English II Grammar

Cheat Sheet
Phrases and Clauses
Phrases
A phrase is two or more words that do not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause. Phrases can
be very short or quite long.
A phrase is a group of words that acts in a sentence as a single part of speech.
Examples:
After lunch; My brand new kitten; Before the game
Certain phrases have specific names based on the type of word that begins or governs the word group:
Prepositional phrase: Begins with a preposition. A preposition indicates location. (Example: My kitten
jumped onto the counter.)
**REMEMBER: Some prepositions also function as subordinating conjunctions: after, as, before, since,
and until. These will be followed by a subject + verb and form a subordinate clause.
Appositive phrase: A group of words that stands next to a noun to add additional information.
(Examples: This plant, a cactus, does not need much water. Cleo, my cat, loves to steal her hair ties.)
Participle Phrase: A participle is a form of a verb. A Participle Phrase will begin with a present (-ing) or
past (-ed) participle, always functioning as adjectives adding description to the sentence. (Examples:
Crunching popcorn for the entire movie. The water drained slowly in the pipe clogged with hair.)
Gerund Phrase: Begin with a gerund (-ing word) and include other modifiers. Gerund phrases always
function as nouns. (Examples: Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have
long hair. Students are responsible for mastering their subjects.)
**REMEMBER: Both a present participle and a gerund end in ing. A present participle is used as an
adjective, whereas a gerund is used as a noun.
Infinitive phrase: Uses the infinitive (to + simple form of the verb, i.e. to run, to swim, to be).
(Example: To earn an A in English, you must do your homework.)
Clauses
A clause is a group of related words with a subject and verb that is used as part of a sentence. Clauses fall into
two main categories, independent clauses and dependent clauses.
Independent clauses contain a subject and a verb and express a complete thought. An independent
clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Examples:
Our oven door is broken; No one emptied the trash
Dependent (AKA subordinate) clauses contain a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete
thought. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Examples:
When I came home from school; Although school had ended
There are 3 types of DEPENDENT CLAUSES:
Noun Clauses: Any dependent clause that functions as a noun. It can be substituted with it.
Introductory Connectives: that, what, whatever, whoever, the fact that, how, why, whomever
(Example: You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew. I like what I see.)
Adjective Clauses: A group of related words w/ a subject + verb that begins with a relative pronoun or
relative adverb and functions as an adjective (modifies the noun before it).
Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, that, which, what, whatever
(Examples: These are the times that try mens souls. The person who asked the question was Luis.)
Adverb Clauses: A group of related words w/ a subject + verb that begins with a subordinate
conjunction and functions as an adverb (How? When? Where? Why? To What Degree?).
Subordinate Conjunctions: after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as
though, because, before, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when,
whenever, where, whereas, wherever, while.
(Examples: Jan scrubbed the bathroom tile until her arms ached. When we left the noisy city, we all
relaxed. Fools rush in where angels fear to read.)
Most info. adapted from: GrammarBytes

English II Grammar
Cheat Sheet
Sentence Constructions
Sentence Kinds
There are 5 fundamental kinds of sentences:
Declarative Sentence: Makes a statement. They tell us something about a person, a place, a thing, or an
idea. (Example: English is my favorite subject.)
Interrogative Sentence: Asks a question. (Example: Did you know I have read hundreds of books?)
Imperative Sentence: Makes a command. They often contain an understood or implied subject (you).
(Examples: Go check out a book. Finish your homework right now.)
Exclamatory Sentence: Communicates a strong emotion or surprise. (Example: I cannot believe what
happened in chapter eight!)
Conditional Sentence: Expresses wishes, (Ifthen statements) or conditions contrary to fact.
(Example: If you complete all of your reading homework, then you will do well on the quizzes.)
Sentence Types
Sentence classifications are based on the number of independent and dependent clauses a sentence
contains. There are 4 types of sentences:
Simple Sentences one independent clause and no dependent clause. It may have a single or a
compound subject. It may contain one or more phrases.
Examples:
My back aches
My throat and nose feel sore and look red
I must have caught the flu from the sick kids in my class.
Compound Sentence two independent clauses. The clauses may be joined by a semicolon or by a
comma and a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Examples:
I usually dont mind missing school, but this is not fun.
I feel too sick to watch TV; I feel too sick to eat.
Complex Sentence one independent clause (underlined) and one or more dependent clauses (in bold).
Examples:
When I get back to school, Im actually going to appreciate it.
I wont even complain about math class, although I might be hallucinating
because Im feverish.
Compound-Complex Sentence two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Example:
Yes, I have a bad flu, and since I need to get well soon, I wont think about
school just yet.
Sentence Arrangements (Patterns)
Sentence arrangement refers to the location of ideas and the placement of emphasis within
a sentence. Sentences may be arranged in 4 basic ways, each creating a different emphasis:
Loose Sentence: Expresses the main thought near the beginning and adds explanatory material later.
Example: We hauled out the boxes of food and set up the camp stove, all the time battling the hot
wind that would not stop, even when w screamed into the sky.
Cumulative: Places the general idea in the middle of the sentence with modifying clauses and phrases
coming before and after.
Example: While it may seem a harmless situation, open office windows can create problems, not
the least of which is the potential for birds and other animals to enter the building.
Periodic Sentence: Postpones the crucial or most surprising idea until the end.
Example: Following my mothers repeated threats to ground me for life, I decided it was time to
propose a compromise.
Most info. adapted from: GrammarBytes

English II Grammar
Cheat Sheet
Balanced Sentence: Emphasizes a similarity or a contrast between two or more of its parts (words,
phrases, or clauses).
Example: The wind in our ears drove us crazy and pushed us on.

Most info. adapted from: GrammarBytes