The Cognitive Domain:

The following chart includes the two primary existing taxonomies of cognition the original
one from 1965 and the 2001 revision. Learning about the old taxonomy has been a teaching
essential for years, however learning about the revisions and how to use them effectively
seems to be gradually taking over. Please note in the table below, the one on the left,
entitled Blooms, is based on the original work of Benjamin Bloom and others as they
attempted in 1956 to define the functions of thought, coming to know, or cognition. This
taxonomy is almost 60 years old. The taxonomy on the right is the more recent adaptation
and is the redefined work of Bloom in 2000-01. That one is labeled Anderson and
Krathwohl. The group redefining Blooms original concepts, worked from 1995-2000. This
group was assembled by Lorin Anderson and David Krathwohl and included people with
expertise in the areas of cognitive psychology, curriculum and instruction, and educational
testing, measurement, and assessment. The new adaptation also took into consideration
many of Blooms own concerns and criticisms of his original taxonomy.
As you will see the primary differences are not in the listings or rewordings from nouns to
verbs, or in the renaming of some of the components, or even in the re-positioning of the
last two categories. The major differences lie in the more useful and comprehensive
additions of how the taxonomy intersects and acts upon different types and levels of
knowledge factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. This melding can be
charted to see how one is teaching at both knowledge and cognitive process levels. Please
remember the chart goes from simple to more complex and challenging types of thinking.

Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain

Blooms Taxonomy 1956

Anderson and Krathwohls Taxonomy 2001

1. Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving previously

learned material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function
are:

1. Remembering: Recognizing or recalling knowledge

from memory. Remembering is when memory is used
to produce definitions, facts, or lists, or recite or
retrieve material.

know identify
relate list

define recall
memorize
repeat

record name
recognize
acquire

2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct

meaning from material. Examples of verbs that relate to
this function are:
restate locate
report recognize
explain express

identify discuss
describe discuss
review infer

illustrate
interpret draw
represent
differentiate
conclude

3. Application: The ability to use learned material, or to

implement material in new and concrete situations.
Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:
apply relate
develop
translate use
operate

organize employ
restructure
interpret
demonstrate
illustrate

practice
calculate show
exhibit
dramatize

4. Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the

parts of material into its components so that its
organizational structure may be better
understood.Examples of verbs that relate to this function
are:
analyze compare
probe inquire
examine contrast
categorize

differentiate
contrast
investigate detect
survey classify
deduce

experiment
scrutinize
discover inspect
dissect
discriminate
separate

5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a

coherent or unique new whole. Examples of verbs that
relate to this function are:
compose produce
design assemble

plan invent
formulate collect

propose develop
arrange construct

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from

different types of functions be they written or graphic
messages activities like interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and
explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure

through executing, or implementing. Applying related
and refers to situations where learned material is used
through products like models, presentations,
interviews or simulations.

4. Analyzing: Breaking material or concepts into

parts, determining how the parts relate or interrelate
to one another or to an overall structure or purpose.
Mental actions included in this function are
differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as
being able to distinguish between the components or
parts. When one is analyzing he/she can illustrate this
mental function by creating spreadsheets, surveys,
charts, or diagrams, or graphic representations.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria

and standards through checking and critiquing.
Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of
the products that can be created to demonstrate the
processes of evaluation. In the newer taxonomy
evaluation comes before creating as it is often a
necessary part of the precursory behavior before

create prepare
predict modify
tell

set up generalize
document
combine relate

organize
originate derive
write propose

6. Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and even

critique the value of material for a given purpose.
Examples of verbs that relate to this function are:
judge assess
compare evaluate
conclude
measure deduce

argue decide
choose rate select
estimate

validate consider
appraise value
criticize infer

creating something.

6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a

coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements
into a new pattern or structure through generating,
planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put
parts together in a new way or synthesize parts into
something new and different a new form or product.
This process is the most difficult mental function in
the new taxonomy.

Table 1.1 Bloom vs. Anderson/Krathwohl

_________________________________________________________________________
_____
(Diagram 1.1,

Wilson, Leslie O. 2001)

Note: After creating the cognitive taxonomy one of the weaknesses noted by Bloom himself
was that there is was a fundamental difference between his knowledge category and the
other 5 levels of his model as those levels dealt with intellectual abilities and skills in relation
to interactions with types of knowledge. Bloom was very aware that there was an acute
difference between knowledge and the mental and intellectual operations performed on, or
with, that knowledge. He identified specific types of knowledge as:

Terminology

Specific facts

Conventions

Trends and sequences

Classifications and categories

Criteria

Methodology

Principles and generalizations

Theories and structures

Levels of Knowledge The first three of these levels were identified in the original work,
but rarely discussed or introduced when initially discussing uses for the
taxonomy. Metacognition was added in the revised version.

Factual Knowledge The basic elements students must know to be acquainted

with a discipline or solve problems.

Conceptual Knowledge The interrelationships among the basic elements within a

larger structure that enable them to function together.

Procedural Knowledge How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for

using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.

Metacognitive Knowledge Knowledge of cognition in general, as well as

awareness and knowledge of ones own cognition. (29)

(Summarized from: Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D.R., et al (2001) A taxonomy for

learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives.
New York: Longman.)
One of the things that clearly differentiates the new model from that of the 1956 original is
that it lays out components nicely so they can be considered and used. Cognitive
processes, as related to chosen instructional tasks, can be easily documented and tracked.
This feature has the potential to make teacher assessment, teacher self-assessment, and
student assessment easier or clearer as usage patterns emerge. (See PDF link below for a
sample.)
As stated before, perhaps surprisingly, these levels of knowledge were indicated in Blooms
original work factual, conceptual, and procedural but these were never fully
understood or used by teachers because most of what educators were given in training
consisted of a simple chart with the listing of levels and related accompanying verbs. The
full breadth of Handbook I, and its recommendations on types of knowledge, were rarely
discussed in any instructive or useful way. Another rather gross lapse in common teacher
training over the past 50+ years is teachers-in-training are rarely made aware of any of the
criticisms leveled against Blooms original model.
Please note that in the updated version the term metacognitive has been added to the
array of knowledge types. For readers not familiar with this term, it means thinking about
ones thinking in a purposeful way so that one knows about cognition and also knows how to
regulate ones cognition.

Knowledge Dimensions Defined:

Factual Knowledge is knowledge that is basic to specific disciplines. This dimension refers
to essential facts, terminology, details or elements students must know or be familiar with in
order to understand a discipline or solve a problem in it.
Conceptual Knowledge is knowledge of classifications, principles, generalizations,
theories, models, or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.
Procedural Knowledge refers to information or knowledge that helps students to do
something specific to a discipline, subject, or area of study. It also refers to methods of
inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms, techniques, and particular methodologies.
Metacognitive Knowledge is the awareness of ones own cognition and particular
cognitive processes. It is strategic or reflective knowledge about how to go about solving
problems, cognitive tasks, to include contextual and conditional knowledge and knowledge
of self
THORNDIKE
The purpose of the experiment was to determine the relative effectiveness of the above conditions of reward or punishment. The
results are decidedly in favor of the rewarding method. Thorndike says, "The results of all comparisons by all methods tell the same
story. Rewarding a connection always strengthened it substantially; punishing it weakened it little or not at all." Punishment by
confinement was slightly more efficacious than punishment by thwarting. Thwarting had a tendency to bring about repetition of the
thwarted response. Frequency, as such, was shown to be ineffective. The response finally mastered was not the most frequent one.

Instructional Models
Models represent the broadest level of instructional practices and present a philosophical
orientation to instruction. Models are used to select and to structure teaching strategies,
methods, skills, and student activities for a particular instructional emphasis. Instructional
models are related to theories about how we learn. Some examples include: behaviorism,

cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism. Various learning theories fit within these
general categories, i.e., adult learning theory, transformative learning, social interaction,
motivation theory, etc.

Instructional Strategies
Within each model several strategies can be used. Strategies determine the approach a teacher may take
to achieve learning objectives. Strategies can be classed as direct, indirect, interactive, experiential, or
independent.
The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher-directed and is among the most commonly

used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching,
practice and drill, and demonstrations. The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing
information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other
teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction.
Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that are sometimes

used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. In contrast to the direct instruction

strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centred, although the two strategies can
complement each other. Examples of indirect instruction methods include reflective discussion,
concept formation, concept attainment, cloze procedure, problem solving, and guided inquiry.
Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. The

interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These
may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads
working on assignments together.
Experiential learning is inductive, learner centred, and activity oriented. The emphasis in

experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. Personalized reflection
about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learnings to other contexts are critical
factors in effective experiential learning. Experiential learning greatly increases understanding
and retention in comparison to methods that solely involve listening, reading, or even viewing
(McNeil & Wiles, 1990). Students are usually more motivated when they actively participate and
teach one another by describing what they are doing.
Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided
to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement.
Independent study can also include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of a
small group. It is important that the instructor make sure that learners have the necessary skills in
order to accomplish the task. Independent study is very flexible. It can be used as the major
instructional strategy with the whole class, in combination with other strategies, or it can be used
with one or more individuals while another strategy is used with the rest of the class.

Instructional Methods
Methods are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of
the activity in which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While
particular methods are often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be
found within a variety of strategies.

Learner Involvement
Capable instructors are aware of the principle of active learner participation. "Given the choice between
two techniques, choose the one involving the learners in the most active participation" (Knowles, 1980, p.
240). Below is a sample of techniques categorized according to participant involvement (Cafarrella,
2002)

Levels of Learner Involvement

Low Involvement

Medium Involvement

High Involvement

Lecture

Group discussion

Role play

Panel discussion

Behavior modeling

Debates

Demonstration

Observation

Case studies

Computer-based drills

Reflective practice--blogs,

Simulations

Computer-based tutorials

journals

WebQuests

Socratic dialogue

Asynchronous online forums

Internet searches

Tutorials

E-mail and listservs

Concept mapping

Audio/Video conferencing

Trial and error

3D Interactive Learning

Storytelling

Activities

Jigsaw
Educational gaming
Second LifeSims
Real-time relay chats
In-basket exercises
Structured experiences
Problem-based learning
Project-Based Learning
Collaborative Learning
Inquiry Learning

Differences Among Learners

In addition, effective instructors acknowledge the differences among learners. For example, instructors
have recognized that adults bring rich and divergent life experiences, are immersed in various life roles,
have preferred learning styles, seek learning experiences that are relevant to their goals, and want
practical solutions to problems and issues (Knowles, 1980; Caffarella, 2002). With the advent of "global
classrooms" and the recognition that race, gender, class and culture do make a difference, responding to
learner differences has become even more challenging

Sociology, in the broadest sense, is the study of society. Sociology is a very broad discipline
that examines how humans interact with each other and how human behavior is shaped
by social structures (groups, communities, organizations), social categories (age, sex, class,
race, etc.), and social institutions (politics, religion, education, etc.). The basic foundation of
sociology is the belief that a person's attitudes, actions, and opportunities are shaped by all
of these aspects of society.
The sociological perspective is fourfold: Individuals belong to groups; groups influence our
behavior; groups take on characteristics that are independent of their members (i.e. the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts); and sociologists focus on behavior patterns of
groups, such as differences based on sex, race, age, class, etc.
Sociology originated from and was influenced by the industrial revolution during the early
nineteenth century. There are seven major founders of sociology: August Comte, W.E.B. Du
Bois, Emile Durkheim, Harriet Martineau, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Max
Weber. August Comte is thought of as the "Father of Sociology" as he coined the term
sociology in 1838. He believed that society should be understood and studied as it was,
rather than what it ought to be. He was the first to recognize that the path to understanding
the world and society was based in science. W.E.B. Du Bois was an early American
sociologist who laid the groundwork for sociology of race and ethnicity and contributed
important analyses of American society in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War.
Marx, Spencer, Durkheim, and Weber helped define and develop sociology as a science
and discipline, each contributing important theories and concepts still used and understood
in the field today. Harriet Martineau was a British scholar and writer who was also
fundamental to establishing the sociological perspective, who wrote prolifically about the
relationship between politics, morals, and society, as well as sexism and gender roles.
Current Approaches

Today there are two main approaches to studying sociology. The first is macro-sociology, or
the study of society as a whole. This approach emphasizes the analysis of social
systems and populations on a large scale and at a high level of theoretical abstraction.
Macro-sociology does concern individuals, families, and other aspects of society, but it
always does so in relation to the larger social system to which they belong. The second
approach is micro-sociology, or the study of small group behavior. This approach focuses on
the nature of everyday human social interactions on a small scale. At the micro level, social
status and social roles are the most important components of social structure and microsociology is based on the ongoing interactions between these social roles. Much
contemporary sociological research and theory bridges these two approaches.
Areas Of Sociology
Sociology is a very broad and diverse field. There are many different topics and scopes in
the field of sociology, some of which are relatively new. The following are some of the major
areas of research and application within the field of sociology. For a full list of sociology
disciplines and areas of research, visit thesubfields of sociology page.
Globalization. The sociology of globalization focuses on the economic, political, and
cultural aspects and implications of a globally integrated society. Many sociologists focus on
the way capitalism and consumer goods connect people all over the world, migration flows,
and issues of inequality in global society.
Race And Ethnicity. The sociology of race and ethnicity examines the social, political, and
economic relations between races and ethnicities at all levels of society. Topics commonly
studied include racism, residential segregation, and the differences in social processes
between racial and ethnic groups.
Consumption. The sociology of consumption is a subfield of sociology which places
consumption at the center of research questions, studies, and social theory. Researchers in
this subfield focus on the role of consumer goods in our everyday lives, their relationship to
our individual and group identities, in our relationships with other people, in our culture and
traditions, and the implications of consumer lifestyles.
Family. The sociology of family examines things such as marriage, divorce, child rearing,
and domestic abuse. Specifically, sociologists study how these aspects of the family are
defined in different cultures and times and how they affect individuals and institutions.

Social Inequality. The study of social inequality examines the unequal distribution of power,
privilege, andprestige in society. These sociologists study differences and inequalities in
social class, race, and gender.
Knowledge. The sociology of knowledge is a subfield devoted to researching and theorizing
the socially situated processes of knowledge formation and knowing. Sociologists in this
subfield focus on how institutions, ideology, and discourse (how we talk and write)
shape the process of coming to know the world, and the formation of values, beliefs,
common sense, and expectations. Many focus on the connection between power and
knowledge.
Demography. Demography refers to a population's composition. Some of the basic
concepts explored in demography include birth rate, fertility rate, death rate, infant mortality
rate, and migration. Demographers are interested in how and why these demographics vary
between societies, groups, and communities.
Health And Illness. Sociologists who study health and illness focus on the social effects of,
and societal attitudes towards, illnesses, diseases, disabilities, and the aging process. This
is not to be confused with medical sociology, which focuses on medical institutions such as
hospitals, clinics, and physician offices as well as the interactions among physicians.
Work And Industry. The sociology of work concerns the implications of technological
change, globalization, labor markets, work organization, managerial practices, and
employment relations. These sociologists are interested in workforce trends and how they
relate to the changing patterns of inequality in modern societies as well as how they affect
the experiences of individuals and families.
Education. The sociology of education is the study of how educational institutions
determine social structures and experiences. In particular, sociologists might look at how
different aspects of educational institutions (teacher attitudes, peer influence, school
climate, school resources, etc.) affect learning and other outcomes.
Religion. The sociology of religion concerns the practice, history, development, and roles of
religion in society. These sociologists examine religious trends over time, how various
religions affect social interactions both within the religion and outside of it, and relations
within religious institutions.
Acculturation is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and
behaviors of another group. Although acculturation is usually in the direction of a minority
group adopting habits and language patterns of the dominant group, acculturation can be

reciprocalthat is, the dominant group also adopts patterns typical of the minority group.
Acculturation may be evidenced by changes in language preference, adoption of common
attitudes and values, membership in common social groups and institutions, and loss of
separate political or ethnic identification.
Studies on acculturation have routinely found a correlation between a persons
socioeconomic status and the level of acculturation one has experienced. A highly educated
and high-income member of a minority group in the United States is likely to have
experienced more acculturation than a person from that same minority group with less
education and income.
Measuring Acculturation
How do social scientists assess acculturation? They can survey members of a particular
cultural group about the background of their parents, their upbringing as children and their
attitudes about family, to name a few. They may also ask the survey respondents about the
cultural background of the people with whom they attended school, socialized and worked.
The most comprehensive measure of acculturation for use in health services and
epidemiological research in Mexican-American populations was developed by Hazuda et al.
(1988), according to Rice University in Houston. Hazuda's scales are based on a
theoretical model that views acculturation as a multi-dimensional process involving
language, cultural beliefs and values and structural assimilationthe integration of
members of the minority group into the social structure of the majority group.
Hazuda and colleagues asked survey respondents a lengthy list of questions, including the
following:
1. Throughout your adult life, have your neighbors been mostly Mexican American, mostly
Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
2. Throughout your adult life, have your close, personal friends been mostly Mexican
American, mostly Anglo, or about equal numbers of each?
3. (Are the people with whom you work closely on the job/Are the people with whom you
work closely on your last job) mostly Mexican American, mostly Anglo, or about equal
numbers of each?
Each answer received a score ranging from 3 to 9 points. Survey respondents who mostly
had Anglo, or white, friends, coworkers and neighbors would be deemed the most

acculturated, while those who reported having mostly Mexican American friends, coworkers
and neighbors would be deemed the least acculturated

Anomie
Definition: Anomie is a social condition in which there is a lack of cohesion and order,
especially in relation to norms and values. The concept, thought of as normlessness, was
developed by Emile Durkheim as part of his explanation of pattern of suicide in nineteenthcentury Europe. He argued that suicide rates were higher among Protestants than Catholics
because Protestant culture placed a higher value on individual autonomy and self-efficacy.
This made Protestants less likely to develop close communal ties that might sustain them
during times of emotional distress, which in turn made them more susceptible to suicide.
norms are rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social
contexts. A norm either prescribes a given type of behavior or forbids it. All human groups
follow definite types of norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another
varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment or execution
Social structure is the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that
together compose society. Social structures are not immediately visible to the untrained
observer, however they are present and affect all dimensions of human experience in
society