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UNIT-I
StaticElectricfields
Inthischapterwewilldiscussonthefollowings:
Coulomb'sLaw
ElectricField&ElectricFluxDensity
Gauss'sLawwithApplication
ElectrostaticPotential,EquipotentialSurfaces
BoundaryConditionsforStaticElectricFields

CapacitanceandCapacitors
ElectrostaticEnergy

co

Laplace'sandPoisson'sEquations

ld
.

UniquenessofElectrostaticSolutions
MethodofImages

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or

SolutionofBoundaryValueProblemsinDifferentCoordinateSystems.

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Introduction
InthepreviouschapterwehavecoveredtheessentialmathematicaltoolsneededtostudyEM
fields.Wehavealreadymentionedinthepreviouschapterthatelectricchargeisa
fundamentalpropertyofmatterandchargeexistinintegralmultipleofelectroniccharge.
Electrostaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofelectricchargesatrest.Electricfieldshavetheir
sourcesinelectriccharges.
(Note:Almostallrealelectricfieldsvarytosomeextentwithtime.However,formany
problems,thefieldvariationisslowandthefieldmaybeconsideredasstatic.Forsomeother
casesspatialdistributionisnearlysameasforthestaticcaseeventhoughtheactualfieldmay

varywithtime.Suchcasesaretermedasquasistatic.)
Inthischapterwefirststudytwofundamentallawsgoverningtheelectrostaticfields,viz,(1)

co

Coulomb'sLawand(2)Gauss'sLaw.Boththeselawhaveexperimentalbasis.Coulomb's
tousewhenthedistributionissymmetrical.

or

Coulomb'sLaw

ld
.

lawisapplicableinfindingelectricfieldduetoanychargedistribution,Gauss'slawiseasier

Coulomb'sLawstatesthattheforcebetweentwopointchargesQ1andQ2isdirectly
proportionaltotheproductofthechargesandinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthe

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distancebetweenthem.

Pointchargeisahypotheticalchargelocatedatasinglepointinspace.Itisanidealized

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modelofaparticlehavinganelectriccharge.

Mathematically,

,wherekistheproportionalityconstant.

InSIunits,Q1andQ2areexpressedinCoulombs(C)andRisinmeters.
ForceFisinNewtons(N)and

iscalledthepermittivityoffreespace.

(Weareassumingthechargesareinfreespace.Ifthechargesareanyotherdielectric
medium,wewilluse

insteadwhere

dielectricconstantofthemedium).

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iscalledtherelativepermittivityorthe

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Therefore

.......................(1)

AsshownintheFigure1letthepositionvectorsofthepointchargesQ1andQ2aregivenby
.Let

representtheforceonQ1duetochargeQ2.

co

and

ld
.

or

Fig1:Coulomb'sLaw

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Thechargesareseparatedbyadistanceof

and

.Wedefinetheunitvectorsas

..................................(2)

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canbedefinedas

SimilarlytheforceonQ1duetochargeQ2canbecalculatedandif

representsthisforcethenwecan

write

Whenwehaveanumberofpointcharges,todeterminetheforceonaparticularcharge
duetoallothercharges,weapplyprincipleofsuperposition.IfwehaveNnumberof
chargesQ1,Q2,.........QNlocatedrespectivelyatthepointsrepresentedbytheposition
vectors , ,......

,theforceexperiencedbyachargeQlocatedat isgivenby,

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.................................(3)

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ElectricField:
Theelectricfieldintensityortheelectricfieldstrengthatapointisdefinedastheforce
perunitcharge.Thatis

.......................................(4)

or,

TheelectricfieldintensityEatapointr(observationpoint)dueapointchargeQlocated
at

(sourcepoint)isgivenby:

..........................................(5)

isobtainedas

,......

,theelectricfield

or

ld
.

intensityatpoint

co

ForacollectionofNpointchargesQ1,Q2,.........QNlocatedat ,

........................................(6)

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continuousdistributionofcharges.

Theexpression(6)canbemodifiedsuitablytocomputetheelectricfiledduetoa

Infigure2weconsideracontinuousvolumedistributionofcharge(t)intheregion

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denotedasthesourceregion.
Foranelementarycharge

,i.e.consideringthischargeaspointcharge,

wecanwritethefieldexpressionas:

.............(7)

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Fig2:ContinuousVolumeDistributionofCharge
Whenthisexpressionisintegratedoverthesourceregion,wegettheelectricfieldat
thepointPduetothisdistributionofcharges.Thustheexpressionfortheelectricfield

co

atPcanbewrittenas:

ld
.

..........................................(8)
Similartechniquecanbeadoptedwhenthechargedistributionisintheformofaline

........................................(9)

........................................(10)

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or

chargedensityorasurfacechargedensity.

Electricfluxdensity:

AsstatedearlierelectricfieldintensityorsimplyElectricfield'givesthestrengthofthe
fieldataparticularpoint.Theelectricfielddependsonthematerialmediainwhichthe
fieldisbeingconsidered.Thefluxdensityvectorisdefinedtobeindependentofthe
materialmedia(aswe'llseethatitrelatestothechargethatisproducingit).Foralinear
isotropicmediumunderconsiderationthefluxdensityvectorisdefinedas:
................................................(11)
Wedefinetheelectricfluxas
.....................................(12)

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Gauss'sLaw:Gauss'slawisoneofthefundamentallawsofelectromagnetismandit
statesthatthetotalelectricfluxthroughaclosedsurfaceisequaltothetotalcharge

co

Fig3:Gauss'sLaw

enclosedbythesurface.

ld
.

LetusconsiderapointchargeQlocatedinanisotropichomogeneousmediumof
dielectricconstant.Thefluxdensityatadistanceronasurfaceenclosingthechargeis

or

givenby

...............................................(13)

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Ifweconsideranelementaryareads,theamountoffluxpassingthroughthe

But

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elementaryareaisgivenby

.....................................(14)

,istheelementarysolidanglesubtendedbythearea

atthelocation

ofQ.Thereforewecanwrite

Foraclosedsurfaceenclosingthecharge,wecanwrite
whichcanseentobesameaswhatwehavestatedinthedefinitionofGauss'sLaw.
ApplicationofGauss'sLaw:
Gauss'slawisparticularlyusefulincomputing or

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wherethechargedistributionhas

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somesymmetry.WeshallillustratetheapplicationofGauss'sLawwithsomeexamples.
1.Aninfinitelinecharge
AsthefirstexampleofillustrationofuseofGauss'slaw,letconsidertheproblemof
determinationoftheelectricfieldproducedbyaninfinitelinechargeofdensityLC/m.Let
usconsideralinechargepositionedalongthezaxisasshowninFig.4(a)(nextslide).
Sincethelinechargeisassumedtobeinfinitelylong,theelectricfieldwillbeoftheform
asshowninFig.4(b)(nextslide).
IfweconsideraclosecylindricalsurfaceasshowninFig.2.4(a),usingGauss'stheorm

wecanwrite,

co

.....................................(15)

ld
.

ConsideringthefactthattheunitnormalvectortoareasS1andS3areperpendicularto
theelectricfield,thesurfaceintegralsforthetopandbottomsurfacesevaluatestozero.

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or

Hencewecanwrite,

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Fig4:InfiniteLineCharge

.....................................(16)
2.InfiniteSheetofCharge
AsasecondexampleofapplicationofGauss'stheorem,weconsideraninfinitecharged
sheetcoveringthex-zplaneasshowninfigure5.Assumingasurfacechargedensityof
fortheinfinitesurfacecharge,ifweconsideracylindricalvolumehavingsides

co

placedsymmetricallyasshowninfigure5,wecanwrite:

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or

ld
.

..............(17)

Fig5:InfiniteSheetofCharge
Itmaybenotedthattheelectricfieldstrengthisindependentofdistance.Thisistruefor
theinfiniteplaneofchargeelectriclinesofforceoneithersideofthechargewillbe
perpendiculartothesheetandextendtoinfinityasparallellines.Asnumberoflinesof
forceperunitareagivesthestrengthofthefield,thefieldbecomesindependentof
distance.Forafinitechargesheet,thefieldwillbeafunctionofdistance.

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3.UniformlyChargedSphere
Letusconsiderasphereofradiusr0havingauniformvolumechargedensityofrv
C/m3.Todetermine

everywhere,insideandoutsidethesphere,weconstruct

Gaussiansurfacesofradiusr<r0andr>r0asshowninFig.6(a)andFig.6(b).
Fortheregion

thetotalenclosedchargewillbe

or

ld
.

co

.........................(18)

...............(19)

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Therefore

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ByapplyingGauss'stheorem,

Fig6:UniformlyChargedSphere

..............................................(20)

Fortheregion

thetotalenclosedchargewillbe

...........................................................(21)

ByapplyingGauss'stheorem,

.......................................(22)
ElectrostaticPotentialandEquipotentialSurfaces

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Intheprevioussectionswehaveseenhowtheelectricfieldintensityduetoachargeor
achargedistributioncanbefoundusingCoulomb'slaworGauss'slaw.Sinceacharge
placedinthevicinityofanothercharge(orinotherwordsinthefieldofothercharge)
experiencesaforce,themovementofthechargerepresentsenergyexchange.
Electrostaticpotentialisrelatedtotheworkdoneincarryingachargefromonepointto
theotherinthepresenceofanelectricfield.Letussupposethatwewishtomovea
positivetestcharge

fromapointPtoanotherpointQasshownintheFig.8.The

forceatanypointalongitspathwouldcausetheparticletoaccelerateandmoveitout
oftheregionifunconstrained.Sincewearedealingwithanelectrostaticcase,aforce
movesfrom

equaltothenegativeofthatactingonthechargeistobeappliedwhile

is

co

PtoQ.Theworkdonebythisexternalagentinmovingthechargebyadistance
givenby:

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or

ld
.

.............................(23)

Fig8:MovementofTestChargeinElectricField
Thenegativesignaccountsforthefactthatworkisdoneonthesystembytheexternal
agent.

.....................................(24)
ThepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsPandQ,VPQ,isdefinedasthework
doneperunitcharge,i.e.

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...............................(25)
Itmaybenotedthatinmovingachargefromtheinitialpointtothefinalpointifthe
potentialdifferenceispositive,thereisagaininpotentialenergyinthemovement,
externalagentperformstheworkagainstthefield.Ifthesignofthepotentialdifference
isnegative,workisdonebythefield.
Wewillseethattheelectrostaticsystemisconservativeinthatnonetenergyis
exchangedifthetestchargeismovedaboutaclosedpath,i.e.returningtoitsinitial
position.Further,thepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectrostaticfieldisa
inJoules/CoulombwhichisreferredtoasVolts.

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or

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LetusconsiderapointchargeQasshownintheFig.9.

pointfunctionitisindependentofthepathtaken.Thepotentialdifferenceismeasured

Fig9:ElectrostaticPotentialcalculationforapointcharge
FurtherconsiderthetwopointsAandBasshownintheFig.9.Consideringthe
movementofaunitpositivetestchargefromBtoA,wecanwriteanexpressionforthe
potentialdifferenceas:

...................(26)

Itiscustomarytochoosethepotentialtobezeroatinfinity.Thuspotentialatanypoint(
rA=r)duetoapointchargeQcanbewrittenastheamountofworkdoneinbringinga

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unitpositivechargefrominfinitytothatpoint(i.e.rB=0).

..................................(27)

Or,inotherwords,
..................................(28)

LetusnowconsiderasituationwherethepointchargeQisnotlocatedattheoriginas

or

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.

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showninFig.10.

Fig10:ElectrostaticPotentialdueaDisplacedCharge

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ThepotentialatapointPbecomes

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..................................(29)
Sofarwehaveconsideredthepotentialduetopointchargesonly.Asanyothertypeof
chargedistributioncanbeconsideredtobeconsistingofpointcharges,thesamebasic
ideasnowcanbeextendedtoothertypesofchargedistributionalso.Letusfirst
considerNpointchargesQ1,Q2,.....QNlocatedatpointswithpositionvectors , ,
.......

.Thepotentialatapointhavingpositionvector canbewrittenas:

..................................(30a)
OR

...................................(30b)

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Forcontinuouschargedistribution,wereplacepointchargesQnbycorresponding
chargeelements

or

or

dependingonwhetherthechargedistribution

islinear,surfaceoravolumechargedistributionandthesummationisreplacedbyan
integral.Withthesemodificationswecanwrite:

(31)

Forlinecharge,

.................................(32)

Forvolumecharge,

.................................(33)

ld
.

co

Forsurfacecharge,

Itmaybenotedherethattheprimedcoordinatesrepresentthesourcecoordinatesand

or

theunprimedcoordinatesrepresentfieldpoint.

Further,inourdiscussionsofarwehaveusedthereferenceorzeropotentialatinfinity.

.................................(34)

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Ifanyotherpointischosenasreference,wecanwrite:

whereCisaconstant.Inthesamemannerwhenpotentialiscomputedfromaknown
electricfieldwecanwrite:

..(35)

Thepotentialdifferenceishoweverindependentofthechoiceofreference.

.......................(36)

Wehavementionedthatelectrostaticfieldisaconservativefieldtheworkdonein
movingachargefromonepointtotheotherisindependentofthepath.Letusconsider

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movingachargefrompointP1toP2inonepathandthenfrompointP2backtoP1
overadifferentpath.Iftheworkdoneonthetwopathsweredifferent,anetpositiveor
negativeamountofworkwouldhavebeendonewhenthebodyreturnstoitsoriginal
positionP1.Inaconservativefieldthereisnomechanismfordissipatingenergy
correspondingtoanypositiveworkneitheranysourceispresentfromwhichenergy
couldbeabsorbedinthecaseofnegativework.Hencethequestionofdifferentworks
intwopathsisuntenable,theworkmusthavetobeindependentofpathanddepends
ontheinitialandfinalpositions.
Sincethepotentialdifferenceisindependentofthepathstaken,VAB=VBA,andover

aclosedpath,

co

.................................(37)

ld
.

ApplyingStokes'stheorem,wecanwrite:
............................(38)

......................(39)

or

fromwhichitfollowsthatforelectrostaticfield,

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Anyvectorfieldthatsatisfiesiscalledanirrotationalfield.

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Fromourdefinitionofpotential,wecanwrite

.................................(40)

fromwhichweobtain,
..........................................(41)
Fromtheforegoingdiscussionsweobservethattheelectricfieldstrengthatanypointis
thenegativeofthepotentialgradientatanypoint,negativesignshowsthat

is

directedfromhighertolowervaluesof .Thisgivesusanothermethodofcomputing
theelectricfield,i.e.ifweknowthepotentialfunction,theelectricfieldmaybe

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computed.Wemaynoteherethatthatonescalarfunction
thatthreecomponentsof

containalltheinformation

carry,thesameispossiblebecauseofthefactthatthree

componentsof areinterrelatedbytherelation

EquipotentialSurfaces
Anequipotentialsurfacereferstoasurfacewherethepotentialisconstant.The
intersectionofanequipotentialsurfacewithanplanesurfaceresultsintoapathcalled
an equipotential line. No work is done in moving a charge from one point to the other
alonganequipotentiallineorsurface.

Infigure12,thedasheslinesshowtheequipotentiallinesforapositivepointcharge.By
symmetry,theequipotentialsurfacesaresphericalsurfacesandtheequipotentiallines

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or

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arecircles.Thesolidlinesshowthefluxlinesorelectriclinesofforce.

Fig12:EquipotentialLinesforaPositivePointCharge
MichaelFaradayasawayofvisualizingelectricfieldsintroducedfluxlines.Itmaybe
seenthattheelectricfluxlinesandtheequipotentiallinesarenormaltoeachother.In
ordertoplottheequipotentiallinesforanelectricdipole,weobservethatforagivenQ
andd,aconstantVrequiresthat

isaconstant.Fromthiswecanwrite

tobetheequationforanequipotentialsurfaceandafamilyofsurfacescan
begeneratedforvariousvaluesofcv.Whenplottedin2Dthiswouldgiveequipotential
lines.

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Todeterminetheequationfortheelectricfieldlines,wenotethatfieldlinesrepresent
thedirectionof inspace.Therefore,

,kisaconstant.............................................(42)
.................(43)

Forthedipoleunderconsideration

=0,andthereforewecanwrite,

..................................(44)

ElectrostaticEnergyandEnergyDensity:

co

Wehavestatedthattheelectricpotentialatapointinanelectricfieldistheamountof
workrequiredtobringaunitpositivechargefrominfinity(referenceofzeropotential)to

ld
.

thatpoint.Todeterminetheenergythatispresentinanassemblyofcharges,letusfirst
determinetheamountofworkrequiredtoassemblethem.Letusconsideranumberof

or

discretechargesQ1,Q2,.......,QNarebroughtfrominfinitytotheirpresentpositionone

byone.Sinceinitiallythereisnofieldpresent,theamountofworkdoneinbringQ1is

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zero.Q2isbroughtinthepresenceofthefieldofQ1,theworkdoneW1=Q2V21where
V21isthepotentialatthelocationofQ2duetoQ1.Proceedinginthismanner,wecan
write, the total work done

Sm

....................(45)

Hadthechargesbeenbroughtinthereverseorder,

................(46)
Therefore,
....
............(47)
HereVIJrepresentvoltageattheIthchargelocationduetoJthcharge.Therefore,

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................(48)

Or,

Ifinsteadofdiscretecharges,wenowhaveadistributionofchargesoveravolumev
................(49)

thenwecanwrite,
where

isthevolumechargedensityandVrepresentsthepotentialfunction.

Since,

,wecanwrite

or

ld
.

,wecanwrite

co

Usingthevectoridentity,

.......................................(50)

................(51)

Intheexpression

variesas

,forpointcharges,sinceVvariesas andDvariesas
whiletheareavariesasr2.Hencetheintegralterm

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,thetermV

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variesatleastas andtheassurfacebecomeslarge(i.e.
tendstozero.

)theintegralterm

ThustheequationforWreducesto
................(52)

,iscalledtheenergydensityintheelectrostaticfield.
PoissonsandLaplacesEquations
Forelectrostaticfield,wehaveseenthat

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................................................................(53)
Formtheabovetwoequationswecanwrite
................................................(54)
................(55)

Usingvectoridentitywecanwrite,
Forasimplehomogeneousmedium, isconstantand

.Therefore,

................(56)

co

ThisequationisknownasPoissonsequation.Herewehaveintroducedanewoperator

ld
.

,(delsquare),calledtheLaplacianoperator.InCartesiancoordinates,
...............(57)

or

Therefore,inCartesiancoordinates,Poissonequationcanbewrittenas:

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...............(58)

Sm

Incylindricalcoordinates,

...............(59)

Insphericalpolarcoordinatesystem,
...............(60)

Atpointsinsimplemedia,wherenofreechargeispresent,Poissonsequationreducesto

...................................(61)

whichisknownasLaplacesequation.
Laplaces and Poissons equation are very useful for solving many practical electrostatic field
problemswhereonlytheelectrostaticconditions(potentialandcharge)atsomeboundariesare
knownandsolutionofelectricfieldandpotentialistobefoundhroughoutthevolume.Weshall
considersuchapplicationsinthesectionwherewedealwithboundaryvalueproblems.

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Sm

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or

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.

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Sm

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or

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.

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Conventionandconductioncurrent:

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Sm

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or

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.

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Sm

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or

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.

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CapacitanceandCapacitors
WehavealreadystatedthataconductorinanelectrostaticfieldisanEquipotentialbodyandany
charge given to such conductor will distribute themselves in such a manner that electric field

inside the conductor vanishes. If an additional amount of charge is supplied to an isolated

ld
.

. Since the potential of the conductor is given by

co

conductoratagivenpotential,thisadditionalchargewillincreasethesurfacechargedensity

or

conductorwillalsoincreasemaintainingtheratiosame

, the potential of the

.Thuswecanwrite

wherethe

constant of proportionality C is called the capacitance of the isolated conductor. SI unit of

capacitanceisCoulomb/VoltalsocalledFaraddenotedbyF.ItcanItcanbeseenthatifV=1,C

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= Q. Thus capacity of an isolated conductor can also be defined as the amount of charge in
Coulombrequiredtoraisethepotentialoftheconductorby1Volt.

Sm

Of considerable interest in practice is a capacitor that consists of two (or more) conductors
carryingequalandoppositechargesandseparatedbysomedielectricmediaorfreespace.The
conductorsmayhavearbitraryshapes.Atwoconductorcapacitorisshowninfigurebelow.

Fig:CapacitanceandCapacitors
Whenadcvoltagesourceisconnectedbetweentheconductors,achargetransferoccurswhich
resultsintoapositivechargeononeconductorandnegativechargeontheotherconductor.The

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conductorsareequipotentialsurfacesandthefieldlinesareperpendiculartotheconductor
surface.IfVisthemeanpotentialdifferencebetweentheconductors,thecapacitanceisgivenby
.Capacitanceofacapacitordependsonthegeometryoftheconductorandthe
permittivityofthemediumbetweenthemanddoesnotdependonthechargeorpotential
differencebetweenconductors.ThecapacitancecanbecomputedbyassumingQ(atthesame
timeQontheotherconductor),firstdetermining usingGaussstheoremandthen
determining

.Weillustratethisprocedurebytakingtheexampleofaparallelplate

capacitor.

or

ld
.

co

Example:Parallelplatecapacitor

Fig:ParallelPlateCapacitor

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Fortheparallelplatecapacitorshowninthefigureabout,leteachplatehasareaAandadistance
hseparatestheplates.Adielectricofpermittivity fillstheregionbetweentheplates.The

Sm

electricfieldlinesareconfinedbetweentheplates.Weignorethefluxfringingattheedgesof
theplatesandchargesareassumedtobeuniformlydistributedovertheconductingplateswith
densities

and

ByGaussstheoremwecanwrite,
Aswehaveassumed

.......................(1)

tobeuniformandfringingoffieldisneglected,weseethatEis

constantintheregionbetweentheplatesandtherefore,wecanwrite
parallelplatecapacitorwehave,
........................(2)
SeriesandparallelConnectionofcapacitors

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.Thus,fora

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Capacitorsareconnectedinvariousmannersinelectricalcircuitsseriesandparallelconnections
arethetwobasicwaysofconnectingcapacitors.Wecomputetheequivalentcapacitanceforsuch
connections.
SeriesCase:Seriesconnectionoftwocapacitorsisshowninthefigure1.Forthiscasewecan
write,

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Fig1.:SeriesConnectionofCapacitors

or

ld
.

co

.......................(1)

Fig2:ParallelConnectionofCapacitors
Thesameapproachmaybeextendedtomorethantwocapacitorsconnectedinseries.
ParallelCase:Fortheparallelcase,thevoltagesacrossthecapacitorsarethesame.
Thetotalcharge
Therefore,

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.......................(2)
ContinuityEquationandKirchhoffsCurrentLaw
LetusconsideravolumeVboundedbyasurfaceS.AnetchargeQexistswithinthisregion.Ifa
net current I flows across the surface out of this region, from the principle of conservation of
charge this current can be equated to the time rate of decrease of charge within this volume.
Similarly,ifanetcurrentflowsintotheregion,thechargeinthevolumemustincreaseatarate
equaltothecurrent.Thuswecanwrite,

.....................................(3)

co

......................(4)

or,

ld
.

Applyingdivergencetheoremwecanwrite,
.....................(5)

ingeneralmaybeafunctionofspaceandtime,partialderivatives

or

Itmaybenotedthat,since

areused.Further,theequationholdsregardlessofthechoiceofvolumeV,theintegrandsmust
Thereforewecanwrite,
................(6)

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beequal.

Theequation(6)iscalledthecontinuityequation,whichrelatesthedivergenceofcurrentdensity
vectortotherateofchangeofchargedensityatapoint.
Forsteadycurrentflowinginaregion,wehave
......................(7)
Consideringaregionboundedbyaclosedsurface,
..................(8)
whichcanbewrittenas,
......................(9)
whenweconsidertheclosesurfaceessentiallyenclosesajunctionofanelectricalcircuit.

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TheaboveequationistheKirchhoffscurrentlawofcircuittheory,whichstatesthatalgebraic
sumofallthecurrentsflowingoutofajunctioninanelectriccircuit,iszero.
Questionbank:

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or

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.

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1stunit

Bits:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Displacementcurrentinaconductorisgreaterthanconductioncurrent(yes/no)
Electricdipolemomentisavector (yes/no)
Electricsusceptibilityhastheunitofpermittivity(yes/no)
Capacitancedependsondielectricmaterialbetweentheconductors(yes/no)
TheunitofpotentialisJoule/coulomb(yes/no)

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(yes/no)
7. Coulombsforceisproportionalto
8. Theunitofelectricfluxiscoulombs
9. Theelectricfieldonxaxisduetoalinechargeextendingfrom
10. Potentialatallpointsonthesurfaceofaconductoristhesame
11. Laplaceequationhasonlyonesolution
12. Exampleofnonpolartypeofdielectricisoxygen
13. Theelectricsusceptabilittyofadielectricis4,itsrelativepermittivityis5
14. BoundaryconditionforthenormalcomponentofEontheboundaryofadielectricis

om

=
15. Potentialduetoachargeatapointsituatedatinfinityis0

ld

.c

16. Relationtimeis
17. Theforcemagnitudeb/wQ1=1CandQ2=1Cwhentheyareseparatedby1minfree
spaceis9*109N

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or

=0isinpointform
=0
18.
19. Directionofdipolemomentisindirectionofappliedelectricfield
20. Ifaforce,F=4ax+ay+2aZmoves1 Cchargethroughadisplacementof4ax+2ay6aZ
theresultantworkdoneis6 J

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Sm

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or

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