CAUSES OF WAR

POLITICAL CAUSES
Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commission assembled
at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, bringing the
Mughal dynasty to an end. British had Bahadur shah sons Mirza Mughal,
Mirza Khazir Sultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr shot under his own
authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. They
captured all Mughal women and made slaves.
Doctrine of lapse
The doctrine of lapse was an annexation policy purportedly devised by
Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General for the East India
Company in India between 1848 and 1856. According to the doctrine,
any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of
the British East India Company (the dominant imperial power in the
subcontinent), as a vassal state under the British subsidiary system,
would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly
incompetent or died without a male heir".[1] The latter supplanted the
long-established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a
successor.[citation needed] In addition, the British decided whether
potential rulers were competent enough. The doctrine and its application
were widely regarded by many Indians as illegitimate.
ECONOMIC CAUSES
Heavy taxes on agriculture and unemployment due to import
In rural areas, peasants and zamindars resented the heavy taxes on
land and the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the
Company. Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy
revenue demands and repay their loans to money lenders, eventually
losing the lands that they had held for generations. So there were
grievances of the peasants.
Unemployment due to import
The economic exploitation by the British and the complete destruction of
the traditional economic structure caused widespread resentment among
all sections of the people. After the Industrial Revolution in England,

there was an influx of British manufactured goods into India which ruined
industries, particularly the textile industry, of India.
Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made
goods from Britain. India was transformed into a supplier of raw
materials and a consumer of goods manufactured in Britain. All those
people who previously depended on royal patronage for their livelihoods
were rendered unemployed. So they bore a deep- seated grievance
against the British.

RELIGIOUS CAUSES
A large section of the population was alarmed by the rapid spread of
Western civilization in India. An Act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of
inheritance enabling a Hindu who had converted into Christianity to
inherit his ancestral properties. Besides, the missionaries were allowed
to make conversions to Christianity all over India. The people were
convinced that the Government was planning to convert Indians to
Christianity by promoting the western education.
In 1834, English replaced Persian as the official language. Since
Muslims considered Persian as their own language, they felt it very
badly. Almost in the same year, English was also made compulsory as
the medium of instruction in schools and colleges. According to an
English educationist, a shelf of English books was better than all the
literature in Hindi and Arabic. Such remarks created the impression that
English wanted to impose their culture in India. It was also understood
that without English, an Indian could not enter into Indian civil service
even as a clerk. Government schools and colleges were controlled by
Christian missionaries which gave the impression to Indians that these
schools wanted to convert Indians to Christianity. Besides that, Indian
ladies could not get education without quitting purdah or their covering
which was a part of their culture. These factors caused anger among
Indians.
In 1838, Indian troops were sent to Afghanistan. Both Muslims and
Hindus did not like this decision because Muslims did not want to fight
against their Muslim brothers and for Hindus it was against their religion
to leave India.

The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide, and the
legislation legalizing widow remarriage, were threats to the established
social structure.

MILITARY CAUSES
Discrimination in armed forces
Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of British troops in India. They
were considered inferior to British soldiers. An Indian sepoy was paid
less than a European sepoy of the same rank. Besides, an Indian sepoy
could not rise to a rank higher than that of a Subedar
The extension of the British Empire in India had adversely affected the
service conditions of Indian sepoys. They were required to serve in
areas far away from their homes. In 1856 Lord Canning issued the
General Services Enlistment Act which required that the sepoys must be
ready to serve even in British land across the sea.
The Bengal Army was recruited from high caste communities in Awadh.
They were not prepared to cross the ocean (Kalapani) which was
forbidden as per Hindu religious beliefs. They developed the suspicion
that the Government was trying to convert Indians to Christianity.After
the annexation of Awadh the Nawabs army was disbanded. These
soldiers lost their means of livelihood. They became bitter enemies of
the British.
IMMEDIATE CAUSE
Use of greased cartridge made of fat of cow and pig
In January 1857, new rifles were introduced in which greased cartridges
were used. Before loading these rifles, the sepoys had to bite off the
cartridges and the cartridges were made of fat of cows and pigs. Both
the Muslims and the Hindus refused to accept new cartridges because
for Muslims, pig was unlawful and for Hindus, cow was unlawful. On 29 th
march 1857 at Meerat, a Hindu sepoy, Mangal Pande was executed due
to his refusal to use the cartridges. In May 1857, a group of sepoys
refused to use them. They were put into prison but in the evening, the
other Indian sepoys killed all the British officers, released these sepoys,
looted arms and spread in the city of Meerat and the war started which
spread very soon in the United Province and Delhi.

EVENTS OF THE WAR

1. 29th march 1857 mangal panday at Meerut rebelled to use cartridges
and killed his officer. Later he killed himself in shame of not able to
convince his partners to revolt.
2. April 1857 unrest started at Agra, Allahabad, and Ambla.
3. 10th May 1857 at Meerut rebellions broke away prisoners and war
started.
4. 12th May 1857 Bahadur Shah Zafar accepted rebels allegiance.
5. 27th May 1857 Kanpur incident by nana sahib
6. 15th July 1857 Bibigarh massacre
7. 3rd August 1857 Bihar recaptured by British from Kunwar Singh
8. 21ST March 1858 Lucknow was recaptured by British from Begum
Hazrat Mahal
9. March 1858 city of Jhansi was recaptured by British from Lakshmi
Bai
10. July 1858 end of war
CONSEQUENCES OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
Some rebel leaders, such as Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi, became
folk heroes in the nationalist movement in India half a century later. The
rebellion led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858. It also
led the British to reorganize the army, the financial system and the
administration in India. The country was thereafter directly governed by
the crown as the new British Raj. Muslims were considered the main
culprits behind the revolt.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Lack of vision, strategy and planning. Although ground was ripe for such
an eventuality, the uprising itself was a spontaneous and hence
unplanned act. There was a complete lack of unity among the fighting
groups though all were fighting against a common enemy, the British
soldiers. There was no coordination between different regions of unrest
and no attempts were made to bring their strengths together.
Not everyone joined the war. Only four big cities rebelled with the result
that the British didnt have to fight on different fronts. Most of the
southern India remained passive with only sporadic and haphazard
outbreaks of violence. Many states did not take part in the war as these
were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty and were thus not
directly under British rule.

Battle cry of the Muslims to wage Jihad became an anathema for the
Hindus. In fact, many Indians supported the British, due to their dislike of
the idea of return of the Mughal rule. Durbar intrigues and personal
rivalries precluded any common strategy of war. The role played by the
favourite wife of the Mughal King, Zeenat Mahal was quite dubious.
Same was the case with regard to the loyalty of several of his confidants,
particularly of Ahsanullah Khan. In Awadh, Sunni Muslims, perceiving it
to be a Shia rebellion, refused to join it as they did not want to see a
return to Shiite rule. Instead they declared Haji Imdadullah as their
Ameer who led the Sunni forces against the British in the famous Battle
of Shamli. Most of the pathans and Sikhs of Punjab and north west
frontier didnt take part in war. Some local leaders even helped the
British in the war e.g. the ruler of Kashmir sent 2000 troops on the British
side.
Finally the moral, political, financial and physical support extended by
the feudal elite as well as the rulers of the states played a decisive role
in crushing the uprising of the lower middle classes of Bengal. The Sikhs
who wanted to avenge the annexation of Punjab 8 years ago by the
British with the help of the Bengalis, fought with a vengeance. Similarly,
Pathans from the North-West Frontier Province and Potoharis from the
Northern Punjab supported the British and helped in the capture of
Delhi. The Gurkhas of Nepal, who were known for their valour and
ferocity in the battlefield fought alongside the British although Nepal
remained an independent country throughout the rebellion.
Lack of strong political and capable military leadership played the most
crucial part in this fiasco. The rebellious forces selected a dying old frail
man as their political leader who had no desire to play the role. He was
neither a brave general, nor an astute leader of the people. Same was
the case with the military leadership of the rebels which was no match to
the brilliant British leadership. On top of it was the non-existence of any
well managed centralized command and control system which could
provide the proper guidance and planning to the rebel forces.
The British proved to be formidable foes, largely due to their superior
weapons, training, and strategy which play a decisive role in any military
contest. The very Enfield rifle which the rebels had refused to operate
became their nemeses for its accuracy. Similarly, the use of wireless by
the British played a key role in their success as they were able to convey
the news about the outbreak of rebellion to their field commanders in all

the areas under their control. Once informed, the respective governors
took effective measures to arrest the spread of the uprising. As luck
would have it, the main arsenal of the rebels in Delhi was destroyed in
fire, accidently or by the traitors, leaving the defending forces with limited
quantity of ammunition. Attempts of the rebels to collect modern
equipment from Russia failed as their one-member delegation (Rao
Tularam) sent to Russia for this purpose died on the way.

SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born on 17 October 1817 to a Noble Syed
family in Delhi. He was raised in a wealthy house but in strict accordance
with Mughal noble traditions and discipline and was exposed to politics.
His mother Asiz-un-Nisa strongly emphasized on modern education. Sir
Syed was taught to read and understand the Holy Qur'an. He received
an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. Sir Syed was trained
in Persian, Arabic, Urdu and orthodox religious subjects. He read the
works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Rumi and Ghalib.
Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and Islamic
jurisprudence. Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, wrestling and other
sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities.
Sir Syed pursued the study of medicine for several years but did not
complete the course. Until the death of his father in 1838, when financial
difficulties put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although he
continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects. Sir
Syed assumed editorship of his brother's journal and rejected offers of
employment from the Mughal court.
He opposed ignorance, superstitions and evil customs prevalent in
Indian Muslim society. He firmly believed that Muslim society would not
progress without the acquisition of western education and science. As
time passed, Sir Syed began stressing on idea of pragmatic modernism
and started advocating for strong interfaith relations between Islam and
Christianity.

EARLY LIFE
1.

Born on 17 October 1817 in Delhi

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.
14.
15.

16.

In 1838 Sir Syed assumed editorship of his brother's journal and

later this year he was appointed Serestadar (lit. Clerk) at the courts
of law in Agra, responsible for record-keeping and managing court
affairs.
In 1840, he was promoted to the title of munshi.
In 1842 he became sub judge
In 1846 he was transferred to Delhi
In 1855 he was promoted and transferred to Bejnore
Sir Syed supported the British during the 1857 uprising, a role
which has been criticized by some nationalists
In 1858, he was appointed to a high-ranking post at the court in
Muradabad
In 1864 he was transferred to Aligarh
In 1869 he visited Britain and was awarded the Order of the Star of
India from the British government on 6 August
In 1876 he retired from government jobs
He was appointed the fellow of the Calcutta University and
Allahabad University by the Vice Roy in the year 1876 and 1887
respectively.
Sir Syed was nominated as a member of the Civil Service
Commission in 1887 by Lord Dufferin.
Syed Ahmed Khan was knighted by the British government in 1888
In 1888, he established the United Patriotic Association at Aligarh
to promote political co-operation with the British and Muslim
participation in the government.
Sir Syed died on 27 March 1898.He was buried besides Sir Syed
Masjid inside the campus of the Aligarh university.

EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
1. In 1859 he set up Persian school of Muradabad
2. In 1863 he set up scientific society at Ghazipur purpose of society
was to translate scientific literature into Urdu
3. In 1864 he set up Victoria school at Ghazipur
4. In 1866 he set up Aligarh institute gazette (a weekly magazine)
5. In 1870 he founded Society for the educational progress of Indian
Muslims
6. In 1875 he established the Muhammadan Anglo Oriental school
which eventually became the Aligarh Muslim University
7. In 1877 vice Roy lord Lytton, inaugurated MAO college at Aligarh

8. In 1886 he founded Mohammedian educational conference.

Purpose of this conference was to review the educational
progress.

RELIGIOUS SERVICES
1. Inter religion harmony between Islam and other religions
2. Intra religion harmony among different sects of Muslims
3. Life of Muhammad by William Muir was responded by Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan by writing Khutbat-e-Ahmediya
4. Wrote many religious books and Tafsirs of Quran

POLITICAL SERVICES
1. Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Reasons for the Indian Revolt of 1857)
in 1859
2. In 1867 Urdu Hindi controversy took place. Thinking of sir Syed
Ahmed changed after controversy and he is called the pioneer of
two nation theory.
3. In 1883, he founded the Muhammadan Civil Service Fund
Association to encourage and support the entry of Muslim
graduates into the Indian Civil Service (ICS).

SOCIAL SERVICES
1. 1870 he wrote Tehzibul-Akhlaq
2. He wrote various articles about culture, religion, lifestyle, values
and traditions of Muslims.
3. helped to organize relief for the famine-struck people of NorthWest Province in 1860

DEVELOPMENT OF TWO NATION THEORY

The Two Nation Theory means the dissimilarities between Hindus and
Muslims of the Sub Continent. These differences in fact led to two
distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of
India into two independent states.

RELIGIOUS & CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

The Hindus and Muslims belong to different religions. Muslims believed
in oneness of Allah and equality of man. Whereas Hindus had a concept
of multiple Gods and had a caste system divided into four classes.
Moreover, Hindus considered 'Mother cow' as a sacred animal and
worshiped it while Muslims slaughtered it.

POLITICAL DIFFERENCES
Hindi Urdu Controversy
Congress Attitude (founded by A.O.HUME IN 1885)
The Indian national Congress was founded in 1885.It claimed to
represent all communities of India but oppressed all Muslim ideas and
supported the Hindus.
ALLAMA IQBAL & QUAID-E-AZAM'S STATEMENTS
India is a continent of human beings belonging to different languages
and professing different religions...I, therefore, demand the formation of
a consolidated Muslim state in the best interests of the Muslims of India
and Islam."
" Muslims are not a minority, they are one nation by every definition of
the word nation. By all canons of international law, we are a nation."
"Hindustan is neither one country, nor its inhabitants one nation. This is
Sub Continent which consist of many nations of which the Hindus and
Muslims are two major nations."

CONCLUSION
The Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they
remained a part of Hindu society. Hence demanded separate electorate.

URDU-HINDI CONTROVERSY
The main cause of this divide may be attributed to the aspirations of both
communities (Hindu and Muslim) to spread their cultural views, which
became open contention during Indian independence.
Urdu became the language of the courts of Muslim rulers who governed
parts of the Indian subcontinent from the eighth century onwards.
In 1837, the British East India company replaced Persian with local
vernacular in various provinces as the official and court language.
However, in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, Urdu in
Urdu script instead of Hindi in Devanagari script was chosen to replace
Persian. The most immediate reason for the controversy is believed to
be the contradictory language policy in North India in the 1860s.
Although the then government encouraged both Hindi and Urdu as a
medium of education in school, it discouraged Hindi or Nagari script for
official purposes. This policy gave rise to conflict between students
educated in Hindi or Urdu for the competition of government jobs, which
eventually took on a communal form.
In 1867, some Hindus in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh during
the British Raj in India began to demand that Hindi be made an official
language in place of Urdu. Babu Shiva Prasad of Banares was one of
the early proponents of the Nagari script. In a Memorandum on court
characters written in 1868, he accused the early Muslim rulers of India
for forcing them to learn Persian.
Several Hindi movements were formed in the late 19th and early 20th
century. The movement was encouraged in 1881 when Hindi in
Devanagari script replaced Urdu in Persian script as the official language
in neighboring Bihar. They submitted 118 memorials signed by 67,000
people to the Education Commission in several cities. The proponents of
Hindi argued that the majority of people spoke Hindi and therefore
introduction of Nagari script would provide better education and improve
prospects for holding Government positions. They also argued that Urdu
script made court documents illegible, encouraged forgery and promoted
the use of complex Arabic and Persian words.
Organisations such as Anjuman Taraqqi-e-Urdu were formed for the
advocacy of Urdu. Advocates of Urdu argued that Hindi scripts could not

be written faster, and lacked standardization and vocabulary. They also

argued that the Urdu language originated in India, asserted that Urdu
could also be spoken fluently by most of the people and disputed the
assertion that official status of language and script is essential for the
spread of education.
Communal violence broke out as the issue was taken up by firebrands.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had once stated, "I look to both Hindus and
Muslims with the same eyes & consider them as two eyes of a bride. By
the word nation I only mean Hindus and Muslims and nothing else. We
Hindus and Muslims live together under the same soil under the same
government. Our interest and problems are common and therefore I
consider the two factions as one nation." Speaking to Mr. Shakespeare,
the governor of Banaras, after the language controversy heated up, he
said "I am now convinced that the Hindus and Muslims could never
become one nation as their religion and way of life was quite distinct
from one and other."
It has been argued that the HindiUrdu controversy sowed the seeds for
Muslim nationalism in India. Some also argued that Syed Ahmad had
expressed separatist views long before the controversy developed and is
known as founder of two nation theory.
The language policy of Congress and the independence movement
paved its status as an alternative official language of independent India.
Hindi was supported by religious and political leaders, social reformers,
writers and intellectuals during independence movement securing that
status. Hindi, along with English, was recognized as the official language
of India during the institution of the Indian constitution in 1950.

PARTITION OF BENGAL
Discontentment was brewing. Political discontent was growing due to the
inability of the government to organize effective relief during the period of
plague and famine. And the provincial state of Bengal which had an
extensive area of 189,000 miles 2 and a population of 85 million was
becoming so much difficult for British to administer. Never the less the
capital Calcutta of Bengal was also the capital of the entire British India
so they did not wanted any type of tensions over there.
Besides that the growing efforts of the Indian National Congress to
secure the independence of India tensed the environment. And in order
to stem the discontent, the British played the political trump card with
great aplomb. For the first time, they used their divide-and-rule political
game with great force., Lord Curzon decided to address both the
administrative and political problems by partitioning Bengal into two
entities, which would result in a Muslim-majority in the eastern half, and
a Hindu-majority in the western half. This he hoped would reduce the
administrative pressures as well divide the population on religious
grounds, quelling the Indian Independence Movement.
The government announced the idea for partition in January 1904. The
Partition of Bengal in 1905 was made on October 16 by Viceroy Curzon.
The Bengal was divided into two new provinces Western Bengal and
Eastern Bengal.
Western Bengal was a Hindu majority area with total population of 54
million out of which 42 million were Hindus and 12 million were Muslims.
Its capital was Calcutta and the major source of income over here was
industries.
Eastern Bengal was a Muslim majority area with total population of 31
million out of which 18 million were Muslims and 13 million were Hindus.
Its capital was Dhaka and the major source of income over here was
agriculture.
The partition was generally supported by the Muslims of East Bengal. It
increased the investment in infrastructure. That included the construction
of administrative buildings like the Curzon Hall and High court, as well as
the foundation of educational institutions in East Bengal. The partition
led the Muslims to promote their religion and culture and form their own
national organization on communal lines. The population was also
benefited from new industries and development of port of Chittagong
which created new employment opportunities.

Following the partition, an anti-British movement formed in opposition to

the Partition. This involved non-violent and violent protests, boycotts and
even an assassination attempt against the Governor of the new province
of West Bengal. The opposition to the partition was led by the Hindus
who were at the forefront of political agitation for greater participation in
the governance under British rule, and many suspected that the partition
was designed to curtail Hindu demands for political representation and
their lands. All the working class of Hindus including traders, doctors and
teachers also protested the partition fearing their income will decrease.
Majority of Hindus boycotted British goods (Swadeshi movement),
functions and tax policies. Soon the Hindu Muslim clashes broke out and
there were several attacks on railway and communication systems and
British citizens.
When Lord Hardinage assumed charge as Governor General of India
Hindus again became active and sent a representation to him for the
annulment of partition of Bengal. Hence according to the suggestion of
the Governor General Lord Hardinage in Council, King George V at his
Coronation Darbar in Delhi in 12 December 1911 announced the
reunification of the Partition of Bengal at his visit to subcontinent. British
government decided to annul the Partition of Bengal, the date chosen for
the formal ending of the partition and reunification of Bengal was 1 April
1912.

SIMLA DEPUTATION
On 20th July 1906 John Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian affairs,
speaking on the Indian budget in the British parliament, announced that
the Government wanted to increase the number of seats for the
legislative councils and also their powers.
John Morley announcement created an anxiety among the Muslims of
the sub-continent. The proposed reforms, if implemented, as was
demanded by the Congress, would have suppressed the Muslims more
under the Hindu Majority. Muslim leaders were of the view that neither
elections nor nominations are fulfilled the requirements of the Indian
Muslims, and that they needed a certain number of seats in both the
central and provincial councils. Their seats should be filled up by votes
of their own community.
So, Nawab Mohin-ul-Mulk, secretary of M.O.E.C wrote a letter on August
1906, to Archbold, Principal of the college, in which he expressed his
apprehensions about the forthcoming constitutional changes. He was of
the view that if combined election would be held on a more extended
scale, Mohammedans will hardly get a single seat, while Hindus will
carry more advantage because of their majority. He asked Archbold to
advise for submit memorial from the Mohammedans to the Viceroy and
to request his permission to accept a deputation for discuss the issue of
forthcoming constitutional amendments. Archbold contacted to Viceroys
secretary and on 10th August 1906. He informed Mohsin-ul-Mulk that the
Viceroy was ready to meet the deputation.
A meeting was held in Lakhnow on 16th September 1906, in which an
address, prepared by Sayyid Husain Bilgarami, was finalized by learned
Muslim leaders. Finally, a deligation consisting of 35 leaders of Muslim
community meet to the viceroy, under the leadership of Sir Aga Khan, in
Simla on 1st October 1906.
The deputation presented the memorial in front of viceroy, which was
consisting of the demands that
1.
2.
3.
4.

Rights of separate electorates should be given to the Muslims;

Muslims should be given three more seats in central legislature;
Quota should be given to the Muslims in civil services;
Muslims should be given representation in universities senates
and syndicates;
5. An aid should be given to the Muslims for the establishment of a
Muslin university.

Lord Minto, the Viceroy, assured the Muslim delegation that as long as
he is associated with the administrative affairs if the country, their
national rights would be preserved.

FORMATION OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE

The formation of a Muslim political party on national level was seen as
essential by 1901. The first stage of its formation was the meeting held
at Lucknow in September 1906, with participation of representatives
from all over India. The decision for re-consideration to form the all
Indian Muslim political party was taken and further proceedings were
adjourned until the next meeting of All India Muhammadan Educational
Conference.
The Simla Deputation reconsidered the issue on 1 st October 1906 and
decided to frame the objectives of the party on the occasion of the
annual meeting of Educational Conference; that was later, scheduled to
be held at Dhaka. Meanwhile, Nawab Salimullah Khan published a
detailed scheme through which he suggested the party to be named AllIndia Muslim Confederacy. Pursuant upon the decisions taken earlier in
Lucknow meeting and later in Simla; the annual meeting of the All-India
Muhammadan Educational Conference was held at Dhaka that
continued from 27 December, until 30 December 1906. that was headed
by both Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk (president of M.O.E.C) and Nawab
Muhasan-ul-Mulk (the Secretary of the Muhammaden Educational
Conference); in which he explained its objectives and stressed the unity
of the Muslims under the banner of an association. It was formally
proposed by Nawab Salimullah Khan and supported by Hakim Ajmal
Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Zafar Ali Khan, Syed Nabiullah
Bar at Law Lucknow and Syed Zahur Ahmad an eminent lawyer and
several others.
The Founding meeting was hosted by Nawab Sir Khwaja Salimullah at
his residence and was presided by Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk. It was
attended by three thousand delegates. Resolution was presented by
Nawab Salimullah and was seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana
Mohammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan. The name "All-India
Muslim League" was proposed by Sir Agha Khan III, who was appointed
its first president. The League's constitution was framed on 29
December 1907 at Karachi during first annual session (presided by
Adamji Peer Bhai) proposed by Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhur.
Headquarter of party was appointed at Lucknow. First branch outside

sub-continent was opened at London by Syed Ameer Ali in 1908. In

1910, Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda selected as the president of the
party.

JINNAH & AIML

1913
1916-1917
1924-1925
1934-1935
1937-1947

Joined AIML
Elected president
Elected president
Elected president
Elected president

OBJECTIVES OF AIML
The Muslim league laid the following points as its objectives.
1. To create among Muslims the feelings of loyalty towards British
Government and to remove misconception and suspicious.
2. To Safeguard the political rights of the Muslims and to bring them into
the notice of the Government.
3. To prevent among the Muslims, the rise of prejudicial feelings against
the other communities of India.
EARLY ACHIEVEMENTS OF AIML
Official acceptance of separate electorate under the banner of
Minto Morley Reforms of 1909
Acceptance of separate electorate by congress under the banner
of Lucknow Pact 1916

MINTO MORLEY REFORMS 1909

John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the
Conservative Viceroy of India, Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th
Earl of Minto, believed that cracking down on the uprising in Bengal was
necessary but not sufficient for restoring stability to the British Raj after
Lord Curzon's partitioning of Bengal. They believed that a dramatic step
was required to reassure loyal elements of the Indian upper classes and
the growing Westernized section of the population.

They produced the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms).

They did not go any significant distance toward meeting the Indian
National Congress demand for 'the system of government obtaining in
Self-Governing British Colonies'.
MAIN FEATURES
1. Indians could participate in elections
2. The right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.
3. The members of the Legislative Councils, both in the center and in
the provinces, were to be of four categories: ex officio members
(Governor General and the members of their Executive Councils),
nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor
General and were government officials), nominated non-official
members (nominated by the Governor General but were not
government officials) and elected members (elected by different
categories of Indian people).
4. The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the
Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60,
excluding ex officio members.
5. The maximum number of nominated and elected members of the
provincial legislative councils, under a governor or lieutenant
governor, was also increased. It was fixed as 50 in Bengal,
Bombay, Madras, United Provinces, and Eastern Bengal and
Assam, and 30 in Punjab, Burma, and any lieutenant-governor
province created thereafter. Legislative councils were not created
for provinces under a chief commissioner.
6. Official members were to form the majority but in provinces,
nonofficial members would be in majority.
7. The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to
discuss budgets, suggest amendments and even vote on them
except items that were included as non-vote items. They were also
entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative
proceedings.
8. The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the
number of the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two
to four.
9. Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of
State for Indian Affairs.
10. The Governor-General was empowered to nominate one Indian
member to his Executive Council. Indians can participate in
elections
IMPORTANCE

The Minto-Morley Reforms drew a gloomy picture. Though, this act

appeased some of the Indians, the majority was not satisfied with it. The
result was widespread criticism of the Government. As a matter of fact,
the Indian National Congress was divided into two factions i.e. the
moderate, which was led by G.K. Gokhale and the extremist, which
was led by B.G. Tilak. The moderate faction welcomed the Reforms. In
the Imperial Legislative Council, Gokhale said, My Lord, I sincerely
believed that you and Lord Morley have saved the country from anarchy
and chaos. On other hand, the extremist faction rejected the act of
1909. They were not in the favor of the Reforms. It was because of its
contradiction to Lord Morleys dispatch dated November 27, 1908. On
the contrary, the All India Muslim League welcomed the council act of
1909. The League passed a resolution, which offered cooperation with
the government for the success of the Reforms, in the Delhi session on
1910. It also granted the right of separate electorate which, later on,
paved the way to the creation of Pakistan as the Muslims were first time
acknowledged by the British government as a separate entity.
In spite of all its demerits and flaws, the Reforms contributed and offered
space for political development. The inclusion of the Indians in Councils
was a great experience for the Indians. They became part of Legislative
Councils. They could move resolutions, discuss Bills elaborately, and
approved Bills. The introduction of the electoral principle laid the
groundwork for a parliamentary system even though this was contrary to
the intent of Morley.

LUCKNOW PACT
As a result of the hard work of Mr. Jinnah and Mahajan from congress,
both the Muslim League and the Congress met for their annual sessions
at Bombay in December 1915. The principal leaders of the two political
parties assembled at one place for the first time in the history of these
organizations. The speeches made from the platform of the two groups
were similar in tone and theme. Within a few months of the Bombay
meetings, 19 Muslim and Hindu elected members of the Imperial
Legislative Council addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy on the
subject of reforms in October 1916. Their suggestions did not become
news in the British circle, but were discussed, amended and accepted at
a subsequent meeting of the Congress and Muslim League leaders at
Calcutta in November 1916. This meeting settled the details of an
agreement about the composition of the legislatures and the quantum of
representation to be allowed to the two communities. The agreement
was confirmed by the annual sessions of the Congress and the League
in their annual sessions held at Lucknow on December 29 and
December 31, 1916 respectively. Sarojini Naidu gave Jinnah, the chief

architect of the Lucknow Pact, the title of the Ambassador of HinduMuslim Unity.
FACTORS BEHIND THE PACT
The annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911 was a jolt for the
Muslims of India; consequently, it shattered their confidence in British
and brought Muslims closer to Hindus against the British. Similarly, the
Kanpur mosque incident and the British policies in the international
system had caused deep anguish among the Muslims. Thus, the
Muslims leaderships decided to change the strategy of the Muslim
league after the annulment of Bengal in 1911. In December 1912,
Muslim league change its aim from loyalty to form self-government
suitable to India. However, the league retained the right to modify selfrule in accordance with their needs and requirements. Congress was
keen to gain the support of Muslim League for its demand of self-rule in
India. It hoped that it would be difficult for the British to reject the joint
demand of self-rule for longer time. Therefore, it was ready to give
concessions to Muslim League for its own objective of home-rule. That is
why Congress went into Lucknow Pact with Muslim League in 1916.
JINNAH AND THE PACT
Jinnah arose as a devoted champion of Hindu Muslim unity, he
convinced all India Muslim league to change their policies for the better
of India. Muhammad Ali Jinnah in his early career was a member of both
the Congress and the Muslim league and was well known as a man free
of any religious prejudice, as well as a brilliant advocate and debater. In
1915, mainly due to his efforts, both the Muslim league and the
Congress party had their annual meeting in Bombay. At the end of this
meeting, a committee was formed with the intention to sort the common
understanding between the two communities. The committee prepared a
scheme in November, 1916. The scheme was approved by both the
parties in December, 1916 at the respective sessions at Lucknow.
Quaid-e-Azam, in his presidential speech at Lucknow, said Indias real
progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious
relations between the two great communities. With regard to our own
affairs, we can depend upon nobody but ourselves.
MAIN FEATURES
1. There shall be self-government in India.
2. The same method should be adopted for the Executive Councils of
Governors.
3. The Indian Council must be abolished.
4. The salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be
paid by the British government, not from Indian funds.

5. The executive should be separated from the judiciary.

6. The number of Muslims in the provincial legislatures should be laid
down province by province.
7. Muslims should be given 1/3 representation in Central Govt.
8. There should be separate electorates for all communities until they
ask for joint electorate.
9. System of weight-age should be adopted.
10. Term of Legislative Council should be 5 years.
11. Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council must be
Indians.
12. Protection for minorities should be ensured
13. Provincial autonomy should be given
14. No bill or resolution can be passed if of any community oppose
it
IMPORTANCE
The Congress partially proved the importance of Muslim League in the
Sub-Continent by accepting the Muslim League as the representative
party of India Muslims in Lucknow Agreement. The Congress first time
accepted the demand of separate electorate for Muslims. The pact
ensured the protection of political rights of Muslims. Muslim league
separate status was also being accepted. Through the pact, the both
parties were able to put a joint demand before the British. Congress got
strength in term of political and masses because it had got All India
Muslim League Supports.
It was basically give and take sort of agreement between the both
parties. The Muslims had to pay a big price of losing majority in Bengal
and Punjab to obtain some concessions. Similarly, it carried great
constitutional significance in the future for many developments. The
scheme of representation of Muslim community in the central and
provincial legislatures as embodied in the Lucknow pact was generally
followed in the Montague Chelmsford reforms.
Because of the Hindu Muslim Unity. The British government also gave
legal protection to the rights and interests of Muslims in the Act of India
1919.
WEIGHTAGE
PROVINCES

%
MUSLIM % MUSLIM SEATS
POPULATION

PUNJAB

55

50

BENGAL

53

40

MADRAS

14

25

BOMBAY

20

33

BIHAR

10

25

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
OBJECTIVES OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
1. To maintain the Turkish caliphate
2. To protect the holy places of Muslims
3. To maintain the unity of ottoman empire

MAIN LEADERS OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Maulana Mohammad ali johar

Maulana shoukat ali
Maulana abul kalam azad
M.K gandhi
Maulana hazrat mohani

The Muslims of India had a great regard for the Khilafat (Caliphate)
which was held by the Ottoman Empire. During World War I, the
Ottoman Empire (Turkey) joined the war in favor of Germany. But Turkey
and Germany lost the war and a pact commonly known as Istanbul
Accord was concluded between the Allied Forces on 3rd November
1918. According to this Pact the territories of Turkey were to be divided
among France, Greece and Britain.
Indians support to the British Government during world war was subject
to the safeguard and protection of the holy places of Turkey and on the
condition that Turkey will not to be deprived of its territories. But the
British Government could not fulfill both of these promises. The Treaty of
Savers 1920 was imposed on Turkey and its territories were wrested
from it and distributed among European countries. Indian Muslims rose
against the British Government. Muslim leaders like Maulana Abdul
Kalam Azad, Moulana Muhammad Ali Johar, Moulana Shoukat Ali and
others reacted against the British Government policy and were put
behind the bars. Thus, people organized a mass movement, which came
to be known as Khilafat Movement.
All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919.
1st khilafat conference at Delhi in November 1919, all parties attended.
No participation in victory celebrations was the 1st important step taken
by the participants of this Conference. The British and the Allies had won
the war and they were celebrating even in India because India being a
part of the British Empire was on the side of the British therefore these
people decided to boycott the victory celebration to show displeasure on

the state of affairs and to express their point of view in an effective

manner.
Second decision which they made here was that they started boycotting
the British goods, in a way a kind of economic polices which they were
adopting that they will not buy the British good which will ultimately affect
their economy.
Non-Cooperation with the Government was the 3rd important decision
which they made at that time. It meant that not at this stage but at the
later stage hey may also launch the Noncooperation movement.
2nd khilafat conference at Amritsar in Dec 1919, all parties attended. the
most significant thing was that Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali
who were in British detention for violating the British law in protest
against the British policies were released and they also joined the
session after being released from prison. both the brothers along with
other leaders went to jail for several times, they would come out
demonstrate for Khilafat cause, lead Muslims the British arrest them
along with other leaders but whenever they released they again come
back and plead that cause with conviction.
3rd khilafat conference was held at Bombay in Feb 1920. A delegation
was prepared which was sent to England under the leadership of
Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar to see the British Prime Minister, Cabinet
Member and Members of Parliament and to explain the Indian point of
view regarding the Khilafat. The delegation visited England in march
1920. The leaders of the delegation addressed the House of Commons
and saw the British Prime Minister, Lloyd George who paid no heed to
the delegations demand. The delegation stayed at London for eight
months and won many hearts and sympathies of people in Britain
delivering speeches. However, the delegation returned to India
unsuccessful in October 1920.
After the unsuccessful visit to England the leaders of Khilafat Movement
launched a movement of Non Co-operation. When the leaders of
Khilafat movement announced the Non Co-operation Movement, the
Congress extended its full support to the Khilafat Movement. The
leaders of the two met at Amritsar and resolved to launch a country wide
agitation under the leadership of Mr. Gandhi. The agitation was against
the British government. The Jamiat-ul-Ulama Hind issued a Fatwa of

Tark-e-Mawalat. As a result of this proclamation of fatwa, hundreds of

thousands people returned the titles and stopped sending their children
to government schools and colleges. All those highly educated young
men who could have rose to high government positions bade farewell to
their bright future and accepted ordinary jobs in the private sector.
In January 1921, nearly three thousand students of various colleges and
schools boycotted their classes and a number of teachers most of them
were Muslims tendered their resignation. The Movement became so
powerful that the Government was obliged to pay attention to the
problem. The British Government invited Seth Jan-Muhammad Chutani,
the President of Khilafat conference to visit London to discuss the issue.
A delegation under his leadership visited London and discussed the
sentiment of Muslims but the delegation also returned unsuccessfully.

NON-CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Surrender of littles / awards

Boycott of official ceremonies / functions
Non-participation of British army
Boycott of British goods
Boycott of British law courts
Withdrawal of student from school and college.
Boycott of British taxes

HIJRAT MOVEMENT
A Khilafat Conference was held in Karachi in July 1921. Religious
scholars declared subcontinent as Darul-Harab Place of war) Darul
Harab means the place (country) where Muslims are not allowed to
perform their religious practices. In the said situation, the Muslims should
migrate to the nearest safe place. The ulama issued verdicts that
Muslims should start jihad and move from Dar ul Harb to Darul Islam and
in this case Dar ul Islam was next door country, Afghanistan. So, the
religious leaders encouraged Muslims from India to migrate to
Afghanistan that is Hijrat. Immediately after the fatwa was issued, a
central office of the movement, Khuddam-ul-Muhajreen, was set up in
Delhi and Nazims were appointed in all the big cities to motivate people
for migration.
There was another reason due to this, this Movement was launched.
There was an impression that King of Afghanistan would welcome these
people who would go from India to Afghanistan. Therefore, due to the

encouragement which the Islamic leaders gave to the common people

and a perception that the Afghanistan would welcome anybody who will
go there, around 20000 people from Sindh Punjab & NWFP migrated to
Afghanistan, some on foot, some on carts because means of
transportation were not so developed at that time that you could easily
go to Afghanistan. Some of the people sold their property at very cheap
rates; they disposed of their property, because they were moving from
this place to another in the name of Islam, so the migration took place at
large scale. Initially Afghans welcomed them. But as their number
increased the Afghan govt closed the border because Afghanistan was
also a poor country, it had its own problems and it was not able to cope
with the migrants and pushed the migrants back to the Indian territories.
This created a major dilemma for the Muslims who were migrating to
Afghanistan It resulted in loss of lives and money. Many died during this
mission. Some went to Soviet Union from Afghanistan because they had
nothing in India now because they had sold what they had and where
should they have go back. After some time, large No of people had to
return in poor conditions when Afghanistan closed its border.

FAILURE OF MOVEMENT
The Khilafat Movement came to an end when thousands of Indians were
put behind the bar. The leaders in spite of their best efforts could not
maintain the Hindu-Muslim Unity and were usually in prison. Also, some
of the leaders did not participated like Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
The Hijrat Movement made the Muslims disillusioned with the Khilafat
Movement due to the declaration of India as Darul-Harab. A large
number of Muslims migrated from Sindh and N.W.F.P to Afghanistan.
The Afghan authorities did not allow them to cross the border. After this
tragic event those who had advocated the Hijrat movement come to
realize their mistake which resulted in failure of movement.
One of the main reasons which caused a death blow to Khilafat
Movement was the indirect announcement of Gandhi to discontinue the
Non-Co-Operation Movement. Gandhi used the tragic incident of arson
on February 1922 in which the police opened fire on the procession of
local resident. The agitated mob in counteraction set the police station
on fire which caused twenty-one police constables to burn alive at at
Chora Churi at district Gorakpur.

In 1924, Kamal Ataturk set up a government on democratic basis in

Turkey by abolishing Khilafat and sending Sultan Abdul Majeed to exile.
It served as a finishing blow to Khilafat Movement in India and all
agitational activities came to an end in the Sub-continent.

CONCLUSION:
The Khilafat movement proved that Hindus and Muslims were two
different nations as they could not continue the unity and could not live
together. The Khilafat Movement created political consciousness among
the Indian Muslims, which inspired them to constitute another movement
for then Independence. Thus, they started Pakistan Movement.

NEHRU REPORT 1928

1. Both congress and Muslim league rejected simon commission
2. All parties committees was framed for constitutional
recommendations
3. 10-member committee was led by Motilal Nehru
4. Secretary of committee was Jawahar Lal Nehru
5. 2 Muslim members were Ali imam and Shoaib Qureshi
6. Separate electorate should be abolished
7. No more 1/3 Muslim representation
8. System of weightage should be abolished
9. Unitary form of government for sub-continent
10. Separation of Sindh from Bombay on conditional basis

AMENDMENT SUGGESTED BY QAUID-E-AZAM

1. 1/3 Muslim representation in central legislature
2. Provincial attorney / federal form of Government

ALLAHABAD ADDRESS 1930

1. 25th Annual session of all India Muslim League at Allahabad on 29
December 1930
2. Allama Iqbal was invited to preside over the session

TEXT OF ADDRESS
I would like to see Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan and
amalgamated into a single state. The formation of a consolidated north
western Indian Muslim state appears to be the final destiny of Muslim, at
least of north west Indian.

IMPORTANCE OF ADDRESS
In this address, Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for
Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India, thus becoming the first
politician to articulate what would become known as the Two-nation
theorythat Muslims are a distinct nation and thus deserve political
independence from other regions and communities of India.
Iqbals address was known to have a forceful and logical presentation of
the Muslim case in India. His address arises the awareness that Why
should Muslims be treated as a political entity rather than a minority. His
address highlights the following views that proved highly beneficial
1.

Demand of Muslim state from the representative platform

2.

First time concept of a Muslim state in the subcontinent

3.

Address provided basis: for the Lahore resolution in 1940

4.

Areas mentioned by Allama Iqbal included in the Pakistan of 1947

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES

FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE
The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12,
1930. All parties were present except for the Congress, whose leaders
were in jail due to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders
stated that they would have nothing to do with further constitutional
discussion unless the Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the
constitution of India. Almost 89 members attended the conference, out of
which 58 were chosen from various communities and interests in British
India, and the rest from princely states and other political parties. The
prominent among the Muslim delegates invited by the British
government were Sir Aga Khan, Quaid-i-Azam, Maulana Muhammad Ali
Jouhar, Sir Muhammad Shafi and Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq. Sir Taj Bahadur
Sapru, Mr. Jaikar and Dr. Moonje were outstanding amongst the Hindu
leaders.
The Muslim-Hindu differences overcastted the conference as the Hindus
were pushing for a powerful central government while the Muslims stood
for a loose federation of completely autonomous provinces. The Muslims
demanded maintenance of weightage and separate electorates, the
Hindus their abolition. The Muslims claimed statutory majority in Punjab
and Bengal, while Hindus resisted their imposition. In Punjab, the

situation was complicated by inflated Sikh claims. Eight subcommittees

were set up to deal with the details. These committees dealt with the
federal structure, provincial constitution, franchise, Sindh, the North
West Frontier Province, defense services and minorities. The conference
broke up on January 19, 1931, and what emerged from it was a general
agreement to write safeguards for minorities into the constitution and a
vague desire to devise a federal system for the country.

GANDHI-IRWIN PACT
After the conclusion of the First-Round Table Conference, the British
government realized that the cooperation of the Indian National
Congress was necessary for further advancement in the making of the
Indian constitution. Thus, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an invitation
to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience
Movement without laying down any preconditions.
The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5,
1931.
The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the
Congress.
The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to
offenses not involving violence.
The Government would release all persons undergoing sentences
of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience
movement.
The pact shows that the British Government was anxious to bring the
Congress to the conference table.

SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

The second session of the conference opened in London on September
7, 1931. The main task of the conference was done through the two
committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a member of
both but he adopted a very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he
represented all India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as nonrepresentative because they did not belong to the Congress. The
communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates.

Gandhi again tabled the Congress scheme for a settlement, a mere

reproduction of the Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it. As a
counter to the Congress scheme, the Muslims, the depressed classes,
the Indian Christians, the Anglo-Indians, and the Europeans presented a
joint statement of claims which they said must stand as an
interdependent whole. As their main demands were not acceptable to
Gandhi, the communal issue was postponed for future discussion. Three
important committees drafted their reports; the Franchise Committee, the
Federal Finance Committee and States Inquiry Committee. On the
concluding day, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed
to the Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement. Failing to do so,
he said, would force the British government would take a unilateral
decision. Quaid-i-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second
Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep himself aloof from
the Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England.
On his return to India, Gandhi once again started Civil Disobedience
Movement and was duly arrested.

THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE

The third session began on November 17, 1932. It was short and
unimportant. The Congress was once again absent, so was the Labor
opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees
were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932. The
recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were embodied in a
White Paper. It was published in March 1933, and debated in parliament
directly afterwards, analyzed by the Joint Select Committee and after the
final reading and loyal assent, the bill reached the Statute Book on July
24, 1935.
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