down throughout
2 miles t o a level of 160 feet above sea-level, and to a width of a
little more than one-fourth its final width ; the average elevation
atthe summit was originallyabout 380 feetabovesea-level.
These figures give some idea of the magnitude of what has been
accomplished, the importance of whichisnot
so much inthe
material progress since the! interruption of the work, but in the
absolute proof which it affords of the natureof the ground, and the
feasibility of the work, even if it were ever thought necessary to
go down to thesea-level canal. It has been shownthat thedreaded
landslides are absolutely insignificant, occurring only in the comparatively slight upper soil, and due in great part t o the careless
deposit of material in spoil banks in the early stages of the work
obstructing the natural drainageof the land ; even the loose spoil
banks,tosaynothing
of the realbanks
of thecut,stand
perfectly a t a sharp angle, in
some placesquiteperpendicular,
and are covered with permanent growth. This refers only to the
upper strata, for the new
Company have long been working in
material constantly increasing in density from shale and sandstone
to conglomerate and other compact rocks ; and at the time of the
Authors recent inspection they were well into hard
black basalt at
many points, with the unfinished sides standing perpendicular and
notashovelful
of materialbeing removed withoutblasting.
t o carry away the material
The lines for the construction trains
excavated,havebeenlaidout
with the greatestcareandforethought, and have been carried through
on both sides,towell
chosen and distant tips or spoil banks in the valleys
of the Rio
Grande and theObispo River ; the spoil in allcases being deposited
so as to improve the natural drainage of the lands adjacent to the
canal, and usefully employed in the huge embankments necessary
(many sections being now complete
for rail-laying) for the deviation
of the Panama Railwayas the workprogresses. These construction
linesare so disposedas t o makepossible an enormous increase
in the working force and number of the trains, so that working
dayandnight,thetime
of constructionneedonly
be limited
by the number of menandmachines that caneconomically be
of the cuts. It would be difficult
engaged in the actual length
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161

OF THE PANAMA CAXAL WORKS.

t o speak too favourably of theresults achieved underthediscouraging conditions and limited financial resources of the new
Company during the early stagesof their labours, when it was not
atallcertainthat
aserious attempt would ever be made to
complete the work.
4. The Technical Commission having definitely put aside all
plans for a sea-level canal, principally, on account of its cost,
which, as a purely commercial~scheme~could never yield
a profitable
returnunderany
reasonable estimate of thefuture traffic, it
is unnecessary a t present to discuss that question further. Should
circumstances arise to cause: the work to be undertaken by some
Government, or combination of Governments, who would regard
theextra
cost as more than compensated bytheadvantages
of such a canal,i t may be conceded in the light
of the investigations
made, that there is no insuperable obstacle to its construction on
that system, and there is little doubt that the ultimate
cost of
its maintenanceandworking
wouldbeconsiderablyreduced
thereby. Kevertheless in allplans considered it has been borne in
mind that the lower the summit-level and the less the lockage
(i.e., the nearer to sea-level), other things being equal, the more
satisfactory would the solution be for the purposes of navigation.
The Comnlission has studied in detail three distinct plans, all of
which are admitted to
be equally practicable-the highest with
the summit-level 126 feet above mean sea-level, the medium plan
with the summit-level at 98 feet above mean sea-level, and the
lower plan with the summit-level 6 2 feet above mean sea-level.
They recommend the adoption of the medium plan, a short
description of which will now be given, the other two being of
the nature of modifications in the quantities of different kinds of
work involved rather than forming anessential departure from the
general design, except in one important particularof the lower plan.
The alignmentof the canal,on any of these plans,being governed
by the topography of the country,is practically identical with that
of the planson which theold Company worked, save for a fewminor
alterationsintheflattening
of some of thecurves; hence the
whole of the work previously done is utilized. I n general termsthe line, beginning at Colon on the Atlantic side, crosses the low
marshy country in a southerly direction till i t reaches the valley
of theRiver Chagres, which it crosses severaltimesuntil
it
reaches the junction of its tributary, the
Obispo, a t Matachin,
where the Chagres itself turns sharply to the eastward and runs
generally parallel to the sea-coast. (It is this peculiar feature of
the Chagres that causes it to collect such enormous quantities of
[THE INST. C.E. VOL. CXLIV.]

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B1

162

FORD ox TIIE PRESENT COXDITION ASD PROSPECTS Winutes of

water during floods, as its drainage-area is far larger than couId


otherwise be the case on so narrow a strip of land.) At Matachin
the canal leaves the Chagres and follows the valley of the Obispo
until the watershed is
reached, where arethegiganticcuts
of
Culebra and Emperador. After crossing the watershed, i t descends
thevalley of the Rio Grande from C'ucaracha t o La Boca on
the westside of the Bay of Panama., following practically the
same generalroute as thePanamaRailway.Fromend
to end
switches andside tracks, and this
i t is united to this line by
circumstance undoubtedly influenced de Lesseps to a considerable
extent in the choice of Panama as the best route for building the
canal economically. Theplan adopted may be divided intosix
sections for convenience in the description, namely, one summitsections
level section across thewatershed,twointermediate
between theextremesummit
locks andthetidal
lockon t h e
Pacific side, one intermediate section on theAtlantic side, and
two sea-level stretches between the extreme locks on either side
and the oceans a t Colon and Panama, Fig. 2, Plate 6.
The quantities, on the estimates of the Technical Commission,
(see Appendix) have been calculated for a mean depth of water
throughout of 30 feet, andtheamount
of materialstill to be
excavated for the adopted plan in the great
Culebra cut alone
is 14,600,000 cubic yards; for purposes of comparison the highlevel plan would only need 10,700,000 cubic yards, and the lower
plan would need 20,400,000 cubic yards of excavation; the proposed cross sections of the variousdivisions are shown in Figs.
3, 4 and 5, Plate 6.
The estimated total costs of thethree
projects are :High-level plan
Medium plan .
Low-level plan .

. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

19,400,000
20,300,000
21,100,000

Beginning a t Colon on the Atlantic side, the sea-level stretch


extendstothe 25thmile, wherethe double locks a t Bohio are
situated. These locks have a total lift of66 feet, this being the
maximum possible elevation of the water in theBohio lake section
next above. This lake is formed by a clam a t Bohio across the
Chagres and is calculated to have a storage capacity between its
minimum and maximum levels of 196,000,000 cubic yardsof water.
The sites for boththe darn andthe locks at Bohio have been
carefully chosen, on good foundations, after an exhaustive series
of boringsandsurveys.Thecanalthen
follows approximately
the bedof the Chagres, partially inundated and partially exca-

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Proceedings.]

OF THE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

163

vated, and hares the Chagres a t Matachin for the Obispo Valley,
where a t 29 miles the two summit locks are placed. These have
a total possible lift of 50 feet, the 13$ miles length of the Bohio
Lake section being calculated for a variation of 13 feet i n elevation
accordingto the season, Figs. 6, Plate 6. Thesummit level is
also calculated to vary possibly 5 feet above the adopted 98 feet
level. Fromthesesummit locks a t Obispo across the Cordillera
dividetothe
locks on the Pacific side a t Paraiso,thesummit
level is carried for 7 miles and the descent is made at Paraiso to
the first intermediate section by one lock with a maximum lift of
30 feet. This section is 1; mile in length and extends to
Pedro
Miguel, where a double set of locks, with a maximum combined
lift of 59 feet lowers the level to that of the second intermediate
section, 19 mile in length, which terminates at Miraflores. There
the varying sea-level of the Pacific is reached with one tidal lock,
having a maximum lift of 30 feet and a minimum lift of 7 feet, i.e.,
allowing for the wriation of the water-levels in the two intermediate sections as well as for the 20-foot tide at Panama. From
Miraflores to La Boca, and thence to deep water a t Naos Island,
there is a sea-level stretch of 8 miles, giving a total length for the
canal, to deep water, of about 46 miles. The maritime section a t
Panama, as stated before, is ultimately to have a depth of 40 feet
below mean tide level, which thus gives a minimum of 30 feet a t
low tide as elsewhere. The minimum radius of curvature in the
alignment is 150 chains, with the exception of some short sections
i n the approaches to locks, where a radius of 125 chains, and
even of 95 chains, has been found unavoidable.
The characteristic features of this plan will now be dealt with,
showing how it meets the opposing conditions of controlling too
much water in flood times, and of storing and supplying enough
in dry seasons for all ,the possible needs of the canal. Details
of measurements and quantities, necessary works, such as locks, etc.,
will be found in tabular form in the Appendix, and in the published report of the Technical Commission. It has always been
on theisthmuswhich
could
recognised thattheonlystream
possibly supply the waternecessary for a lock canal is the Chagres,
the minimum flow of which has been ascertained to be 26 cubic
yards per second in extremely dry weather, while its maximum
flood-discharge has been estimated as high as 3,400 cubic yards per
second for 48 consecutive hour#. These latter figures, however, are
rarelyattained.
I t is somewhat surprisingto find that as far
back as 1875 the AmericanGovernment expedition under Commander Lull proposed exactlythe same planasthat
adopted
M 2
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164

FORD ON THE PRESENT CONDlTIONANDPROSPECTS

[Minutes of

by the Technical Commission for controlling the Chagres floods.


The great dam a t Alhajuela is to be placed at precisely the spot
shown on themap published withtheir report. This circumstance is certainlymost creditable to that survey,so rapidly made,
although in other points the details of their project differ from
the more matured plans of the Technical Commission.
From Obispo, ascending the valley of the Chagres, a distance ~f
93 miles (measured by the line of the proposed supplyv channel),
an ideal spot for a high dam is reached a t Alhajuela, with solid
rock bottom and steep rock abutments. The dam at this
point,
at the elevation (190 feet) necessary for supplying the summitlevel
of the canal on the adopted plan, will form a lake 6,424 acres in
area, which, with an allowed variation of 13 feet in itslevel, will
of mater, Figs. 8, Plate 6. The
store 130 millioncubicyards
lower lake between Alhajuela and Bohio, through part of which
the line of the canal is carried, will be formed by the other great
dam a t Bohio, giving a water area of 13,600 acres and a storage
capacity of 196 million cubic yards, with a variation of 10 feet
i n level, Figs. 7, Plate 6. The waste-weirs at both sides of the
dam a t Bohio are calculated todischargetogether
1,570 cubic
yards per second when 48 hours of the maximum flood shall have
raised the lake to alevel of66 feet, and provision is made for
the discharge of even greater floods if such should occur. These
general figures, backed up as they are by the most careful series
of observations and calculations, as well as the certainty that the
works as planned can be executed-the sites of dams, etc., being
unexceptionable in every way-are sufficiently convincing as to
the satisfactory solutionof this important problem. Whichever of
the three proposed elerations had been adopted for the summit
level of the canal, this characteristic controllingdam at Alhajuela
would still have been necessary, as will be further explained i n
the case of the lower level, whereby the Bohio Lake level would
become thesummit of the canal. From thedamat
Alhajuela
thesupplycanalforthesummitlevel
is carried across rather
difficult country by open cuts, tunnels, aqueducts and siphons for
93 miles to a convenientpoint above Obispo. Thecapacity of
this very important and difficult feature of the medium plan is
33 cubic yards per second, and the cost is estimated a t 5670,006.
exclusive of the Alhajuela dam.
While frankIy admitting the completeness of all the features of
the adopted plan,theAuthorstillthinksthatthe
low level
Senate Document No. 75 of the 45th Congress, U.8.A.

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Proceedings.]

OF THE PANAMA
CANAL

WORKB.

165

alternative plan is in every way superior. The dam a t Alhajuela


would still beindispensable, tostorethe
floods of theUpper
Chagres and to dischargethem slowly into the lake of Bohio.
(The enormous supply of power for all the mechanical purposes
of the canal, railways, and commercial enterprises on the isthmus
is uxtremelyvaluable,
as over 50 per cent. of thewateris
known to come from above Alhajuela.) By this plan the Bohio
Lake becomes tho summit level of the canal, at an elevation of
63 feet above mean sea-level, dispensing with the two sets of locks
at Obispo and Paraiso as well as with the great supplycanal, and
necessitating, on the other hand, 5,800,000 cubic yards of extra
excavation inthe Cordillera. Theadvantagesare obvious, and
whilenot
inanyway
affecting the prosecution of the work
on the adopted plan, it is to be hoped that circumstances may
arisetoenablethe
Company to waive the financial andtime
considerations which principally governed their decision i n favour
of the medium levelplan,andtoresort
to the low-level plan,
which their carefully prepared report shows to be equally practicable i n every respect. The cost of the supply canal is not the
only objection to it; the ground is difficult, and in some places
possiblytreacherous, for i t hasnot been so carefully examined
as other portions of the work. Its liability to damage and the
cost of its maintenance must also be takeninto account, especially as from the figures it is by no means clear that any real
savingwill beeffected by its adoption with the mediumlevel
plan. Theadvantage
of shorteningthetime
of transitfor
shipsbyeliminatingtwo
complete sets of locks should weigh
considerably infavour of the low-level plan; and further, the
whole of the enormous capacity of the Alhajuela lake would be
available for lockage down to the level of Bohio lake, instead of
onlyitsvariations
abovea
level of 190 feet, asinthe
case
of the medium-levelplan.
Thisfeature alone should, inthe
Authors opinion, secure its adoption, dispelling any doubt whatever on the much-discussed question of sufficiency of water supply
in extremely dryweather.
5 . In dealingwiththe
Authors estimate of theportion of
the work already completed, andthetimerequired
for completion, it is perhaps best to state first i n general terms that the
of itsliquidation
expenditure of the old Company at the time
amounted to 50 millions sterling, for all purposes; and that the
Technical Commission carefully estimates a total further expenditure for completing their adopted plan with ample allowance for
contingencies, includingthein~nlediate construction of allthe
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166

FORD ON THE PRESEST COXDITION AND PROSPECTS [Niuutes of

locks with doublechambers


instead of single, at 21 millions
sterling. I t would he impossible atthisdateto
measure accuratelythe excavations asthey were atthetime
of suspension
eight years ago, and i t would also be unsafe to accept the various
progress reports of the old Company without explanations as to
certain modifying conditions that it would be impossible to obtain.
TheAuthor,after
carefulinspection
of the work inevery
part,andwithfull
access to allthe figures available, believes
that for sucha lock canal a t Panama, one half of the work
has been done already so far as cost is concerned; although the
volume of excavation accomplished, as compared with what would
have been the totals for the present plans, is approximately stated
as much less in the last column of the following Table.
The excavation still to be accomplished on the canal proper, on
the various sections, is briefly as follows :--

~~

llaritilne section, Stlantic sick


.
Intermediate section, ,,
,,
.
Summit level ,,
,,
.
Intermediate bection, Yacitic aide

..

Maritime

,,

,,

,,

,.

,,

...

__------0 to 15
15 ,, 29
29 ,, 36
Yti ,, 37
H7 ,, 382
38% ,, 469
(

1
'
1
-

Tutd

- S

8,380,000
10,920,000
31,190,000
25
1,900,100
1,449,400
25
12,605,000

1
66,444,500
i

75
20
30

60

If the fignres of theTechnical Commission are accepted for


the completion, the total value of the Commission's proposed canal
at Panama, on the Author's estimate of the proportion already
executed, would be 542,000,000 sterling; while it will have cost
when completed tile enormous total of %71,000,000 sterling (that
is, the amount already expended plus the Commission's estimate
for completionj, without including the interestlost.
Theimportant question to-day, however, is,Can
a canal as
good as the Panama Canal, on the adopted plans of the Technical
Commission, be built for less money than the 21 millions sterling
further needed, plus such proportion of reversionary or contingent
profits on shares as may come to the old shareholdersfor their
50 millions already sunk?" The Author thinks not, either for the
money 'or in the time that must elapse before ships are enabled
to pass from the Atlanticto the Pacific across the CentralAmerican
Isthmus, which, allowing for the most rapid progress possible
on all sections, cannot be expected in less than 8 or 10 years

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Proceedings.]

OF THE PANAMA CmAL WORKS.

167

from thetime
work is again vigorously undertaken. These
remarks apply equally to the project for a lower summit level.
The question of health on the Isthmus, as one of supreme importance in the prosecution of the work, should not be ignored;
from actual experience the Author considers the evil reputationof
that region i n no way justified. I n the early days of the construction of both therailroadand canal, no doubttherewas much
sickness; but with the extensive clearing
done and the growth
of villages from end toend
of theline,with
a population
of Panama is to-day
of some 40,000 inhabitants,theIsthmus
as healthy as anyothertropical
region, and is practically
safe for the residence of white men who observe the most ordinary
rules of health.
ThePaper is accompanied by fifteen photographsandfour
new Panama
sheets of drawingsgiventotheAuthorbythe
Canal Company. From these Plate 6 has been prepared.

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168

FORDON THE PKESERT CONDITION A N D PROSPECTS

[blinutts cf

APPENDIX
SUJIJISIiY O F THE TECHNICAL CORIJIISSION'S ESTINATE
O F COST.
EARTHWORK.-GESERAL.
Atlanticmaritimesection
. . .
Bohio intermediate section . . .
Summit section . . . . . .
Intermediate section, Paraiso . .
Intcrmedinte section, Pedro-JIiguel
Pacific maritime section . . . .
Contingencies . . . . . . .
Stone-pitching banks. . . . .

. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .

. . . .

. . . .
. . . .

Total co8t of earthworks

f Sterling.

815,500
1,517,400
4,705,000
252,300
189,500
1,204,700
S32,500
277, 5ao

. E1,594,400

--

The average prices given include transportation aud all handwork, dredging
a t 3 francs and sometimes 3.50 francs per cubic metre (1s. 10d. and 2s. l i d .
per cubic yard), ordinary excavation 3.50 francs and rocky material 5.50 francs
percubicmetre (2.9. 14d. and 3s. 4d. percubic yard). For the great cut at
Culebrlt and the other excavation in dry ground the rates are 3.50 francs per
cubic metre (2s. l*d. per cubic yard) for ordinary excavation, and 5.50 francs
per cubic metre (3s. 4d. per cubic yard)for rocky material,includingalso
discharge and all other expenses. These prices have been established upon the
cost of the work a t present being done in the great cut. with certain correceions
which future circnmstances appear to justify in the
opinion of the Commission.

LOCKS.

f Sterling.

Serics of two locks at Bohio . . . . . . . 1,277,300


Series of two locks at Obispo . . . . . . 1,lS6,500
Lock at Paraiso . . . . . . . . . .
632,200
Series of locks at Pedro-Rliguel . . . . . . I ,143,700
Lock at Miraflores
626,400
Stockadesand defences a t tlleentrancesandexits}
66,400
of locks, and machinery for working locks

. . . . . . . . .

. .

T.hl

Contingencies

. . . . . . . . . . .

4,932,500
499,000

. .

5,431,500

Total cost of locks

--

The prices adopted for masonwork have been established by ananalysis


of actual circumstances and have been fiscd at 50 francs per cubic mctre (about
30s. 6d. per cubic yard).

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Proceedings.]

169

O F THE PANAMA CANAL WORKS.

DAMS.4ND

'WEIRS.

S Sterling.

Dams and weirs of Bulrio, includingthc provisional}


works necessary
Damand weir of Obispo
Damand weir of Paraiso
Darn and weir of Pedro-Miguel
Dam
and weir of Miraflores
Darn and weir of .4lhajuela, includingthe acccssory}
works

435,400

. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .

17,900
53,500
35,500
1,990

. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

184,110

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

Total

Contingencies

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Total cost of dams and weirs

1,02S,400
161,000

. . . . . fl,lS9,400

The prices calculated for masonwork are the same as thosc for the locks for
all the darns on the line of canal proper, but have been rated a t G0 franc3 per
cubic metre (about 36s. 8d. per cubic yard) for the work on the Alhajuela dam.
DEVIATIONS
AND

WIDENING
OF STREAMS.

.
.

Deviation on left-hand side of canal, River Chagres


Deviation on right-hand side of canal, RiverChagres
Widening at different points in the Bohio Lake

. . .
. .

Total

Contingencies

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Total cost of deviationsand widenillg

Sterling.

219,900
220,000
130,800
570,700
63,600

____

. SGk,300

--

RAILWAYS.

. . . . . . .
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Railway
Panama
of the
Deviation
The railroad to the Upper Cllagres, Alhnjuela dam
Contingencies

Total estimate
C'ontingenries

CAXA4LFOX

SCnfMlT

555,000
64,100

15,200

. . 2634,300

Total
SUPPLY

Sterling.

LEVEL.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
.

Total for supplycanal

594,700
$9,300
--

. "674,000

Espropriations of landstill to be made . . . . .


Expenses for the utilization of motive-power, machinery,)
etc., for lighting the canal and other services
.

The total of the espenses above mentioned represcnts

t Sterling.

S Sterling.

237,900
515,400

. 18,912,000

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170

FORD ON THE PANAMA


CANAL

WORKS.

[llinutes

Of

If to this total be added (entirely apart from the sums already placed nnder
each heading for contingencies, amounting to E1,665,000)for general contingencies on work that cannot be foreseen, a further lump sum of 21,388,000, a
total of E20,300,000 is arrived at as the amount representing the cost of the
work properly 80 called. Thistotal would be reduced byabout E1,586,000
if the construction of the duplicate lock chambers were postponed provisionally
at all locks ; and the totalwould be raised t o E20,816,000, if the construction of
all the locks, with their twin chambers of equal width, that is, 82 feet internal
measurement, were undertaken immediately.

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ORDINARY

SECTIONS.

SECTIONS

...

COLON-BOHIO

I N

ROCK.

..-

SECTION.

O B I S P O

LOCKS-

LONGITUDINAL

SECTION

....

PARCIIS0~- PEDRO-MIGUEL

\"

...

SECTION.

SECTlJN

A .

'

'

SECTiON

B'.

G
ALHAJUELA

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D A M .

SECTION

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