There are a number of factors affecting the critical time lag of a storm.

These
include:

the amount and the intensity of the rain heavy rain will not sink into the

ground; instead it will become overland flow or run off and quickly reach the
river

temperatures are significant because they affect the form of precipitation. For

example, if temperatures are below freezing, precipitation will be in the form

of snow. This can take weeks to melt. If the ground remains frozen, melting
snow on the surface can reach the river quickly

land use trees and plants will intercept and delay the rain reaching the
ground. Bare soil and rock will speed up runoff and reduce the time lag. So
too will urban areas covered by tarmac and concrete

steep slopes will cause rapid surface runoff, so water will reach the river more

quickly. Flat and gently sloping land may lead to water sinking into the soil.
This will delay it reaching the river

rock type impermeable rocks will not allow rainwater to sink into it, so will

speed up runoff. Permeable rock will allow infiltration and percolation of

water into the bedrock. This in turn will slow the delivery of the water to the
river

dams and reservoirs regulate and even out discharges. They hold back discharge
and so reduce the risk of flooding downstream (Figure I . 9).
1500

In your own words, describe

Jan
the differences between the
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
two hydrographs in Figure 1.9.
Months
Figure I .9: The impact of a dam and water
storm hydrograph

Try
to
differences.

1.4 River processes

Weathering and mass movement

explain

those

abstraction on a river's

Rivers play a major part in

shaping landforms. They do
this work by means of three
processes erosion, transport
and deposition. These river
processes act in a sort of
partnership with two other
processes weathering and
mass movement. Let us take a
look at these two processes
before looking more closely at
the work that rivers actually
do.
Weathering involves elements
of the weather, particularly
rainfall and temperatures
(Table 1.1).
Physical
weathering

What made the landslide in

Figure 1.10 into a serious hazard
and natural disaster?
For more on hazards, see
Chapter 3.

Chemical
weathering
Biological
weathering

This breaks rock down into smaller and

smaller pieces. It is done by changes in
temperature and by rainfall freezing and
thawing in rock cracks.
This causes rock to decay and disintegrate. It
is largely done by slightly acidic rainfall
seeping into porous rock.
The roots of plants, especially trees, growing
in cracks in the rocks gradually split the rock
apart.

Table 7.7: Different types of weathering

Figure 1.10: A landslide - a hazardous form of mass movement

All this destructive activity takes place where rocks outcrop (are above the surface
of the surrounding land). Once rocks are really broken down, the weathered
material starts to move down the slope under the influence of gravity. This is mass
movement. It takes several different forms. In river valleys, there are two main
types of mass movement:

slumping this occurs when the bottom of a valley side slope is cut away by the
river flowing at its base. This makes the slope unstable and weathered material
slumps down towards the river. Slumping is also helped when the weathered
material on the slope is saturated by heavy rain. The water does two things. It
makes the weathered material heavier and acts as a lubricant. Figure 1.10 is an
example of sudden slumping leading to a major landslide.

soil creep weathered material moves slowly down slope under the influence of
gravity. It collects at the bottom of the valley side and is eroded by the river.