SALT WATER CONVERTED INTO PURIFIED DRINKING WATER

ABSTRACT

Solar energy is a renewable energy resource. The sun produces vast

amounts of renewable solar energy that can be collected and converted into
heat and electricity. By using the heat energy from the sun, water is heated.
Solar desalination is a technique to desalinate water using solar energy.
Indirect solar desalination employs two separate systems; a solar collection
array, consisting of photovoltaic and fluid based thermal collectors, and a
separate conventional desalination plant. A photovoltaic system, also
photovoltaic power system, solar PV system, PV system or casually solar
array, is a power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of
photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including
solar panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity. The aim of
the project is to produce the pure water for the full day. In this project there is
also a provision for coupling both systems. By this project we can get the pure
water for the full day. This project also has a high advantage of increasing the
efficiency of the conventional direct system.

NEED OF THE PROJECT

1. Using the wasted solar energy
2. To remove the salt content from sea water without any cost
3. To increase the water purifier performance using photovoltaic

method

4. To reduce the usage of fossil fuel

5. To reduce the pollution

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

This SALT WATER CONVERTED INTO PURIFIED DRINKING WATER

is an Eco-friendly water purifier, which does not pollute the world. It does not
emit anything. Finally the main reason for creation of this project is to get
pure water without spending any money.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of this project is to provide a water purifier, which is used to
reduce the usage of fossil fuel and less operating cost.
Performance analysis of solar desalination system
Using photovoltaic method

INTRODUCTION
Solar water heating or solar hot water is water heated by the use of solar
energy. Solar heating systems are generally composed of solar thermal
collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point
of usage. The system may use electricity for pumping the fluid, and have
a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may
be used to heat water for a wide variety of uses, including home,
business and industrial uses. Heating swimming pools, underfloor
heating or energy input for space heating or cooling are more specific
examples.
In many climates, a solar heating system can provide up to 85% of
domestic hot water energy. This can include domestic non-electric
concentrating solar thermal systems

Residential solar thermal installations can be subdivided into two kinds

of systems: compact and pumped systems. Both typically include an
auxiliary energy source (electric heating element or connection to a gas
or fuel oil central heating system) that is activated when the water in the
tank falls below a minimum temperature setting such as 50 C. Hence,
hot water is always available. The combination of solar water heating
and using the back-up heat from a wood stove chimney to heat watercan
enable a hot water system to work all year round in cooler climates,
without the supplemental heat requirement of a solar water heating
system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.
Among pumped options, there is an important distinction to be made
regarding the sustainability of the design of the system. This relates to what
source of energy powers the pump and its controls. The type of pumped solar
thermal systems which use mains electricity to pump the fluid through the
panels are called low carbon solar because the pumping negates the carbon
savings of the solar by about 20%, according to data in a report called "Side
by side testing of eight solar water heatings" by DTI UK. However, zerocarbon pumped solar thermal systems use solar electricity which is generated
onsite using photovoltaics to pump the fluid and to operate its control

electronics. This represents a zero operational carbon footprint and is

becoming an important design goal for innovative solar thermal systems.
The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day. However,
the amount of energy changes due to the time of day, weather conditions and
geographic location. The amount of available solar energy is known as the
solar insolation or irradiance and is most commonly measured in watts per
meter squared or W / m 2.

Typical solar insolation for a sunny day.

Solar irradiance is generally modelled as having three components:
direct beam irradiance,
diffuse irradiance, from the sky, and
reflected irradiance, from the ground.

The sum of these components is called global irradiance. The irradiance that
will fall on a surface depends on the many factors, including:
the day of the year
the position of the sun in the sky
the inclination of the surface
cloud cover.
These factors should be taken into account while designing the solar array.

SOLAR ARRAY
Solar cells or photovoltaics collect the energy from the sun and converts it
into usable electrical energy. They are made from silicon by joining an n-type
and a p-type silicon semiconductor, creating an electron rich and an electron
poor layer. When sunlight strikes the cell, photons cause atoms of the
semiconductor to free electrons, leaving behind positive charges. The flow of
electrons thus created constitutes an electromotive force that drives the current
to charge a battery or power a motor.

The cell's positive contact is on the bottom while the negative contact, or bus
bar, is located on the top of the cell. Each cell produces approximately .5 volts
and 3 amps of current. Connecting the cells in series, i.e., positive to negative,
increases voltage. Parallel connections, i.e., negative to negative and positive
to positive, increase current. Therefore, connecting the cells in various series
and parallel configurations produces modules of different voltages and
currents.

Figure 4: Schematic Diagram of a Solar

Figure 5: Solar Cell Diagram

Cells can be grouped into space grade and terrestrial grade categories:
Space grade cells are up to 29% efficient, and are used mainly in
satellite production due to their high cost. These high efficiency
cells cost in excess of $500 per square inch.
Terrestrial grade cells having a efficiency of 14%, are much
cheaper causing them to be the cells of choice for solar cars.
Each cell measures 10cm x 10cm, costs approximately $6.00, and
produces 1.5 watts of power.
A large number of solar cells are wired together to form a solar array. The
entire solar cells together form the solar array. Solar cells should also be
divided into several zones. For example, if you have 750 solar cells, you
might want to wire 3 sets of 250 cells, each zone producing about 125 volts. If
one zone fails, two other zones are still producing power. SUNRUNNER'S
array consisted of 14,057 razor blade sized, 16% efficient space grade cells.

The cells are extremely fragile. So many engineers put them through a process
called encapsulation. Doing so strengthens solar cell durability, but decreases
the efficiency. Encapsulation is the process of coating the cells with a tougher
material like resins or sandwiching it between two sheets of fibre glass,

which prevents the cells from being damaged. For cells 14% efficient,
encapsulation would reduce the overall efficiency to12.5%.
All silicon solar cells put out a voltage of about 0.5V. This is because they're a
kind of diode, and this is analogous to the forward break over voltage of the
diode. Now, if you have several cells in series and they're all the same they'll
all give the same current, and the voltage from all the cells will add up neatly.
But they're not all the same. The silicon is doped very subtly differently from
cell to cell, or the purity of the silicon varies, or different cells are at different
temperatures. Ss some cells will give more current than others. In a series
string, they can't because all the cells are constrained to give exactly the same
current. This will cause many of our cells to run sub-optimally. So after the
cells are tabbed, they are measured, and grouped like with like.
CURVED ARRAYS:
The next hazard is curves on the array. Many arrays are not perfectly flat,
which means that not all cells are receiving the same amount of sunlight. They

have to be arranged in such a way that all the cells in the strings receive
approximately the same illumination. A common way to achieve this would be
to run each string parallel to the long axis of the car, so that all the cells in a
string are pointing in approximately the same direction. Several strings are
often wired together to form a section or panel that has a voltage close to the
nominal battery voltage.
Sometimes there will be shadows on the array. This could be caused by the
driver bubble, or by trees or other obstructions near the road, or by passing
traffic. When a cell in a string is shaded, its output goes down. Since the other
cells continue to force current through it, this cell actually dissipates power
instead of generating, and it gets dissipated as heat. Now that this cell is
warmer, it's less efficient than the others, and so even when the light comes
back, it'll want to generate less current, which means it'll wind up dissipating
some power as heat. This is called Thermal runaway. This is prevented in the
following way:
Every cell (or, more often, every small group of cells) has a diode across it.
When a cell in that group is shaded, current flows through the diode. If you
have 60 cells in your string, and they're in groups of 6, then when a single cell
is shaded, your output voltage will drop by 10%, as the bypass diode for that
group comes into play, and your current output will drop not at all. This is

better than having your voltage drop 0.6V for the dark cell, and having your
current output drop by some large amount, as current is forced through the
dark cell.
The other time that the bypass diodes come in handy is when a cell gets
damaged. This may be due to a stone being flicked up from the road, a camera
falling out of someone's pocket or a small child running up the array. The
damaged cell may go open-circuit, meaning that without the bypass diode,
output from the string would drop to zero. With the bypass, output drops only
proportionately to the percentage of cells bypassed. Renewable energy is
energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides,
and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008,
about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with
13% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and
3.2% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass,
wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 2.7% and are
growing very rapidly. The share of renewables in electricity generation is
around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and
3% from new renewables.
Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide
installed capacity of 158 gigawatts (GW) in 2009, and is widely used in

Europe, Asia, and the United States. At the end of 2009, cumulative global
photovoltaic (PV) installations surpassed 21 GW and PV power stations are
popular in Germany and Spain.[Solar thermal power stations operate in the
USA and Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS
power plant in the Mojave Desert. The world's largest geothermal power
installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW.
Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world,
involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now
provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel Ethanol fuel is also widely
available in the USA.
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable
technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas, where energy is often
crucial in human development Globally, an estimated 3 million households get
power from small solar PV systems. Micro-hydro systems configured into
village-scale or county-scale mini-grids serve many areas More than 30
million rural households get lighting and cooking from biogas made in
household-scale digesters. Biomass cook stoves are used by 160 million
households.

Solar desalination

Methods of desalination
Distillation
Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF)
Multiple-effect distillation (MED|ME)
Vapor-compression (VC)
Ion exchange
Membrane processes
Electrodialysis reversal (EDR)
Reverse osmosis (RO)
Nanofiltration (NF)
Membrane distillation (MD)

 Forward osmosis (FO)

Freezing desalination
Geothermal desalination
Solar desalination
Solar humidification-Dehumidification (HDH)
Multiple-effect humidification (MEH)
Methane hydrate crystallization
High grade water recycling
Seawater greenhouse
Solar desalination is a technique to desalinate water using solar energy.
There are two basic methods of achieving desalination using this
technique; direct and indirect.

Methods
In the direct method, a solar collector is coupled with a distilling mechanism
and the process is carried out in one simple cycle. Solar stills of this type are
described in survival guides, provided in marine survival kits, and employed
in many small desalination and distillation plants. Water production by direct
method solar distillation is proportional to the area of the solar surface and

incidence angle and has an average estimated value of 3-4L/m2/d. Because of

this proportionality and the relatively high cost of property and material for
construction direct method distillation tends to favor plants with production
capacities less than 200m3/d.

Indirect solar desalination employs two separate systems; a solar collection

array, consisting of photovoltaic and/or fluid based thermal collectors, and a
separate conventional desalination plant. Production by indirect method is
dependent on the efficiency of the plant and the cost per unit produced is
generally reduced by an increase in scale. Many different plant arrangements
have been theoretically analyzed, experimentally tested and in some cases
installed. They include but are not limited to Multiple Effect Humidification
(MEH), Multiple Stage Flash Distillation (MSF), Multiple Effect Distillation
(MED), Multiple Effect Boiling (MEB), Humidification Dehumidification
(HDH), Reverse Osmosis (RO), and Freeze effect distillation.

Indirect solar desalination systems using photovoltaic (PV) panels and reverse
osmosis (RO) have been commercially available and in use since 2009.
Output by 2013 is up to 1600 litres (400 USgal) per hour per system, and 200
litres/day per square metre of PV panel. Municipal-scale systems are planned.

Utrik Atoll in the Pacific ocean has been supplied with fresh water this way
since 2010.

History
Methods of solar distillation have been employed by humankind for thousands
of years. From early Greek mariners to Persian alchemists, this basic
technology has been utilized to produce both freshwater and medicinal
distillates. Solar stills were in fact the first method used on a large scale to
process contaminated water and convert it to a potable form.

In 1870 the first US patent was granted for a solar distillation device to
Norman Wheeler and Walton Evans.[8] Two years later in Las Salinas, Chile,
Charles Wilson, a Swedish engineer, began building a direct method solar
powered distillation plant to supply freshwater to workers at a saltpeter and
silver mine. It operated continuously for 40 years and produced an average of
22.7 m3 of distilled water a day using the effluent from mining operations as
its feed water.

Solar desalination of seawater and brackish groundwater in the modern United

States extends back to the early 1950s when Congress passed the Conversion

of Saline Water Act, which led to the establishment of the Office of Saline
Water (OSW) in 1955. The OSWs main function was to administer funds for
research and development of desalination projects. One of the five
demonstration plants constructed was located in Daytona Beach, Florida and
devoted to exploring methods of solar distillation. Many of the projects were
aimed at solving water scarcity issues in remote desert and coastal
communities. In the 1960s and 70s several modern solar distillations plants
were constructed on the Greek isles with capacities ranging from 2000 to
8500 m3/day.[2] In 1984 a MED plant was constructed in Abu-Dhabi with a
capacity of 120 m3/day and is still in operation.

Of the estimated 22 million m3 of freshwater being produced a day through

desalination processes worldwide, less than 1% is made using solar
energy.The prevailing methods of desalination, MSF and RO, are energy
intensive and rely heavily on fossil fuels.Because of inexpensive methods of
freshwater delivery and abundant low cost energy resources, solar distillation
has, up to this point, been viewed as cost prohibitive and impractical. It is
estimated that desalination plants powered by conventional fuels consume the
equivalent of 203 million tons of fuel a year. With the approach (or passage)
of peak oil production, fossil fuel prices will continue to increase as those

resources decline; as a result solar energy will become a more attractive

alternative for achieving the worlds desalination needs.

Types of solar desalination

There are two primary means of achieving desalination using solar energy,
through a phase change by thermal input, or in a single phase through
mechanical separation. Phase change (or multi-phase) can be accomplished by
either direct or indirect solar distillation. Single phase is predominantly
accomplished by the use of photovoltaic cells to produce electricity to drive
pumps although there are experimental methods being researched using solar
thermal collection to provide this mechanical energy.

Multiple Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)

Multiple Stage Flash Distillation is one of the predominant conventional
phase change methods of achieving desalination. It accounts for roughly 45%
of the total world desalination capacity and 93% of all thermal methods.

Solar derivatives have been studied and in some cases implemented in small
and medium scale plants around the world. In Margarita de Savoya, Italy there
is a 50-60 m3/d MSF plant with a salinity gradient solar pond providing its

thermal energy and storage capacity. In El Paso, Texas there is a similar

project in operation that produces 19 m3/d. In Kuwait a MSF facility has been
built using parabolic trough collectors to provide the necessary solar thermal
energy to produce 100 m3 of fresh water a day. And in Northern China there is
an experimental, automatic, unmanned operation that uses 80 m2 of vacuum
tube solar collectors coupled with a 1 kW wind turbine (to drive several small
pumps) to produce 0.8 m3/d.

Production data shows that MSF solar distillation has an output capacity of 660 L/m2/d versus the 3-4 L/m2/d standard output of a solar still. MSF
experience very poor efficiency during start up or low energy periods. In order
to achieve the highest efficiency MSF requires carefully controlled pressure
drops across each stage and a steady energy input. As a result, solar
applications require some form of thermal energy storage to deal with cloud
interference, varying solar patterns, night time operation, and seasonal
changes in ambient air temperature. As thermal energy storage capacity
increases a more continuous process can be achieved and production rates
approach maximum efficiency.

The structure is a raised tower made of cement, with a tank at the top. The
whole plant is covered with glass of the same shape, but slightly larger,
allowing for a gap between the cement tower and the glass.

The tank is filled with saline water and water from an outside tank, drop by
drop water enters the inner tank. The excessive water from the inner tank drips
out onto the cement walls of the tower, from top to bottom. By solar radiation,
the water on the wet surface and in the tank evaporate and condense on the
inner surface of the glass cylinder and flow down onto the collecting drain
channel. Meanwhile, the concentrated saline water drains out through a saline
drain.

In this process fresh saline water is continuously added to the walls from the
top of the tower. After evaporation, the remaining saline water falls down and
drains out continuously. The movement of water also increases the energy of
molecules and increases the evaporation process. The increase in the towers
height also increases the production.

Whereas in the conventional system water that is filled remains at a standstill

for several days, a condenser is provided at the top in an isolated space,

allowing cold water is to pass through the condenser. The condensed hot
vapors and hot water from the condenser are also thrown on the cement wall.

Different successive plants were constructed during 1960s.

This plants base is 3.5 by 1.5 feet by 10 foot high, and gives about 12 liters of
water per day.Built horizontally, a structured plant receives solar radiation at
noon only. But Zuberis plant is a vertical tower and receives solar energy
from sunrise till sunset. From early morning, it receives perpendicular
radiation on one side of the plant. While at noon its top, gets radiation
equivalent to the horizontal plant. From noon till sunset, the other side
receives maximum radiation. By increasing the height, the tower plant
receives more solar energy and the inner temperature increases as height
increases. Ultimately this increases the water yield.

A number of experiments have been conducted and a much more productive

plant has been developed, with further work continuing.

This project can be implemented anywhere there is ground water, brine or sea
water available with suitable sun. During different experiments a plant six (6)

6 feet high can attain a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius, while a plant of ten
(10) feet high can reach a temperature of up to 86 degree Celsius.

Solar humidification-dehumidification
The solar humidification-dehumidification (HDH) process (also called the
multiple-effect humidification-dehumidification process, solar multistage
condensation evaporation cycle (SMCEC) or multiple-effect humidification
(MEH), is a technique that mimics the natural water cycle on a shorter time
frame by evaporating and condensing water to separate it from other
substances. The driving force in this process is thermal solar energy to
produce water vapor which is later condensed in a separate chamber. In
sophisticated systems, waste heat is minimized by collecting the heat from the
condensing water vapor and pre-heating the incoming water source. This
system is effective for small- to mid- scale desalination systems in remote
locations because of the relative inexpensiveness of solar collectors.

Problems with Thermal Systems

There are two inherent design problems facing any thermal solar desalination
project. Firstly, the system's efficiency is governed by preferably high heat
and mass transfer during evaporation and condensation. The surfaces have to

be properly designed within the contradictory objectives of heat transfer

efficiency, economy and reliability.

Secondly, the heat of condensation is valuable because it takes large amounts

of solar energy to evaporate water and generate saturated, vapor-laden hot air.
This energy is, by definition, transferred to the condenser's surface during
condensation. With most forms of solar stills, this heat of condensation is
ejected from the system as waste heat. The challenge still existing in the field
today, is to achieve the optimum temperature difference between the solargenerated vapor and the seawater-cooled condenser, maximal reuse of the
energy of condensation, and minimizing the asset investment.

PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING SYSTEM

Ordinary Glass pot
Less heat
Less quantity of pure water
More space
Modified system
Photovoltaic method

A photovoltaic system, also photovoltaic power system, solar PV system, PV

system or casually solar array, is a power system designed to supply usable
solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of
several components, including solar panels to absorb and directly convert
sunlight into electricity.

LAYOUT

CONSTRUCTION

Solar panel

A solar photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. This

crystalline-silicon module comprises 4 solar cells and has an aluminum frame
and glass on the front.
Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar hot water panel, or
to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and
mounted on a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected
assembly of solar cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger

photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and

residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under
standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts.
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same
rated output an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a
16% efficient 230 watt module. There are a few solar panels available that are
exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited
amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic
system typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and
sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.
Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or
silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are
available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used
in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage

and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires
that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other nonmagnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected
electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular
terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to
facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial

module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is

focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the
use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a costeffective way.

Solar cell efficiency

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity

from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar
range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence
much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can
give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light.
Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength
ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has
been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from
Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of
multijunction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world
record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that
concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even
50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with
more than three junctions.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency)
is around 21.5% in new commercial products. typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules[disputed discuss] have power density values of up to 175 W/m2
(16.22 W/ft2). Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the

efficiency of a solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving

semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders similar to the ridges on
Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the
semiconductor which means that more photons can be absorbed and converted
into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used previously
(aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering occurred in
the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly. Aluminum
was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, while the
visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by
the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the cost
significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and
less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase in
current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without
"compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption".

Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum power point)

value of solar panels

Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT

process: solar inverter samples the output Power(I-V curve) from the solar cell
and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain maximum
power.
MPP(Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage(V
mpp) and MPP current(I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar panel and the
higher value can make higher MPP.
Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output
than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas
light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes
its maximum possible output given the available sunlight.[citation needed]

Crystalline silicon modules

Most solar modules are currently produced from solar cells made of
polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon
accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production.

Thin-film modules

Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.

Rigid thin-film modules

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the
same production line.

The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical

connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back
sheet, usually another sheet of glass.

The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion
rate of 6-12%.

Flexible thin-film modules

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line
by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then

monolithic integration can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be

used.

The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent

colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a

polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only
commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous
silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on

compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in
July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North
American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar
cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell
technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery,
inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and
unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the
service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex
parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant
technology.

Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are
much more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be
broken by bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per
square foot than standard rigid solar panels.

The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in
the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to
2019, surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.

Smart solar modules

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This
enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and
fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power
optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the
power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such
electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling
across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings

of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire
module fall to zero.

Module performance and aging

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verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting
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Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC):
irradiance of 1,000 W/m, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature
at 25 C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W),

open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes),
maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak
power, Wp, and module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best
suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules
were only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module
changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never
one specific voltage at which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows
users, at a glance, to make sure the module is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can
produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be
measured with a meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its
disconnected cable.

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test
conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could
measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75
watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of
testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a
typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either
rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.

Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat
and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer
a warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated
power output and 25 years at 80%.

Recycling
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are
currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life
modules.

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill
and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is

possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can
be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a
PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive
industry. The recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the glass
foam and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such
as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials. For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the
semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling
facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.
Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together
manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module
recycling.

CHAPTER - 8
WORKING PRINCIPLE

By gravity flow, salt water from the cold-water tank enters the solar tank and
fills it up. The cold water from the solar tank in turn flows in the bottom
header pipe of the absorber, this water is heated by the electric purifier. The
more cold water from the solar flows into the absorber tubes, gets heated and
rises to the top, and so on. This process is called 'Thermosyphon Process' and
evaporation takes place. The water vapour gets condensed in the glass roof
and it is collected in header. thus pure water can be obtained

CHAPTER - 12
ADVANTAGES

No fuel is used

No pollution

Higher Performance

It can be used in low solar energy area

Low maintenance

No running cost

Applications

All home application

Industries

Hotels

Hospitals

Maintenance & Installation

No collector maintenance is required. The glass tubes are round and perfectly
smooth; any dirt or dust is carries away by the wind and rain. There are no
moving parts to wear out. All components are made from high-grade stainless

steel, copper or non-corrosive materials. Thermomax Collectors are light and

modular and can usually be installed in one day by a qualified professional.
They are supplied with a marine grade stainless steel frame and, being
lightweight, they will attach easily to your existing structure. The solar tubes
allow air to circulate around them and will not trap moisture or debris.
Methods of getting the heat into the water are as follows.

In areas prone to freezing - The collector is connected to a

heat exchanger, usually in the hot water tank, and a non-toxic propylene
glycol antifreeze is used to transfer the heat down. This system is excellent for
multiple applications and is very versatile.

Warm non-freezing climates - In these areas a direct

connection can be made to a tank, even an existing on using a special fitting,

simplifying installation and lowering costs

CHAPTER -13
CONCLUSION

From the project we studied that solar has a lot of potential in it and if
properly harnessed then it can help solve the energy crises in the world. The
fabrication of water desalination and its characteristics showed that how it can
be properly designed and used to get the maximum output. it eliminates the
global warming problem.
This project finds the water for oil price hike. The user also operate this water
desalination at free of cost.

REFERENCES
1. Non-conventional energy by G.D.Rai
2. www,"Solar collectors: Behind the glass". Brian Norton (2011) Solar Water
Purifiers: A Review of Systems Research and Design Innovation, Green. 1,
189207, ISSN (Online) 1869-8778
3. global status report by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st
Century (REN21)
4.. "Heating water with a wood stove". woodheat.org. Wood Heat
Organization Inc. Retrieved 29 March 2012.

5.Solar Evolution The History of Solar Energy, John Perlin, California Solar
Center
6."Solar Water Heating (How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on
Natural Gas)" (PDF). Environment California Research and Policy Center.
Retrieved 29 September 2007.