1241 - Synch Machine Modeling

Mathematical Modeling of Synchronous
Machine with Analysis of Damper Windings
Mathematical Modeling Of Synchronous

Machine with Analysis of Damper Windings
B.E (EE) Project Report
By
Abdul Majeed (EE-08071)
BY
Abdul Majeed
(EE-08071)
Department of Electrical Engineering
NED University of Engineering and Technology
FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012
Batch 2008 - 09
Mathematical Modeling Of Synchronous

Machine With Analysis Of Damper Windings
BE (EE) Final Year Project Report
Batch 2008-09
External Advisor
Internal advisor
Dr. Arshad Habib Malik,

Principle Engineer,
KINPOE
Mr. Mohammad Ali Baig,

Lecturer, NEDUET
Prepared by:
Syed Danish Ullah
(EE - 08001)
Mohammad Osama Idris
(EE - 08027)
Mohammad Salman
(EE - 08029)
Abdul Majeed
(EE - 08071)
NED University Of Engineering And Technology
Batch 2008 - 09
Acknowledgment
First of all, we thank Almighty Allah, Who gave us the strength and capacity to
successfully fulfill our task. It would have been difficult without the support of our
parents who brought us up with all their love and sincerity and made us capable
enough to get to this level.
We further acknowledge the efforts of our internal and external advisors, Mr.
Mohammad Ali Baig (Lecturer, NEDUET) and Dr. Arshad Habib Malik (Principal
Engineer, KINPOE), who guided and advised us step by step as we made progress.
It was a very difficult task overall, but we were lucky to have some helping hands like
Sir Raja Masood Larik, our initial internal advisor, Miss Samiya, who helped us in
difficult times and provided us with very useful knowledge related to the topic.
Finally we would like to thank Dr. Saad Qazi (Chairman, Electrical Dept.) who
motivated us and helped us achieve our goal and NEDUET who provided us the right
platform and permission to carry out this project.
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Batch 2008 - 09
Abstract
Power system stability has been recognized as an important problem for secure system operation.
Many major blackouts caused by power system instability have illustrated the importance of this
phenomenon. In order to achieve detailed analysis of power system stability, we require to model
synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus system.
To prepare such a model, we included a detailed study of basic system mathematical
representations such as field circuit equations, torque equation (in terms of power). Machine
dynamics are linearized by dq0 transformation. A mathematical model of machine including two
damper windings (one winding on each axis i.e. d-axis and q-axis) has been created which gives
satisfactory results.
When the machine is subjected to small disturbances then to achieve stable operating point stability
analysis is required. The influence of damper windings placed on the rotor of the synchronous
machine to regain the steady state point after disturbances is essential. The report includes the
effects of change in the damper winding parameters on the output parameters of the machine.
With the help of modern simulation systems the dynamics of the machine can be studied. Due to
efficiency of such systems, the results observed are satisfactory and match to the expected results.
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Batch 2008 - 09
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iii
1.1 Basic Concepts .................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1.1 General ....................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 System and its types ......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Linear Time Invariant systems ................................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Linear Time Variant systems ...................................................................................................... 5
2.1.3 Non-linear Time variant systems ............................................................................................... 5
2.2 Rotor Models .................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Review of classical methods ............................................................................................................. 7
2.3.1 System Model ............................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.2 Assumptions of classical model ................................................................................................. 8
2.4 Swing Equation and its non-linearity ................................................................................................ 9
2.4.1 Swing Equation........................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.1.1 Solution of Swing Equation ............................................................................................... 11
Results obtained from the solution .............................................................................................. 11
3.1 Generalize machine theory ............................................................................................................. 13
3.1.1 Basic two pole machine ........................................................................................................... 14
3.1.2 Krons Primitive machine: .................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Blondels Two Reaction Theory....................................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Reason for the proposal of this theory .................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Why called Two Reaction Theory............................................................................................. 16
3.2.3 Formation of stator m.m.f wave and flux distribution in the air gap ...................................... 17
3.3 Mathematical description of a Synchronous machine ................................................................... 18
3.3.1 Assumptions............................................................................................................................. 18
3.3.2 Basic circuit for analysis and its description ............................................................................ 19
3.3.3 Basic Equations of a synchronous machine ............................................................................. 20
3.3.4 Stator Circuit Equations ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3.5 Stator Self Inductances ............................................................................................................ 22
3.3.6 Stator mutual inductances ....................................................................................................... 24
3.3.7 Mutual inductance between stator and rotor ......................................................................... 25
3.3.8 Rotor Circuit Equations ............................................................................................................ 26
3.3.9 The dqO transformation .......................................................................................................... 26
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Batch 2008 - 09
3.3.9.1 Origination of i0 component ............................................................................................. 27

3.3.9.2 The dqO transformation matrix ........................................................................................ 27
3.3.9.3 Stator Flux linkages in dqO components .......................................................................... 27
3.3.9.4 Rotor Flux linkages in dqO components ........................................................................... 28
3.3.9.5 Physical interpretation of dqO transformation ................................................................ 28
3.3.9.6 Benefit of dqO transformation ......................................................................................... 29
3.3.10 Electromagnetic torque ......................................................................................................... 29
4.1 MATLAB A Product of MATHWORKS ........................................................................................... 32
4.1.1 Brief History ............................................................................................................................. 32
4.1.2 The popularity of MATLAB ....................................................................................................... 33
4.2 MATLAB Today ................................................................................................................................ 33
4.2.1 Basics Of MATLAB .................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.2 MATLAB IDE ............................................................................................................................. 33
4.2.3 MATLAB m-files ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.3.1 Script files .......................................................................................................................... 36
4.2.3.2 Function files ..................................................................................................................... 36
4.3 SIMULINK - GUI based simulation tool ........................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 SIMULINK Basics....................................................................................................................... 38
4.4 Modeling of Synchronous Machine in Simulink.............................................................................. 45
4.4.1 Complete Machine Simulink Model......................................................................................... 45
4.4.2 About the model ...................................................................................................................... 46
4.4.3 General the model blocks ........................................................................................................ 46
4.4.4 Predefined Simulink Functions used ........................................................................................ 46
4.4.4.1 Gain Function .................................................................................................................... 47
4.4.4.2 Repeating Sequence Function .......................................................................................... 47
4.4.4.3 Multiplexer ........................................................................................................................ 47
4.4.4.4 Demultiplexer.................................................................................................................... 47
4.4.4.5 Clock Function ................................................................................................................... 47
4.4.4.6 Data Export Function ........................................................................................................ 47
4.4.4.7 Product Function ............................................................................................................... 47
4.4.4.8 Integration Function ......................................................................................................... 48
4.4.4.9 Adder Function.................................................................................................................. 48
4.4.4.10 Mathematical User Defined Function ............................................................................. 48
4.4.4.11 Scope Function ................................................................................................................ 48
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Batch 2008 - 09
4.4.4.12 Terminator ...................................................................................................................... 48

4.4.4.13 Ground ............................................................................................................................ 48
4.4.5 Model Blocks Description ........................................................................................................ 49
abc2qd0 Block............................................................................................................................ 49
qd_gen Block ............................................................................................................................. 50
OSC Block ................................................................................................................................... 54
4.4.6 Model Outputs ......................................................................................................................... 55
4.4.7 Machine Parameters ................................................................................................................ 55
4.4.7.1 Synchronous inductances ................................................................................................. 55
4.4.7.2 Transient and sub transient inductances .......................................................................... 56
4.4.7.3 Transient and sub transient Time constants..................................................................... 56
4.4.8 Calculating the machine parameters ....................................................................................... 56
4.4.9 MATLAB Coding and data File .................................................................................................. 57
4.4.9.1 Data File Coding ................................................................................................................ 57
4.4.9.2 Program Coding ................................................................................................................ 58
4.4.9.3 How this coding works ...................................................................................................... 61
4.4.10 Simulation Results (for a 3 phase short circuit fault of 33.3millisecs) ................................... 62
4.4.10.1 Description of fault scenario ........................................................................................... 64
4.5 DAMPER WINDINGS: ....................................................................................................................... 64
4.5.1 Types of Damper Windings: ..................................................................................................... 64
4.5.1.1 Connected type: ................................................................................................................ 64
4.5.1.2 Non-connected type: ........................................................................................................ 64
4.5.1.3 Low resistance windings: .................................................................................................. 65
4.5.1.4 High resistance windings: ................................................................................................. 65
4.5.2 Effect of damper windings: ...................................................................................................... 65
4.6 MATLAB built-in model and its results............................................................................................ 66
5.1 Results ............................................................................................................................................. 70
5.1.1 Effect of changing q-axis damper on settling time .................................................................. 70
5.1.2 Effect of q-axis inductance on settling times ........................................................................... 74
5.1.3 Effect of d-axis resistance on settling times: ....................................................................... 78
5.1.3 Effect of d-axis inductance on settling times: ...................................................................... 82
5.2 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 89
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Chapter 01
Introduction
CHAPTER 01
Introduction
Page | 1
Chapter 01
Introduction
1.1 Basic Concepts

1.1.1 General
Modern power systems are basically designed to supply of reliable and economic electric energy.
The electric power demand is increasing day by day, and with this increasing power demand, so is
increasing the environmental and resource constraints, which pose a great challenge to the system
planners. However, the electric power supply still remains to be the most prominent element behind
the industrial progress and consequent rise in the standard of living of the people.
Power system dynamics has a great influence on the above satisfactory operation of a power
system. It is influenced by the dynamics of the system components such as generators, transmission
lines, loads and other control equipment (HVDC and SVC controllers). Thus, to improve power
system stability and reliability, more detailed concepts of power system dynamics must be known
and well understood.
The most important component of a power system is the synchronous generator with its excitation
and prime mover controls. Prime mover controls are usually ignored in stability studies. A single
machine connected to an infinite bus (SMIB) is the simplest system that can be considered to study
dynamics of a synchronous machine. A remote power-station connected to a load center through a
long transmission line can be approximated by SMIB system. Although a power station consists of
more than one generator, it is acceptable to assume that, for disturbances external to the power
station, the generators can be represented by an equivalent machine.
To study the dynamics of the synchronous machine (generator specifically) it is not quite convenient
to experiment or analyze the practical system as it would require a very high precision controller to
provide a controlled environment rather it would be convenient if one could model the synchronous
machine which could behave and provide the same performance dynamics as the a real machine
does. The verification of such a model is based on the experiences and trends followed by such
machines used over a long time.
The main idea of our project is to understand how to model a dynamic system and to study the
characteristics and performance of the synchronous machine during fault condition and to be more
specific we focused on the effects of damper windings included in to improve the synchronous
behavior.
The equations which provide the mathematical model of such machines or system can be efficiently
evaluated with computer software aid. This could help us achieve real time scenarios that could
occur during fault or normal operation. MATLAB is a prominent among such computer simulation
software that together with SIMULINK provide the complete tools to analyze most of the system.
The particular advantage of using computer software is to get benefit over nonlinearities involve in
Page | 2
Chapter 01
Introduction
the dynamics and to have a graphical (plots and graph) view of the trends or dynamics followed by
the system, further this software includes libraries and predefined operations necessary for
complete study of any system with a tool based user friendly environment that is why to analyze the
dynamics of synchronous machine with reference to damper windings we have used SIMULINK to
model our system equations
Page | 3
Chapter 02
Background
CHAPTER 02
BACKGROUND
Page | 4
Chapter 02
Background
2.1 System and its types

A system is a group of various components that is being taken under consideration, which possess
some specific input (may be dependent or independent) and produces some output of interest.
In electrical engineering, systems can be selected form a vast span of available options. Depending
on the need, different types of system exist. In the domain of engineering analysis, systems may be
classified according to their reaction towards a certain input. This is so because depending on this
relationship between input and output, many assumptions and conclusions can directly be deduced.
Systems can be divided into various types depending on how the input and output are related and
whether the system parameters being considered are time-varying or not.
2.1.1 Linear Time Invariant systems

These are the systems that consist of linear equations i.e. input and output is directly related. There
is no parameter that is time-varying e.g.in a machine the synchronous speed can be considered
constant. These systems are easy to analyze and model.
Normally, all the systems that are being analyzed and taken under consideration follow the concept
of linear time variance. A linear system is a mathematical model of a system based on the use of
a linear operator. A time-invariant system is one whose output does not depend explicitly on time.
2.1.2 Linear Time Variant systems

These systems consist of linear equations too, but there is a parameter that is time-varying. The
rotor angle can be taken as time varying variable since its position is changing all the time. These
systems can be considered to be non-linear in some sense.
2.1.3 Non-linear Time variant systems

These systems consist of non-linear equations and time varying variables. These systems are the
most difficult to analyze and model.
Our project is based on the Linear Time Variant system.
Page | 5
Chapter 02
Background
2.2 Rotor Models
As rotor windings either remain closed (damper windings) or closed through some finite voltage
source (field winding), the flux linkages of these cannot change suddenly. The flux linkages
immediately after a disturbance remain almost constant to that before the disturbance. Thus the
rotor flux linkage (or transformed variables which are linearly dependent on the rotor flux linkages)
are the choice for state variables.
The number of rotor windings and corresponding state variables can vary from one to six depending
on the degree of detail. The rotor model notation is used to differentiate between them.
0.0 Classical Model
1.0 Field circuit only
1.1 Field circuit with one equivalent damper on q-axis
2._ Field circuit with one equivalent damper on d-axis
2.0with no equivalent damper on q-axis
2.1 with one equivalent damper on q-axis
2.2 with two equivalent dampers on q-axis
Page | 6
Chapter 02
Background
3._ Field circuit with two equivalent dampers on d-axis

3.1 with one equivalent damper on q-axis
3.2 with two equivalent dampers on q-axis
3.3 with three equivalent dampers on q-axis
The digit before the decimal point indicates the windings on the d-axis. The field winding is always
on the d-axis. The digit after the decimal point indicates the windings on the q-axis. These are always
damper windings. It can also be said that these represent the state variables considered on the dand q- axes.
Higher order models provide better results for special applications, but they also require extra
determination of parameters.
2.3 Review of classical methods

Here we will be considering the classical models with respect to a single machine connected to an
infinite bus. The major feature in the classical methods of analysis is the simplified model of the
generator. Here, the machine will be modeled by an equivalent voltage source behind impedance.
2.3.1 System Model

Consider the system represented by a single line diagram. Here the single generator represents a
single machine equivalent of a power plant. The generator G is connected to a double circuit line
through transformer T. The line is connected to an infinite bus through equivalent impedance ZT.
The infinite bus, by definition, represents a bus with fixed voltage source. The magnitude, frequency
and phase of the voltage are unaltered by changes in the load (output of the generator). It is to be
noted that the system shown in Figure, is a simplified representation of a remote generator
connected to a load center through transmission line.
Page | 7
Chapter 02
Background
Single line diagram of a single machine system

2.3.2 Assumptions of classical model
The major assumptions behind the model of the machine (a generator in this case) are as follows:
Voltage regulators are not present and manual excitation control is used. This implies that in
steady- state, the magnitude of the voltage source is determined by the field current which
is constant.
Damper circuits are neglected.
Transient stability is judged by the first swing, which is normally reached within one or two
seconds.
Flux decay in the field circuit is neglected (This is valid for short period, say a second,
following a disturbance, as the field time constant is of the order of several seconds).
The mechanical power input to the generator is constant.
Saliency has little effect and can be neglected particularly in transient stability studies.
Based on the classical model of the generator, the equivalent circuit of the system is drawn below
with the following description necessary to be known.
Xe is the total external reactance viewed from the generator terminals.
The generator reactance, Xg, is equal to synchronous reactance Xd for steady-state analysis.
For transient analysis, Xg is equal to the direct axis transient reactance Xd.
The magnitude of the generator voltage Eg is proportional to the field flux linkages which are
assumed to remain constant.
Page | 8
Chapter 02
Background
2.4 Swing Equation and its non-linearity

2.4.1 Swing Equation
Power system consists of number of synchronous machine and operating in synchronism under all
operating condition. when the system is subjected to electrical fault all of sudden, the system
undergoes a transient disturbance as a result the system may become unstable, it may lose
synchronism, in order to know the behavior of synchronous machine during transients Swing
Equation is used and it gives the relation between the accelerating power and angular acceleration
of synchronous machine rotor as shown
The absolute rotor position can be given as:
In which
is absolute rotor position with reference to a fixed stationary axisand
reference to an axis rotating at synchronous speed.
is called Torque angle.
isangle with
is angular speed
(synchronous) of rotor.
Differentiating equation of absolute position with respect to time
Page | 9
Chapter 02
In equation (a),
Background
is deviation of rotor from its steady state position due to any disturbances. If no
load (disturbance) is applied then
will be zero and angular speed will be equal to synchronous
speed of rotor as evident from equation (a).

The basic equation for angular motion is defined in a way that accelerating torque is the product of
the moment of inertia of the rotor times its angular acceleration as shown
Where Tmis mechanical torque applied to the shaft and Teis electrical torque induced. The term on
the left side can be replaced using equation (b).
In terms of power the above can be written as
M = angular momentum of rotor
Page | 10
Chapter 02
Background
2.4.1.1 Solution of Swing Equation

Since swing equation is a 2nd order nonlinear equation, no analytical solution exists for it. It is
approximated by numerical methods. Some of the commonly used techniques are
Point by point method

Euler modified method
Runge-Kutta method
Results obtained from the solution

The solution of swing equation gives an expression of as
a function of time whose graph is called as swing curve.
Inspection of swing curve shows whether the machine
remains stable after a disturbance or becomes unstable.
An example of swing curve is shown below in which the
increasing rotor angle with time shows an unstable system
while the rotor angle for the stable system reaches a
maximum value and then reduces with time.
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Chapter 03
Machine Theory And Model
CHAPTER 03
Page | 12
Chapter 03
3.1 Generalize machine theory

Rotating electrical machines work on the same basic principles. The various types differ from each
other in their winding arrangements and in the method of exciting these windings. This theory
explains the basic phenomena that take place in any rotating electrical device or machine. If we
place two coils at an angle of and one coil is energized then by mutual induction the second coil
also possess some potential. If this angle is made equal to zero then the voltage induced is due to
transformer action
From figure;
V2 = (1000/100) x 200 cos

And if = 0 then transformer action
From the two reactions theory we know that the machine
flux can modeled on two orthogonal axis, direct and
quadrature axis as shown in figure
DR is coil on direct axis of rotor and DS is the coil on direct axis of stator so if DR coil is rotating with
an angular velocity of r then voltage induced in this case is given by Faradays law
e = -d/dt
where = flux linkage
The amount of flux that will be linked is given by LI and mutual inductance on d-axis is
md = Md ids
The emf induced on direct axis is given by
Page | 13
Chapter 03
Speed or rotational component
Transformer component
So when = 0o, sin0o = 0, there is no rotational component only transformer action

Similarly = 90o, no transformer action only rotational component
3.1.1 Basic two pole machine

Basic two pole machine is a simple machine with one north and one south stator pole on stator and
rotor and rotor is equipped with brush and commutator assembly
Brush and commutator are responsible for keeping the current in front of pole in same direction
From magnetic consideration the commutator winding behave as a stationary coil QR producing the
same magnitude and direction of mmf as shown in figure. This coil has the following properties
Page | 14
Chapter 03
1. A current in the coil produces a field which is stationary in space

2. A rotational voltage can be induced in the coil because it is on the moving element whereas
it doesnt rotate itself.
3. This coil is called pseudo-stationary coil which completely represent rotor coil.
3.1.2 Krons Primitive machine:
The attempts to unify the fragmentary treatment of rotating electrical machines has led to
generalized theory of electrical machines or two-axis theory of electrical machines. Parks developed
two axis equations which were then adopted by Gabriel Kron to deal with all rotating electrical
machines in a systematic manner by tensor analysis. This unified treatment of rotating electrical
machines developed by Kron, is now called generalized theory of electrical machines.
This generalized machine can be shown equivalent to any rotating electrical machine with an
appropriate number of coils. Coils are on d-axis and/or q-axis that is it also called two axis machine
theory.
3.2 Blondels Two Reaction Theory

The theory which gives the method of analysis of the disturbing effects caused by the salient pole
construction of machine is called the two reaction theory. This theory was presented by Professor
Andre blondel.
According to this theory, the armature m.m.f can be divided into two components i.e
Component which dominates along the axis of the pole (also called the direct axis or
magnetizing/demagnetizing axis).
Component which dominates at /2 radians to the axis of the pole (also called the
quadrature axis or cross magnetizing axis).
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Chapter 03
3.2.1 Reason for the proposal of this theory

It is known that in case of non-salient type alternators, the air gap is uniform. Due to uniform air gap,
the field flux as well as the armature flux varies sinusoidaly in the air gap. Similarly in such machines,
the air gap length and the reluctance is constant. Due to this fact the armature flux and the rotor flux
act on the same magnetic circuit all the time and hence can be added vectorially.
On the other hand, in salient pole machines the air gap length varies and the reluctances also vary.
Hence the armature flux and field flux cant be added vectorially. The reluctances of magnetic
circuits on which m.m.fs act are different in case of salient pole alternators. Hence, the armature
and field m.m.fs cant be treated in a simple way as they can be in salient pole alternators.
3.2.2 Why called Two Reaction Theory

This theory was named as the two reaction theory because it takes into account the fact that the
armature m.m.f contains in general a quadrature (cross magnetizing) and a direct (magnetizing or
demagnetizing) component which produces effects of different kinds. This theory supports our work
on the salient pole machine and provides with necessary background of theory, which is to be
incorporated in future articles of this report
Page | 16
Chapter 03
3.2.3 Formation of stator m.m.f wave and flux distribution in the air gap
The above figure shows the distribution of stator m.m.f wave and the flux distribution pattern along
the direct axis and the quadrature axis.
The reluctance offered to the m.m.f wave is the lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis thus
the lump formed is rather in shape of a semi sinusoidal wave whereas the part of m.m.f wave that is
aligned at 90 degrees to the direct axis (i.e. along the quadrature axis) bares the maximum
reluctance thus the lump formed is in complete semi-circular form.
Similarly, the flux path is most concentrated at the poles (direct axis) while between the poles
(quadrature axis), the flux lines seem to split and turn towards the poles.
The pole shoes are designed in such a way that the air gap is minimum at the center of the poles and
progressively increases in both the directions. Due to this type of construction, the field windings
present on salient poles produces an m.m.f wave which is nearly sinusoidal and acts only along the
direct axis.
Given below is the combination of direct and quadrature flux waveforms being plotted on the same
diagram so that a more vivid picture of visualization could be formed.
Page | 17
Chapter 03
The above figure also shows the formation of two m.m.f waves in the salient pole machine which are
90 degrees apart from each other and keep moving at synchronous speed with the rotor.
The complete picture showing the m.m.f of the complete machine is given below.
As two m.m.f waves are present in this machine thus this shows that the flux and m.m.f acts on two
different magnetic circuits simultaneously. These two magnetic circuits have different reluctances.
The magnetic circuit associated with the direct axis is the same as the main magnetic circuit of the
machine but that associated to the quadrature axis is largely made up of air gap.
3.3 Mathematical description of a Synchronous machine

3.3.1 Assumptions
In developing equations of a synchronous machine, following assumptions are made:
The stator windings are sinusoidally distributed along the air gap as far as the mutual effects
with the rotor are concerned.
The stator slots cause no appreciable variation of the rotor inductances with rotor position.
Magnetic hysteresis is negligible.
Magnetic saturation effects are negligible.
The first 3 assumptions are reasonable and are justified from the comparison of calculated
performances based on these assumptions and actual measured performances. The fourth
assumption makes the analysis easy and makes superposition applicable.
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Chapter 03
3.3.2 Basic circuit for analysis and its description

The stator circuits consist of three-phase armature windings carrying alternating currents. The rotor
circuits comprise field and amortisseur windings. The field winding is connected to a source of direct
current. For purposes of analysis, the currents in the amortisseur is be assumed to flow in two sets
of closed circuits: one set whose flux is in line with that of the field along the d-axis and the other set
whose flux is at right angles to the field axis or along the q-axis. The amortisseur circuits, as /
discussed previously, take different forms and distinct, electrically independent circuits may not
exist. In machine design analysis, a large number of circuits are used to represent amortisseur
effects. For the sake of simplicity only one amortisseur circuit is assumed in each axis, and we will
write the machine equations
Based on this assumption, however, we implicitly consider an arbitrary number of such circuits; the
subscript k is used to denote this.
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Chapter 03
3.3.3 Basic Equations of a synchronous machine

In addition to the large number of circuits involved, the fact that the mutual and self-inductances of
the stator circuits vary with rotor position complicates the synchronous machine equations. In
general, the permeances along the d and q axis are not equal and the variations in inductances are
caused by the variations in the permeance of the magnetic flux path due to non-uniform air-gap.
This is pronounced in a salient pole machine in which the permeances in the two axes are
significantly different.
The flux produced by a stator winding follows a path through the stator iron, across the air-gap,
through the rotor iron, and back across the air-gap. The m.m.f of the rotor windings is always
directed along the d axis or q axis but the m.m.f of the stator windings relative to these two axes will
be varying.
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Chapter 03
We will use the following notation in writing the equations for the stator and rotor circuits:
ea ,eb , ec
= instantaneous stator phase to neutral voltages
ia ,ib, ic = instantaneous stator currents in phases a, b, c

efd
= field voltage
ifd ,ikd , ikq
= field and amortisseur circuit currents
Rfd ,Rkd , Rkq= rotor circuit resistances

laa ,lbb , lcc
= self-inductances of stator windings
lab ,lbc , lca
= mutual inductances between stator windings
lafd ,lakd , lakq= mutual inductances between stator and rotor windings
lffd ,lkkd , lkkq
= self-inductances of rotor circuits
Ra
= armature resistance per phase
= differential operator d/dt
3.3.4 Stator Circuit Equations

The voltage equations of the three phases are
The flux linkage in the phase a winding at any instant is given by
Similar expressions apply to flux linkages of windings b and c. The units used are webers, henrys, and
amperes. The negative sign associated with the stator winding currents is due to their assumed
direction.
As shown, all the inductances in above equation are functions of the rotor position and are thus
time-varying.
Page | 21
Chapter 03
3.3.5 Stator Self Inductances

The self-inductance laa is equal to the ratio of flux linking phase a winding to the current ia, with
currents in all other circuits equal to zero. The inductance is directly proportional to the permeance,
which as indicated earlier has a second harmonic variation. The inductance laa will be a maximum for
=0, a minimum for =90, a maximum again for =180, and so on.
Neglecting space harmonics, the mmf of phase a has a sinusoidal distribution in space with its peak
centered on the phase a axis. The peak amplitude of the mmf wave is equal to Naia, where Na is the
effective turns per phase. This can be resolved into two other sinusoidally distributed mmfs, one
centered on the d-axis and the other on the q-axis.
The peak values of the two component waves are
The reason for resolving the mmf into the d- and q-axis components is that each acts on specific airgap geometry of defined configuration. Air-gap fluxes per pole along the two axes are
In the above, Pd and Pq are the permeance coefficients of the d- and q-axis, respectively. In addition
to the actual permeance, they include factors required to relate flux per pole with peak value of the
mmf wave.
The total air-gap flux linking phase a is
Page | 22
Chapter 03
The self inductancelgaaof phase a due to air gap flux is
The total self-inductance laa is given by adding to the above the leakage inductance lal which
represents the leakage flux not crossing the air-gap:
Since the windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a and are displaced from it by
120 and 240 respectively, we have
(
The variation of laa with is shown in Figure.
The stator self-inductances have fixed plus second harmonic terms. Higher order harmonic terms
have been neglected. In a well-designed machine in which the stator and rotor windings produce
nearly sinusoidally distributed mmf and flux waves, these higher order harmonic terms are
negligible.
Page | 23
Chapter 03
3.3.6 Stator mutual inductances

The mutual inductance between any two stator windings also exhibits a second harmonic variation
because of the rotor shape. It is always negative, and has the greatest absolute value when the
north and south poles are equidistant from the centers of the two windings concerned. For example,
lab has maximum absolute value when =-30 or =150.
The mutual inductance lab can be found by evaluating the air-gap flux gba linking phase b when only
phase a is excited. As we wish to find the flux linking phase b due to mmf of phase a, is replaced by
-2/3.
)
(
)]
)]
The mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-gap flux is
whereLgo has the same meaning as in the expression for self-inductance lgaa. There is a very small
amount of mutual flux around the ends of windings which does not cross the air-gap. With this flux
included, the mutual inductance between phases a and b can be written as
(
(
)
)
Similarly,
From the above equations, it can be readily seen that Lab2 =Laa2. This is to be expected since the same
variation in permeance produces the second harmonic terms in self and mutual inductances. It can
also be seen that Labo is nearly equal to Laao/2.
Page | 24
Chapter 03
The variation of mutual inductance between phases a and b as a function of is illustrated in Figure.
3.3.7 Mutual inductance between stator and rotor

With the variations in air-gap due to stator slots neglected, the rotor circuits see a constant
permeance. Therefore, the situation in this case is not one of variation of permeance; instead, the
variation in the mutual inductance is due to the relative motion between the windings themselves.
When a stator winding is lined up with a rotor winding, the flux linking the two windings is maximum
and the mutual inductance is maximum. When the two windings are displaced by 90, no flux links
the two circuits and the mutual inductance is zero.
With a sinusoidal distribution of mmf and flux waves,
For considering the mutual inductance between phase b winding and the rotor circuits, is replaced
by - 2/3; for phase c winding is replaced by +2/3.
We now have the expressions for all the inductances that appear in the stator voltage equations,
now we have
[
*
(
*
(
)+
)+
]
(
(
[
(
)]
)
)+
)+
]
)]
Page | 25
Chapter 03
3.3.8 Rotor Circuit Equations

The rotor circuit voltage equations are
The rotor circuits see constant permeance because of the cylindrical structure of the stator.
Therefore, the self-inductances of rotor circuits and mutual inductances between each other do not
vary with rotor position. Only the rotor to stator mutual inductances vary periodically with .
The rotor circuit flux linkages may be expressed as follows:
[
)]
)]
3.3.9 The dqO transformation

Equations associated with the stator circuits, together with Equations associated with the rotor
circuits, completely describe the electrical performance of a synchronous machine. However, these
equations contain inductance terms which vary with angle which in turn varies with time. This
introduces considerable complexity in solving machine and power system problems. A much simpler
form leading to a clearer physical picture is obtained by appropriate transformation of stator
variables.
We see stator currents combine into convenient forms in each axis. This suggests the transformation
of the stator phase currents into new variables as follows:
(
[
[
)]
)]
The constants kd and kq are arbitrary and their values may be chosen to simplify numerical
coefficients in performance equations. In most of the literature on synchronous machine theory [3,
10, 11, 12 ,13, 19], kd and kq are taken as 2/3, and this choice will be followed here.
With kd and kq equal to 2/3, for balanced sinusoidal conditions, the peak values of id and iq are equal
to the peak value of the stator current as shown below.
For the balanced condition,
Page | 26
Chapter 03

(
Then,
[
)]
For the peak value of id to be equal to Im, kd should equal 2/3.

Similarly, for the balanced condition
Again, kq =2/3 results in the maximum value of iq being equal to the peak value of stator current.
3.3.9.1 Origination of i0 component
To give a complete degree of freedom, a third component must be defined so that the three-phase
currents are transformed into three variables. Since the two current components id and iq together
produce a field identical to that produced by the original set of phase currents, the third component
must produce no space field in the air-gap. Therefore, a convenient third variable is the zero
sequence current i0, associated with the symmetrical components:
Under balanced conditions ia +ib +ic =0 and, therefore, i0 =0.

3.3.9.2 The dqO transformation matrix
The transformation from the abc phase variables to the dqO variables can be written in the following
matrix form:
(
[ ]
)
(
(
)
)
(
) [ ]
]
This transformation is also applicable for stator flux and voltage.

3.3.9.3 Stator Flux linkages in dqO components
Transforming the flux linkages and currents into dqO components and with suitable reduction of
terms involving trigonometric terms, we obtain the following expressions:
(
Page | 27
Chapter 03
The dqO components of stator flux linkages are related to the components of stator and rotor
currents through constant inductances.
3.3.9.4 Rotor Flux linkages in dqO components
Again, all the inductances are seen to be constant, i.e., they are independent of the rotor position. It
should, however, be noted that the saturation effects are not considered here. The variations in
inductances due to saturation are of a different nature and this will be treated separately.
It is interesting to note that i0 does not appear in the rotor flux linkage equations. This is because
zero sequence components of armature current do not produce net mmf across the air-gap.
While the dqO transformation has resulted in constant inductances in Equations, the mutual
inductances between stator and rotor quantities are not reciprocal.
3.3.9.5 Physical interpretation of dqO transformation
We saw that the combined mmf wave due to the currents in the three armature phases travels along
the periphery of the stator at a velocity of srad/s. This is also the velocity of the rotor. Therefore,
for balanced synchronous operation, the armature mmf wave appears stationary with respect to the
rotor and has a sinusoidal space distribution. Since a sine function can be expressed as a sum of two
sine functions, the mmf due to stator windings can be resolved into two sinusoidally distributed mmf
waves stationary with respect to the rotor, so that one has its peak over the d-axis and the other has
its peak over the q-axis. Therefore, id may be interpreted as the instantaneous current in a fictitious
armature winding which rotates at the same speed as the rotor, and remains in such a position that
its axis always coincides with the d-axis. The value of the current in this winding is such that it results
in the same mmfon the d-axis as do actual phase currents flowing in the armature windings. A
similar interpretation applies to iq, except that it acts on the qaxis instead of the d-axis.
The mmfs due to id and iq are stationary with respect to the rotor and act on paths of constant
permeance. Therefore, the corresponding inductances Ld and Lq are constant.
For balanced steady-state conditions, the phase currents may be written as follows:
)
Page | 28
Chapter 03
Using the dqO transformation
For synchronous operation, the rotor speed r is equal to the angular frequency s of the stator
currents. Hence,
Therefore,
For balanced steady-state operation, id and iq are constant. In other words, alternating phase
currents in the abc reference frame appear as direct currents in the dqO reference frame.
The dqO transformation may be viewed as a means of referring the stator quantities to the rotor
side. This is analogous to referring secondary side quantities in a transformer to the primary side by
means of the turns ratio.
3.3.9.6 Benefit of dqO transformation
The analysis of synchronous machine equations in terms of dqO variables is considerably simpler
than in terms of phase quantities, for the following reasons:
The dynamic performance equations have constant inductances.
For balanced conditions, zero sequence quantities disappear.
For balanced steady-state operation, the stator quantities have constant values.
The parameters associated with d- and q-axes may be directly measured from terminal tests.
3.3.10 Electromagnetic torque

The expression for the electromagnetic torque developed by the machine can be obtained from the
component of the input power that is transferred across the air gap. The total input power into the
machine is given as
After the transformation has been performed, the equations become
Page | 29
Chapter 03
Eliminating the terms that refer to the ohmic losses and the rate of change of magnetic energy, the
above expression reduces to
For a P pole machine, the
( )
, with
being the rotor speed in mechanical radians per
second.
( )
As we know that Power is equal to torque multiplied by speed, then
( )
Page | 30
Chapter 04
MATLAB (SIMULINK) Machine Model
Chapter 04
Page | 31
Chapter 04
4.1 MATLAB A Product of MATHWORKS

4.1.1 Brief History
The use computer from the start was to enable human to compute more and more easily. Over the
time with the development of computational hardware, software evolution also increased the speed
and decreased the time required for computation.
Specifically Engineering and scientific applications involve a lot of "number crunching". First "high
level" programming language, for many years, was FORTRAN and especially designed for numerical
computing. Problems using FORTRAN were:
1. The loss of precision and inaccurate results, eg: if X = 0.1 and Y = 1.0 - 10*X, Y "should" equal
0, but probably does not!
2. To face underflow and overflow errors like: X = 1.0E20, X*X --> too big!
3. Long codes
4. Programming errors
The need of fast computation increased with time due to increasing resources (population,
production, census etc.) as well as increasing interest in non-linear systems because with the
development of engineering to achieve best design and problem solution the system were required
to be near natural or include dynamics. The Numerical analysis was an efficient tool for it. This
method involves a lot of iterative work where came in computer support and programming skills but
all engineers were not too good at writing algorithms so the U.S. government recognized these
problems, and the inefficiency of many engineers all writing the same algorithms... again and again.
So, they commissioned numerical analysts to write good quality algorithms for common tasks. Make
the results freely available as "libraries" of subroutines than anyone can use in their programs
(Libraries are available at: www.netlib.org). Examples of such Libraries are:
1. Basic Linear Algebra Subroutines (BLAS): operations on vectors, like adding to vectors, dot
product, norm.
2. Linear algebra subroutines for vector-matrix operations (LINPACK): Solving linear systems,
factoring a matrix, inverting a matrix. Later replaced by LAPACK.
3. EISPACK (Eigensystem Package Subroutine Computing Facility): compute eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of matrices.
But still it required time consuming work like; Write FORTRAN code, compile it, debug if required
and then finally run it. And the result would only be a solution of a vector component then repeat it
for the other until the whole vector matrix is solved. So a mathematician, C.S. Professor, Cleve Moler
who was also the co-author of LINPACK wrote MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory). He wanted to give
students easy access to LINPACK. The prominent features of this Initial MATLAB were:
1. Interactive
2. Easy input, output
3. Operations on a whole vector or matrix at once
Page | 32
Chapter 04
4.1.2 The popularity of MATLAB

MATLAB quickly became quite popular and used for both teaching and research. It was also free.
During a lecture by Cleve Moler, an engineer, Jack Little saw MATLAB at Stanford University. He
forecasted the commercial potential and (with permission) rewrote MATLAB in C, added "M-files"
(stored programs), many new features and libraries and founded the MATHWORKS to market it.
MATLAB illustrates some useful design concepts for software. Extensible using "Toolkits" or usercontributed
programs called MMatlab "M-Files"
Matlab "Toolkits"
files. Interactive user
interface; hides
boring details,
modular, reusable
software
Matlab
components,
standard base
platform which
enables inter
Linear Algebra Libraries
package
communication.
FORTRAN Compiler
4.2 MATLAB Today

Millions of users use MATLAB as a standard tool in both professional and academic purposes.
"Toolboxes" providing functions for many applications like control systems, identification, neural
networks, bio-informatics, statistics and time-series analysis, Can do symbolic mathematics, too.
4.2.1 Basics Of MATLAB

The basic functionality of MATLAB involves the matrices, operators, script and function files, flow
control and plotting of functions and equations
4.2.2 MATLAB IDE
Page | 33
Chapter 04
type commands here

optional windows
command window
Workspace current
directory
MATLAB help: Type Help in command window to get a list of help topics
you can also

access online help by
clicking the
question
mark in the
toolbar
Separate online help window:
Page | 34
Chapter 04
Page | 35
Chapter 04
4.2.3 MATLAB m-files

There are two kinds of m-files, Script file and Function file, the extension for both types of file is
.m
To create an m-file, open the MATLAB text editor
Click on the page icon

The Matlab text editor
window will open
4.2.3.1 Script files
These are the files that contains the collection of commands that MATLAB executes when the script
is run. Below is an example that explains creating working with script file:
1. Start the MATLAB text editor
2. Save the file as test.m by pressing the save button
3. In the script file text area write the following code
X=3.0;
Y=X^2;
Y
4. Then Run the file from the debug menu or writing test in command window prompt
5. The command window output is
>>y
y
=
9.0
4.2.3.1.1 Advantage of script file
1. The script file share the workspace memory so the variables declared and defined in m-files
can also be used in command window statements
2. Command window code cant be edited as desired; it needs to be re-typed whereas m-files
are stored in permanent memory and with correct order so they can be edited conveniently
in text editor.
3. Script file can call other script files.
4.2.3.2 Function files
Page | 36
Chapter 04
Collection of commands which together represent a function, a procedure or a method is referred as

function files. These files when called may take parameters as input or may produce an output as
defined.
MATLAB identifies function files from script files by using the function and return keywords. The
name of the function file must be the same name as the function. Below is an example of function
file
Lets create a function which squares any input number
1. To create a function file simply start the MATLAB text editor
2. Save the file as x2.m by clicking the save button. The name of function should be same as
the filename
3. Remember that It is necessary to include function and return keyword and enter the
following code
function [y] = x2(x)
y=x^2;
return
4. In the command window write:
>>r=3;
>>d=x2(r);
>>d
d=
9.0
So it returns the square of 3.
Similarly a function file can take multiple inputs and outputs as shown in figure
inputs in parentheses ( )
outputs in square brackets, [ ]
4.2.3.2.1 Features of function file

Some more features of function files are:
1. variables created in the function are not retained in the workspace, except for the output
variables
2. the function does not have access to workspace variables, except for the inputs
3. Variables passed to the function are copies of the workspace variables. Changing their
value inside the function has no effect on their value in the workspace.
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Chapter 04
4.3 SIMULINK - GUI based simulation tool

SIMULINK is a part of MATLAB which is used for Simulation and Model Based Design. SIMULINK is
good for Modeling/designing dynamic systems (including nonlinear dynamics), Modeling/designing
control systems (including nonlinear controllers and plants) and Signal processing design/simulation.
It runs under MATLAB.
First, start MATLAB, and then type SIMULINK at the MATLAB prompts. The first window that pops
up is the Library Browser. This is a library of blocks that are available for putting into the SIMULINK
block diagram. Another good feature of MATLAB is its extensive help which is also available for
SIMULINK. Select SIMULINK Help from the help menu in the library browser. Here you can find
tutorials, demos, information on available blocks, and so on.
4.3.1 SIMULINK Basics

A SIMULINK model is basically a block diagram. To create a new model click File|New|Model in
the Library Browser. An empty block diagram will pop up. You can drag blocks into the diagram from
the library.
The most important block categories are Sources and sinks
The Sources produce Signals. We can select sources from the library. Drag any block you want to
use into the model. The snapshot are shown below
Page | 38
Chapter 04
The Sinks Terminate Signals. Select sinks from the library then drag any block you want to use into
the model.
Page | 39
Chapter 04
The next important thing is connecting the blocks. For this drag a signal line from the output of a
block to the input of another block. Ctrl-Click will automatically connect the selected blocks
Once the block diagram for a system is completely modeled then we can run the Simulation. Before
running it is sometimes necessary to change parameters this is done by selecting under Simulation |
Configuration Parameters.
Once the parameters are all set, click the play button to run the simulation
For Viewing Results Scope is a handful tool. Double click on

the scope icon to open up the viewer. You often have to
zoom out using the binocular icon if the curve doesnt fit in
the default axes. You can save data from the scope to the
workspace using the Parameters, Data History tab.
SIMULINK also allows us to Communicate with the Workspace that is main MATLAB window. Any
constant or variable defined in the MATLAB workspace is available in the block diagram. The simin
and simout blocks allow you to pass signals in from the workspace, and out to the workspace.
Change the save format to Array for easiest use (double click on the To Workspace block for
Page | 40
Chapter 04
options). The clock source allows you to generate a time signal if you want to send that back to the
workspace.
Now lets demonstrate an example of SIMULINK model

Our object is to build a SIMULINK model that solves the following differential equation
mx cx kx f (t )
2nd-order mass-spring-damper system with zero initial conditions, input f(t) is a step with magnitude
3 parameters: m = 0.25, c = 0.5, k = 1
First, solve for the term with highest-order derivative
mx f (t ) cx kx
Make the left-hand side of this equation the output of a summing block
Drag a Sum block from the Math library Double-click to change the block parameters to rectangular
and + - -
Page | 41
Chapter 04
Add a gain (multiplier) block to eliminate the coefficient and produce the highest-derivative alone
Drag a Gain block from the Math library. The gain is 4 since 1/m=4. Double-click to change the block
parameters.
Add integrators to obtain the desired output variable. Drag Integrator blocks from the Continuous
library
Page | 42
Chapter 04
Add a scope from the Sinks library. Connect output ports to input ports. Label the signals by doubleclicking on the leader line
Connect to the integrated signals with gain blocks to create the terms on the right-hand side of the
EOM
Drag new Gain blocks from the Math library. To flip the gain block, select it and choose Flip Block in
the Format pull-down menu. Double-click on gain blocks to set parameters
Connect from the gain block input backwards up to the branch point.
Re-title the gain blocks.
Page | 43
Chapter 04
Complete the model Bring all the signals and inputs to the summing block then check signs on the
summer. Apply step from the sources library Double-click on Step block to set parameters. For a step
input of magnitude 3, set Final value to 3
The Final SIMULINK model is
Now run the simulation, the following result is obtained
Page | 44
Chapter 04
4.4 Modeling of Synchronous Machine in Simulink

The Winding Equations of synchronous machine have already been discussed in the previous chapter
so now we can implement them in Simulink.
Since it is easier to perform calculations in per unit system, we will be modeling the machine in the
per unit system. In this way, the parameters could be entered in a more generalized manner.
4.4.1 Complete Machine Simulink Model
Page | 45
Chapter 04
4.4.2 About the model

This synchronous machine model is basically just a mathematical approximation of the real machine.
This model works steady state value that are being calculated using mathematical equations that are
being fed into MATLAB using an m-file. A few transient conditions have been specified for which the
machine shows its response. This machine basically works on full load simulation and it does not
incorporate the load change option as it is available in the MATLAB model of the synchronous
machine.
4.4.3 General the model blocks

The above model has the following blocks in it. Some of these blocks are being divided into sub
blocks internally as well. These blocks include
abc2qd0 block
qd_gen block
o q_cct block
o d_cct block
o rotor block
VIPQ block
osc block
qd02abc block
These blocks along with different Simulink components completely describe the synchronous
machine model.
4.4.4 Predefined Simulink Functions used

The predefined Simulink functions that have been used are as follows:
Gain function
Repeating Sequence Function
Multiplexer
De-multiplexer
Clock function
Data export function
Product function
Integration Function
Adder function
Mathematical User defined Function
Scope Function
Terminator
Ground
These functions have been used at various places in the simulation, the general description about
these functions is as follows
Page | 46
Chapter 04
4.4.4.1 Gain Function

The gain function is basically used to multiply the incoming signal with some predefined value or
some variable which is to be calculated during the simulation. In this way, may value which are linear
related to some other value of the simulation, can be changed.
4.4.4.2 Repeating Sequence Function
The repeating sequence function is basically used to create a sequence or series of interconnected
points that repeat themselves after a given period of time, this function is basically designed to take
two input value, one is the time samples and the other is the value at that particular time sample.
In our simulation, we have used this sequence function to define the input quantities which are the
terminal voltage magnitude, the excitation voltage and the mechanical torque which is being
provided to the machine. This function is also capable of accepting inputs through variables that can
be changed using the MATLAB code. We used this function with variable input so that we could
change it as per our requirement.
4.4.4.3 Multiplexer
The multiplexer, as the name suggests, takes in multiple inputs and then it can output these values
in the form of a sequence, lets say that the multiplexer has four input values, then it will output
them in the fashion of u[1], u[2], u[3] and u[4]. In this way, using a multiplexer helps in the use of
MATLAB user defined mathematical function, in which multiple quantities need to be related.
4.4.4.4 Demultiplexer
The demultiplexer does the opposite work as that of the multiplexer. However it is useful in viewing
outputs in individual scopes.
4.4.4.5 Clock Function
The clock function is used to incorporate real time value t in the simulation; it is a very useful
feature which keeps a track to time as the simulation proceeds. In our simulation, the use of this
clock function is basically to produce the factor 2**f*t so that the voltages and currents would
become sinusoidal functions depending upon both time and frequency, as it is in the real machines.
4.4.4.6 Data Export Function
The data export function is a very useful tool which is being provided in the Simulink library. What it
does is that it takes multiple inputs from a multiplexer or any other accumulating block and it
exports them to the MATLAB workspace in the form of a structure or an array. That way, this data
can be used for any type of processing or any other desired operation such as plotting. In our
simulation, we have imported the data to the MATLAB workspace and then plotted the data against
time to obtain the responses on graph.
4.4.4.7 Product Function
The name suggests that the product function of the MATLAB may be used for multiplying a particular
value with some variable or value but it is not so, this work is done by the gain block. The product
block provides the option of multiplying 2 or more quantities either point to point or in matrix form,
in our simulation, we have used this block for point to point multiplication.
Page | 47
Chapter 04
4.4.4.8 Integration Function

The integration function of MATLAB is basically the tool that has the most important contribution to
this simulation procedure. In the coming articles, it will be seen that the equations are written in the
form integro-differential equations rather than the linear ones and thus, these equations require the
integration function to get implemented.
The integration function in MATLAB works on different numerical methods such as eulers method,
Dormand-prince and Runge-Kutta etc. All of these methods obtain the value using different
mathematical techniques and thus have different features which can be used according to the
different simulation requirements. Also, the configuration parameters tab provides the option to
change the percentage error, relative error, minimum and maximum step size options, they also
have effects on the integration that is being done in the simulation.
The integrator block also takes another value as an input, this value is the initial value of the
function. This determines the initial state of the system and thus it is an important feature provided.
4.4.4.9 Adder Function
The adder function is used to add different quantities together, it is being used to add the Torque
values together and get the desired function for further processing.
4.4.4.10 Mathematical User Defined Function
The mathematical user defined function enables to implement equations with simplicity and ease
without the involvement of any other MATLAB function being used. This function is used to
implement many different equations in our simulation is many different blocks. This function
defining block uses both constants and variables. The values of the variables are acquired from the
MATLAB workspace directly provided the values are present there.
4.4.4.11 Scope Function
The scope function provides the capability to directly view the output with respect to time in real
time scenario. In this way, the change in output quantities can be viewed with the changing inputs
and with the proceeding simulation time. The scope function also incorporates options to plot
multiple inputs simultaneously or in individual sub windows. It can also limit the incoming data
points to a desired number, so that the previous data (if not useful) could be removed and data of
interest may be plotted.
4.4.4.12 Terminator
The terminator is used to terminate any line which has no further use so that an error or a warning
may not be generated during the simulation.
4.4.4.13 Ground
The ground is used to terminate any extra input so that a zero value is being fed to the system
against that input variable. It also helps to avoid generation of error or warning during simulation.
Page | 48
Chapter 04
4.4.5 Model Blocks Description

Lets describe the model blocks in detail along with their forming equations.
abc2qd0 Block
The abc2qd0 block basically is used to convert the terminal voltages into the qd0 domain. In this
block, we have basically used the two step technique of conversion of abc phase quantities to the
qd0 quantities.
In this technique, in the first step the abc phase quantities are converted to stationary qd0 reference
frames without incorporating the changing rotor angle effect. The equations are as follows:
The second step yields the original dq0 components,
In this way, this block produces the dq0 voltage components which are necessary to perform further
processing.
Page | 49
Chapter 04
qd_gen Block
This block contains three sub blocks which have been named before, to understand the working of
this block, let us first consider the working of these sub blocks.
q_cct Block
The above block makes the use of following equations to calculate the values of flux linkage of q
windings, the mutual flux linkage of the axis windings and the current in the q axis windings.
Here, flux linkage is represented by rather than by .
{
)}
The integrators placed in the block diagram are fed with proper initial values which start the
machine from steady state. After calculating these intermediate values, we find the final values as
(
Using the above equations, our block calculates the desired values.
Page | 50
Chapter 04
d_cct Block
The above block makes the use of the following equations to calculate the flux linkage of d axis
windings, the mutual flux linkage between the d axis windings, the current in the d axis windings and
the current in the referred field winding current.
{
The integrators placed in the block diagram are fed with proper initial values which start the
machine from steady state. After calculating these intermediate values, we find the final values as
(
Page | 51
Chapter 04
Rotor block
The rotor block is basically used to calculate the Electromagnetic torque of the machine, the ratio of
rotor angular frequency to the base angular frequency and one redundant value as well.
The equations that are being used for calculations in this block are as follows:
This rotor block basically represents the mechanical portion, as it incorporates the mechanical
torque and the calculation of rotor angle delta. This block also incorporates the inertia of the system
which plays an important role in the response definition of the system.
Now we discuss about the overall connections that are being done in the qd_gen block and how they
are working together to achieve the outputs.
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Chapter 04
The qd_gen block contains the simulation of the machine in its proper rotor frame of reference. The
simulation of the q-axis circuit equations with one damper winding on the rotor is performed inside
the q_cct block and the simulation of the d-axis circuit with field winding and a damper winding have
been done inside the d_cct block.
VIPQ Block
In this block the value of instantaneous voltage, instantaneous current, generated active power and
generated reactive power is being calculated just by using the pre calculated values of quadrature
axis voltage, quadrature axis current, direct axis voltage and the direct axis current.
The equations that are being used are as follows:
| |
| |
)
)
[(
)(
) ]
[(
)(
) ]
By above equations, the results are being calculated.
Page | 53
Chapter 04
OSC Block
The OSC block represents a variable frequency oscillator which is used to calculate the values of
cos(theta) and sin(theta). Although, the value of theta will keep changing with time, the values of
sin(theta) and cos(theta) will remain within limits. The purpose of designing this block is to enable us
to initialize our simulation from any particular value of sin(theta) and cos(theta), thus by placing any
initial value of sin and cos, any value of theta can be achieved.
For example, using the initial values of cos(theta)=0 and sin(theta)=1 corresponds to starting the
rotor qd0 axes with an initial value of theta=0 to the axis of the stator winding and theta will be
equal to omega*t.
We know that the integration of sin is cos with a minus sign and the integration of cos is sin. Thus
this approach is being used to design the variable frequency oscillator.
qd02abc Block
This block is used to convert the qd0 domain currents into the abc phase currents so that they could
be viewed. This block also makes the use of two step conversion from qd0 to abc representation.
The equations that are being used are as follows:
In the first step of conversion, we have,
Page | 54
Chapter 04
These represent the direct and quadrature axis currents in the static qd0 reference frame, to get our
final values, we use the following relations:
4.4.6 Model Outputs

Our model can provide ample number of outputs which include:
Instantaneous voltage
Instantaneous current
Generated active power
Generated reactive power
Power angle (delta)
Electromagnetic torque
Three phase currents
Referred field winding current
Other outputs such as quadrature axis current and voltages or direct axis current and voltages can
be tapped out of their respective circuits if required.
4.4.7 Machine Parameters

The machine data form the manufacturers is usually in the form of reactances, time constants and
resistances: most are derived from measurements taken from the stator windings. The usual
methods of extracting the required parameters, especially those of the rotor windings from the
stator measurements, relies on the observation that the effective time constants of the various rotor
currents are significantly different. A commonly used demonstration of this phenomena is the short
circuit oscillogram of the stator currents when a three phase short circuit is applied to the machine
whose stator is initially open circuited and its field excitation is held constant. Besides the dc offset,
the symmetrical portion of the short circuit current typically exhibits two distinctly different decay
periods: generally referred to as the sub transient and the transient periods. The sub transient
period refers to the first few cycles of the short circuit current when the current decay is very rapid,
attributable mainly to changes in the currents of the damper windings. The rate of current decay in
the transient period is slower and is attributed mainly to changes in the currents of the rotor field
windings.
4.4.7.1 Synchronous inductances
The inductance is defined as the ratio of flux to current. When the peak of the rotating m.m.f is
aligned to the d-axis, the ratio of the stator flux linkage to the stator current is referred to as the dPage | 55
Chapter 04
axis synchronous inductance. When the peak of the rotating m.m.f is aligned with the q-axis, the
ratio of the stator flux linkage to the stator current is termed as the q-axis synchronous inductance.
4.4.7.2 Transient and sub transient inductances
These are the inductances that are encountered in the initial few cycles of the 3 phase short circuit
fault. The sub transient inductance is lesser than the transient inductance. The reason is that when a
fault occurs, the flux in the machine changes rapidly whereas the inductance does not change
proportional to the rapid change in flux. Due to this fact, a high amount of current flows in the
system for some cycles and then gradually becomes steady as the inductance value becomes
proportional to the flux.
4.4.7.3 Transient and sub transient Time constants
Associated with the two sets of rotor windings in the machine are two different sets of time
constants. The set with the larger values are transient time constants and those with smaller values
are the sub transient time constants.
When the stator is open circuited and the effects of the higher winding resistance damper windings
are disregarded, the change in the field currents in response to the change in the excitation voltages
is governed by the open circuited filed time constant. This defines the transient time constant.
The open circuit sub transient time constant is the time constant of kd damper winding current
when the terminals of field winding are shorted and the stator windings are open circuited. It is also
defined as the time in seconds required for the rapidly decreasing initial d-axis component of the
symmetrical voltage to decrease to a certain amount of its initial value when short circuit on the
armature windings of the machine running at rated speed is suddenly removed.
The time constants may be short circuit time constants or open circuit time constants.
4.4.8 Calculating the machine parameters

Lets develop the relations that are being used to calculate the parameters of the developed model
from the data which is normally available from the manufacturer. The primes associated with the
rotor quantities indicate that the parameters have been referred to the stator by the appropriate
turns ratio. The values used should be either in per unit or engineering units.
The relations are as follows:
(
(
)
)
)(
(
)
)
)
Page | 56
Chapter 04
If open circuit time constants are given, then the formulas used are:
(
In case, short circuit time constants are given, then the relation becomes:
(
4.4.9 MATLAB Coding and data File

In MATLAB, we have written a code with some help from the sources available, that takes input the
general data (available from the manufacturer) from an m-file and then a program is being run that
takes that data, performs the calculations and calculates all the machine parameters and the initial
state values that are to be fed into the integration functions used in each block so that the machine
initializes properly.
4.4.9.1 Data File Coding
% parameters of three-phase synchronous machine Set 1
Perunit = 1 % parameters given in per unit of machine base
Frated = 60;
Poles = 4;
Pfrated= 0.9;
Vrated =18e3;
Prated=828315e3;
rs = 0.0048;
xd = 1.790;
xq = 1.660;
xls = 0.215;
xpd = 0.355;
xpq = 0.570;
xppd = 0.275;
xppq = 0.275;
Tpdo = 7.9;
Page | 57
Chapter 04
Tpqo = 0.410;
Tppdo = 0.032;
Tppqo = 0.055;
H = 3.77;
Domega = 0; % mechanical damping coeff
The above coding file contains all the time constants, sub transient, transient and synchronous
reactances of q and d-axis, other ratings of the machine that are required to perform the necessary
calculations.
4.4.9.2 Program Coding

clearvariables;
disp('Enter filename of machine parameter file without .m')
setX = input('Input machine parameter filename > ','s')
eval(setX);
% Calculate necessary resistances and reactances of dqo circuit
xmq = xq - xls;
xmd = xd - xls;
xplf = xmd*(xpd - xls)/(xmd - (xpd-xls));
xplkd = xmd*xplf*(xppd-xls)/(xplf*xmd - ...
(xppd-xls)*(xmd+xplf));
xplkq = xmq*(xppq - xls)/(xmq - (xppq-xls));
rpf = (xplf + xmd)/(wbase*Tpdo);
rpkd = (xplkd + xpd - xls)/(wbase*Tppdo);
rpkq = (xplkq + xmq)/(wbase*Tppqo);
% Establish initial conditions for starting simulation
wb= 2*pi*Frated;
xMQ = (1/xls + 1/xmq + 1/xplkq)^(-1);
xMD = (1/xls + 1/xmd + 1/xplf + 1/xplkd)^(-1);
% Specify desired operating condition lists
P = 1.0;% specify range and increment of real
Q = 0; % and reactive output power,
Vt = 1.0 + 0*j;
% specify terminal voltage
thetaeo = angle(Vt); % initial value of voltage angle
Vm = abs(Vt);
St = P+Q*j; % generated complex power
% compute q-d steady-state variables
It = conj(St/Vt);
Eq = Vt + (rs + j*xq)*It;
Page | 58
Chapter 04
delt = angle(Eq);
Eqo
I
Iqo
Ido
Efo
Ifo
=
=
=
=
=
=

% angle Eq leads Vt
abs(Eq);
It*(cos(delt) - sin(delt)*j);% same as I = (conj(Eq)/Eqo)*It;
real(I);
-imag(I);
% when the d-axis lags the q-axis
Eqo + (xd-xq)*Ido;
Efo/xmd;
Psiado = xmd*(-Ido + Ifo);

Psiaqo = xmq*(-Iqo);
Psiqo = xls*(-Iqo) + Psiaqo;
Psido = xls*(-Ido) + Psiado;
Psifo = xplf*Ifo + Psiado;
Psikqo = Psiaqo;
Psikdo = Psiado;
Vto = Vt*(cos(delt) - sin(delt)*j);
Vqo = real(Vto);
Vdo = -imag(Vto);
Sto = Vto*conj(I);
Eqpo = Vqo + xpd*Ido + rs*Iqo;
Edpo = Vdo - xpq*Iqo + rs*Ido;
delto = delt;% initial value of rotor angle
thetaro = delto+thetaeo;% thetar(0) in variable frequency oscillator
Pemo = real(Sto);
Qemo = imag(Sto);
Tmech = Pemo;
T2piby3 = 2*pi/3; % phase angle of bus phase voltages
lmn = 2 ; % set initially to 2 to repeat yes for more cases
whilelmn == 2
disp('Choices of disturbance')
disp('Your choice of disturbances? ')
disp('For Step change in Eex press 1')
disp('For Step change in Tmech press 2')
disp('For Step change in Vm press 3')
xyz=input('Enter your desired option : ')
if (xyz == 1) % step change in Eex
tstop = 5; % run time
Vm_time = [0 tstop];
Vm_value = [1 1]*Vm; % Bus voltage kept constant
tmech_time = [0 tstop];
tmech_value = [1 1]*Tmech; % Tmech kept constant
Ex_time = [0 0.2 0.2 tstop];
Ex_value = [1 1 1.1 1.1]*Efo; % step change in Eex
disp(' Disturbance sequence in Eex is ')
Ex_time
Ex_value
end% if for step change in Eex
Page | 59
Chapter 04
if (xyz == 2) % step change in Tmech

tstop = 5; % run time
Vm_time = [0 tstop];
Vm_value = [1 1]*Vm; % Bus voltage kept constant
tmech_time = [0 0.5 0.5 3 3 tstop];
tmech_value = [1 1 0 0 -1 -1]*Tmech; % step change in Tmech
Ex_time = [0 tstop];
Ex_value = [1 1]*Efo; % Eex kept constant
disp(' Disturbance sequence in Tmech is ')
tmech_time
tmech_value
end% if for step change in Tmech
if (xyz == 3) % step change in Vm
tstop = 1.5; % run time
tmech_time = [0 tstop];
tmech_value = [1 1]*Tmech; % step change in Tmech
Ex_time = [0 tstop];
Ex_value = [1 1]*Efo; % Eex kept constant
disp('Three phase terminal short-circuit fault')
disp('will be applied at 0.1 second into the simulation')
ncycle = input('Enter in the number of cycles desired > ')
tfault = ncycle/Frated; % fault time
tfstart = 0.1; % set fault to begin at 0.1 sec into simulation
Vm_time = [0 tfstarttfstart (tfstart+tfault) (tfstart+tfault)
tstop];
Vm_value = [1 1 0 0 1 1]*Vm; % Vm is zero during short circuit
disp(' Disturbance sequence in Vm is ')
Vm_time
Vm_value
end% if for step change in Vm
% Transfer to keyboard for simulation
disp('Ater running simulation, type ''return'' for plots');
keyboard
clf;
subplot(4,1,1)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,2),'-')
ylabel('|Vt| in pu')
axis([-infinf 0.9 1.1])
title('Stator voltage magnitude')
subplot(4,1,2)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,3),'-')
ylabel('|It| in pu')
axis([-infinf 0 inf])
title('Stator current magnitude')
subplot(4,1,3)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,4),'-')
ylabel('Pgen in pu')
title('Real power generated')
subplot(4,1,4)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,5),'-')
ylabel('Qgen in pu')
xlabel('Time in sec')
title('Reactive power generated')
Page | 60
Chapter 04
h2=figure;
subplot(4,1,1)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,6),'-')
ylabel('Delta in rad')
title('Power angle delta')
subplot(4,1,2)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,7),'-')
ylabel('Tem in pu')
title('Instantaneous electrical torque')
subplot(4,1,3)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,8),'-')
ylabel('If in pu')
title('Field current')
subplot(4,1,4)
plot(y(:,1),y(:,9),'-')
ylabel('ia in pu')
xlabel('time in sec')
title('Instantaneous phase a current')
disp('Save plots array before typing return to exit')
keyboard
close (h2)
disp('Repeat run?,')
disp('To Quit press 1')
disp('To Repeat run press 2');
lmn = input('Enter your desired option :')
ifisempty(lmn) % if empty return a 1 to terminate
lmn = 1;
end% if isempty
end% while repeat for another runs
4.4.9.3 How this coding works
Let us take a look at how this piece of coding works in a few quick bullets:
It takes the input form the MATLAB workspace (means prior to running this m-file, the data
file must be executed first).
It then calculates the required parameters from the given manufacturers parameters using
the formulas that are being discussed earlier.
It then sets the initial conditions and calculates the values that are to be fed into the
integration functions used so that the machine properly starts.
It then asks for choice of disturbance which may be change is Eex (Excitation Voltage),
change in Tmech (Mechanical Torque) and change in Vm (Terminal voltage magnitude).
It then sets the simulation input values in accordance to the input that has been provided
through the keyboard as the choice of disturbance.
It then prompts to run the simulation in Simulink.
After the simulation has been successfully executed, enter return in the MATLAB
command window and the simulation results are plotted.
It then prompts for repetition of the simulation with some other choice of disturbance.
Page | 61
Chapter 04
4.4.10 Simulation Results (for a 3 phase short circuit fault of 33.3millisecs)
Page | 62
Chapter 04
Page | 63
Chapter 04
4.4.10.1 Description of fault scenario

The fault was provided to the system at 0.1 seconds. The fault existed in the system only for 2 cycles
(33.3 milli seconds). The change in values of the outputs and their stabilization has been shown in
the plots that are being displayed above.
4.5 DAMPER WINDINGS:

Damper windings (also called amortisseur windings) are shorted conductors that span the two ends
of the rotor. Damper windings work on electromagnetic induction. The relative motion of the rotor
and the moving stator flux induces emf in these windings and current is induced in them.
They have a property of damping out any oscillation that might be caused by sudden changes in the
load on the rotor when in synchronism. Adjustment to load changes involves changes in the angle by
which the rotor field lags the stator field and thus involves short-term changes in instantaneous
speed.
4.5.1 Types of Damper Windings:

The two types of damper windings used in synchronous machine are:
1. Connected or complete
2. Non-connected or incomplete
4.5.1.1 Connected type:
They are similar to the induction motors squirrel cage except that the bars are unequally spaced,
not being present between poles.
Source: Power System Stability by Edward Wilson Kimbark
4.5.1.2 Non-connected type:

The rings are broken between poles. They are preferred at high peripheral speeds.
Source: Power System Stability by Edward Wilson Kimbark
Page | 64
Chapter 04
Damper windings may also be classified according to their resistance, Low resistance dampers and
high resistance dampers.
4.5.1.3 Low resistance windings:
They produce high torques at small slips.
4.5.1.4 High resistance windings:

They provide good starting torques and produce high torques at large slips.
In turbo generators, damper bars are not used. Steel rotor cores provide the same effect as
dampers.
4.5.2 Effect of damper windings:

Following are the reasons for using dampers in salient pole synchronous machine
1. To provide starting torque for synchronous motors, condensers and converters
2. To damp out vibrations and oscillations.
3. To reduce the transients during hunting. Loads with pulsating torques tend to hunt. Hunting
from these sources is Forced hunting. When synchronous machines are connected together
by circuits with high resistance to reactance ratio, spontaneous hunting occurs. Both
spontaneous and forced types are largely reduced by dampers with low resistance value.
4. During an unsymmetrical fault, damper barslessen the accelerating torque.
5. To balance the terminal voltages when loads are unbalanced. Negative sequence reactances
are reduced by damper bars.
6. To prevent overheating of pole pieces due to eddy currents induced by negative-sequence
currents. Dampers shield the pole pieces from flux variation.
7. To provide breaking torque during unsymmetrical fault.
Page | 65
Chapter 04
4.6 MATLAB built-in model and its results

The same fault conditions were applied to the synchronous machine model connected in the given
configuration. The machine is being set to have the exact same parameters as that of our model. The
results obtained from this simulation match our simulation results to a great extent except for some
outputs.
Page | 66
Chapter 04
Page | 67
Chapter 04
Page | 68
Chapter 05
Results And Conclusion
CHAPTER 05
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
Page | 69
Chapter 05
5.1 Results
To analyse the dynamics of the synchronous machine with our focus on the damper windings was
done with help of the above model (previous chapter). In this analysis we varied the parameters
(inductance and resistances) of the damper windings and observed the steady state point values.
The simulation of the system gave the following results
5.1.1 Effect of changing q-axis damper on settling time

On x-axis resistance is the independent variable and on y-axis different parameter values thus
observed are plotted
When resistance (Rq) of the q-axis damper winding is varied then the following effects on settling
time of different parameters are observed

1. Field Current
q-sxis Resistance (Ohms)
Field Current (Ift)

Settling Time (sec)
7.27E-02
15.8
8.27E-02
17.4
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
18.2
19.4
22.3
23.2
24.76
ifd
30
25
20
15
ifd
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in increase in settling time of field current value
Page | 70
Chapter 05
2. Electromagnetic Torque (Tem)

7.27E-02
8.27E-02
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
Electromagnetic Torque (Tem)

Settling Time (sec)
19.9
21.5
23.2
24.8
21.05
21.9
22.7
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
Te
30
25
20
15
Te
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in variation in settling time of electromagnetic

torque value, settling time increases for some values of resistance then it decreases, again after
certain value it increases.
3. Load Angle (Delta)
7.27E-02
8.27E-02
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
Load Angle (Delta)

Settling Time (sec)
26
28.5
30.9
32.6
34.2
35.9
37.5
Page | 71
Chapter 05
Delta
40
35
30
25
20
Delta
15
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in increase in settling time of load angle value
4. Reactive Power (Qt)

7.27E-02
Reactive Power (Qt)

Settling Time (sec)
15
16.6
17.4
19
19.1
19.9
20.7
8.27E-02
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
Qt
25
20
15
Qt
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in increase in settling time of reactive power value
Page | 72
Chapter 05
5. Active Power (Pt)

7.27E-02
8.27E-02
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
Active Power (Pt)

Settling Time (sec)
15.7
16.6
18.2
19.1
23.6
24.4
26
Pt
30
25
20
15
Pt
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in increase in settling time of active power value
6. Current (It)
7.27E-02
8.27E-02
9.27E-02
1.03E-02
1.13E-01
1.23E-01
1.33E-01
Field Current (It)

Settling Time (sec)
16.1
17.4
18.6
17.8
22.3
23.2
24
Page | 73
Chapter 05
It
30
25
20
15
It
10
5
0
0
Increasing resistance of q-axis damper results in increase in settling time of load current value
5.1.2 Effect of q-axis inductance on settling times

On x-axis, q-axis inductance is the independent variable, and on y-axis different parameters
settling times thus observed are plotted
When inductance (L) of the q-axis damper winding is varied, then the following effects are
observed on
1. Field Current (If)
Lq (Hx10^-4)
1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
Field Current (Ifd)

Settling Time (sec)
33.7023
33.7017
33.7008
33.7002
33.6992
33.6987
33.6978
33.6972
Page | 74
Chapter 05
Ifd
33.703
33.702
33.701
33.7
33.699
33.698
33.697
33.696
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in decrease in settling time of field current value
2. Electromagnetic Torque (Te)
Lq (Hx10^-4)
1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
Electromagnetic Torque (Te)

Settling Time (sec)
24.9108
24.9087
24.9062
24.9042
24.9022
24.9003
24.8987
24.8967
Te
24.915
24.91
24.905
24.9
24.895
0
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in decrease in settling time of electromagnetic

torque value
Lq (Hx10^-4) Load Angle (Delta)
Settling time (sec)
Page | 75
Chapter 05

1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
25.4732
25.4722
25.4713
25.4702
25.4692
25.4682
25.4673
25.4658
Load Angle
25.474
25.472
25.47
25.468
25.466
25.464
0
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in decrease in settling time of Load angle

Lq (Hx10^-4)
1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
Load Angle (Qt)

Settling time (sec)
25.0867
25.0867
25.0867
25.0872
25.0872
25.0873
25.0877
25.0877
Page | 76
Chapter 05
Qt
25.0878
25.0876
25.0874
25.0872
Qt
25.087
25.0868
25.0866
0
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in overall increase in settling time of reactive power
5. Real Power (Pt)
Lq (Hx10^-4)
1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
Real Power (Pt)

Settling Time (sec)
19.6217
19.6198
19.6177
19.6158
19.6137
19.6118
19.6103
20.4632
Pt
20.6
20.4
20.2
20
19.8
19.6
19.4
0
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in very slight increase in settling time of active
power, almost negligible
Page | 77
Chapter 05
6. Armature Current (It)

Armature Current (It)
Settling Time (sec)
22.2208
22.2187
22.2167
22.2148
22.2122
22.2102
22.2082
22.2062
Lq (Hx10^-4)
1.6605
2.6605
3.6605
4.6605
5.6605
6.6605
7.6605
8.6605
It
22.222
22.22
22.218
22.216
22.214
22.212
22.21
22.208
22.206
22.204
0
10
Increasing inductance of q-axis damper results in decrease in settling time of armature current
5.1.3 Effect of d-axis resistance on settling times:
On x-axis, d-axis resistance is the independent variable, and on y-axis different parameters
settling times thus observed are plotted
When resistance (R) of the d-axis damper winding is varied, then the following effects are
observed on
1. Field Current (Ifd)
Rd (Ohmx10^-2)
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
Field Current (Ifd)

Settling Time (sec)
33.7023
33.6643
33.6413
33.6323
33.6122
33.1637
Page | 78
Chapter 05

4.03
4.43
33.1468
33.1243
Ifd
33.8
33.7
33.6
33.5
33.4
33.3
33.2
33.1
33
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in slight decrease in settling time of field current
2. Electromagnetic Torque (Te)
Settling Times (sec)
24.9107
25.8863
25.9767
26.8723
26.9523
26.9897
27.8887
27.9378
Rd (Ohmx10^-2)
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
4.03
4.43
Te
28.5
28
27.5
27
26.5
26
25.5
25
24.5
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in increase in settling time of electromagnetic

torque
Page | 79
Chapter 05

Rd (Ohmx10^-2)
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
4.03
4.43
Load Angle (Delta)

25.4733
25.4643
25.4673
25.4713
25.4817
25.4933
25.4988
25.5097
Load Angle
25.52
25.51
25.5
25.49
25.48
25.47
25.46
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in slight increase in settling time of Load angle
Rd (Ohmx10^-2)
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
4.03
4.43
Reactive Power (Qt)

25.0867
25.0083
24.9533
24.9318
24.8972
24.8708
24.8603
24.8417
Page | 80
Chapter 05
Qt
25.1
25.05
25
24.95
Qt
24.9
24.85
24.8
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in decrease in settling time of reactive

5. Real Power (Pt)
Rd (Ohmx10^-2)
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
4.03
4.43
Real Power (Pt)

Settling Time (sec)
19.6217
20.5928
21.5293
21.5653
21.6072
22.5122
22.5418
22.5753
Pt
23
22.5
22
21.5
21
20.5
20
19.5
19
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in increase in settling time of real power
6. Armature Current (It)

Rd (Ohmx10^-2) Armature Current (It)
Page | 81
Chapter 05

22.2207
22.2177
22.2213
22.2237
22.9517
23.0053
23.0213
23.0453
2.03
2.43
2.83
3.03
3.43
3.83
4.03
4.43
It
23.1
23
22.9
22.8
22.7
22.6
22.5
22.4
22.3
22.2
22.1
0
Increasing resistance of d-axis damper results in a very slow increase in settling time of armature
current
5.1.3 Effect of d-axis inductance on settling times:
On x-axis inductance is the independent variable and on y-axis different parameter values thus
observed are plotted
When inductance (L) of the d-axis damper winding is varied then the following effects are observed
on
1. Field Current
d-axis Inductance (L)
1.79E-07
1.79E-06
1.79E-05
1.79E-04
1.79E-03
Armature Current (It)

Settling Time (sec)
25.0000
29.3557
27.6580
30.0000
31.7030
Page | 82
Chapter 05

1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
33.3817
32.5972
32.5920
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
32.5945
32.4516
32.6037
32.6072
33.9030
2. Electromagnetic Torque (Tem)
1.79E-07
1.79E-06
1.79E-05
1.79E-04

Settling Time (sec)
25.6140
25.6082
25.6075
25.4632
1.79E-03
1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
26.2567
28.0542
28.0627
28.0625
28.0625
28.0627
28.0626
28.0626
28.0626
Page | 83
Chapter 05

1.79E-07
1.79E-06
1.79E-05
1.79E-04
1.79E-03
1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
Load Angle (Delta)

Settling Time (sec)
27.6427
27.6425
27.6425
27.6434
28.4467
29.3352
30.1347
30.1450
30.1517
30.1542
30.1542
30.1532
30.1392
Page | 84
Chapter 05

1.79E-07
1.79E-06
1.79E-05
1.79E-04
1.79E-03
1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
Reactive Power (Qt)

Settling Time (sec)
23.9722
23.9722
23.9717
23.9697
24.7465
25.6332
24.3773
24.4182
25.1907
25.1916
25.1722
24.4167
24.0047
Page | 85
Chapter 05
5. Active Power (Pt)
1.79E-07
1.79E-06
1.79E-05
Active Power (Pt)

Settling Time (sec)
24.4055
24.4057
24.4052
1.79E-04
1.79E-03
1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
25.1702
25.9696
26.8537
26.8635
26.8635
26.8642
26.8642
26.8642
26.8642
26.8636
Page | 86
Chapter 05
6. Current (It)
1.79E-07
1.79E-06
Current (It)
Settling Time (sec)
25.8250
28.0650
1.79E-05
1.79E-04
1.79E-03
1.79E-02
1.79E-01
2.50E-01
3.50E-01
4.50E-01
5.50E-01
6.50E-01
1.79E+00
30.0000
30.1000
32.9071
34.5670
37.8825
39.7255
32.5942
31.7755
31.7702
31.7762
35.8502
Page | 87
Chapter 05
Page | 88
Chapter 05
5.2 Conclusion
By performing the above analysis, we have studied the effect of change in the damper winding
parameters, on the output of the machine. The d-axis and q-axis damper winding parameters have
different effects on the machines outputs. The general behavior of the effects on the output
parameters of the machine are as follows:
1. Effect of change in resistance of d-axis damper
Increasing the value of d-axis damper resistance, an increase in the settling time of most of
the output parameters is observed. However some parameters show either a constant
behavior or very little change with respect to settling time. The change observed in the
settling time of parameters is rather gradual if we compare it with the q-axis results.
It also agrees to the fact that increasing the resistance of the damper winding will cause a
less current to flow through the damper circuit, thus the flux produced will be less and there
will be less damping effect of the winding.
2. Effect of change in resistance of q-axis damper
Increasing the value of q-axis damper resistance, it also results in increase in the settling
time of the output parameters observed. Some parameters however do not show significant
changes with change in the resistance. The change is rather more significant due to q-axis
parameter change as compared to the d-axis.
As stated above also, the increase in resistance results in decrease in the damping effect of
the winding.
3. Effect of change in self-inductance of d-axis damper
Increasing the value of d-axis damper inductance, results in increase in the settling time of
the output parameters observed. Some parameters however do not show significant
changes.
4. Effect of change in self-inductance of q-axis damper
Increasing the value of q-axis damper inductance, results in decrease in the settling time of
the output parameters observed. Some parameters however do not show significant
changes.
However, it is to be noted that some parameters have been changed in a very wide range in order to
clearly show the effects of the changes. In this way, the trend of effects on the settling time of
various parameters is properly viewed from graphs as drawn.
It should also be noted that 2.1 model of machine as designed by our group, is basically a
mathematical representation of the machine and it approximates the practical behavior to a certain
Page | 89
Chapter 05
limit. It incorporates the mechanical considerations of the machine like inertia and mechanical
torque, however, it does not incorporate the effects of load change.
The results of the 2.1 model of the synchronous machine have been found to be working
satisfactorily as compared with the 2.1 synchronous machine p.u. model of MATLAB. The
parameters set as input for the two machines were exactly the same and a fault of 2 cycles was
applied to both the machines to analyze the results. The results came out to be matching
satisfactorily except at some instances.
Like at the time of fault removal, mathematical model showed abrupt changes in the machines
parameters (towards the steady state value) whereas, the original machine showed a gradual rise in
the parameters. Also, the changes in the parameters (transients) in the mathematical model were
basically not incorporating any load effects and thus, settling according to the machine parameters
only.
Page | 90

1241 - Synch Machine Modeling

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Mathematical Modeling of Synchronous

Machine with Analysis of Damper Windings

Mathematical Modeling Of Synchronous

Department of Electrical Engineering

NED University of Engineering and Technology

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

Mathematical Modeling Of Synchronous

Dr. Arshad Habib Malik,

Mr. Mohammad Ali Baig,

Mohammad Osama Idris

NED University Of Engineering And Technology

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

3.3.9.1 Origination of i0 component ............................................................................................. 27

FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT 2012

4.4.4.12 Terminator ...................................................................................................................... 48

1.1 Basic Concepts

2.1 System and its types

2.1.1 Linear Time Invariant systems

2.1.2 Linear Time Variant systems

2.1.3 Non-linear Time variant systems

2.2 Rotor Models

3._ Field circuit with two equivalent dampers on d-axis

2.3 Review of classical methods

2.3.1 System Model

Single line diagram of a single machine system

Damper circuits are neglected.

The mechanical power input to the generator is constant.

Xe is the total external reactance viewed from the generator terminals.

2.4 Swing Equation and its non-linearity

The absolute rotor position can be given as:

is absolute rotor position with reference to a fixed stationary axisand

reference to an axis rotating at synchronous speed.

is called Torque angle.

load (disturbance) is applied then

will be zero and angular speed will be equal to synchronous

speed of rotor as evident from equation (a).

M = angular momentum of rotor

2.4.1.1 Solution of Swing Equation

Point by point method

Results obtained from the solution

Machine Theory And Model

Machine Theory And Model

3.1 Generalize machine theory

V2 = (1000/100) x 200 cos

Machine Theory And Model

Speed or rotational component

So when = 0o, sin0o = 0, there is no rotational component only transformer action

3.1.1 Basic two pole machine

Machine Theory And Model

1. A current in the coil produces a field which is stationary in space

3.1.2 Krons Primitive machine:

3.2 Blondels Two Reaction Theory

Machine Theory And Model

3.2.1 Reason for the proposal of this theory

3.2.2 Why called Two Reaction Theory

Machine Theory And Model

Machine Theory And Model

3.3 Mathematical description of a Synchronous machine

Magnetic hysteresis is negligible.

Magnetic saturation effects are negligible.