Ultrasonic testing( imaging)

Magnetic particle testing

Dye penetrant inspection
Hydrostatic testing
eddy current testing
radiography4

Nondestructive testing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques

used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or
system without causing damage.[1] The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive
inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this
technology.[2] Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly
valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and
research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid
penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current testing,[1] and low coherence
interferometry.[3][4] NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum
engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, medicine, and art.[1] Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a
profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography,
and digital radiography.

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate

surface and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied
with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When using an electromagnet, the field is present only
when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the
direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage field of their own as shown
in Figure 1. Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very fine colored ferromagnetic
particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into the
discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on the surface of the part. The
magnetic particles may be a dry powder or suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a
visible dye or a fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light

MT Techniques
Yokes

Most field inspections are performed using a Yoke, as shown at the right. As shown in Figure 2(a), an
electric coil is wrapped around a central core, and when the current is applied, a magnetic field is
generated that extends from the core down through the articulated legs into the part. This is known as
longitudinal magnetization because the magnetic flux lines run from one leg to the other.
When the legs are placed on a ferromagnetic part and the yoke is energized, a magnetic field is
introduced into the part as shown in (b). Because the flux lines do run from one leg to the other,
discontinuities oriented perpendicular to a line drawn between the legs can be found. To ensure no
indications are missed, the yoke is used once in the position shown then used again with the yoke turned

90o so no indications are missed. Because all of the electric current is contained in the yoke and only the
magnetic field penetrates the part, this type of application is known as indirect induction.

Prods

Prod units use direct induction, where the current runs through the part and a circular magnetic field is
generated around the legs as shown in Figure 3. Because the magnetic field between the prods is
travelling perpendicular to a line drawn between the prods, indications oriented parallel to a line drawn
between the prods can be found. As with the yoke, two inspections are done, the second with the prods
oriented 90o to the first application.

Coils

Electric coils are used to generate a longitudinal magnetic field. When energized, the current creates a
magnetic field around the wires making up the coil so that the resulting flux lines are oriented through the
coil as shown at the right. Because of the longitudinal field, indications in parts placed in a coil are
oriented transverse to the longitudinal field.

Heads

Most horizontal wet bath machines ("bench units") have both a coil and a set of heads through which
electric current can be passed, generating a magnetic field. Most use fluorescent magnetic particles in a
liquid solution, hence the name "wet bath." A typical bench unit is shown at the right. When testing a
part between the heads, the part is placed between the heads, the moveable head is moved up so that
the part being tested is held tightly between the heads, the part is wetted down with the bath solution
containing the magnetic particles and the current is applied while the particle are flowing over the part.
Since the current flow is from head to head and the magnetic field is oriented 90 o to the current,
indications oriented parallel to a line between the heads will be visible. This type of inspection is
commonly called a "head shot."

Central Conductor

When testing hollow parts such as pipes, tubes and fittings, a conductive circular bar can be placed
between the heads with the part suspended on the bar (the "central conductor") as shown in Figure 6.
The part is then wetted down with the bath solution and the current is applied, travelling through the
central conductor rather than through the part. The ID and OD of the part can then be inspected. As with
a head shot, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the current flow, wrapping around the test piece, so
indications running axially down the length of the part can be found using this technique.

Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting surface
and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and
some of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized
by direct or indirect magnetization. Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed
through the test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs
when no electric current is passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an
outside source. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current,
which may be either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

A technician performs MPI on a pipeline to check for stress corrosion cracking using what is known as the
"black and white" method. No indications of cracking appear in this picture; the only marks are the "footprints"
of the magnetic yoke and drip marks.

A close-up of the surface of a (different) pipeline showing indications of stress corrosion cracking (two clusters
of small black lines) revealed by magnetic particle inspection. Cracks that would normally have been
invisible are detectable due to the magnetic particles clustering at the crack openings. The scale at the bottom
is numbered in centimetres.

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic flux to
leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as metals. Ferrous particles
are then applied to the part. The particles may be dry or in a wet suspension. If an area of flux
leakage is present, the particles will be attracted to this area. The particles will build up at the area of
leakage and form what is known as an indication. The indication can then be evaluated to determine
what it is, what may have caused it, and what action should be taken, if any.
Contents
[hide]

1Types of electrical currents used

2Equipment

3Demagnetizing parts

4Magnetic particle powder

o

4.1Magnetic particle carriers

5Inspection

6Standards

7References

8Further reading

9External links

Types of electrical currents used[edit]

There are several types of electrical currents used in magnetic particle inspection. For a proper
current to be selected one needs to consider the part geometry, material, the type of discontinuity
one is seeking, and how far the magnetic field needs to penetrate into the part.

Alternating current (AC) is commonly used to detect surface discontinuities. Using AC to

detect subsurface discontinuities is limited due to what is known as the skin effect, where the
current runs along the surface of the part. Because the current alternates in polarity at 50 to 60
cycles per second it does not penetrate much past the surface of the test object. This means the
magnetic domains will only be aligned equal to the distance AC current penetration into the part.
The frequency of the alternating current determines how deep the penetration.

Full wave DC [clarification needed - discussion] (FWDC) is used to detect subsurface discontinuities where AC
can not penetrate deep enough to magnetize the part at the depth needed. The amount of
magnetic penetration depends on the amount of current through the part. [1] DC is also limited on
very large cross-sectional parts in terms of how effectively it will magnetize the part.

Half wave DC (HWDC, pulsating DC) works similar to full wave DC, but allows for detection
of surface breaking indications and has more magnetic penetration into the part than FWDC.
HWDC is advantageous for inspection process as it actually helps move the magnetic particles
during the bathing of the test object. The aid in particle mobility is caused by the half-wave
pulsating current waveform. In a typical mag pulse of 0.5 seconds there are 15 pulses of current
using HWDC. This gives the particle more of an opportunity to come in contact with areas of
magnetic flux leakage.

Each method of magnetizing has its pros and cons. AC is generally the best for discontinuities on the
surface, while some form of DC is better for subsurface defects.

Equipment[edit]

A wet horizontal MPI machine with a 36 in (910 mm) coil

Using a similar machine, a U.S. Navy technician sprays magnetic particles on a test part under ultraviolet light.

An automatic wet horizontal MPI machine with an external power supply, conveyor, and demagnetizing system.
It is used to inspect engine cranks.

A wet horizontal MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production inspection
machine. The machine has a head and tail stock where the part is placed to magnetize it. In
between the head and tail stock is typically an induction coil, which is used to change the
orientation of the magnetic field by 90 from the head stock. Most of the equipment is built for a
specific application.

Mobile power packs are custom-built magnetizing power supplies used in wire wrapping
applications.

Magnetic yoke is a hand-held device that induces a magnetic field between two poles.
Common applications are for outdoor use, remote locations, and weld inspection. The draw back
of magnetic yokes is that they only induce a magnetic field between the poles, so large-scale
inspections using the device can be time-consuming. For proper inspection the yoke needs to be
rotated 90 degrees for every inspection area to detect horizontal and vertical discontinuities.
Subsurface detection using a yoke is limited. These systems used dry magnetic powders, wet
powders, or aerosols.

Demagnetizing parts[edit]
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A pull through AC demagnetizing unit

After the part has been magnetized it needs to be demagnetized. This requires special equipment
that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The magnetization is normally done with
a high current pulse that reaches a peak current very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving
the part magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed has to be equal to
or greater than the current or magnetic field used to magnetize the part. The current or magnetic
field is then slowly reduced to zero, leaving the part demagnetized.

AC demagnetizing

Pull-through AC demagnetizing coils: seen in the figure to the right are AC powered
devices that generate a high magnetic field where the part is slowly pulled through by hand
or on a conveyor. The act of pulling the part through and away from the coil's magnetic field
slows drops the magnetic field in the part. Note that many AC demagnetizing coils have
power cycles of several seconds so the part must be passed through the coil and be several
feet (meters) away before the demagnetizing cycle finishes or the part will have residual
magnetization.

AC decaying demagnetizing: this is built into most single phase MPI equipment.
During the process the part is subjected to an equal or greater AC current, after which the
current is reduced over a fixed period of time (typically 18 seconds) until zero output current
is reached. As AC is alternating from a positive to a negative polarity this will leave the
magnetic domains of the part randomized.

AC demag does have significant limitations on its ability to demag a part depending
on the geometry and the alloys used.

Reversing full wave DC demagnetizing: this is a demagnetizing method that must be built
into the machine during manufacturing. It is similar to AC decaying except the DC current is
stopped at intervals of half a second, during which the current is reduced by a quantity and its
direction is reversed. Then current is passed through the part again. The process of stopping,
reducing and reversing the current will leave the magnetic domains randomized. This process is
continued until zero current is passed through the part. The normal reversing DC demag cycle
on modern equipment should be 18 seconds or longer. This method of demag was developed to
overcome the limitations presented by the AC demag method where part geometry and certain
alloys prevented the AC demag method from working.

Halfwave DC demagnetizing (HWDC): this process is identical to full-wave DC

demagnetization, except the waveform is half-wave. This method of demagnetization is new to
the industry and only available from a single manufacturer. It was developed to be a costeffective method to demagnetize without needing a full-wave DC bridge design power supply.
This method is only found on single-phase AC/HWDC power supplies. HWDC demagnetization
is just as effective as full-wave DC, without the extra cost and added complexity. Of course,
other limitations apply due to inductive losses when using HWDC waveform on large-diameter
parts. Also, HWDC effectiveness is limited past 410 mm (16 in) diameter using a 12-volt power
supply.

Magnetic particle powder[edit]

A common particle used to detect cracks is iron oxide, for both dry and wet systems.

Wet system particle range in size from less than 0.5 micrometres to 10 micrometres for use
with water or oil carriers. Particles used in wet systems have pigments applied that fluoresce at
365 nm (ultraviolet A) requiring 1000 W/cm2 (10 W/m2) at the surface of the part for proper
inspection. If the particles do not have the correct light applied in a darkroom the particles
cannot be detected/seen. It is industry practice to use UV goggles/glasses to filter the UV light
and amplify the visible light spectrum (normally green and yellow) created by the fluorescing
particles. Green and yellow fluorescence was chosen, because the human eye reacts best to
these colors.

After applying wet magnetic particles, a U.S. navy technician examines a bolt for cracks under ultraviolet light.

Dry particle powders range in size from 5 to 170 micrometres, designed to be seen in white
light conditions. The particles are not designed to be used in wet environments. Dry powders are
normally applied using hand operated air powder applicators.

Aerosol applied particles are similar to wet systems, sold in premixed aerosol cans similar to
hair spray.

Magnetic particle carriers[edit]

It is common industry practice to use specifically designed oil and water-based carriers for magnetic
particles. Deodorized kerosene and mineral spirits have not been commonly used in the industry for
40 years. It is dangerous to use kerosene or mineral spirits as a carrier due to their low flash points,
and inhalation of fumes by the operators.

Inspection[edit]
The following are general steps for inspecting on a wet horizontal machine:
1. Part is cleaned of oil and other contaminants.
2. Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to magnetize the part.
Refer ASTM E1444/E1444M for formulas.
3. The magnetizing pulse is applied for 0.5 seconds, during which the operator washes the part
with the particle, stopping before the magnetic pulse is completed. Failure to stop prior to
end of the magnetic pulse will wash away indications.
4. UV light is applied while the operator looks for indications of defects that are 0 to 45
degrees from path the current flowed through the part. Indications only appear 45 to 90
degrees of the magnetic field applied. The easiest way to quickly figure out which way the
magnetic field is running is grab the part with either hand between the head stocks laying
your thumb against the part (do not wrap your thumb around the part) this is called either left
or right thumb rule or right hand grip rule. The direction the thumb points tell us the direction
current is flowing, the magnetic field will be running 90 degrees from the current path. On
complex geometry, like a crankshaft, the operator needs to visualize the changing direction
of the current and magnetic field created. The current starts at 0 degrees then 45 degrees to
90 degree back to 45 degrees to 0 then -45 to -90 to -45 to 0 and this is repeated for
each crankpin. Thus, it can be time consuming to find indications that are only 45 to 90
degrees from the magnetic field.
5. The part is either accepted or rejected, based on pre-defined criteria.
6. The part is demagnetized.
7. Depending on requirements, the orientation of the magnetic field may need to be changed
90 degrees to inspect for indications that cannot be detected from steps 3 to 5. The most
common way to change magnetic field orientation is to use a "coil shot". In Fig 1 a 36 inch
coil can be seen then steps 4, 5, and 6 are repeated.

Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders.

Ultra-

high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a material with a

different acoustic impedance (density and acoustic velocity), some of the sound will reflect back to the
sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. By knowing the speed of the sound through the
part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required for the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance
to the reflector (the indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined. The most
common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard
and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less sensitivity
(the ability to "see" small indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can
detect smaller indications.
The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the compression
(longitudinal) wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in Figure 10. Compression waves cause
the atoms in a part to vibrate back and forth parallel to the sound direction and shear waves cause the
atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to side) to the direction of the sound. Shear waves travel at
approximately half the speed of longitudinal waves.
Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that converts electrical impulses
from the UT machine into sound waves, then converts returning sound back into electric impulses that
can be displayed as a visual representation on a digital or LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT
screen). If the machine is properly calibrated, the operator can determine the distance from the
transducer to the reflector, and in many cases, an experienced operator can determine the type of
discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks in a weld) that caused the reflector. Because ultrasound will not
travel through air (the atoms in air molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel called
"couplant" is used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to allow the sound to be
transmitted into the part.

UT Techniques
Straight Beam

Straight beam inspection uses longitudinal waves to interrogate the test piece as shown at the right. If the
sound hits an internal reflector, the sound from that reflector will reflect to the transducer faster than the
sound coming back from the back-wall of the part due to the shorter distance from the transducer. This
results in a screen display like that shown at the right in Figure 11. Digital thickness testers use the same
process, but the output is shown as a digital numeric readout rather than a screen presentation.

Angle Beam

Angle beam inspection uses the same type of transducer but it is mounted on an angled wedge (also
called a "probe") that is designed to transmit the sound beam into the part at a known angle. The most
commonly used inspection angles are 45o, 60o and 70o, with the angle being calculated up from a line
drawn through the thickness of the part (not the part surface). A 60o probe is shown in Figure 12. If the
frequency and wedge angle is not specified by the governing code or specification, it is up to the operator
to select a combination that will adequately inspect the part being tested.
In angle beam inspections, the transducer and wedge combination (also referred to as a "probe") is
moved back and forth towards the weld so that the sound beam passes through the full volume of the
weld. As with straight beam inspections, reflectors aligned more or less perpendicular to the sound beam
will send sound back to the transducer and are displayed on the screen.

Immersion Testing
Immersion Testing is a technique where the part is immersed in a tank of water with the water being used
as the coupling medium to allow the sound beam to travel between the transducer and the part. The UT
machine is mounted on a movable platform (a "bridge") on the side of the tank so it can travel down the
length of the tank. The transducer is swivel-mounted on at the bottom of a waterproof tube that can be
raised, lowered and moved across the tank. The bridge and tube movement permits the transducer to be
moved on the X-, Y- and Z-axes. All directions of travel are gear driven so the transducer can be moved
in accurate increments in all directions, and the swivel allows the transducer to be oriented so the sound
beam enters the part at the required angle. Round test parts are often mounted on powered rollers so
that the part can be rotated as the transducer travels down its length, allowing the full circumference to be
tested. Multiple transducers can be used at the same time so that multiple scans can be performed.

Through Transmission

Through transmission inspections are performed using two transducers, one on each side of the part as
shown in Figure 13. The transmitting transducer sends sound through the part and the receiving
transducer receives the sound. Reflectors in the part will cause a reduction in the amount of sound
reaching the receiver so that the screen presentation will show a signal with a lower amplitude (screen
height).

Phased Array
Phased array inspections are done using a probe with multiple elements that can be individually
activated. By varying the time when each element is activated, the resulting sound beam can be
"steered", and the resulting data can be combined to form a visual image representing a slice through the
part being inspected.

Time of Flight Diffraction

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) uses two transducers located on opposite sides of a weld with the
transducers set at a specified distance from each other. One transducer transmits sound waves and the
other transducer acting as a receiver. Unlike other angle beam inspections, the transducers are not
manipulated back and forth towards the weld, but travel along the length of the weld with the transducers
remaining at the same distance from the weld. Two sound waves are generated, one travelling along the
part surface between the transducers, and the other travelling down through the weld at an angle then
back up to the receiver. When a crack is encountered, some of the sound is diffracted from the tips of the
crack, generating a low strength sound wave that can be picked up by the receiving unit. By amplifying
and running these signals through a computer, defect size and location can be determined with much
greater accuracy than by conventional UT methods.

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques

based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT
applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz,
and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal flaws or to
characterize materials. A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the
thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also be used
on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries including
steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and
other transportation sectors.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2How it works

3Features
o

3.1Advantages

3.2Disadvantages

4Standards

5See also

6References

7Further reading

8External links

History[edit]
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr. Floyd Firestone of the University of Michigan applies for a
U.S. invention patent for the first practical ultrasonic testing method. The patent is granted on April
21, 1942 as U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device and Measuring Instrument".
Extracts from the first two paragraphs of the patent for this entirely new nondestructive testing
method succinctly describe the basics of such ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains to a device
for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in materials. For instance if a
casting has a hole or a crack within it, my device allows the presence of the flaw to be detected and
its position located, even though the flaw lies entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends
out to the surface. ... The general principle of my device consists of sending high frequency
vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the determination of the time intervals of arrival of the
direct and reflected vibrations at one or more stations on the surface of the part."
James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) of Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo,
California, an early improver of the many foibles and limits of this and other nondestructive testing
methods, teaches in further detail on ultrasonic testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105 (application filed
December 21, 1962, granted July 12, 1966, titled Ultrasonic Testing Apparatus and Method) that
Basically ultrasonic testing is performed by applying to a piezoelectric crystal transducer periodic
electrical pulses of ultrasonic frequency. The crystal vibrates at the ultrasonic frequency and is

mechanically coupled to the surface of the specimen to be tested. This coupling may be effected by
immersion of both the transducer and the specimen in a body of liquid or by actual contact through a
thin film of liquid such as oil. The ultrasonic vibrations pass through the specimen and are reflected
by any discontinuities which may be encountered. The echo pulses that are reflected are received by
the same or by a different transducer and are converted into electrical signals which indicate the
presence of the defect.

How it works[edit]

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased
array instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact with
the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe wall.

Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over the
object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant (such
as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with
an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In reflection
(or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed
waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface,
such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine
displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the intensity of the
reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-

transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver
detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the
amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the
efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation
between the surfaces.

Features[edit]

Advantages[edit]
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal
flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of components with different acoustic
properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment and
materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages[edit]
1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The transducers
alert to both normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens
(both termed noise) and to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen integrity.
These signals must be distinguished by a skilled technician, possibly requiring follow up with
other nondestructive testing methods.[1]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are difficult
to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although paint
that is properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.

5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-contact
techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not
contain rust inhibitors.

Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that

the radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording medium placed against the
opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense materials such as aluminum, electrically generated
x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser materials, gamma radiation is generally
used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most commonly used
sources of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-60). IR-192 is generally used
for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength of the source, and Co-60 is usually used
for thicker materials due to its greater penetrating ability.
The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation detectors. With
both, the radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing an end effect of having
darker areas where more radiation has passed through the part and lighter areas where less radiation has
penetrated. If there is a void or defect in the part, more radiation passes through, causing a darker image
on the film or detector, as shown in Figure 8.

RT Techniques
Film Radiography
Film radiography uses a film made up of a thin transparent plastic coated with a fine layer of silver
bromide on one or both sides of the plastic. When exposed to radiation these crystals undergo a reaction
that allows them, when developed, to convert to black metallic silver. That silver is then "fixed" to the
plastic during the developing process, and when dried, becomes a finished radiographic film.
To be a usable film, the area of interest (weld area, etc.) on the film must be within a certain density
(darkness) range and must show enough contrast and sensitivity so that discontinuities of interest can be
seen. These items are a function of the strength of the radiation, the distance of the source from the film
and the thickness of the part being inspected. If any of these parameters are not met, another exposure
("shot") must be made for that area of the part.

Computed Radiography
Computed radiography (CR) is a transitional technology between film and direct digital radiography. This
technique uses a reusable, flexible, photo-stimulated phosphor (PSP) plate which is loaded into a
cassette and is exposed in a manner similar to traditional film radiography. The cassette is then placed in
a laser reader where it is scanned and translated into a digital image, which take from one to five
minutes. The image can then be uploaded to a computer or other electronic media for interpretation and
storage.

Computed Tomography

Computed tomography (CT) uses a computer to reconstruct an image of a cross sectional plane of an
object as opposed to a conventional radiograph, as shown in Figure 9. The CT image is developed from
multiple views taken at different viewing angles that are reconstructed using a computer. With traditional
radiography, the position of internal discontinuities cannot be accurately determined without making
exposures from several angles to locate the item by triangulation. With computed tomography, the
computer triangulates using every point in the plane as viewed from many different directions.

Digital Radiography
Digital radiography (DR) digitizes the radiation that passes through an object directly into an image that
can be displayed on a computer monitor. The three principle technologies used in direct digital imaging
are amorphous silicon, charge coupled devices (CCDs), and complementary metal oxide semiconductors
(CMOSs). These images are available for viewing and analysis in seconds compared to the time needed
to scan in computed radiography images. The increased processing speed is a result of the unique
construction of the pixels; an arrangement that also allows a superior resolution than is found in computed
radiography and most film applications.

Industrial radiography is the use of ionizing radiation to view objects in a way that cannot be seen
otherwise. It is not to be confused with the use of ionizing radiation to change or modify objects;
radiography's purpose is strictly viewing. Industrial radiography has grown out of engineering, and is

a major element of nondestructive testing. It is a method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by
using the ability of short X-rays and gamma rays to penetrate various materials. Two ways to inspect
materials for flaws is to utilize X-ray computed tomography or Industrial computed tomography
scanning.

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or penetrant
testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be applied to
all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle
inspection is often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect casting,
forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity, leaks in new products,
and fatigue cracks on in-service components.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Principles

3Inspection steps

4Advantages and disadvantages

5Standards

6See also

7References

8External links

History[edit]
The oil and whiting method used in the railroad industry in the early 1900s was the first recognized
use of the principles of penetrants to detect cracks. The oil and whiting method used an oil solvent
for cleaning followed by the application of a whiting or chalk coating, which absorbed oil from the
cracks revealing their locations. Soon a dye was added to the liquid. By the 1940s, fluorescent or
visible dye was added to the oil used to penetrate test objects.
Experience showed that temperature and soak time were important. This started the practice of
written instructions to provide standard, uniform results. The use of written procedures has evolved,

giving the ability for design engineers and manufacturers to get the high standard results from any
properly trained and certified liquid penetrant testing technician.

Principles[edit]
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry
surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed and a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw so that
an invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or
white light, depending on the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).

Inspection steps[edit]
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could either
keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may
include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal of this
step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of
contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in the part,
and an etching bath is recommended as a post-blasting treatment.

Application of the penetrant to a part in a ventilated test area.

2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed "dwell
time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the
penetrant being used, material being tested and the size of flaws sought. As expected, smaller flaws
require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature one must be careful not to apply
solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected with a water-washable penetrant.

3. Excess Penetrant Removal:

The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the
type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable,
or hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest
sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water
spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on the
test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If excess penetrant is not
properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a background in the developed area
that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications severely
hindering your ability to do a proper inspection. Also, the removal of excessive penetrant is done
towards one direction either vertically or horizontally as the case may be.
4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed, a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, watersuspendable, and water-soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one
can't use water-soluble or -suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample
must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied with the
part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may
employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two. Developer should
form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed out can indicate the location, orientation and
possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and characterizing defects from the
indications found may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is not the actual
size of the defect].
5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical) for
visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per
centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for
fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after 10- to 30minute development time, depends of product kind. This time delay allows the blotting action to
occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation when using visible dye. It is
also good practice to observe indications as they form because the characteristics of the bleed out
are a significant part of interpretation characterization of flaws.
6. Post Cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if postinspection coating processes are scheduled.

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]

The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include the
detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth clean
surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test on
rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to remove any excessive penetrant
and could result in false indications. Water-washable penetrant should be considered here if no other
option is available. Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be achieved or the
dye will stain the workpiece.[1]
Limited training is required for the operator although experience is quite valuable. Proper cleaning
is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and any defects present are
clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so acid
etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be necessary.[2]

he basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity (highly fluid) liquid (the
penetrant) is applied to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into fissures and voids open to the surface.
Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating
an indication. Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not
work well on porous materials. Penetrants may be "visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or
fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light. The visible dye penetrant process is shown in Figure 7.
When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is clean and free of any
foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering voids or fissures open to the
surface of the part. After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a specified period
of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the
surface. When removing the penetrant, the operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has
flowed into voids. A light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time ("developer
dwell time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the developer, creating a
visible indication. Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually, with the aid
of a black light for fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like powders
that provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.

PT Techniques
Solvent Removable
Solvent Removable penetrants are those penetrants that require a solvent other than water to remove the
excess penetrant. These penetrants are usually visible in nature, commonly dyed a bright red color that
will contrast well against a white developer. The penetrant is usually sprayed or brushed onto the part,
then after the penetrant dwell time has expired, the part is cleaned with a cloth dampened with penetrant
cleaner after which the developer is applied. Following the developer dwell time the part is examined to
detect any penetrant bleed-out showing through the developer.

Water-washable
Water-washable penetrants have an emulsifier included in the penetrant that allows the penetrant to be
removed using a water spray. They are most often applied by dipping the part in a penetrant tank, but the

penetrant may be applied to large parts by spraying or brushing. Once the part is fully covered with
penetrant, the part is placed on a drain board for the penetrant dwell time, then taken to a rinse station
where it is washed with a course water spray to remove the excess penetrant. Once the excess
penetrant has been removed, the part may be placed in a warm air dryer or in front of a gentle fan until
the water has been removed. The part can then be placed in a dry developer tank and coated with
developer, or allowed to sit for the remaining dwell time then inspected.

Post-emulsifiable
Post-emulsifiable penetrants are penetrants that do not have an emulsifier included in its chemical makeup like water-washable penetrants. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are applied in a similar manner, but prior
to the water-washing step, emulsifier is applied to the surface for a prescribed period of time (emulsifier
dwell) to remove the excess penetrant. When the emulsifier dwell time has elapsed, the part is subjected
to the same water wash and developing process used for water-washable penetrants. Emulsifiers can be
lipophilic (oil-based) or hydrophilic (water-based).

Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes Eddy Current testing, Alternating Current
Field Measurement (ACFM) and Remote Field testing. While magnetic particle testing is also an
electromagnetic test, due to its widespread use it is considered a stand-alone test method rather as than
an electromagnetic testing technique. All of these techniques use the induction of an electric current or
magnetic field into a conductive part, then the resulting effects are recorded and evaluated.

ET Techniques
Eddy Current Testing

Eddy Current Testing uses the fact that when a an alternating current coil induces an electromagnetic
field into a conductive test piece, a small current is created around the magnetic flux field, much like a
magnetic field is generated around an electric current. The flow pattern of this secondary current, called
an "eddy" current, will be affected when it encounters a discontinuity in the test piece, and the change in
the eddy current density can be detected and used to characterize the discontinuity causing that change.
A simplified schematic of eddy currents generated by an alternating current coil ("probe") is shown in
Figure 14-a. By varying the type of coil, this test method can be applied to flat surfaces or tubular

products. This technique works best on smooth surfaces and has limited penetration, usually less than
".
Encircling coils (Figure 14-b) are used to test tubular and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar can be
fed through the coil at a relatively high speed, allowing the full cross-section of the test object to be
interrogated. However, due to the direction of the flux lines, circumferentially oriented discontinuities may
not be detected with this application.

Alternating Current Field Measurement

Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) uses a specialized probe that introduces an alternating
current into the surface of the test piece, creating a magnetic field. In parts with no discontinuities this
field will be uniform, but if there is a discontinuity open to the surface, the magnetic field will flow around
and under the discontinuity, causing a disruption of the field that can be detected by sensors within the
probe. The resulting feedback can then be fed to software that can determine the length and depth of the
discontinuity. ACFM provides better results on rough surfaces than Eddy Current and can be used
through many surface coatings.

Remote Field Testing

Remote Field Testing (RFT) is most commonly used to inspect ferromagnetic tubing due to the presence
of a strong skin effect found in such tubes. Compared to standard eddy current techniques, remote field
testing provides better results throughout the thickness of the tube, having approximately equal sensitivity
at both the ID and OD surfaces of the tube. For non-ferromagnetic tubes, eddy current tends to provide
more sensitivity.

Eddy-current testing (also commonly seen as eddy current testing and ECT) is one of
many electromagnetic testing methods used in nondestructive testing(NDT) making use
of electromagnetic induction to detect and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws
in conductive materials.

The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing inspections.
Surface inspection is used extensively in the aerospace industry, but also in the petrochemical
industry. The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks. Surface inspection can be
performed both on ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as conventional
eddy current testing. Conventional ECT is used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear
plants and heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries. The technique is very
sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall loss or corrosion can be detected but sizing is not accurate.
A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation ECT. In this
technique, permeability variations are suppressed by applying a magnetic field. The saturation
probes contain conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This inspection is used on partially
ferromagnetic materials such as nickel alloys, duplex alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials such
as ferritic chromium molybdenum stainless steel. The application of a saturation eddy current
technique depends on the permeability of the material, tube thickness, and diameter.[7]

A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This method is sensitive
to general wall loss and not sensitive to small pits and cracks.

ECT on surfaces[edit]
When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection technique depends
greatly on the specific conditions mostly the types of materials and defects, but also surface
conditions, etc. However, in most situations, the following are true:

Effective on coatings/paint: yes

Computerized record keeping: partial

3D/Advanced imaging: none

User dependence: high

Speed: low

Post-inspection analysis: none

Requires chemicals/consumables: no

Other applications[edit]
ECT is also useful in making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements, among
others.

Other eddy current testing techniques[edit]

To circumvent some of the shortcomings of conventional ECT, other eddy current testing techniques
were developed with various successes.

Pulsed eddy current[edit]

Conventional ECT uses sinusoidal alternating current of a particular frequency to excite the probe.
Pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The advantage
of using a step function voltage is that such a voltage contains a range of frequencies. As a result,
the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be measured with just a single
step.
Since depth of penetration depends on the excitation frequency, information from a range of depths
can be obtained all at once. If measurements are made in the time domain (that is, by looking at the
strength of the signal as a function of time), indications produced by defects and other features near
the inspection coil can be seen first and more distant features will be seen later in time. [8]

When comparing PEC testing with the conventional ECT, ECT must be regarded as a continuouswave method where propagation takes place at a single frequency or, more precisely, over a very
narrow-frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are excited over a wide band, the
extent of which varies inversely with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. The total
amount of energy dissipated within a given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than
for continuous waves of the same intensity, thus allowing higher input voltages to be applied to the
exciting coil for PEC than conventional ECT.[9]
One of the advantage of this type of testing is that there is no need for direct contact with the tested
object. Testing can be performed through coatings, sheathings, corrosion products
and insulation materials.[10] This way even high-temperature inspections are possible.

Eddy current array[edit]

Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles. ECA
technology provides the ability to electronically drive an array of coils ( multiple coils) arranged in
specific pattern called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile suited to the target defects. Data
acquisition is achieved by multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to avoid
mutual inductance between the individual coils. The benefits of ECA are: [11]

Faster inspections

Wider coverage

Less operator dependence array probes yield more consistent results compared to
manual raster scans

Better detection capabilities

Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns

Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data

Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making hardto-reach areas easier to inspect

ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during inspections.
[12]
ECA inspection in carbon steel welds is regulated by ASTM standard E3052.

Lorentz force eddy current testing[edit]

A different, albeit physically closely related challenge is the detection of deeply lying flaws and
inhomogeneities in electrically conducting solid materials.

Fig. 1 : LET working principle. Adapted from

[13]

In the traditional version of eddy current testing an alternating (AC) magnetic field is used to induce
eddy currents inside the material to be investigated. If the material contains a crack or flaw which
make the spatial distribution of the electrical conductivity nonuniform, the path of the eddy currents is
perturbed and the impedance of the coil which generates the AC magnetic field is modified. By
measuring the impedance of this coil, a crack can hence be detected. Since the eddy currents are
generated by an AC magnetic field, their penetration into the subsurface region of the material is
limited by the skin effect. The applicability of the traditional version of eddy current testing is
therefore limited to the analysis of the immediate vicinity of the surface of a material, usually of the
order of one millimeter. Attempts to overcome this fundamental limitation using low frequency coils
and superconducting magnetic field sensors have not led to widespread applications.
A recent technique, referred to as Lorentz force eddy current testing (LET), [13][14] exploits the
advantages of applying DC magnetic fields and relative motion providing deep and relatively fast
testing of electrically conducting materials. In principle, LET represents a modification of the
traditional eddy current testing from which it differs in two aspects, namely (i) how eddy currents are
induced and (ii) how their perturbation is detected. In LET eddy currents are generated by providing
the relative motion between the conductor under test and a permanent magnet(see figure). If the
magnet is passing by a defect, the Lorentz force acting on it shows a distortion whose detection is
the key for the LET working principle. If the object is free of defects, the resulting Lorentz force
remains constant.

A hydrostatic test is a way in which pressure vessels such as pipelines, plumbing, gas
cylinders, boilers and fuel tanks can be tested for strength and leaks. The test involves filling the
vessel or pipe system with a liquid, usually water, which may be dyed to aid in visual leak detection,
and pressurization of the vessel to the specified test pressure. Pressure tightness can be tested by
shutting off the supply valve and observing whether there is a pressure loss. The location of a leak
can be visually identified more easily if the water contains a colorant. Strength is usually tested by
measuring permanent deformation of the container. Hydrostatic testing is the most common method
employed for testing pipes and pressure vessels. Using this test helps maintain safety standards and
durability of a vessel over time. Newly manufactured pieces are initially qualified using the
hydrostatic test. They are then re-qualified at regular intervals using the proof pressure test which is
also called the modified hydrostatic test.[citation needed][clarification needed] Testing of pressure vessels for transport

and storage of gases is very important because such containers can explode if they fail under
pressure.

Testing procedures[edit]
Hydrostatic tests are conducted under the constraints of either the industry's or the customer's
specifications, or may be required by law. The vessel is filled with a nearly incompressible liquid usually water or oil - pressurised to test pressure, and examined for leaks or permanent changes in
shape. Red or fluorescent dyesmay be added to the water to make leaks easier to see. The test
pressure is always considerably higher than the operating pressure to give a factor of safety. This
factor of safety is typically 166.66%, 143% or 150% of the designed working pressure, depending on
the regulations that apply. For example, if a cylinder was rated to DOT-2015 PSI (approximately 139
bar), it would be tested at around 3360 PSI (approximately 232 bar). Water is commonly used
because it is cheap and easily available, and is usually harmless to the system to be tested.
Hydraulic fluids and oils may be specified where contamination with water could cause problems.
These fluids are nearly incompressible, therefore requiring relatively little work to develop a high
pressure, and is therefore also only able to release a small amount of energy in case of a failure only a small volume will escape under high pressure if the container fails. If high pressure gas were
used, then the gas would expand to V=(nRT)/p with its compressed volume resulting in an explosion,
with the attendant risk of damage or injury. This is the risk which the testing is intended to mitigate.
[citation needed]

Water jacket test

Small pressure vessels are normally tested using a water jacket test. The vessel is visually
examined for defects and then placed in a container filled with water, and in which the change in
volume of the vessel can be measured, usually by monitoring the water level in a calibrated tube.
The vessel is then pressurized for a specified period, usually 30 or more seconds, and if specified,
the expansion will be measured by reading off the amount of liquid that has been forced into the
measuring tube by the volume increase of the pressurized vessel. The vessel is then depressurized,
and the permanent volume increase due to plastic deformation while under pressure is measured by
comparing the final volume in the measuring tube with the volume before pressurization. A leak will
give a similar result to permanent set, but will be detectable by holding the volume in the pressurized

vessel by closing the inlet valve for a period before depressurizing, as the pressure will drop steadily
during this period if there is a leak. In most cases a permanent set that exceeds the specified
maximum will indicate failure. A leak may also be a failure criterion, but it may be that the leak is due
to poor sealing of the test equipment. If the vessel fails, it will normally go through a condemning
process marking the cylinder as unsafe.[citation needed]
The information needed to specify the test is stamped onto the cylinder. This includes the design
standard, serial number, manufacturer, and manufacture date. After testing, the vessel or its
nameplate will usually be stamp marked with the date of the successful test, and the test facility's
identification mark.[citation needed]
A simpler test, that is also considered a hydrostatic test but can be performed by anyone who has a
garden hose, is to pressurize the vessel by filling it with water and to physically examine the outside
for leaks. This type of test is suitable for containers such as boat fuel tanks, which are not pressure
vessels but must work under the hydrostatic pressure of the contents. A hydrostatic test head is
usually specified as a height above the tank top. The tank is pressurized by filling water to the
specified height through a temporary standpipe if necessary. It may be necessary to seal vents and
other outlets during the test.[citation needed]

Examples[edit]
Portable fire extinguishers are safety tools that are required to be on hand in almost every public
building. Fire extinguishers are also highly recommended in every home. Over time the conditions in
which they are housed, and the manner in which they are handled affect the structural integrity of the
extinguisher. A structurally weakened fire extinguisher can malfunction or even burst when it is
needed the most. To maintain the quality and safety of this product, hydrostatic testing is utilized. All
critical components of the fire extinguisher should be tested to ensure proper function.