ResearchMethodology:AnIntroduction

1
ResearchMethodology:
AnIntroduction

MEANINGOFRESEARCH
Researchincommonparlancereferstoasearchforknowledge.Oncecanalsodefineresearchas
ascientificandsystematicsearchforpertinentinformationonaspecifictopic.Infact,researchisan
artofscientificinvestigation.TheAdvancedLearnersDictionaryofCurrentEnglishlaysdownthemeani
ngofresearchasacarefulinvestigationorinquiryspeciallythroughsearchfornewfactsin
anybranchofknowledge.1RedmanandMorydefineresearchasasystematizedefforttogainnewknowl
edge.2Somepeopleconsiderresearchasamovement,amovementfromtheknowntotheunknown.Itisact
uallyavoyageofdiscovery.Weallpossessthevitalinstinctofinquisitivenessfor,
whentheunknownconfrontsus,wewonderandourinquisitivenessmakesusprobeandattainfullandfuller
understandingoftheunknown.Thisinquisitivenessisthemotherofallknowledgeandthemethod,whichm
anemploysforobtainingtheknowledgeofwhatevertheunknown,canbe termedasresearch.
Researchisanacademicactivityandassuchthetermshouldbeusedinatechnicalsense.
AccordingtoCliffordWoodyresearchcomprisesdefiningandredefiningproblems,formulatinghypothe
sisorsuggestedsolutions;collecting,organisingandevaluatingdata;makingdeductionsandreachingconc
lusions;andatlastcarefullytestingtheconclusionstodeterminewhethertheyfitthe
formulatinghypothesis.D.SlesingerandM.StephensonintheEncyclopaediaofSocialSciences
defineresearchasthemanipulationofthings,conceptsorsymbolsforthepurposeofgeneralisingtoextend
,correctorverifyknowledge,whetherthatknowledgeaidsinconstructionoftheoryorinthe
practiceofanart.3Researchis,thus,anoriginalcontributiontotheexistingstockofknowledgemakingfor
itsadvancement.Itisthepersuitoftruthwiththehelpofstudy,observation,comparisonandexperiment.Ins
hort,thesearchforknowledgethroughobjectiveandsystematicmethodof
findingsolutiontoaproblemisresearch.Thesystematicapproachconcerninggeneralisationandtheformu
lationofatheoryisalsoresearch.Assuchthetermresearchreferstothesystematicmethod
TheAdvanced Learners DictionaryofCurrent English,Oxford,1952,p.1069.
L.V.RedmanandA.V.H.Mory, TheRomanceof Research,1923,p.10.
3
TheEncyclopaediaofSocialSciences,Vol.IX,MacMillan,1930.
1
2

ResearchMethodology

consistingofenunciatingtheproblem,formulatingahypothesis,collectingthefactsordata,analysingthefa
ctsandreachingcertainconclusionseitherintheformofsolutions(s)towardstheconcerned
problemorincertaingeneralisationsforsometheoreticalformulation.

OBJECTIVESOFRESEARCH
Thepurposeofresearchistodiscoveranswerstoquestionsthroughtheapplicationofscientific
procedures.Themainaimofresearchistofindoutthetruthwhichishiddenandwhichhasnotbeen
discoveredasyet.Thougheachresearchstudyhasitsownspecificpurpose,wemaythinkof
researchobjectivesasfallingintoanumberoffollowingbroadgroupings:
1. Togainfamiliaritywithaphenomenonortoachievenewinsightsintoit(studieswiththisobjectin
viewaretermedasexploratoryorformulativeresearchstudies);
2. Toportrayaccuratelythecharacteristicsofaparticularindividual,situationoragroup(studiesw
iththisobjectinviewareknownasdescriptiveresearchstudies);
3. Todeterminethefrequencywithwhichsomethingoccursorwithwhichitisassociatedwithsom
ethingelse(studieswiththisobjectinviewareknownasdiagnosticresearch studies);
4. Totestahypothesisofacausalrelationshipbetweenvariables(suchstudiesareknownas
hypothesis-testingresearchstudies).

MOTIVATIONINRESEARCH
Whatmakespeopletoundertakeresearch?Thisisaquestionoffundamentalimportance.The
possiblemotivesfordoingresearchmaybeeitheroneormoreofthefollowing:
1. Desiretogetaresearchdegreealongwithitsconsequentialbenefits;
2. Desiretofacethechallengeinsolvingtheunsolvedproblems,i.e.,concernoverpractical
problemsinitiatesresearch;
3. Desiretogetintellectualjoyofdoingsomecreativework;
4. Desiretobeofservicetosociety;
5. Desiretogetrespectability.
However,thisisnotanexhaustivelistoffactorsmotivatingpeopletoundertakeresearchstudies.Many
morefactorssuchasdirectivesofgovernment,employmentconditions,curiosityaboutnew
things,desiretounderstandcausalrelationships,socialthinkingandawakening,andthelikemayas
wellmotivate(orattimescompel)peopletoperformresearchoperations.

TYPESOFRESEARCH
Thebasictypesofresearchareasfollows:
(i) Descriptivevs.Analytical:Descriptiveresearchincludessurveysandfactfindingenquiriesofdifferentkinds.Themajorpurposeofdescriptiveresearchisdescriptionofth
estateof affairsasitexistsatpresent.Insocialscienceandbusinessresearchwequiteoftenuse

thetermExpostfactoresearchfordescriptiveresearchstudies.Themaincharacteristicofthisme
thodisthattheresearcherhasnocontroloverthevariables;hecanonlyreport
whathashappenedorwhatishappening.Mostexpostfactoresearchprojectsareusedfordescript
ivestudiesinwhichtheresearcherseekstomeasuresuchitemsas,forexample,frequencyofshop
ping,preferencesofpeople,orsimilardata.Expostfactostudiesalso
includeattemptsbyresearcherstodiscovercausesevenwhentheycannotcontrolthe
variables.Themethodsofresearchutilizedindescriptiveresearcharesurveymethodsof
allkinds,includingcomparativeandcorrelationalmethods.Inanalyticalresearch,ontheotherh
and,theresearcherhastousefactsorinformationalreadyavailable,andanalyze
thesetomakeacriticalevaluationofthematerial.
(ii) Appliedvs.Fundamental:Researchcaneitherbeapplied(oraction)researchorfundamenta
l(tobasicorpure)research.Appliedresearchaimsatfindingasolutionforanimmediateproblemf
acingasocietyoranindustrial/businessorganisation,whereasfundamentalresearchismainlyconc
ernedwithgeneralisationsandwiththeformulationofatheory.Gatheringknowledgeforknowl
edgessakeistermedpureorbasicresearch.4Researchconcerningsomenaturalphenomeno
norrelatingtopuremathematicsareexamplesof
fundamentalresearch.Similarly,researchstudies,concerninghumanbehaviourcarriedonwit
haviewtomakegeneralisationsabouthumanbehaviour,arealsoexamplesoffundamentalres
earch,butresearchaimedatcertainconclusions
(say,
asolution)facinga
concretesocialorbusinessproblemisanexampleofappliedresearch.Researchtoidentifysocial,
economicorpoliticaltrendsthatmayaffectaparticularinstitutionorthecopyresearch(researchtofi
ndoutwhethercertaincommunicationswillbereadandunderstood)orthe
marketingresearchorevaluationresearchareexamplesofappliedresearch.Thus,the
centralaimofappliedresearchistodiscoverasolutionforsomepressingpracticalproblem,where
asbasicresearchisdirectedtowardsfindinginformationthathasabroadbaseof
applicationsandthus,addstothealreadyexistingorganizedbodyofscientificknowledge.
(iii)Quantitativevs.Qualitative:Quantitativeresearchisbasedonthemeasurementofquantityora
mount.Itisapplicabletophenomenathatcanbeexpressedintermsofquantity.Qualitativeresear
ch,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwithqualitativephenomenon,i.e.,
phenomenarelatingtoorinvolvingqualityorkind.Forinstance,whenweareinterestedininvesti
gatingthereasonsforhumanbehaviour(i.e.,whypeoplethinkordocertainthings),wequiteoften
talkofMotivationResearch,animportanttypeofqualitativeresearch.
Thistypeofresearchaimsatdiscoveringtheunderlyingmotivesanddesires,usingindepthintervi
ewsforthepurpose.Othertechniquesofsuchresearcharewordassociationtests,
sentencecompletiontests,storycompletiontestsandsimilarotherprojectivetechniques.
Attitudeoropinionresearchi.e.,researchdesignedtofindouthowpeoplefeelorwhat
theythinkaboutaparticularsubjectorinstitutionisalsoqualitativeresearch.Qualitative
researchisspeciallyimportantinthebehaviouralscienceswheretheaimistodiscoverthe
underlyingmotivesofhumanbehaviour.Throughsuchresearchwecananalysethevariousfacto
rswhichmotivatepeopletobehaveinaparticularmannerorwhichmakepeoplelike
ordislikeaparticularthing.Itmaybestated,however,thattoapplyqualitativeresearchin

PaulineV.Young,ScientificSocialSurveysandResearch,p.30.

practiceisrelativelyadifficultjobandtherefore,whiledoingsuchresearch,oneshould
seekguidancefromexperimentalpsychologists.
(iv)Conceptualvs.Empirical:Conceptualresearchisthatrelatedtosomeabstractidea(s)or
theory.Itisgenerallyusedbyphilosophersandthinkerstodevelopnewconceptsortoreinterpret
existingones.Ontheotherhand,empiricalresearchreliesonexperienceor
observationalone,oftenwithoutdueregardforsystemandtheory.Itisdatabasedresearch,comingupwithconclusionswhicharecapableofbeingverifiedbyobservationore
xperiment.Wecanalsocallitasexperimentaltypeofresearch.Insucharesearchitisnecessarytog
etatfactsfirsthand,attheirsource,andactivelytogoaboutdoingcertainthingsto
stimulatetheproductionofdesiredinformation.Insucharesearch,theresearchermust
firstprovidehimselfwithaworkinghypothesisorguessastotheprobableresults.Hethen
workstogetenoughfacts(data)toproveordisprovehishypothesis.Hethensetsup
experimentaldesignswhichhethinkswillmanipulatethepersonsorthematerialsconcernedsoast
obringforththedesiredinformation.Suchresearchisthuscharacterisedbythe
experimenterscontroloverthevariablesunderstudyandhisdeliberatemanipulationofoneoft
hemtostudyitseffects.Empiricalresearchisappropriatewhenproofissoughtthatcertainvariabl
esaffectothervariablesinsomeway.Evidencegatheredthroughexperimentsorempiricalstudies
istodayconsideredtobethemostpowerfulsupportpossiblefora givenhypothesis.
(v) SomeOtherTypesofResearch:
Allothertypesofresearcharevariationsofoneormoreoftheabovestatedapproaches,basedonei
therthepurposeofresearch,orthetimerequiredtoaccomplishresearch,ontheenvironmentinw
hichresearchisdone,oronthe
basisofsomeothersimilarfactor.Formthepointofviewoftime,wecanthinkofresearcheitheras
onetimeresearchorlongitudinalresearch.Intheformercasetheresearchisconfinedtoasingletimeperiod,whereasinthelattercasetheresearchiscarriedonover
severaltimeperiods.Researchcanbefieldsettingresearchorlaboratoryresearchorsimulationresearch,dependingupontheenvironmen
tinwhichitistobecarriedout.Researchcanaswellbeunderstoodasclinicalordiagnosticresear
ch.Suchresearchfollowcasestudymethodsorindepthapproachestoreachthebasiccausalrelations.Such
studiesusuallygodeepintothecausesofthingsoreventsthatinterestus,usingverysmall
samplesandverydeepprobingdatagatheringdevices.Theresearchmaybeexploratory
oritmaybeformalized.Theobjectiveofexploratoryresearchisthedevelopmentof
hypothesesratherthantheirtesting,whereasformalizedresearchstudiesarethosewith
substantialstructureandwithspecifichypothesestobetested.Historicalresearchisthatwhich
utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
thepast,includingthephilosophyofpersonsandgroupsatanyremotepointoftime.Researchcanals
obeclassifiedasconclusion-orientedanddecision-oriented.Whiledoingconclusionorientedresearch,aresearcherisfreetopickupaproblem,redesigntheenquiryashe
proceedsandispreparedtoconceptualizeashewishes.Decision-orientedresearchis
alwaysfortheneedofadecisionmakerandtheresearcherinthiscaseisnotfreeto
embarkuponresearchaccordingtohisowninclination.Operationsresearchisanexample
ofdecisionorientedresearchsinceitisascientificmethodofprovidingexecutivedepartmentswith
aquantitativebasisfordecisionsregardingoperationsundertheircontrol.

ResearchApproaches
Theabovedescriptionofthetypesofresearchbringstolightthefactthattherearetwobasic
approachestoresearch,viz.,quantitativeapproachandthequalitativeapproach.Theformerinvolvesthe
generationofdatainquantitativeformwhichcanbesubjectedtorigorousquantitative
analysisinaformalandrigidfashion.Thisapproachcanbefurthersubclassifiedintoinferential,experimentalandsimulationapproachestoresearch.Thepurposeofinferenti
alapproachtoresearchistoformadatabasefromwhichtoinfercharacteristicsorrelationshipsofpopulatio
n.Thisusuallymeanssurveyresearchwhereasampleofpopulationisstudied(questionedorobserved)to
determineitscharacteristics,anditistheninferredthatthepopulationhasthesamecharacteristics.
Experimentalapproachischaracterisedbymuchgreatercontrolovertheresearchenvironmentandinthis
casesomevariablesaremanipulatedtoobservetheireffectonothervariables.Simulationapproachinvolve
s
the
construction
of
an
artificial
environment
within
which
relevant
informationanddatacanbegenerated.Thispermitsanobservationofthedynamicbehaviourofasystem(o
rits sub-system)undercontrolledconditions.Thetermsimulationinthecontextofbusinessandsocial
sciencesapplicationsreferstotheoperationofanumericalmodelthatrepresentsthestructureofa
dynamicprocess.Giventhevaluesofinitialconditions,parametersandexogenousvariables,a
simulationisruntorepresentthebehaviouroftheprocessovertime.5Simulationapproachcanalsobeusefu
linbuildingmodelsforunderstandingfutureconditions.
Qualitativeapproachtoresearchisconcernedwithsubjectiveassessmentofattitudes,opinionsandb
ehaviour.Researchinsuchasituationisafunctionofresearchersinsightsandimpressions.Suchanapproa
chtoresearchgeneratesresultseitherinnon-quantitativeformorintheformwhich
arenotsubjectedtorigorousquantitativeanalysis.Generally,thetechniquesoffocusgroupinterviews,proje
ctivetechniquesanddepthinterviewsareused.Alltheseareexplainedatlengthinchapters thatfollow.

SignificanceofResearch
Allprogressisbornofinquiry.Doubtisoftenbetterthanoverconfidence,foritleadstoinquiry,andinquiryle
adstoinventionisafamousHudsonMaximincontextofwhichthesignificanceofresearchcanwellbeunde
rstood.Increasedamountsofresearchmakeprogresspossible.Researchinculcatesscientificandinducti
vethinkinganditpromotesthedevelopmentoflogicalhabitsofthinkingandorganisation.
Theroleofresearchinseveralfieldsofappliedeconomics,whetherrelatedtobusinessortotheeconom
yasawhole,hasgreatlyincreasedinmoderntimes.Theincreasinglycomplexnatureofbusinessandgover
nmenthasfocusedattentionontheuseofresearchinsolvingoperationalproblems.Research,asanaidtoeco
nomicpolicy,hasgainedaddedimportance,bothforgovernmentandbusiness.
Researchprovidesthebasisfornearlyallgovernmentpoliciesinoureconomicsystem.Forinstance,
governmentsbudgetsrestinpartonananalysisoftheneedsanddesiresofthepeopleandontheavailability
ofrevenuestomeettheseneeds.Thecostofneedshastobeequatedto
probablerevenuesandthisisafieldwhereresearchismostneeded.Throughresearchwecan
devisealternativepoliciesandcanaswellexaminetheconsequencesofeachofthesealternatives.
RobertC.Meir, William T.NewellandHarold L.Dazier, SimulationinBusinessandEconomics,p.1.

Decision-makingmaynotbeapartofresearch,butresearchcertainlyfacilitatesthedecisionsofthe
policymaker.Governmenthasalsotochalkoutprogrammesfordealingwithallfacetsofthecountrysexisten
ceandmostofthesewillberelateddirectlyorindirectlytoeconomicconditions.Theplightofcultivators,the
problemsofbigandsmallbusinessandindustry,workingconditions,tradeunionactivities,theproblemso
fdistribution,eventhesizeandnatureofdefenceservicesarematters requiring research. Thus, research
is
considered
necessary
with
regard
to
the
allocation
of
nationsresources.Anotherareaingovernment,whereresearchisnecessary,iscollectinginformationont
heeconomicandsocialstructureofthenation.Suchinformationindicateswhatishappeninginthe
economyandwhatchangesaretakingplace.Collectingsuchstatisticalinformationisbynomeansaroutinet
ask,butitinvolvesavarietyofresearchproblems.Thesedaynearlyallgovernmentsmaintainlargestaffofres
earchtechniciansorexpertstocarryonthiswork.Thus,inthecontextofgovernment,researchasatooltoeco
nomicpolicyhasthreedistinctphasesofoperation,viz.,(i)investigationof
economicstructurethroughcontinualcompilationoffacts;(ii)diagnosisofeventsthataretaking
placeandtheanalysisoftheforcesunderlyingthem;and(iii)theprognosis,i.e.,thepredictionof
futuredevelopments.
Researchhasitsspecialsignificanceinsolvingvariousoperationalandplanningproblemsofbusines
sandindustry.Operationsresearchandmarketresearch,alongwithmotivationalresearch,areconsideredc
rucialandtheirresultsassist,inmorethanoneway,intakingbusinessdecisions.Marketresearchistheinves
tigationofthestructureanddevelopmentofamarketforthepurposeof
formulatingefficientpoliciesforpurchasing,productionandsales.Operationsresearchreferstothe
applicationofmathematical,logicalandanalyticaltechniquestothesolutionofbusinessproblemsofcostm
inimisationorofprofitmaximisationorwhatcanbetermedasoptimisationproblems.Motivationalresearchof
determiningwhypeoplebehaveastheydoismainlyconcernedwithmarketcharacteristics.Inotherwords,iti
sconcernedwiththedeterminationofmotivationsunderlyingtheconsumer(market)behaviour.Allthesear
eofgreathelptopeopleinbusinessandindustrywhoareresponsiblefor
takingbusinessdecisions.Researchwithregardtodemandandmarketfactorshasgreatutilityin
business.Givenknowledgeoffuturedemand,itisgenerallynotdifficultforafirm,orforanindustrytoadjust
itssupplyschedulewithinthelimitsofitsprojectedcapacity.Marketanalysishasbecomeanintegraltoolof
businesspolicythesedays.Businessbudgeting,whichultimatelyresultsina
projectedprofitandlossaccount,isbasedmainlyonsalesestimateswhichinturndependson
businessresearch.Oncesalesforecastingisdone,efficientproductionandinvestmentprogrammes
canbesetuparoundwhicharegroupedthepurchasingandfinancingplans.Research,thus,replaces
intuitivebusinessdecisionsbymorelogicalandscientificdecisions.
Researchisequallyimportantforsocialscientistsinstudyingsocialrelationshipsandinseekingansw
erstovarioussocialproblems.Itprovidestheintellectualsatisfactionofknowingafewthingsjustforthesa
keofknowledgeandalsohaspracticalutilityforthesocialscientisttoknowforthesakeofbeingabletodoso
methingbetterorinamoreefficientmanner.Researchinsocialsciencesisconcernedbothwithknowledgef
oritsownsakeandwithknowledgeforwhatitcan
contributetopracticalconcerns.Thisdoubleemphasisisperhapsespeciallyappropriateinthecase
ofsocialscience.Ontheonehand,itsresponsibilityasascienceistodevelopabodyofprinciples that make
possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human interactions. On
theotherhand,becauseofitssocialorientation,itisincreasinglybeinglookedtoforpracticalguidanceinsolvi
ngimmediateproblemsofhumanrelations.6
Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch and Stuart W.Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations,p.4.

Inadditiontowhathasbeenstatedabove,thesignificanceofresearchcanalsobeunderstood
keepinginviewthefollowingpoints:
(a) TothosestudentswhoaretowriteamastersorPh.D.thesis,researchmaymeanacareerismoraw
aytoattainahighpositioninthesocialstructure;
(b) Toprofessionalsinresearchmethodology,researchmaymeanasourceoflivelihood;
(c) Tophilosophersandthinkers,researchmaymeantheoutletfornewideasandinsights;
(d) Toliterarymenandwomen,researchmaymeanthedevelopmentofnewstylesandcreativework;
(e) Toanalystsandintellectuals,researchmaymeanthegeneralisationsofnewtheories.
Thus,researchisthefountainofknowledgeforthesakeofknowledgeandanimportantsource
ofprovidingguidelinesforsolvingdifferentbusiness,governmentalandsocialproblems.Itisasortofformal
trainingwhichenablesonetounderstandthenewdevelopmentsinonesfieldinabetterway.

ResearchMethodsversusMethodology
Itseemsappropriateatthisjuncturetoexplainthedifferencebetweenresearchmethodsandresearchmetho
dology.Researchmethodsmaybeunderstoodasallthosemethods/techniquesthatareusedforconduction
ofresearch.Researchmethodsortechniques*,thus,refertothemethodstheresearchers
*Attimes,adistinctionisalsomadebetweenresearchtechniquesandresearchmethods.Researchtechniquesreferto
thebehaviourandinstrumentsweuseinperformingresearchoperationssuchasmakingobservations,recordingdata,
techniquesofprocessingdataandthelike.Researchmethodsrefertothebehaviourandinstrumentsusedinselectingand
constructingresearchtechnique.Forinstance,thedifferencebetweenmethodsandtechniquesofdatacollectioncanbetter
beunderstoodfromthedetailsgiveninthefollowingchart
Type

Methods

Techniques

1. Library (i)Analysisofhistorical
Recordingofnotes,Contentanalysis,TapeandFilmlisteningandResearch
(ii)Analysisofdocuments

records

analysis.

Statisticalcompilationsandmanipulations,referenceandabstractguide
s,contentsanalysis.
Observational behavioural scales, use of score cards, etc.

2. Field
(i)Non-participantdirect
Research
observation
(ii) Participantobservation Interactionalrecording,possibleuseoftaperecorders,photographic
techniques.
(iii)Massobservation
Recordingmassbehaviour,interviewusingindependentobserversin
publicplaces.
(iv) Mailquestionnaire
Identificationofsocialandeconomicbackgroundofrespondents.
(v) Opinionnaire
Useofattitudescales,projectivetechniques,useofsociometricscales.
(vi) Personalinterview
Interviewerusesadetailedschedulewithopenandclosedquestions.
(vii)
Focusedinterview
Interviewerfocusesattentionuponagivenexperienceanditseffects.
(viii)
Groupinterview
Smallgroupsofrespondentsareinterviewedsimultaneously.
(ix) Telephonesurvey
Usedasasurveytechniqueforinformationandfordiscerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life history
Crosssectionalcollectionofdataforintensiveanalysis,longitudinal
collectionofdataofintensivecharacter.
3. Laboratory Smallgroupstudyofrandom
Useofaudio-visualrecordingdevices,useofobservers,etc.
Research behaviour,playandroleanalysis

Fromwhathasbeenstatedabove,wecansaythatmethodsaremoregeneral.Itisthemethodsthatgeneratetechniques.
However,inpractice,thetwotermsaretakenasinterchangeableandwhenwetalkofresearchmethodswedo,by
implication,includeresearchtechniqueswithintheircompass.

useinperformingresearchoperations.Inotherwords,allthosemethodswhichareusedbytheresearcherd
uringthecourseofstudyinghisresearchproblemaretermedasresearchmethods.
Sincetheobjectofresearch,particularlytheappliedresearch,ittoarriveatasolutionforagiven
problem,theavailabledataandtheunknownaspectsoftheproblemhavetoberelatedtoeachother
tomakeasolutionpossible.Keepingthisinview,researchmethodscanbeputintothefollowing
threegroups:
1. Inthefirstgroupweincludethosemethodswhichareconcernedwiththecollectionof
data.Thesemethodswillbeusedwherethedataalreadyavailablearenotsufficientto
arriveattherequiredsolution;
2. Thesecondgroupconsistsofthosestatisticaltechniqueswhichareusedforestablishing
relationshipsbetweenthedataandtheunknowns;
3. Thethirdgroupconsistsofthosemethodswhichareusedtoevaluatetheaccuracyofthe
resultsobtained.
Researchmethodsfallingintheabovestatedlasttwogroupsaregenerallytakenastheanalytical
toolsofresearch.
Researchmethodologyisawaytosystematicallysolvetheresearchproblem.Itmaybeunderstoodasa
scienceofstudyinghowresearchisdonescientifically.Initwestudythevariousstepsthataregenerallyado
ptedbyaresearcherinstudyinghisresearchproblemalongwiththelogicbehindthem.Itisnecessaryforther
esearchertoknownotonlytheresearchmethods/techniques
butalsothemethodology.Researchersnotonlyneedtoknowhowtodevelopcertainindicesortests,howtoc
alculatethemean,themode,themedianorthestandarddeviationorchi-square,howto
applyparticularresearchtechniques,buttheyalsoneedtoknowwhichofthesemethodsortechniques,arerele
vantandwhicharenot,andwhatwouldtheymeanandindicateandwhy.Researchersalsoneedtounderstan
dtheassumptionsunderlyingvarioustechniquesandtheyneedtoknowthecriteriabywhichtheycandecidet
hatcertaintechniquesandprocedureswillbeapplicabletocertainproblemsandotherswillnot.Allthismean
sthatitisnecessaryfortheresearchertodesignhismethodology
forhisproblemasthesamemaydifferfromproblemtoproblem.Forexample,anarchitect,who
designsabuilding,hastoconsciouslyevaluatethebasisofhisdecisions,i.e.,hehastoevaluatewhy
andonwhatbasisheselectsparticularsize,numberandlocationofdoors,windowsandventilators,
usesparticularmaterialsandnotothersandthelike.Similarly,inresearchthescientisthastoexposetherese
archdecisionstoevaluationbeforetheyareimplemented.Hehastospecifyveryclearlyand
preciselywhatdecisionsheselectsandwhyheselectsthemsothattheycanbeevaluatedbyothersalso.
Fromwhathasbeenstatedabove,wecansaythatresearchmethodologyhasmanydimensions
andresearchmethodsdoconstituteapartoftheresearchmethodology.Thescopeofresearchmethodology
iswiderthanthatofresearchmethods.Thus,whenwetalkofresearchmethodologywenotonlytalkoftheres
earchmethodsbutalsoconsiderthelogicbehindthemethodsweuseinthecontextofourresearchstudyan
dexplainwhyweareusingaparticularmethodortechniqueandwhywearenotusingotherssothatresea
rchresultsarecapableofbeingevaluatedeitherbytheresearcherhimselforbyothers.Whyaresearchstud
yhasbeenundertaken,howtheresearchproblemhasbeendefined,inwhatwayandwhythehypothesishasbe
enformulated,whatdatahavebeencollectedandwhatparticularmethodhasbeenadopted,whyparticularte
chniqueofanalysingdatahasbeenusedandahostofsimilarotherquestionsareusuallyansweredwhenwe
talkofresearchmethodologyconcerningaresearchproblemorstudy.

Research and ScientificMethod

Foraclearperceptionofthetermresearch,oneshouldknowthemeaningofscientificmethod.The
twoterms,researchandscientificmethod,arecloselyrelated.Research,aswehavealreadystated,
canbetermedasaninquiryintothenatureof,thereasonsfor,andtheconsequencesofanyparticularsetofcir
cumstances,whetherthesecircumstancesareexperimentallycontrolledorrecordedjustastheyoccur.Furth
er,researchimpliestheresearcherisinterestedinmorethanparticularresults;heisinterestedintherepeata
bilityoftheresultsandintheirextensiontomorecomplicated
andgeneralsituations.7Ontheotherhand,thephilosophycommontoallresearchmethodsandtechniques
,althoughtheymayvaryconsiderablyfromonesciencetoanother,isusuallygiventhenameofscientificme
thod.Inthiscontext,KarlPearsonwrites,Thescientificmethodisoneand
sameinthebranches(ofscience)andthatmethodisthemethodofalllogicallytrainedmindsthe
unityofallsciencesconsistsaloneinitsmethods,notitsmaterial;themanwhoclassifiesfactsofanykindwha
tever,whoseestheirmutualrelationanddescribestheirsequences,isapplyingtheScientificMethodandisa
manofscience.8Scientificmethodisthepursuitoftruthasdeterminedbylogicalconsiderations.Theideal
ofscienceistoachieveasystematicinterrelationoffacts.Scientificmethodattemptstoachievethisidealby
experimentation,observation,logicalargumentsfromaccepted
postulatesandacombinationofthesethreeinvaryingproportions. 9Inscientificmethod,logicaidsinform
ulatingpropositionsexplicitlyandaccuratelysothattheirpossiblealternativesbecomeclear.Further,logic
developstheconsequencesofsuchalternatives,andwhenthesearecomparedwithobservablephenomena
,itbecomespossiblefortheresearcherorthescientisttostatewhichalternativeismostinharmonywiththeobs
ervedfacts.Allthisisdonethroughexperimentationandsurvey
investigationswhichconstitutetheintegralpartsofscientificmethod.
Experimentationisdonetotesthypothesesandtodiscovernewrelationships.Ifany,amongvariables.
Buttheconclusionsdrawnonthebasisofexperimentaldataaregenerallycriticizedfor
eitherfaultyassumptions,poorlydesignedexperiments,badlyexecutedexperimentsorfaultyinterpretati
ons.Assuchtheresearchermustpayallpossibleattentionwhiledevelopingtheexperimentaldesignandmust
stateonlyprobableinferences.Thepurposeofsurveyinvestigationsmayalsobeto
providescientificallygatheredinformationtoworkasabasisfortheresearchersfortheirconclusions.
Thescientificmethodis,thus,basedoncertainbasicpostulateswhichcanbestatedasunder:
1. Itreliesonempiricalevidence;
2. Itutilizesrelevantconcepts;
3. Itiscommittedtoonlyobjectiveconsiderations;
4. Itpresupposesethicalneutrality,i.e.,itaimsatnothingbutmakingonlyadequateandcorrectstate
mentsaboutpopulationobjects;
5. Itresultsintoprobabilisticpredictions;
6. Itsmethodologyismadeknowntoallconcernedforcriticalscrutinyareforuseintesting
theconclusionsthroughreplication;
7. Itaimsatformulatingmostgeneralaxiomsorwhatcanbetermedasscientifictheories.
BernardOstleandRichardW.Mensing,StatisticsinResearch,p.2
KarlPearson,TheGrammarofScience,PartI,pp.1012.
9
OstleandMensing:op.cit.,p.2.
7
8

Thus,thescientificmethodencouragesarigorous,impersonalmodeofproceduredictatedby
thedemandsoflogicandobjectiveprocedure.10Accordingly,scientificmethodimpliesanobjective,logica
landsystematicmethod,i.e.,amethodfreefrompersonalbiasorprejudice,amethodto
ascertaindemonstrablequalitiesofaphenomenoncapableofbeingverified,amethodwhereinthe
researcherisguidedbytherulesoflogicalreasoning,amethodwhereintheinvestigationproceedsinanorde
rlymannerandamethodthatimpliesinternalconsistency.

ImportanceofKnowingHowResearchisDone
Thestudyofresearchmethodologygivesthestudentthenecessarytrainingingatheringmaterialandarrang
ingorcard-indexingthem,participationinthefieldworkwhenrequired,andalsotrainingin
techniquesforthecollectionofdataappropriatetoparticularproblems,intheuseofstatistics,
questionnairesandcontrolledexperimentationandinrecordingevidence,sortingitoutandinterpretingit.Inf
act,importanceofknowingthemethodologyofresearchorhowresearchisdonestemsfrom
thefollowingconsiderations:
(i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowingresearchmethodologyandresearchtechniquesisobvioussincethesameconstitutethet
oolsofhistrade.Theknowledgeofmethodologyprovidesgoodtrainingspeciallytothenewresear
chworkerandenableshimtodobetterresearch.Ithelpshimtodevelopdisciplinedthinkingoraben
tofmindtoobservethefieldobjectively.Hence,thoseaspiringforcareerisminresearchmustdev
eloptheskillofusingresearchtechniquesandmustthoroughlyunderstandthelogicbehindthem.
(ii) Knowledgeofhowtodoresearchwillinculcatetheabilitytoevaluateanduseresearch
resultswithreasonableconfidence.Inotherwords,wecanstatethattheknowledgeof
researchmethodologyishelpfulinvariousfieldssuchasgovernmentorbusinessadministrati
on, community development and social work where persons are increasingly
calledupontoevaluateanduseresearchresultsforaction.
(iii)
Whenoneknowshowresearchisdone,thenonemayhavethesatisfactionofacquiringa
newintellectualtoolwhichcanbecomeawayoflookingattheworldandofjudgingevery
dayexperience.Accordingly,itenablesusetomakeintelligentdecisionsconcerningproblemsfaci
ngusinpracticallifeatdifferentpointsoftime.Thus,theknowledgeofresearch
methodologyprovidestoolstotookatthingsinlifeobjectively.
(iv)Inthisscientificage,allofusareinmanywaysconsumersofresearchresultsandwecan
usethemintelligentlyprovidedweareabletojudgetheadequacyofthemethodsbywhich
theyhavebeenobtained.Theknowledgeofmethodologyhelpstheconsumerofresearch
resultstoevaluatethemandenableshimtotakerationaldecisions.

ResearchProcess
Beforeembarkingonthedetailsofresearchmethodologyandtechniques,itseemsappropriateto
presentabriefoverviewoftheresearchprocess.Researchprocessconsistsofseriesofactionsor
stepsnecessarytoeffectivelycarryoutresearchandthedesiredsequencingofthesesteps.The
chartshowninFigure1.1wellillustratesaresearchprocess.
CarlosL.Lastrucci,TheScientificApproach:BasicPrinciplesoftheScientificMethod,p.7.

10

R
e
s
e
a
r
RESEARCH PROCESS IN FLOWCHART
c
h
FF
M
e
FF
t
h
Review the literature
o
Review conceptsand theories
d
De rese
fine arch
pro blem
Design research (including sample design)
Analyse data (Testhypothesesif any)
Formulatehypotheses
Collect data (Execution)
Inter and
pretr eporto
Reviewpreviousresearch finding
l
F
F
VII
o
V
III
VI
IV
I
g
II
y
:
A
n
F
I
n
tr
Where F = feedback (Helps in controlling the sub-system
o
to which it is transmitted)
FF = feedforward (Serves the vital function of
d
providing criteria forevaluation)
u
c
ti
o
Fig.1.1
n
1

12

ResearchMethodology

Thechartindicatesthattheresearchprocessconsistsofanumberofcloselyrelatedactivities,
asshownthroughItoVII.Butsuchactivitiesoverlapcontinuouslyratherthanfollowingastrictly
prescribedsequence.Attimes,thefirststepdeterminesthenatureofthelaststeptobeundertaken.
Ifsubsequentprocedureshavenotbeentakenintoaccountintheearlystages,seriousdifficulties
mayarisewhichmayevenpreventthecompletionofthestudy.Oneshouldrememberthatthevariousstepsi
nvolvedinaresearchprocessarenotmutuallyexclusive;northeyareseparateand
distinct.Theydonotnecessarilyfolloweachotherinanyspecificorderandtheresearcherhastobe
constantlyanticipatingateachstepintheresearchprocesstherequirementsofthesubsequent
steps.However,thefollowingorderconcerningvariousstepsprovidesausefulproceduralguidelineregard
ingtheresearchprocess:(1)formulatingtheresearchproblem;(2)extensiveliteraturesurvey;
(3)developingthehypothesis;(4)preparingtheresearchdesign;(5)determiningsampledesign;
(6)collectingthedata;(7)executionoftheproject;(8)analysisofdata;(9)hypothesistesting;
(10)generalisationsandinterpretation,and(11)preparationofthereportorpresentationoftheresults,i.e.,fo
rmalwrite-upofconclusionsreached.
Abriefdescriptionoftheabovestatedstepswillbehelpful.
1. Formulatingtheresearchproblem:Therearetwotypesofresearchproblems,viz.,those
whichrelatetostatesofnatureandthosewhichrelatetorelationshipsbetweenvariables.Atthe
veryoutsettheresearchermustsingleouttheproblemhewantstostudy,i.e.,hemustdecidethegeneral area
of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the
problemmaybestatedinabroadgeneralwayandthentheambiguities,ifany,relatingtotheproblemberesolv
ed.Then,thefeasibilityofaparticularsolutionhastobeconsideredbeforeaworking
formulationoftheproblemcanbesetup.Theformulationofageneraltopicintoaspecificresearch
problem,thus,constitutesthefirststepinascientificenquiry.Essentiallytwostepsareinvolvedinformulat
ingtheresearchproblem,viz.,understandingtheproblemthoroughly,andrephrasingthesameintomeani
ngfultermsfromananalyticalpointofview.
Thebestwayofunderstandingtheproblemistodiscussitwithonesowncolleaguesorwith
thosehavingsomeexpertiseinthematter.Inanacademicinstitutiontheresearchercanseekthehelpfromag
uidewhoisusuallyanexperiencedmanandhasseveralresearchproblemsinmind.
Often,theguideputsforththeproblemingeneraltermsanditisuptotheresearchertonarrowit
downandphrasetheprobleminoperationalterms.Inprivatebusinessunitsoringovernmental
organisations,theproblemisusuallyearmarkedbytheadministrativeagencieswithwhomthe
researchercandiscussastohowtheproblemoriginallycameaboutandwhatconsiderationsare
involvedinitspossiblesolutions.
Theresearchermustatthesametimeexamineallavailableliteraturetogethimselfacquainted
withtheselectedproblem.Hemayreviewtwotypesofliterature
theconceptualliteratureconcerningtheconceptsandtheories,andtheempiricalliteratureconsistingofstu
diesmadeearlierwhichare
similartotheoneproposed.Thebasicoutcomeofthisreviewwillbetheknowledgeastowhatdata
andothermaterialsareavailableforoperationalpurposeswhichwillenabletheresearchertospecifyhis
own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the problem
intoanalyticaloroperationaltermsi.e.,toputtheprobleminasspecifictermsaspossible.Thistask
offormulating,ordefining,aresearchproblemisastepofgreatestimportanceintheentireresearch
process.Theproblemtobeinvestigatedmustbedefinedunambiguouslyforthatwillhelpdiscriminatingrelev
antdatafromirrelevantones.Caremust,however,betakentoverifytheobjectivityandvalidityofthebackgr
oundfactsconcerningtheproblem.ProfessorW.A.Neiswangercorrectlystatesthat

thestatementoftheobjectiveisofbasicimportancebecauseitdeterminesthedatawhicharetobe
collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the
choiceoftechniquestobeusedintheseexplorationsandtheformofthefinalreport.Ifthereare
certainpertinentterms,thesameshouldbeclearlydefinedalongwiththetaskofformulatingthe
problem.Infact,formulationoftheproblemoftenfollowsasequentialpatternwhereanumberof
formulationsaresetup,eachformulationmorespecificthanthepreceedingone,eachonephrasedinmore
analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2. Extensiveliteraturesurvey:Oncetheproblemisformulated,abriefsummaryofitshouldbe
writtendown.ItiscompulsoryforaresearchworkerwritingathesisforaPh.D.degreetowritea
synopsisofthetopicandsubmitittothenecessaryCommitteeortheResearchBoardforapproval.
Atthisjuncturetheresearchershouldundertakeextensiveliteraturesurveyconnectedwiththe
problem.Forthispurpose,theabstractingandindexingjournalsandpublishedorunpublished
bibliographiesarethefirstplacetogoto.Academicjournals,conferenceproceedings,government
reports,booksetc.,mustbetappeddependingonthenatureoftheproblem.Inthisprocess,itshould
berememberedthatonesourcewillleadtoanother.Theearlierstudies,ifany,whicharesimilartothestudyi
nhandshouldbecarefullystudied.Agoodlibrarywillbeagreathelptotheresearcherat thisstage.
3. Developmentofworkinghypotheses:Afterextensiveliteraturesurvey,researchershouldstateincleart
ermstheworkinghypothesisorhypotheses.Workinghypothesisistentativeassumptionmadeinordertodra
woutandtestitslogicalorempiricalconsequences.Assuchthemannerin
whichresearchhypothesesaredevelopedisparticularlyimportantsincetheyprovidethefocalpoint
forresearch.Theyalsoaffectthemannerinwhichtestsmustbeconductedintheanalysisofdata
andindirectlythequalityofdatawhichisrequiredfortheanalysis.Inmosttypesofresearch,the
developmentofworkinghypothesisplaysanimportantrole.Hypothesisshouldbeveryspecificand
limitedtothepieceofresearchinhandbecauseithastobetested.Theroleofthehypothesisisto
guidetheresearcherbydelimitingtheareaofresearchandtokeephimontherighttrack.Itsharpens
histhinkingandfocusesattentiononthemoreimportantfacetsoftheproblem.Italsoindicatesthe
typeofdatarequiredandthetypeofmethodsofdataanalysistobeused.
Howdoesonegoaboutdevelopingworkinghypotheses?Theanswerisbyusingthefollowing
approach:
(a) Discussionswithcolleaguesandexpertsabouttheproblem,itsoriginandtheobjectivesin
seekingasolution;
(b) Examinationofdataandrecords,ifavailable,concerningtheproblemforpossibletrends,
peculiaritiesandotherclues;
(c) Reviewofsimilarstudiesintheareaorofthestudiesonsimilarproblems;and
(d) Exploratorypersonalinvestigationwhichinvolvesoriginalfieldinterviewsonalimitedscalewith
interestedpartiesandindividualswithaviewtosecuregreaterinsightintothepracticalaspectsoft
heproblem.
Thus,workinghypothesesariseasaresultofa-priorithinkingaboutthesubject,examinationofthe
availabledataandmaterialincludingrelatedstudiesandthecounselofexpertsandinterestedparties.Worki
nghypothesesaremoreusefulwhenstatedinpreciseandclearlydefinedterms.Itmayaswellberemembere
dthatoccasionallywemayencounteraproblemwherewedonotneedworking

hypotheses,speciallyinthecaseofexploratoryorformulativeresearcheswhichdonotaimattestingthehyp
othesis.Butasageneralrule,specificationofworkinghypothesesinanotherbasicstepoftheresearchproce
ssinmostresearchproblems.
4. Preparingtheresearchdesign:Theresearchproblemhavingbeenformulatedinclearcut
terms,theresearcherwillberequiredtopreparearesearchdesign,i.e.,hewillhavetostatethe
conceptualstructurewithinwhichresearchwouldbeconducted.Thepreparationofsuchadesign
facilitatesresearchtobeasefficientaspossibleyieldingmaximalinformation.Inotherwords,the
functionofresearchdesignistoprovideforthecollectionofrelevantevidencewithminimalexpenditureofeff
ort,timeandmoney.Buthowallthesecanbeachieveddependsmainlyontheresearchpurpose.Researchpu
rposesmaybegroupedintofourcategories,viz.,(i)Exploration,(ii)Description,
(iii) Diagnosis,and(iv)Experimentation.Aflexibleresearchdesignwhichprovidesopportunityfor
consideringmanydifferentaspectsofaproblemisconsideredappropriateifthepurposeofthe
researchstudyisthatofexploration.Butwhenthepurposehappenstobeanaccuratedescriptionof
asituationorofanassociationbetweenvariables,thesuitabledesignwillbeonethatminimisesbias
andmaximisesthereliabilityofthedatacollectedandanalysed.
Thereareseveralresearchdesigns,suchas,experimentalandnon-experimentalhypothesis
testing.Experimentaldesignscanbeeitherinformaldesigns(suchasbefore-and-afterwithoutcontrol,afteronlywithcontrol,before-andafterwithcontrol)orformaldesigns(suchascompletelyrandomizeddesign,randomizedblockdesign,Latin
squaredesign,simpleandcomplexfactorialdesigns),outof
whichtheresearchermustselectoneforhisownproject.
Thepreparationoftheresearchdesign,appropriateforaparticularresearchproblem,involves
usuallytheconsiderationofthefollowing:
(i) themeansofobtainingtheinformation;
(ii) theavailabilityandskillsoftheresearcherandhisstaff(ifany);
(iii)

explanationofthewayinwhichselectedmeansofobtaininginformationwillbeorganiseda
ndthereasoningleadingtotheselection;
(iv) thetimeavailableforresearch;and
(v) thecostfactorrelatingtoresearch,i.e.,thefinanceavailableforthepurpose.
5. Determiningsampledesign:Alltheitemsunderconsiderationinanyfieldofinquiryconstitute
auniverseorpopulation.Acompleteenumerationofalltheitemsinthepopulationisknownas
acensusinquiry.Itcanbepresumedthatinsuchaninquirywhenalltheitemsarecoverednoelementofchanc
eisleftandhighestaccuracyisobtained.Butinpracticethismaynotbetrue.Even
theslightestelementofbiasinsuchaninquirywillgetlargerandlargerasthenumberofobservationsincrease
s.Moreover,thereisnowayofcheckingtheelementofbiasoritsextentexceptthrougharesurveyoruseofsa
mplechecks.Besides,thistypeofinquiryinvolvesagreatdealoftime,money
andenergy.Notonlythis,censusinquiryisnotpossibleinpracticeundermanycircumstances.Forinstance,
bloodtestingisdoneonlyonsamplebasis.Hence,quiteoftenweselectonlyafewitems
fromtheuniverseforourstudypurposes.Theitemssoselectedconstitutewhatistechnicallycalled
asample.
Theresearchermustdecidethewayofselectingasampleorwhatispopularlyknownasthe
sampledesign.Inotherwords,asampledesignisadefiniteplandeterminedbeforeanydataare
actuallycollectedforobtainingasamplefromagivenpopulation.Thus,theplantoselect12ofa

ResearchMethodology:AnIntroduction

15

citys200drugstoresinacertainwayconstitutesasampledesign.Samplescanbeeitherprobabilitysample
sornonprobabilitysamples.Withprobabilitysampleseachelementhasaknownprobabilityofbeingincludedinthe
samplebutthenonprobabilitysamplesdonotallowtheresearchertodeterminethisprobability.Probabilitysamplesarethosebas
edonsimplerandomsampling,systematicsampling,stratifiedsampling,cluster/areasamplingwhereasno
nprobabilitysamplesarethosebasedonconveniencesampling,judgementsamplingandquotasamplingte
chniques.Abriefmentionofthe importantsampledesignsisasfollows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling.Thissamplingmethodinvolvespurposiveordeliberateselectionofparticular
unitsoftheuniverseforconstitutingasamplewhichrepresentstheuniverse.Whenpopulationelem
entsareselectedforinclusioninthesamplebasedontheeaseofaccess,itcanbe
calledconveniencesampling.Ifaresearcherwishestosecuredatafrom,say,gasolinebuyers,he
mayselectafixednumberofpetrolstationsandmayconductinterviewsat
thesestations.Thiswouldbeanexampleofconveniencesampleofgasolinebuyers.At
timessuchaproceduremaygiveverybiasedresultsparticularlywhenthepopulationisnothomog
eneous.Ontheotherhand,injudgementsamplingtheresearchersjudgementisusedforselectin
gitemswhichheconsidersasrepresentativeofthepopulation.Forexample,ajudgementsampleof
collegestudentsmightbetakentosecurereactionstoanewmethodofteaching.Judgementsampl
ingisusedquitefrequentlyinqualitativeresearchwherethe
desirehappenstobetodevelophypothesesratherthantogeneralisetolargerpopulations.
(ii) Simplerandomsampling:Thistypeofsamplingisalsoknownaschancesamplingor
probabilitysamplingwhereeachandeveryiteminthepopulationhasanequalchanceof
inclusioninthesampleandeachoneofthepossiblesamples,incaseoffiniteuniverse,has
thesameprobabilityofbeingselected.Forexample,ifwehavetoselectasampleof300
itemsfromauniverseof15,000items,thenwecanputthenamesornumbersofallthe
15,000itemsonslipsofpaperandconductalottery.Usingtherandomnumbertablesisanotherm
ethodofrandomsampling.Toselectthesample,eachitemisassignedanumberfrom1to15,000.
Then,300fivedigitrandomnumbersareselectedfromthetable.Todothisweselectsomerandom
startingpointandthenasystematicpatternisusedinproceedingthroughthetable.Wemightstarti
nthe4throw,secondcolumnandproceeddownthecolumntothebottomofthetableandthenmov
etothetopofthenextcolumntotheright.
Whenanumberexceedsthelimitofthenumbersintheframe,inourcaseover15,000,itis
simplypassedoverandthenextnumberselectedthatdoesfallwithintherelevantrange.
Sincethenumberswereplacedinthetableinacompletelyrandomfashion,theresulting
sampleisrandom.Thisproceduregiveseachitemanequalprobabilityofbeingselected.Incaseof
infinitepopulation,theselectionofeachiteminarandomsampleiscontrolledby
thesameprobabilityandthatsuccessiveselectionsareindependentofone another.
(iii)Systematicsampling:Insomeinstancesthemostpracticalwayofsamplingistoselect
every15thnameonalist,every10thhouseononesideofastreetandsoon.Samplingof
thistypeisknownassystematicsampling.Anelementofrandomnessisusuallyintroducedintoth
iskindofsamplingbyusingrandomnumberstopickuptheunitwithwhichtostart.
This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a
designtheselectionprocessstartsbypickingsomerandompointinthelistandthenevery
nthelementisselecteduntilthedesirednumberissecured.

(iv)Stratifiedsampling:Ifthepopulationfromwhichasampleistobedrawndoesnotconstituteahom
ogeneousgroup,thenstratifiedsamplingtechniqueisappliedsoastoobtaina
representativesample.Inthistechnique,thepopulationisstratifiedintoanumberofnonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If
theitemsselectedfromeachstratumisbasedonsimplerandomsamplingtheentireprocedure,firstst
ratificationandthensimplerandomsampling,isknownasstratifiedrandomsampling.
(v) Quotasampling:Instratifiedsamplingthecostoftakingrandomsamplesfromindividual
strataisoftensoexpensivethatinterviewersaresimplygivenquotatobefilledfrom
differentstrata,theactualselectionofitemsforsamplebeinglefttotheinterviewersjudgement.
Thisiscalledquotasampling.Thesizeofthequotaforeachstratumisgenerallyproportionatetothe
sizeofthatstratuminthepopulation.Quotasamplingisthusanimportantformofnonprobabilitysampling.Quotasamplesgenerallyhappentobejudgementsamplesratherthanrando
msamples.
(vi)Clustersamplingandareasampling:Clustersamplinginvolvesgroupingthepopulationandth
enselectingthegroupsortheclustersratherthanindividualelementsforinclusioninthesample.S
upposesomedepartmentalstorewishestosampleitscreditcardholders.It
hasissueditscardsto15,000customers.Thesamplesizeistobekeptsay450.Forcluster
samplingthislistof15,000cardholderscouldbeformedinto100clustersof150card
holderseach.Threeclustersmightthenbeselectedforthesample
randomly.
Thesamplesizemustoftenbelargerthanthesimplerandomsampletoensurethesamelevelof
accuracybecauseisclustersamplingproceduralpotentialfororderbiasandothersources
oferrorisusuallyaccentuated.Theclusteringapproachcan,however,makethesamplingproced
urerelativelyeasierandincreasetheefficiencyoffieldwork,speciallyinthecase
ofpersonalinterviews.
Areasamplingisquiteclosetoclustersamplingandisoftentalkedaboutwhenthetotalgeographi
calareaofinteresthappenstobebigone.Underareasamplingwefirstdivide
thetotalareaintoanumberofsmallernonoverlappingareas,generallycalledgeographicalclusters,thenanumberofthesesmallerareasar
erandomlyselected,andallunitsinthese
smallareasareincludedinthesample.Areasamplingisspeciallyhelpfulwherewedonot
havethelistofthepopulationconcerned.Italsomakesthefieldinterviewingmoreefficientsincein
terviewercandomanyinterviewsateachlocation.
(vii)
Multi-stagesampling:Thisisafurtherdevelopmentoftheideaofclustersampling.This
techniqueismeantforbiginquiriesextendingtoaconsiderablylargegeographicalarealikeanenti
recountry.Undermultistagesamplingthefirststagemaybetoselectlargeprimarysamplingunitssuchasstates,thendist
ricts,thentownsandfinallycertainfamilieswithin
towns.Ifthetechniqueofrandomsamplingisappliedatallstages,thesamplingprocedureisdescribedasmultistagerandomsampling.
(viii) Sequentialsampling:Thisissomewhatacomplexsampledesignwheretheultimatesize
ofthesampleisnotfixedinadvancebutisdeterminedaccordingtomathematicaldecisionsonthe
basisofinformationyieldedassurveyprogresses.Thisdesignisusuallyadopted
underacceptancesamplingplaninthecontextofstatisticalqualitycontrol.
Inpractice,severalofthemethodsofsamplingdescribedabovemaywellbeusedinthesame
studyinwhichcaseitcanbecalledmixedsampling.Itmaybepointedoutherethatnormallyone

shouldresorttorandomsamplingsothatbiascanbeeliminatedandsamplingerrorcanbeestimated.Butpur
posivesamplingisconsidereddesirablewhentheuniversehappenstobesmallandaknown
characteristicofitistobestudiedintensively.Also,thereareconditionsunderwhichsampledesignsotherth
anrandomsamplingmaybeconsideredbetterforreasonslikeconvenienceandlowcosts.
Thesampledesigntobeusedmustbedecidedbytheresearchertakingintoconsiderationthe
natureoftheinquiryandotherrelatedfactors.
6. Collectingthedata:In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
areinadequate,andhence,itbecomesnecessarytocollectdatathatareappropriate.Thereareseveral
waysofcollectingtheappropriatedatawhichdifferconsiderablyincontextofmoneycosts,timeandotherre
sourcesatthedisposaloftheresearcher.
Primarydatacanbecollectedeitherthroughexperimentorthroughsurvey.Iftheresearcherconductsa
nexperiment,heobservessomequantitativemeasurements,orthedata,withthehelpof
whichheexaminesthetruthcontainedinhishypothesis.Butinthecaseofasurvey,datacanbecollectedbya
nyoneormoreofthefollowingways:
(i) Byobservation:Thismethodimpliesthecollectionofinformationbywayofinvestigatorsowno
bservation,withoutinterviewingtherespondents.Theinformationobtainedrelatestowhatiscurr
entlyhappeningandisnotcomplicatedbyeitherthepastbehaviourorfuture intentions or
attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and
theinformationprovidedbythismethodisalsoverylimited.Assuchthismethodisnot
suitableininquirieswherelargesamplesareconcerned.
(ii) Throughpersonalinterview:Theinvestigatorfollowsarigidprocedureandseeksanswerstoase
tofpre-conceivedquestionsthroughpersonalinterviews.Thismethodofcollecting
dataisusuallycarriedoutinastructuredwaywhereoutputdependsupontheabilityofthe
interviewertoalargeextent.
(iii)Throughtelephoneinterviews:Thismethodofcollectinginformationinvolvescontactingther
espondentsontelephoneitself.Thisisnotaverywidelyusedmethodbutitplaysan
importantroleinindustrialsurveysindevelopedregions,particularly,whenthesurveyhastobea
ccomplishedinaverylimitedtime.
(iv)Bymailingofquestionnaires:Theresearcherandtherespondentsdocomeincontactwitheachot
herifthismethodofsurveyisadopted.Questionnairesaremailedtothe respondents with a
request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
usedmethodinvariouseconomicandbusinesssurveys.Beforeapplyingthismethod,usuallyaPilo
tStudyfortestingthequestionnaireisconducedwhichrevealstheweaknesses,if
any,ofthequestionnaire.Questionnairetobeusedmustbepreparedverycarefullysothatitmayp
rovetobeeffectiveincollectingtherelevantinformation.
(v) Throughschedules:Underthismethodtheenumeratorsareappointedandgiventraining.Theya
reprovidedwithschedulescontainingrelevantquestions.Theseenumeratorsgoto
respondentswiththeseschedules.Dataarecollectedbyfillinguptheschedulesbyenumerators
onthebasisofrepliesgivenbyrespondents.Muchdependsuponthecapabilityofenumeratorssof
arasthismethodisconcerned.Someoccasionalfieldchecksonthe
workoftheenumeratorsmayensuresincerework.

Theresearchershouldselectoneofthesemethodsofcollectingthedatatakingintoconsiderationt
henatureofinvestigation,objectiveandscopeoftheinquiry,finanicalresources,availabletimeandthedes
ireddegreeofaccuracy.Thoughheshouldpayattentiontoallthesefactorsbutmuchdependsupontheabilit
yandexperienceoftheresearcher.InthiscontextDrA.L.Bowleyveryaptlyremarksthatincollectionofstati
sticaldatacommonsenseisthechiefrequisite andexperiencethechiefteacher.
7. Executionoftheproject:Executionoftheprojectisaveryimportantstepintheresearch process. If the
execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequateanddependable.Theresearchershouldseethattheprojectisexecutedinasystematic
mannerandintime.Ifthesurveyistobeconductedbymeansofstructuredquestionnaires,datacan
bereadilymachine-processed.Insuchasituation,questionsaswellasthepossibleanswersmaybe
coded.Ifthedataaretobecollectedthroughinterviewers,arrangementsshouldbemadeforproper
selectionandtrainingoftheinterviewers.Thetrainingmaybegivenwiththehelpofinstruction
manualswhichexplainclearlythejoboftheinterviewersateachstep.Occasionalfieldchecks
shouldbemadetoensurethattheinterviewersaredoingtheirassignedjobsincerelyandefficiently.Acaref
ulwatchshouldbekeptforunanticipatedfactorsinordertokeepthesurveyasmuch
realisticaspossible.This,inotherwords,meansthatstepsshouldbetakentoensurethatthesurvey
isunderstatisticalcontrolsothatthecollectedinformationisinaccordancewiththepre-defined
standardofaccuracy.Ifsomeoftherespondentsdonotcooperate,somesuitablemethodsshouldbedesigne
dtotacklethisproblem.Onemethodofdealingwiththenon-responseproblemistomakea listofthenonrespondentsandtakeasmallsub-sampleofthem,andthenwiththehelpofexperts
vigorouseffortscanbemadeforsecuringresponse.
8. Analysisofdata:Afterthedatahavebeencollected,theresearcherturnstothetaskofanalysing
them.Theanalysisofdatarequiresanumberofcloselyrelatedoperationssuchasestablishmentof
categories,theapplicationofthesecategoriestorawdatathroughcoding,tabulationandthendrawingstatisti
calinferences.Theunwieldydatashouldnecessarilybecondensedintoafewmanageable
groupsandtablesforfurtheranalysis.Thus,researchershouldclassifytherawdataintosome
purposefulandusablecategories.
Codingoperationisusuallydoneatthisstagethroughwhichthe
categoriesofdataaretransformedintosymbolsthatmaybetabulatedandcounted.Editingisthe
procedurethatimprovesthequalityofthedataforcoding.Withcodingthestageisreadyfortabulation.Tabula
tionisapartofthetechnicalprocedurewhereintheclassifieddataareputintheformoftables.Themechanic
aldevicescanbemadeuseofatthisjuncture.Agreatdealofdata,speciallyin
largeinquiries,istabulatedbycomputers.Computersnotonlysavetimebutalsomakeitpossibleto
studylargenumberofvariablesaffectingaproblemsimultaneously.
Analysisworkaftertabulationisgenerallybasedonthecomputationofvariouspercentages,
coefficients,etc.,byapplyingvariouswelldefinedstatisticalformulae.Intheprocessofanalysis,
relationshipsordifferencessupportingorconflictingwithoriginalornewhypothesesshouldbesubjectedtotes
tsofsignificancetodeterminewithwhatvaliditydatacanbesaidtoindicateanyconclusion(s).Forinstance,
iftherearetwosamplesofweeklywages,eachsamplebeingdrawnfromfactoriesin
differentpartsofthesamecity,givingtwodifferentmeanvalues,thenourproblemmaybewhetherthetwom
eanvaluesaresignificantlydifferentorthedifferenceisjustamatterofchance.Through
theuseofstatisticaltestswecanestablishwhethersuchadifferenceisarealoneoristheresultof
randomfluctuations.Ifthedifferencehappenstobereal,theinferencewillbethatthetwosamples

comefromdifferentuniversesandifthedifferenceisduetochance,theconclusionwouldbethat
thetwosamplesbelongtothesameuniverse.Similarly,thetechniqueofanalysisofvariancecanhelpusinan
alysingwhetherthreeormorevarietiesofseedsgrownoncertainfieldsyieldsignificantlydifferentresultsor
not.Inbrief,theresearchercananalysethecollecteddatawiththehelpof variousstatisticalmeasures.
9. Hypothesistesting:Afteranalysingthedataasstatedabove,theresearcherisinapositiontotestthehypotheses,ifany,h
ehadformulatedearlier.Dothefactssupportthehypothesesortheyhappentobecontrary?
Thisistheusualquestionwhichshouldbeansweredwhiletestinghypotheses.Varioustests,suchasChisqua
retest,t-test,F-test,havebeendevelopedbystatisticiansforthe
purpose.Thehypothesesmaybetestedthroughtheuseofoneormoreofsuchtests,dependingupon
thenatureandobjectofresearchinquiry.Hypothesistestingwillresultineitheracceptingthehypothesisorinrejectingit.Iftheresearcherhadnohypothesestostar
twith,generalisationsestablishedonthe
basisofdatamaybestatedashypothesestobetestedbysubsequentresearchesintimestocome.
10. Generalisationsandinterpretation:Ifahypothesisistestedandupheldseveraltimes,itmay
bepossiblefortheresearchertoarriveatgeneralisation,i.e.,tobuildatheory.Asamatteroffact,therealvalu
eofresearchliesinitsabilitytoarriveatcertaingeneralisations.Iftheresearcherhadnohypothesistostartwit
h,hemightseektoexplainhisfindingsonthebasisofsometheory.Itisknownasinterpretation.Theprocesso
finterpretationmayquiteoftentriggeroffnewquestionswhichin turnmayleadtofurtherresearches.
11. Preparationofthereportorthethesis:Finally,theresearcherhastopreparethereportofwhathasbee
ndonebyhim.Writingofreportmustbedonewithgreatcarekeepinginviewthefollowing:
1. Thelayoutofthereportshouldbeasfollows:(i)thepreliminarypages;
(ii)themaintext,and(iii)theendmatter.
Initspreliminarypagesthereportshouldcarrytitleanddatefollowedbyacknowledgementsandfo
reword.Thenthereshouldbeatableofcontentsfollowedbyalistoftablesandlist
ofgraphsandcharts,ifany,giveninthereport.
Themaintextofthereportshouldhavethefollowingparts:
(a) Introduction:Itshouldcontainaclearstatementoftheobjectiveoftheresearchandanexpla
nationofthemethodologyadoptedinaccomplishingtheresearch.Thescope
ofthestudyalongwithvariouslimitationsshouldaswellbestatedinthispart.
(b) Summaryoffindings:Afterintroductiontherewouldappearastatementoffindings
andrecommendationsinnon-technicallanguage.Ifthefindingsareextensive,they
shouldbesummarised.
(c) Mainreport:Themainbodyofthereportshouldbepresentedinlogicalsequenceandbroken
-downintoreadilyidentifiablesections.
(d) Conclusion:Towardstheendofthemaintext,researchershouldagainputdowntheresultso
fhisresearchclearlyandprecisely.Infact,itisthefinalsummingup.
Attheendofthereport,appendicesshouldbeenlistedinrespectofalltechnicaldata.Bibliography,i.e.,listof
books,journals,reports,etc.,consulted,shouldalsobegivenintheend.Indexshouldalso
begivenspeciallyinapublishedresearchreport.

2. Reportshouldbewritteninaconciseandobjectivestyleinsimplelanguageavoidingvagueexpres
sionssuchasitseems,theremaybe,andthelike.
3. Chartsandillustrationsinthemainreportshouldbeusedonlyiftheypresenttheinformationmorec
learlyandforcibly.
4. Calculatedconfidencelimitsmustbementionedandthevariousconstraintsexperienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

CriteriaofGoodResearch
Whatevermaybethetypesofresearchworksandstudies,onethingthatisimportantisthattheyall
meetonthecommongroundofscientificmethodemployedbythem.Oneexpectsscientificresearchtosatis
fythefollowingcriteria:11
1. Thepurposeoftheresearchshouldbeclearlydefinedandcommonconceptsbeused.
2. Theresearchprocedureusedshouldbedescribedinsufficientdetailtopermitanother
researchertorepeattheresearchforfurtheradvancement,keepingthecontinuityofwhat
hasalreadybeenattained.
3. Theproceduraldesignoftheresearchshouldbecarefullyplannedtoyieldresultsthatare
asobjectiveaspossible.
4. Theresearchershouldreportwithcompletefrankness,flawsinproceduraldesignand
estimatetheireffectsuponthefindings.
5. Theanalysisofdatashouldbesufficientlyadequatetorevealitssignificanceandthe
methodsofanalysisusedshouldbeappropriate.Thevalidityandreliabilityofthedata
shouldbecheckedcarefully.
6. Conclusionsshouldbeconfinedtothosejustifiedbythedataoftheresearchandlimitedto
thoseforwhichthedataprovideanadequatebasis.
7. Greaterconfidenceinresearchiswarrantediftheresearcherisexperienced,hasagood
reputationinresearchandisapersonofintegrity.
Inotherwords,wecanstatethequalitiesofagoodresearch 12asunder:
1. Goodresearchissystematic:Itmeansthatresearchisstructuredwithspecifiedstepstobetakenin
aspecifiedsequenceinaccordancewiththewelldefinedsetofrules.Systematiccharacteristicoft
heresearchdoesnotruleoutcreativethinkingbutitcertainlydoesreject
theuseofguessingandintuitioninarrivingatconclusions.
2. Goodresearchislogical:Thisimpliesthatresearchisguidedbytherulesoflogicalreasoningand
thelogicalprocessofinductionanddeductionareofgreatvalueincarrying
outresearch.Inductionistheprocessofreasoningfromaparttothewholewhereas
deductionistheprocessofreasoningfromsomepremisetoaconclusionwhichfollows
fromthatverypremise.Infact,logicalreasoningmakesresearchmoremeaningfulinthe
contextofdecisionmaking.
JamesHaroldFox,CriteriaofGoodResearch,PhiDeltaKappan,Vol.39(March,1958),pp.28586.
See,DannyN.BellengerandBarnett,A.Greenberg,MarketingResearchAManagementInformationApproach,p.107

11

12

108.

21

ResearchMethodology
3. Goodresearchisempirical:Itimpliesthatresearchisrelatedbasicallytooneormoreaspectsofar
ealsituationanddealswithconcretedatathatprovidesabasisforexternal
validitytoresearchresults.
4. Goodresearchisreplicable:Thischaracteristicallowsresearchresultstobeverifiedbyreplicati
ngthestudyandtherebybuildingasoundbasisfordecisions.

ProblemsEncounteredbyResearchersinIndia
ResearchersinIndia,particularlythoseengagedinempiricalresearch,arefacingseveralproblems.
Someoftheimportantproblemsareasfollows:
1. Thelackofascientifictraininginthemethodologyofresearchisagreatimpedimentforresearche
rsinourcountry.Thereispaucityofcompetentresearchers.Manyresearcherstakealeapinthedar
kwithoutknowingresearchmethods.Mostofthework,whichgoes
inthenameofresearchisnotmethodologicallysound.Researchtomanyresearchersand
eventotheirguides,ismostlyascissorandpastejobwithoutanyinsightshedonthe
collatedmaterials.Theconsequenceisobvious,viz.,theresearchresults,quiteoften,do
notreflecttherealityorrealities.Thus,asystematicstudyofresearchmethodologyisan
urgentnecessity.Beforeundertakingresearchprojects,researchersshouldbewellequippedwith
allthemethodologicalaspects.Assuch,effortsshouldbemadetoprovideshortdurationintensivecoursesformeetingthisrequirement.
2. There is insufficientinteractionbetween the university research departments on one
sideandbusinessestablishments,governmentdepartmentsandresearchinstitutionsontheothers
ide.Agreatdealofprimarydataofnon-confidentialnatureremainuntouched/untreated
bytheresearchersforwantofpropercontacts.Effortsshouldbemadetodevelopsatisfactoryli
aisonamongallconcernedforbetterandrealisticresearches.Thereisneedfordevelopingsome
mechanismsofauniversity
industryinteractionprogrammesothatacademicscangetideasfrompractitionersonwhatneeds
toberesearchedandpractitionerscanapplytheresearchdonebytheacademics.
3. Mostofthebusinessunitsinourcountrydonothavetheconfidencethatthematerial
suppliedbythemtoresearcherswillnotbemisusedandassuchtheyareoftenreluctantin
supplyingtheneededinformationtoresearchers.Theconceptofsecrecyseemstobe
sacrosancttobusinessorganisationsinthecountrysomuchsothatitprovesanimpermeablebarrie
rtoresearchers.Thus,thereistheneedforgeneratingtheconfidencethattheinformation/datao
btainedfromabusinessunitwillnotbemisused.
4. Researchstudiesoverlappingoneanotherareundertakenquiteoftenforwantofadequateinf
ormation.Thisresultsinduplicationandfrittersawayresources.Thisproblemcanbesolvedbypr
opercompilationandrevision,atregularintervals,ofalistofsubjectsonwhichandtheplaceswher
etheresearchisgoingon.Dueattentionshouldbegiventoward identification of research
problems in various disciplines of applied science which are of
immediateconcerntotheindustries.
5. Theredoesnotexistacodeofconductforresearchersandinter-universityandinterdepartmentalrivalriesarealsoquitecommon.Hence,thereisneedfordevelopingacode
ofconductforresearcherswhich,ifadheredsincerely,canwinoverthisproblem.

6. Manyresearchersinourcountryalsofacethedifficultyofadequateandtimelysecretarialassist
ance,includingcomputerialassistance.Thiscausesunnecessarydelaysinthecompletionofre
searchstudies.Allpossibleeffortsbemadeinthisdirectionsothatefficientsecretarialassistancei
smadeavailabletoresearchersandthattoowellintime.University
GrantsCommissionmustplayadynamicroleinsolvingthisdifficulty.
7. Librarymanagementandfunctioningisnotsatisfactoryatmanyplacesandmuchof
thetimeandenergyofresearchersarespentintracingoutthebooks,journals,reports,etc.,
ratherthanintracingoutrelevantmaterialfromthem.
8. ThereisalsotheproblemthatmanyofourlibrariesarenotabletogetcopiesofoldandnewActs/R
ules,reportsandothergovernmentpublicationsintime.Thisproblemisfeltmoreinlibrarieswhi
chareawayinplacesfromDelhiand/orthestatecapitals.Thus,
effortsshouldbemadefortheregularandspeedysupplyofallgovernmentalpublications
toreachourlibraries.
9. Thereisalsothedifficultyoftimelyavailabilityofpublisheddatafromvariousgovernmenta
ndotheragenciesdoingthisjobinourcountry.Researcheralsofacestheproblemonaccountofth
efactthatthepublisheddatavaryquitesignificantlybecauseof
differencesincoveragebytheconcerningagencies.
10.Theremay,attimes,takeplacetheproblemofconceptualizationandalsoproblemsrelatingtothe
processofdatacollectionandrelatedthings.

Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.

Brieflydescribethedifferentstepsinvolvedinaresearchprocess.
Whatdoyoumeanbyresearch?Explainitssignificanceinmoderntimes.
DistinguishbetweenResearchmethodsandResearchmethodology.
Describethedifferenttypesofresearch,clearlypointingoutthedifferencebetweenanexperimentanda
survey.
5. Writeshortnoteson:
(1) Design of the research project;
(2) Expostfactoresearch;
(3) Motivationinresearch;
(4) Objectivesofresearch;
(5) Criteriaofgoodresearch;
(7)Researchandscientificmethod.
6. EmpiricalresearchinIndiainparticularcreatessomanyproblemsfortheresearchers.Statetheproblemsthatar
eusuallyfacedbysuchresearchers.
(Raj.Univ.EAFM.,M.Phil.Exam.,1979)
7. Aresearchscholarhastoworkasajudgeandderivethetruthandnotasapleaderwhoisonlyeager
toprovehiscaseinfavourofhisplaintiff.Discussthestatementpointingouttheobjectivesofresearch.

8. Creativemanagement,whetherinpublicadministrationorprivateindustry,dependsonmethodsofinquiryth
atmaintainobjectivity,clarity,accuracyandconsistency.Discussthisstatementandexaminethesignificance
ofresearch.
(Raj.Univ.EAFM.,M.Phil.Exam.,1978)
9. Researchismuchconcernedwithproperfactfinding,analysisandevaluation.Doyouagreewiththis
statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.
10. Itisoftensaidthatthereisnotaproperlinkbetweensomeoftheactivitiesunderwayintheworldof
academicsandinmostbusinessinourcountry.Accountforthisstateofaffairsandgivesuggestionsforimprove
ment.

24

ResearchMethodology

2
DefiningtheResearchProblem

Inresearchprocess,thefirstandforemoststephappenstobethatofselectingandproperlydefining
aresearchproblem.*Aresearchermustfindtheproblemandformulateitsothatitbecomessusceptibletorese
arch.Likeamedicaldoctor,aresearchermustexamineallthesymptoms(presentedtohimorobservedbyhi
m)concerningaproblembeforehecandiagnosecorrectly.Todefineaproblemcorrectly,aresearchermust
know:whataproblemis?

WHAT ISARESEARCHPROBLEM?
Aresearchproblem,ingeneral,referstosomedifficultywhicharesearcherexperiencesinthe
contextofeitheratheoreticalorpracticalsituationandwantstoobtainasolutionforthesame.
Usuallywesaythataresearchproblemdoesexistifthefollowingconditionsaremetwith:
(i) Theremustbeanindividual(oragrouporanorganisation),letuscallitI,towhomtheproblemca
nbeattributed.Theindividualortheorganisation,asthecasemaybe,occupies
anenvironment,sayN,whichisdefinedbyvaluesoftheuncontrolledvariables,Yj.
(ii) Theremustbeatleasttwocoursesofaction,sayC
andC,tobepursued.Acourseof
1
2
actionisdefinedbyoneormorevaluesofthecontrolledvariables.Forexample,thenumberofitems
purchasedataspecifiedtimeissaidtobeonecourseofaction.
(iii)
Theremustbeatleasttwopossibleoutcomes,sayO1andO2,ofthecourseofaction,ofwhicho
neshouldbepreferabletotheother.Inotherwords,thismeansthattheremustbeatleastoneoutco
methattheresearcherwants,i.e.,anobjective.
(iv)
Thecoursesofactionavailablemustprovidessomechanceofobtainingtheobjective,but
theycannotprovidethesamechance,otherwisethechoicewouldnotmatter.Thus,ifP(Oj|
I,Cj,N)representstheprobabilitythatanoutcomeOjwilloccur,ifIselectCjin N,

g b

thenP O1|I,C1,N P O1|I,C2,N .Insimplewords,wecansaythatthechoices

musthaveunequalefficienciesforthedesiredoutcomes.
*Wetalkofaresearchproblemorhypothesisincaseofdescriptiveorhypothesistestingresearchstudies.Exploratoryorformul
ativeresearchstudiesdonotstartwithaproblemorhypothesis,theirproblemistofindaproblemorthe
hypothesistobetested.Oneshouldmakeaclearstatementtothiseffect.Thisaspecthasbeendealtwithinchapterentitled
ResearchDesign.

DefiningtheResearchProblem

25

Overandabovetheseconditions,theindividualortheorganisationcanbesaidtohavethe
problemonlyifIdoesnotknowwhatcourseofactionisbest,i.e.,I,mustbeindoubtaboutthesolution.Th
us,anindividualoragroupofpersonscanbesaidtohaveaproblemwhichcanbe
technicallydescribedasaresearchproblem,ifthey(individualorthegroup),havingoneormore desired
outcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal
efficiencyforthedesiredobjective(s)andareindoubtaboutwhichcourseofactionisbest.
Wecan,thus,statethecomponents1ofaresearchproblemasunder:
(i) Theremustbeanindividualoragroupwhichhassomedifficultyortheproblem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have
aproblem.
(iii)
Theremustbealternativemeans(orthecoursesofaction)forobtainingtheobjective(s)
onewishestoattain.Thismeansthattheremustbeatleasttwomeansavailabletoa
researcherforifhehasnochoiceofmeans,hecannothaveaproblem.
(iv)
Theremustremainsomedoubtinthemindofaresearcherwithregardtotheselectionof
alternatives.Thismeansthatresearchmustanswerthequestionconcerningtherelative
efficiencyofthepossiblealternatives.
(v) Theremustbesomeenvironment(s)towhichthedifficultypertains.
Thus,aresearchproblemisonewhichrequiresaresearchertofindoutthebestsolutionforthe
givenproblem,i.e.,tofindoutbywhichcourseofactiontheobjectivecanbeattainedoptimallyinthecontext
ofagivenenvironment.Thereareseveralfactorswhichmayresultinmakingtheproblem
complicated.Forinstance,theenvironmentmaychangeaffectingtheefficienciesofthecoursesof
actionorthevaluesoftheoutcomes;thenumberofalternativecoursesofactionmaybeverylarge;
personsnotinvolvedinmakingthedecisionmaybeaffectedbyitandreacttoitfavourablyor
unfavourably,andsimilarotherfactors.Allsuchelements(oratleasttheimportantones)maybethoughtofi
ncontextofaresearchproblem.

SELECTINGTHEPROBLEM
Theresearchproblemundertakenforstudymustbecarefullyselected.Thetaskisadifficultone,
althoughitmaynotappeartobeso.Helpmaybetakenfromaresearchguideinthisconnection.
Nevertheless,everyresearchermustfindouthisownsalvationforresearchproblemscannotbe
borrowed.Aproblemmustspringfromtheresearchersmindlikeaplantspringingfromitsownseed.Ifour
eyesneedglasses,itisnottheopticianalonewhodecidesaboutthenumberofthelens
werequire.Wehavetoseeourselvesandenablehimtoprescribeforustherightnumberby
cooperatingwithhim.Thus,aresearchguidecanatthemostonlyhelparesearcherchoosea
subject.However,thefollowingpointsmaybeobservedbyaresearcherinselectingaresearchproblemora
subjectforresearch:
(i) Subjectwhichisoverdoneshouldnotbenormallychosen,foritwillbeadifficulttaskto
throwanynewlightinsuchacase.
(ii) Controversialsubjectshouldnotbecomethechoiceofanaverageresearcher.
R.L.Ackoff,TheDesignofSocialResearch,ChicagoUniversityPress,Chicago,1961.

(iii)Toonarrowortoovagueproblemsshouldbeavoided.
(iv)Thesubjectselectedforresearchshouldbefamiliarandfeasiblesothattherelatedresearchmateri
alorsourcesofresearcharewithinonesreach.Eventhenitisquitedifficulttosupply definitive
ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research.
Forthispurpose,aresearchershouldcontactanexpertoraprofessorintheUniversity
whoisalreadyengagedinresearch.Hemayaswellreadarticlespublishedincurrent
literatureavailableonthesubjectandmaythinkhowthetechniquesandideasdiscussed
thereinmightbeappliedtothesolutionofotherproblems.Hemaydiscusswithotherswhathehasi
nmindconcerningaproblem.Inthiswayheshouldmakeallpossibleeffortsin
selectingaproblem.
(v) Theimportanceofthesubject,thequalificationsandthetrainingofaresearcher,thecostsinvolve
d,thetimefactorarefewothercriteriathatmustalsobeconsideredinselectinga
problem.Inotherwords,beforethefinalselectionofaproblemisdone,aresearchermust
askhimselfthefollowingquestions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?
(b) Whetherthestudyfallswithinthebudgethecanafford?
(c) Whetherthenecessarycooperationcanbeobtainedfromthosewhomustparticipate
inresearchassubjects?
Iftheanswerstoallthesequestionsareintheaffirmative,onemaybecomesuresofaras
thepracticabilityofthestudyisconcerned.
(vi)Theselectionofaproblemmustbeprecededbyapreliminarystudy.Thismaynotbenecessarywh
entheproblemrequirestheconductofaresearchcloselysimilartoonethat
hasalreadybeendone.Butwhenthefieldofinquiryisrelativelynewanddoesnothave
availableasetofwelldevelopedtechniques,abrieffeasibilitystudymustalwaysbe undertaken.
Ifthesubjectforresearchisselectedproperlybyobservingtheabovementionedpoints,the
researchwillnotbeaboringdrudgery,ratheritwillbeloveslabour.Infact,zestforworkisamust.Thesubjec
tortheproblemselectedmustinvolvetheresearcherandmusthaveanuppermostplace
inhismindsothathemayundertakeallpainsneededforthestudy.

NECESSITY OFDEFININGTHEPROBLEM
Quiteoftenweallhearthataproblemclearlystatedisaproblemhalfsolved.Thisstatementsignifiestheneed
fordefiningaresearchproblem.Theproblemtobeinvestigatedmustbedefinedunambiguouslyforthat
willhelptodiscriminaterelevantdatafromtheirrelevantones.Aproper
definitionofresearchproblemwillenabletheresearchertobeonthetrackwhereasanill-defined
problemmaycreatehurdles.Questionslike:Whatdataaretobecollected?Whatcharacteristicsof
dataarerelevantandneedtobestudied?Whatrelationsaretobeexplored.Whattechniquesareto
beusedforthepurpose?andsimilarotherquestionscropupinthemindoftheresearcherwhocan
wellplanhisstrategyandfindanswerstoallsuchquestionsonlywhentheresearchproblemhas
beenwelldefined.Thus,definingaresearchproblemproperlyisaprerequisiteforanystudyandis
astepofthehighestimportance.Infact,formulationofaproblemisoftenmoreessentialthanits

solution.Itisonlyoncarefuldetailingtheresearchproblemthatwecanworkouttheresearchdesignandcans
moothlycarryonalltheconsequentialstepsinvolvedwhiledoingresearch.

TECHNIQUEINVOLVEDIN DEFININGAPROBLEM
Letusstartwiththequestion:Whatdoesonemeanwhenhe/shewantstodefinearesearchproblem?
Theanswermaybethatonewantstostatetheproblemalongwiththeboundswithinwhichitistobe
studied.Inotherwords,definingaprobleminvolvesthetaskoflayingdownboundarieswithinwhicharesear
chershallstudytheproblemwithapre-determinedobjectivein view.
Howtodefinearesearchproblemisundoubtedlyaherculeantask.However,itisataskthatmustbetackl
edintelligentlytoavoidtheperplexityencounteredinaresearchoperation.Theusual
approachisthattheresearchershouldhimselfposeaquestion(orincasesomeoneelsewantsthe researcher
to carry on research, the concerned individual, organisation or an authority should pose
thequestiontotheresearcher)andset-uptechniquesandproceduresforthrowinglightonthe
questionconcernedforformulatingordefiningtheresearchproblem.Butsuchanapproachgenerallydoesn
otproducedefinitiveresultsbecausethequestionphrasedinsuchafashionisusuallyinbroad
general
terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Definingaresearchproblemproperlyandclearlyisacrucialpartofaresearchstudyandmust
innocasebeaccomplishedhurriedly.However,inpracticethisafrequentlyoverlookedwhichcausesalotofp
roblemslateron.Hence,theresearchproblemshouldbedefinedinasystematicmanner,givingdueweighta
getoallrelatingpoints.Thetechniqueforthepurposeinvolvestheundertakingofthefollowingstepsgenera
llyoneaftertheother:(i)statementoftheprobleminageneralway;(ii)
understandingthenatureoftheproblem;(iii)surveyingtheavailableliterature(iv)developingthe
ideasthroughdiscussions;and(v)rephrasingtheresearchproblemintoaworkingproposition.
Abriefdescriptionofallthesepointswillbehelpful.
(i) Statementoftheprobleminageneralway:Firstofalltheproblemshouldbestatedina
broadgeneralway,keepinginvieweithersomepracticalconcernorsomescientificorintellectualinterest.
Forthispurpose,theresearchermustimmersehimselfthoroughlyinthesubjectmatter
concerningwhichhewishestoposeaproblem.Incaseofsocialresearch,itisconsideredadvisable
todosomefieldobservationandassuchtheresearchermayundertakesomesortofpreliminary
surveyorwhatisoftencalledpilotsurvey.Thentheresearchercanhimselfstatetheproblemorhecanseekth
eguidanceoftheguideorthesubjectexpertinaccomplishingthistask.Often,theguide
putsforththeproblemingeneralterms,anditisthenuptotheresearchertonarrowitdownand
phrasetheprobleminoperationalterms.Incasethereissomedirectivefromanorganisational
authority,theproblemthencanbestatedaccordingly.Theproblemstatedinabroadgeneralwaymaycontai
nvariousambiguitieswhichmustberesolvedbycoolthinkingandrethinkingoverthe
problem.Atthesametimethefeasibilityofaparticularsolutionhastobeconsideredandthesame
shouldbekeptinviewwhilestatingtheproblem.
(ii)Understandingthenatureoftheproblem:Thenextstepindefiningtheproblemistounderstanditsorigi
nandnature
clearly.
Thebestwayofunderstandingtheproblemistodiscussitwiththosewhofirstraiseditinordertofindouthowt
heproblemoriginallycameaboutandwithwhatobjectivesinview.Iftheresearcherhasstatedtheproblemhi
mself,heshouldconsideronceagainallthosepointsthatinducedhimtomakeageneralstatementconcernin
gtheproblem.Forabetter

understandingofthenatureoftheprobleminvolved,hecanenterintodiscussionwiththosewho
haveagoodknowledgeoftheproblemconcernedorsimilarotherproblems.Theresearchershould
alsokeepinviewtheenvironmentwithinwhichtheproblemistobestudiedandunderstood.
(iii)
Surveyingtheavailableliterature:Allavailableliteratureconcerningtheproblemathand
mustnecessarilybesurveyedandexaminedbeforeadefinitionoftheresearchproblemisgiven.
Thismeansthattheresearchermustbewell-conversantwithrelevanttheoriesinthefield,reports
andrecordsasalsoallotherrelevantliterature.Hemustdevotesufficienttimeinreviewingof
researchalreadyundertakenonrelatedproblems.Thisisdonetofindoutwhatdataandother
materials,ifany,areavailableforoperationalpurposes.Knowingwhatdataareavailableoftenserves
tonarrowtheproblemitselfaswellasthetechniquethatmightbe
used.2.Thiswouldalsohelparesearchertoknowiftherearecertaingapsinthetheories,orwhethertheexist
ingtheories
applicabletotheproblemunderstudyareinconsistentwitheachother,orwhetherthefindingsofthedifferen
tstudiesdonotfollowapatternconsistentwiththetheoreticalexpectationsandsoon.All
thiswillenablearesearchertotakenewstridesinthefieldforfurtheranceofknowledgei.e.,hecan
moveupstartingfromtheexistingpremise.Studiesonrelatedproblemsareusefulforindicatingthe
typeofdifficultiesthatmaybeencounteredinthepresentstudyasalsothepossibleanalytical
shortcomings.Attimessuchstudiesmayalsosuggestusefulandevennewlinesofapproachtothe
presentproblem.
(iv)
Developingtheideasthroughdiscussions:Discussionconcerningaproblemoftenproduces
usefulinformation.Variousnewideascanbedevelopedthroughsuchanexercise.Hence,aresearchermustd
iscusshisproblemwithhiscolleaguesandotherswhohaveenoughexperienceinthesame
areaorinworkingonsimilarproblems.Thisisquiteoftenknownasanexperience
survey.Peoplewithrichexperienceareinapositiontoenlightentheresearcherondifferentaspectsofhispr
oposed
studyandtheiradviceandcommentsareusuallyinvaluabletotheresearcher.Theyhelphimsharpenhisfocu
sofattentiononspecificaspectswithinthefield.Discussionswithsuchpersonsshouldnot
onlybeconfinedtotheformulationofthespecificproblemathand,butshouldalsobeconcernedwiththegene
ralapproachtothegivenproblem,techniquesthatmightbeused,possiblesolutions,etc.
(v) Rephrasingtheresearchproblem:Finally,theresearchermustsittorephrasetheresearchproblemintoa
workingproposition.Oncethenatureoftheproblemhasbeenclearlyunderstood,theenvironment(within
whichtheproblemhasgottobestudied)hasbeendefined,discussionsovertheproblemhavetakenplaceand
theavailableliteraturehasbeensurveyedandexamined,rephrasing
theproblemintoanalyticaloroperationaltermsisnotadifficulttask.Throughrephrasing,theresearcherputst
heresearchprobleminasspecifictermsaspossiblesothatitmaybecomeoperationallyviable
andmayhelpinthedevelopmentofworkinghypotheses.*
Inadditiontowhathasbeenstatedabove,thefollowingpointsmustalsobeobservedwhile
definingaresearchproblem:
Robert Ferber and P.J.Verdoorn,ResearchMethods in Economics and Business, p.3334.
*Workinghypothesesareasetofsuggestedtentativesolutionsofexplanationsofaresearchproblemwhichmayormaynot be
the real solutions. The task of research is to test and establish such hypotheses. Hypotheses should be clearly and
preciselystatedinsimpleterms,theyshouldbetestable,limitedinscopeandshouldstaterelationshipbetweenvariables.
Theyshouldbeamenabletotestingwithinareasonabletimeandshouldbeconsistentwithmostoftheknownfacts
(Testingofhypotheseshasbeendealtwithlaterinthebook).
2

(a) Technicaltermsandwordsorphrases,withspecialmeaningsusedinthestatementoftheproblem
,shouldbeclearlydefined.
(b) Basicassumptionsorpostulates(ifany)relatingtotheresearchproblemshouldbeclearly
stated.
(c) Astraightforwardstatementofthevalueoftheinvestigation(i.e.,thecriteriaforthe
selectionoftheproblem)shouldbeprovided.
(d) Thesuitabilityofthetimeperiodandthesourcesofdataavailablemustalsobeconsideredbytheresearcherindefiningthepr
oblem.
(e) Thescopeoftheinvestigationorthelimitswithinwhichtheproblemistobestudiedmust
bementionedexplicitlyindefiningaresearchproblem.

ANILLUSTRATION
Thetechniqueofdefiningaproblemoutlinedabovecanbeillustratedforbetterunderstandingby
takinganexampleasunder:
Letussupposethataresearchprobleminabroadgeneralwayisasfollows:
WhyisproductivityinJapansomuchhigherthaninIndia?
Inthisformthequestionhasanumberofambiguitiessuchas:Whatsortofproductivity
isbeingreferredto?Withwhatindustriesthesameisrelated?
Withwhatperiodoftimetheproductivityisbeingtalkedabout?
Inviewofallsuchambiguitiesthegivenstatementorthequestionismuchtoogeneraltobeamen
abletoanalysis.Rethinkinganddiscussionsabouttheproblemmayresultinnarrowingdownt
hequestionto:
WhatfactorswereresponsibleforthehigherlabourproductivityofJapansmanufacturingindu
striesduringthedecade1971to1980relativetoIndiasmanufacturingindustries?Thislatter
versionoftheproblemisdefinitelyanimprovementoveritsearlierversionfor
thevariousambiguitieshavebeenremovedtotheextentpossible.Furtherrethinkingand
rephrasingmightplacetheproblemonastillbetteroperationalbasisasshownbelow:
Towhatextentdidlabourproductivityin1971to1980inJapanexceedthatofIndiainrespectof
15selectedmanufacturingindustries?Whatfactorswereresponsibleforthe
productivitydifferentialsbetweenthetwocountriesbyindustries?
Withthissortofformulation,thevarioustermsinvolvedsuchaslabourproductivity,productivitydiffer
entials,etc.mustbeexplainedclearly.Theresearchermustalsoseethatthenecessarydataareavailable.In
casethedataforoneormoreindustriesselectedarenotavailablefortheconcerning
timeperiod,thenthesaidindustryorindustrieswillhavetobesubstitutedbyotherindustryorindustries.Thesuitabil
ityofthetimeperiodmustalsobeexamined.Thus,allrelevantfactorsmustbeconsideredbyaresearcherbeforefinallydef
iningaresearchproblem.

CONCLUSION
Wemayconcludebysayingthatthetaskofdefiningaresearchproblem,veryoften,followsasequentialpatt
ern
theproblemisstatedinageneralway,theambiguitiesareresolved,thinkingandrethinkingprocessresultsin
amorespecificformulationoftheproblemsothatitmaybearealistic

oneintermsoftheavailabledataandresourcesandisalsoanalyticallymeaningful.Allthisresultsinawellde
finedresearchproblemthatisnotonlymeaningfulfromanoperationalpointofview,butis
equallycapableofpavingthewayforthedevelopmentofworkinghypothesesandformeansof
solvingtheproblemitself.

Questions

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1. Describefullythetechniquesofdefiningaresearchproblem.
2. Whatisresearchproblem?
Definethemainissueswhichshouldreceivetheattentionoftheresearcherinformulatingtheresearchproblem.
Givesuitableexamplestoelucidateyourpoints.
(Raj.Uni.EAFM,M.Phil.Exam.1979)
3. Howdoyoudefinearesearchproblem?Givethreeexamplestoillustrateyouranswer.
(Raj.Uni.EAFM,M.Phil.Exam.1978)
4. Whatisthenecessityofdefiningaresearchproblem?Explain.
5. Writeshortnoteson:
Experiencesurvey;
Pilotsurvey;
Componentsofaresearchproblem;
Rephrasingtheresearchproblem.
6. Thetaskofdefiningtheresearchproblemoftenfollowsasequentialpattern.Explain.
7. Knowingwhatdataareavailableoftenservestonarrowdowntheproblemitselfaswellasthetechniquethatmig
htbeused.Explaintheunderlyingideainthisstatementinthecontextofdefiningaresearch problem.
8. WriteacomprehensivenoteontheTaskofdefiningaresearchproblem.

ResearchDesign

31

3
ResearchDesign

MEANINGOFRESEARCHDESIGN
Theformidableproblemthatfollowsthetaskofdefiningtheresearchproblemisthepreparationof
thedesignoftheresearchproject,popularlyknownastheresearchdesign.Decisionsregarding
what,where,when,howmuch,bywhatmeansconcerninganinquiryoraresearchstudyconstitute
aresearchdesign.Aresearchdesignisthearrangementofconditionsforcollectionandanalysisof
datainamannerthataimstocombinerelevancetotheresearchpurposewitheconomyinprocedure.1Infact,t
heresearchdesignistheconceptualstructurewithinwhichresearchisconducted;itconstitutestheblueprintf
orthecollection,measurementandanalysisofdata.Assuchthedesignincludesan
outlineofwhattheresearcherwilldofromwritingthehypothesisanditsoperationalimplicationsto
thefinalanalysisofdata.Moreexplicitly,thedesingdecisionshappentobeinrespectof:
(i) Whatisthestudyabout?
(ii) Whyisthestudybeingmade?
(iii) Wherewillthestudybecarriedout?
(iv) Whattypeofdataisrequired?
(v) Wherecantherequireddatabefound?
(vi) Whatperiodsoftimewillthestudyinclude?
(vii) Whatwillbethesampledesign?
(viii) Whattechniquesofdatacollectionwillbeused?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keepinginviewtheabovestateddesigndecisions,onemaysplittheoverallresearchdesignintothefoll
owingparts:
(a) thesamplingdesignwhichdealswiththemethodofselectingitemstobeobservedforthe
givenstudy;
ClaireSelltizandothers,ResearchMethodsinSocialSciences,1962,p.50.

32

ResearchMethodology
(b) theobservationaldesignwhichrelatestotheconditionsunderwhichtheobservations
aretobemade;
(c) thestatisticaldesignwhichconcernswiththequestionofhowmanyitemsaretobe
observedandhowtheinformationanddatagatheredaretobeanalysed;and
(d) theoperationaldesignwhichdealswiththetechniquesbywhichtheproceduresspecified
inthesampling,statisticalandobservationaldesignscanbecarriedout.

Fromwhathasbeenstatedabove,wecanstatetheimportantfeaturesofaresearchdesignas under:
(i) Itisaplanthatspecifiesthesourcesandtypesofinformationrelevanttotheresearch problem.
(ii) Itisastrategyspecifyingwhichapproachwillbeusedforgatheringandanalysingthedata.
(iii)

Italsoincludesthetimeandcostbudgetssincemoststudiesaredoneunderthesetwo
constraints.

Inbrief,researchdesignmust,atleast,contain(a)aclearstatementoftheresearchproblem;
(b) proceduresandtechniquestobeusedforgatheringinformation;(c)thepopulationtobestudied;
and(d)methodstobeusedinprocessingandanalysingdata.

NEEDFORRESEARCHDESIGN
Researchdesignisneededbecauseitfacilitatesthesmoothsailingofthevariousresearchoperations,thereb
ymakingresearchasefficientaspossibleyieldingmaximalinformationwithminimalexpenditureof effort,
time and money. Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,
weneedablueprint(orwhatiscommonlycalledthemapofthehouse)wellthoughtoutandpreparedbyanexp
ertarchitect,similarlyweneedaresearchdesignoraplaninadvanceofdatacollectionand
analysisforourresearchproject.Researchdesignstandsforadvanceplanningofthemethodstobe
adoptedforcollectingtherelevantdataandthetechniquestobeusedintheiranalysis,keepingin
viewtheobjectiveoftheresearchandtheavailabilityofstaff,timeandmoney.Preparationoftheresearchde
signshouldbedonewithgreatcareasanyerrorinitmayupsettheentireproject.
Researchdesign,infact,hasagreatbearingonthereliabilityoftheresultsarrivedatandassuch
constitutesthefirmfoundationoftheentireedificeoftheresearchwork.
Eventhentheneedforawellthoughtoutresearchdesignisattimesnotrealisedbymany.The
importancewhichthisproblemdeservesisnotgiventoit.Asaresultmanyresearchesdonotserve
thepurposeforwhichtheyareundertaken.Infact,theymayevengivemisleadingconclusions.
Thoughtlessnessindesigningtheresearchprojectmayresultinrenderingtheresearchexercise
futile.Itis,therefore,imperativethatanefficientandappropriatedesignmustbepreparedbefore
startingresearchoperations.Thedesignhelpstheresearchertoorganizehisideasinaformwhereby
itwillbepossibleforhimtolookforflawsandinadequacies.Suchadesigncanevenbegivento
othersfortheircommentsandcriticalevaluation.Intheabsenceofsuchacourseofaction,itwillbe
difficultforthecritictoprovideacomprehensivereviewoftheproposedstudy.

ResearchDesign

33

FEATURESOFAGOODDESIGN
Agooddesignisoftencharacterisedbyadjectiveslikeflexible,appropriate,efficient,economical
andsoon.Generally,thedesignwhichminimisesbiasandmaximisesthereliabilityofthedatacollectedand
analysedisconsideredagooddesign.Thedesignwhichgivesthesmallestexperimentalerrorissupposedtob
ethebestdesigninmanyinvestigations.Similarly,adesignwhichyieldsmaximalinformationandprovidesa
nopportunityforconsideringmanydifferentaspectsofaproblemis
consideredmostappropriateandefficientdesigninrespectofmanyresearchproblems.Thus,the
questionofgooddesignisrelatedtothepurposeorobjectiveoftheresearchproblemandalsowith
thenatureoftheproblemtobestudied.Adesignmaybequitesuitableinonecase,butmaybefound
wantinginonerespectortheotherinthecontextofsomeotherresearchproblem.Onesingledesign
cannotservethepurposeofalltypesofresearchproblems.
Aresearchdesignappropriateforaparticularresearchproblem,usuallyinvolvestheconsiderationofthe
followingfactors:
(i) themeansofobtaininginformation;
(ii) theavailabilityandskillsoftheresearcherandhisstaff,ifany;
(iii)

theobjectiveoftheproblemtobestudied;

(iv)thenatureoftheproblemtobestudied;and
(v) theavailabilityoftimeandmoneyfortheresearchwork.
Iftheresearchstudyhappenstobeanexploratoryoraformulativeone,whereinthemajor
emphasisisondiscoveryofideasandinsights,theresearchdesignmostappropriatemustbeflexibleenough
topermittheconsiderationofmanydifferentaspectsofaphenomenon.Butwhenthepurposeofastudyisacc
uratedescriptionofasituationorofanassociationbetweenvariables(orinwhatare
calledthedescriptivestudies),accuracybecomesamajorconsiderationandaresearchdesignwhich
minimisesbiasandmaximisesthereliabilityoftheevidencecollectedisconsideredagooddesign.
Studiesinvolvingthetestingofahypothesisofacausalrelationshipbetweenvariablesrequirea
designwhichwillpermitinferencesaboutcausalityinadditiontotheminimisationofbiasand
maximisationofreliability.Butinpracticeitisthemostdifficulttasktoputaparticularstudyinaparticulargr
oup,foragivenresearchmayhaveinitelementsoftwoormoreofthefunctionsof
differentstudies.Itisonlyonthebasisofitsprimaryfunctionthatastudycanbecategorisedeither
asanexploratoryordescriptiveorhypothesis-testingstudyandaccordinglythechoiceofaresearch
designmaybemadeincaseofaparticularstudy.Besides,theavailabilityoftime,money,skillsoftheresearch
staffandthemeansofobtainingtheinformationmustbegivendueweightagewhileworkingouttherelevant
detailsoftheresearchdesignsuchasexperimentaldesign,surveydesign,sample designandthelike.

IMPORTANTCONCEPTSRELATINGTORESEARCHDESIGN
Beforedescribingthedifferentresearchdesigns,itwillbeappropriatetoexplainthevariousconceptsrelatin
gtodesignssothatthesemaybebetterandeasilyunderstood.
1.Dependentandindependentvariables:Aconceptwhichcantakeondifferentquantitativevaluesisca
lledavariable.Assuchtheconceptslikeweight,height,incomeareallexamplesof
variables.Qualitativephenomena(ortheattributes)arealsoquantifiedonthebasisofthepresence