Chapter 1

1
SHEAR AND STRAIN
OBJECTIVES:
The concepts of normal and shear stress and strain will be
introduced and specific application of the analysis will be
explained. The mechanical properties of selected materials will be
discussed with simple stress-strain diagram for a specific material.
The behaviour described by this diagram will then be discussed.
1.1 Types and system of forces

1.1.1 Types of forces
a)
Normal force, N
Force acts perpendicular to the area.
Developed whenever the external loads to push or pull on the
two segments of the body-can be tensile and compression
forces.
b)
Shear force, V
Shear force lies in the plane of the area.
Developed when the external loads tend to cause the two
segments of the body to slide over one another.
c)
Torque or torsional moment, T

Developed when the external loads tend to twist one segment of
the body with respect to the other.
d)
Bending moment, M
Cause by the external loads that tend to bend the body about an
axis lying within the plane of the area.
Mechanics of Materials
1.1.2
System of forces
Based on equation of equilibrium.
This chapter is the continuation from the subject of Statics and
Dynamics that you had learned before.
1.2 Types of stresses

Stress is the internal force exerted by one part of an elastic body upon the
adjoining part.
Stress has a dimension of Newton/m2 (or dyne/cm2; or Pascal with 1 Pa =

1 kg/m-sec2 =N/m2).
Generally, there are 6 independent components of stress at each point in

the body namely are normal shear, x, y, z and shear stress, xy, yz, xz.
The magnitude of these components depends upon the type of loading

acting on the body and the orientation of the element at the point.
Figure 1.1
Six independent components of stresses
1.2.1
Normal stress, (SIGMA)
NORMAL STRESS is the intensity of the net forces acting normal

(perpendicular) to an infinitely small area dA within an object per unit
area.
If the normal stress acting on dA pulls on it, then it is referred to as tensile

stress, whereas if it pushes on the area, it is called compressive stress. An
average normal stress at any point on the cross sectional area can be
calculated as follows:
Normal stress includes tensile and compressive stress, the conventional

sign for normal stresses are: tensile stresses are positive (+), compressive
stresses are negative (-). The unit of stress is pascals (Pa) (1Pa=1N/m2).
where;
= normal stress at any point on
the cross sectional area.
P = internal resultant force applied
through the centroid of the cross
sectional area.
A = area of the bar.
1.2.2
Shear stress, (TAU)
Shear, or shearing stress, results when a force tends to make part of the
body or one side of a plane slide past the other.
The formula for calculation and units remain the same as tensile stress
(Figure 1.3)
where;
= shear stress at the section.
P =internal resultant shear force at the
section.
A =area at the section
=P
A
Figure 1.3
1.2.3
Bearing stress
Torsion, or torsional stress, occurs when external forces tend to twist a
body around an axis.
1.3 Strain, (EPSILON)
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length due to deformation to the

original length of the specimen (figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4
Formula:
It is a dimensionless quantity.
Numerical values of strain are usually very small, especially for structural
materials, which ordinarily undergo only small changes in dimensions.
There are two types of strains; normal strain, and shear strain,
(GAMMA).
The elongation or contraction of a line segment is referred as normal

strain. Meanwhile, the change in angle that occurs between two line
segments is referred as shear strain. This angle is measured in
radians(rad).
There are also 6 strain components; normal strains, x, y, z and shear
strains, xy, yz, xz . These components depend upon the orientation of the
line segments and their location in the body.
EXAMPLE 1.1
A prismatic bar with a circular cross section is subjected to an axial tensile force.
The measured elongation is d = 1.5 mm. Calculate the tensile stress and strain in
the bar.
Solution;
Assuming the axial force act at the centroid of the end cross section, then the
stress is
The strain is;

m/m
EXAMPLE 1.2
A steel bar having length L of 2.0 m. When loaded in tension, the bar might
elongate by an amount d equal to 1.4 mm. The corresponding strain is
Solution;
EXAMPLE 1.3
A stainless steel tube with outside diameter of 50mm and a wall thickness of 5mm
is used as a compression member. If the axial stress in the member must be
limited to 500MPa, determine the maximum load that the member can support.
Solution;
t= 5mm
A=
(d
2
o
di
di = 50 2(5) = 40mm
A = (50 2 40 2 )
4
= 707mm2
= 7.07 x 10-4 m2.
do = 50mm
P = 500 x 106
N
(7.07 x 10-4) m 2
m2
= 353.5 kN
EXAMPLE 1.4
An aluminium bar is loaded and supported as shown below. If the axial stress in
the bar must not exceeded 150MPa (T), determine the cross sectional areas
required for each of the sections.
F=?
215kN
325kN
A
B
1m
C
1.2m
175kN
D
1.2m
Solution;
F=F
325 + 215 + 175 = F

F = 715kN
715
715
A
B
390
390
B
(715-325)kN
C
175
175
C
AAB =
715 x10 3
= 4.77 x10 3 m 2
150 x10 6
ABC =
= 4770mm2
ACD =
D
390 x103
= 2.6 x10 3 m 2
6
150 x10
= 2600 mm2
175 x103
= 1.17 x10 3 m 2
6
150 x10
= 1170 mm2
EXAMPLE 1.5
A 50m length of steel wire is subjected to a tensile load that produces a change in
length of 3.175cm. Determine the axial strain in the wire.
Solution;
50m
3.175cm
L
3.175
=
L 50(100)
= 6.35 x 10-4 cm/cm
EXAMPLE 1.6
The joint is fastened using two bolts as shown in figure. Determine the required
diameter of the bolts if allowable shear stress for the bolts is allow = 110MPa.
60kN
30kN
30kN
30kN
60kN
30kN
Solution;
The figure above is double-shear connections. So, the formula should; =
But there are two bolts fastened the joint. Use =
110 x10 6 =
P
2( 2 A) ,
P
.
2A
P
4A
60 x10 3
(d 2 )
4
4
d 2 = 5.45 x10 4
d = 0.013m
EXAMPLE 1.7
The joint is fastened using three bolts with diameter 20mm each. Determine the
shear stress within the bolt.
80kN
80kN
Solution;
The figure above is single-shear connections. So, the formula should; = P
A
But the joint is fastened by using 3 bolts;
P
80 x103
=
= 84.87 N / mm 2
=
2
3A
( 20 )
3
4
EXERCISE 1.1
a)
An aluminium tube with outside diameter of 1mm is used to support a 10N load.
If the axial stress in the member must be limited to 30N/mm2. Determine the wall
thickness required for the tube.
Solution;
[Ans : t = 0.126mm]
b)
The thrust bearing is subjected to the loads shown in figure below. Determine the
average normal stress developed on the cross sections at B, C and D.
500N
Solution;
[Ans : B = 151 kPa, C = 32.5 kPa, D = 25.5 kPa]
= 65mm
= 140 mm
150N
150N = 100 mm
200N
EXERCISE 1.2
The tension member shown in figure below consists of steel pipe,A which has an
outside diameter of 150mm and inside diameter of 120mm and a solid aluminium
alloy bar, B which has an outside diameter of 100mm. Determine the average
bearing stress between the collar on bar B and the flange on pipe A.
300mm
120kN
400mm
240kN
Solution;
[Ans : B = 104.2 MPa]
10
1.4 Normal stress and strain relationship
The stress-strain diagram can be plotted from the data test to

compute values of the stress and strain in the specimen.
The characteristic stress-strain diagram for a steel specimen is shown

in Figure 1.4.
A stress-strain curve typical of

structural steel;
1. Ultimate strength
2. Yield strength
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking region
6. Plasticity region
7. Elastic region
Figure 1.4
A stress-strain curve typical
of structural steel
HOMEWORK
Using your own words,
explain the stress-strain
typical curve as shown in
Figure 1.4
11
OFFSET METHOD
Some material such as aluminium, glass and rubber, the yield point
can be determined by using a graphical procedure called the offset
method.
Offset refers to the distance between the origin of the Stress-Strain

Diagram, and the point of intersection of the parallel line and the 0
stress axis. Offset is expressed in terms of strain (often 0.2% or
0.002mm/mm).
The point where the line intersects the curve defines as the yield
strength.
EXAMPLE 1.8
A tension test for a selected material result is shown in table below. One rod with
diameter 5mm and length 100mm are given. Draw stress-strain curve and
determine;
a)
b)
c)
modulus of elasticity, E
yield strength based on a 0.2% offset.
maximum strength, max
LOAD (N)
ELONGATION, (mm)
1100
2200
3300
3740
4180
4620
4840
5060
5280
5060
4840
0.0625
0.125
0.1875
0.2375
0.2875
0.4275
0.53
0.7625
0.89
1.025
1.1525
Solution;
All results of stress and strain have to be computed.
52
= 19.63mm 2
Cross sectional area of rod, A = x
4
For Load= 1100N
0.0625
= 0.000625
Strain, = =
L
100
12
P 1100
=
= 56 N / mm 2
A 19.63
Continue calculate the stress and strain for next numbers of load.
Stress, =
LOAD
(N)
1100
2200
3300
3740
4180
4620
4840
5060
5280
5060
4840
ELONGATION,
(mm)
0.0625
0.125
0.1875
0.2375
0.2875
0.4275
0.53
0.7625
0.89
1.025
1.1525
STRESS,
STRAIN,
0.000625
56.04
0.00125
112.07
0.001875
168.11
0.002375
190.52
0.002875
212.94
0.004275
235.35
0.0053
246.56
0.007625
257.77
0.0089
268.98
0.01025
257.77
0.011525
246.56
Stress-strain curve
300
max
250
stress, N/mm
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
strain
a)
E = 112/0.00125 = 89 600 N/mm2
b)
yield strength is determined from the graph by using offset 0.2%

y = 240 N/mm2
c)
maximum stress/strength
max = 270 N/mm2
13
1.5 Hookes Law
E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for

the material. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain
diagram in the linearly elastic region, and its value depends upon the
particular material being used. The units of E are the same as the units of
stress, inasmuch as strain is dimensionless. Hence, the units of E are psi or
ksi in USCS units and pascals in SI units.
Discovered by the famous English scientist Robert Hooke in 1676. Hooke

was the first person to investigate the elastic properties of materials, and he
tested such diverse materials as metal, wood, stone, bones, and sinews. He
measured the stretching of long wires supporting weights and observed
that the elongations "always bear the same proportions one to the other
that the weights do that make them." Thus, Hooke established the linear
relationship between the applied load and the resulting elongation.
As we know, =
and =
P
, substitute the formula into Hookes Law.
A
= E
P E
=
A
L
PL
AE
where;
L = distance between the
points
= Displacement of the point
on the bar relative to another
point.
If the bar subjected to several difference axial forces, cross sectional area,
modulus of elasticity from one region to the next, the formula become;
PL
AE
14
EXAMPLE 1.9
The rigid yokes B and C are securely fastened to the 50mm square steel
(E=210MPa) bar AD. Determine;
maximum normal stress in the bar
a)
b)
change in length of the complete bar
210kN
125kN
B
370kN
A
210kN
50mm
3m
2m
200kN
D
125kN
1.5m
Solution;
370kN
370kN
PAB = 370kN (T)
B
Origin
2(210) = 420kN
50
50
kN (C)
B
To balance, PBC=370-420 = -50
C
Origin
2(125)= 250kN
250
250
To balance, PCD= 250 50 = 200kN
(T)
a)
b)
50mm square steel, A = 50(50) = 2500mm2 = 2500 x 10-6 m2.

P
370 x103
max = max =
= 148MPa (T )
A
2500 x10 6
change in length,
=
=
PL
AE
1
x PL
AE
15
1
[370(3) 50(2) + 200(1.5)] 103
6
2500(10 )( 210)(10 )
6
= 2.495m
EXERCISE 1.3
Four axial forces are applied to the 25mm thick structural steel bar with 40mm
diameter pins as shown in figure below. If the maximum allowable tensile stress
in the bar is 135MPa and the maximum allowable deformation(extension or
contraction) of the bar is 1.25mm, determine the minimum width, w of the bar. E
= 200GPa.
140kN
90kN
270kN
250mm
500mm
750mm
220kN
t = 25mm
w=?
Solution:
[Ans : wmin = 65.2mm]
16
EXAMPLE 1.10
Nine 2.54cm diameter steel reinforcing bars are used in the short concrete pier as
shown in figure below. A load P of 200kN is applied to the pier through a rigid
capping plate. Given Es = 210MPa and Ec = 35MPa. Determine;
stress in the concrete and steel parts
a)
b)
shortening of the pier
(3x3)m
P
Rigid cap
Solution;
As =
(0.0254 2 )
9[
] = 4.56 x10 3 m 2
4
Ac = 9 As = 8.995m2
a) =
PL
L
=
AE
E
s = c
SL
7.32m
ES
S =
CL
EC
ES
210 x10 6
C =
C
EC
35 x10 6
S = 6 C .(1)
PS + PC = 200 x10 3....( 2)
S AS + C AC = 200 000
6 C ( 4.56 x10 3 ) + C (8.995) = 200 000
0.02736 C + 8.995 C = 200 000
C = 22.17 kN / m 2
S = 133 .02 kN / m 2
b)
CL
EC
22.17 x10 3 (7.32)

= 4.64 x10 3 m = 4.64mm
6
35 x10
17
EXERCISE 1.4
An axial load P = 1000kN is applied to the rigid steel bearing plate on the top of
the short column as shown in figure below. The outside segment of the column is
made of structural steel with an allowable stress of 175MPa and a modulus of
elasticity of 200GPa. The inside core is made of concrete with an allowable stress
of 20MPa and a modulus of elasticity of 16GPa. If the area of the concrete is to be
10 times the area of the steel, determine the required dimensions if both segments
are square.
P =1000kN
Solution;
Consider deformation;
steel
PL
L
=
AE
E
s = c
SL
ES
concrete
S =
CL
EC
ES
C
EC
200 x109
C
16 x109
= 12.5 C
=
if s = 175MPa
C = 14 MPa but allowable stress in concrete, allow= 20MPa.
So, 14MPa < 20MPa.
Now, consider equilibrium;
Continue the calculation..
18
1.6 Poisson Ratio
The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain when the material is
uniaxially loaded.
lat
= y
long
x
contraction
=
-ve sign can be elongation or
where;
long = longitudinal elongation
lat = lateral contraction

1.7 Axial Stress and strain relationship for an element subjected bi-axial
and tri-axial stresses
1.7.1
When an element of material is subjected to pure shear, equilibrium

requires that equal shear stresses must be developed on four faces of the
element.
These stresses must be directed toward or away from opposite corners of
the element.
If the material is homogeneous and isotropic the shear stress will distort
the element uniformly.
Generalized Hookes Law-biaxial
Hookes Laws defines the relationship between stress and strain in a

material. For stress applied in a one direction, Hookes Law is
=
There are many situations in which a material is subjected to stresses from

several direction. For these situations, Hookes Law can be extended to
include biaxial and triaxial states of the stress that are often founds in
engineering.
We consider a cube of material taken from a typical structure as figure 1.6

below:
Figure 1.6
19
We will assume that the material properties are same in all directions and
that the relationship between stress and strain remains linear. Consider a
cube of material that is subjected to stresses in the x and y directions only.
This condition is termed biaxial stress.
1.7.1.2 Stress Applied at x Direction

If a normal stress x is applied in
the x direction, the element

undergoes a tensile strain of :
In the y and z direction, the element contacts

due to the Poisson effect. The contractions
strain in the y direction is:
Similarly, the contraction strain in the z

direction is
1.7.1.3 Stress Applied at y Direction
If a normal stress x is applied

in the x direction, the element
undergoes a tensile strain of:
20
In the x and z direction, the element

contacts due to the Poisson effect. The
contractions strain in the y direction is:
Similarly, the contraction strain in the z

direction is
1.7.1.3 Stress Applied at x and y Direction
Superimposing the strains created by both x and y gives the following

expressions for the strain in x, y and z direction:
or
Strains x and y produce stresses in the x and y

directions:
21
1.7.2
Generalized Hookes Law-triaxial
Normal stress applied at x,y and z direction

is called triaxial or multiaxial stress.
Direction of stress:
Stress on face normal to x
Stress on face normal to y
Stress on face normal to z
The strain due to z :
x =
y =
z =
In direction of
x
y
z
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
z
E
z
E
Strains due to all stress will be summarizes as
1.7.3 Shearing Strain
Shear strain is a strain that acts parallel to

the surface of a material that it is acting on.
Normal strain, in contrast, acts
perpendicular to the surface.
In general state of stress shearing stresses

xy, yz, xz will be present.
A small deformation occurs so shearing

stresses have no direct effect on normal stress.
22
Shearing stresses deform a cubic

element into an oblique parallelepiped.
The corresponding shear strain is

quantified in terms of change in angle
between the side;
Consider;
- Cube with slides of unit length
- xy and yx are applied to the faces of the
element perpendicular to the x and y axes
(yx = xy)
- The element deforms int a rhomboid of side
equal to one
- Two of the angles formed by the four faces

under stress are reduced from /2 xy, while the
other two are increase to /2 to /2 + xy.
- The small angle xy defines the shearing strain
- Shearing strain is positive when the angle formed
by two faces oriented along the positive x and y
direction decreases.
- Similar for yz and xz planes
A plot of shear stress Vs shear strain is similar to the previous plots of

normal stress Vs normal strain except that the strength values are
approximately half.
For homogeneous isotropic material, where the values of shearing stress
do not exceed the proportional limit shear:
xy = Gxy
G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (unit PSI);
1/3E < G < 1/2
23
Shear in the yz plane

yz = zy
Shearing strains yz , change of
angle formed by faces under
stress.
yz = Gyz
Shear in the xz plane

xz = zx
Shearing strains zx , change of

angle formed by faces under
stress.
zx = Gzx
Generalized Hookes Law

General state of the stress
Homogeneous and isotropic material
Stresses are below proportional limit
Principle of superposition
24
1.8 Working stress, permissible stress and temperature stress
Working Stress
It is the maximum stress permitted under design load.
Permissible/Allowable stress
One method to specify the allowable load for the design or analysis
of a member is to use a number called the factor of safety (F.S).
The formula is;
F .S =
Fallow
The factor of safety is a ratio of the failure load, Ffail divided by the
allowable load, Fallow. Ffail is found from experimental testing of the
material.
If the applied load to the member is linearly related to the stress
developed within the member, as in the case using = P and
A
= P A , so we can express F.S by using like this;
F .S =
F fail
fail
allow
F .S =
fail
allow
In order to avoid the potential for failure, F.S is chosen to be

greater than 1. Specific value of F.S depends on the types of
materials to be used and the intended purpose of the structure or
machine. For example, F.S used in the design of aircraft
components may be close to 1 in order to reduce the weight of the
vehicle.
Temperature/Thermal stress
A change in temperature can cause a material to change its
dimensions. Generally, a material expands when the temperature
increases and the material will contract when the temperature
decreases.
T = T L
where;
=change in length of the member
=linear coefficient of thermal expansion. Unit 1/C or 1/K
=change in temperature of the member
L =original length of the member
25
EXAMPLE 1.11
Two aluminum bars of AB and AC have diameter of 10mm and 8mm,
respectively. Determine the largest vertical force P that can be applied. The
allowable shear stress for the aluminum is allow = 150MPa.
AAC =
C
45C
AAB
(0.008) 2
= 5.03x10 5 m 2
4
(0.01) 2
=
= 7.855 x10 5 m 2
4
P
Solution;
Fx = 0
FAB
FAC = FAB cos 45

= 0.707 FAB
Fy = 0
P = FAB sin 45
FAC
FAB = P / 0.707 .(1) substitute into equation;
FAC = 0.707 FAB
P
= 0.707
0.707
45C
P
FAC = P (2)
allow =
P
AAC
P = 150 x106 (5.03x10 5 )

= 7545N
so, subs P into (1) and (2);
FAC =7.55 kN and FAB = 10.672 kN
P = 150 x10 6 (7.855 x10 5 )
= 11782 .5 N
so, subs P into (1) and (2);
FAC =11.78 kN and FAB = 16.67 kN
From P= 7.55 kN and 11.782 kN, take the lowest P so the load can support the
allowable shear stress of 150MPa.
26
EXERCISE 1.5
Two steel wires AB and AC are used to support load as shown in figure below. If
bolt wire have an allowable tensile stress of allow= 200MPa. Determine the
required diameter of each wire if the applied load is P = 5kN.
C
B
60C
5
3
4
P
Solution;
[Ans: dAB = 5.26mm, dAC = 5.48mm]
27
EXAMPLE 1.12
A steel tie rod with length of 2m attached to rigid walls. The change in
temperature between the summer and winter is 50C. Determine the stress in the
rod. Use = 11.7(10-6)/ C and E = 200GPa.
Solution;
= T L
= 11.7(10-6) (50 )(2)
= 1.17 x 10-3 m = 1.17mm
PL
L
=
AE
E
E
=
L
1.17 x10 3 ( 200 x109 )
=
2
= 1.17 MPa
EXERCISE 1.6
There are two bars of steel with different length and diameter in figure below. The
change in temperature between the winter and summer is decreased to -75C.
Determine the stress in each bar. Use = 11.7(10-6)/ C and E = 200GPa.
A
d = 25mm
100mm
d = 18mm
200mm
Solution;
28
1.9 Equations for Plane Stress
1.9.1 Background
The stress element represents a point on or in structural components. If the
overall component is in equilibrium, then we have to consider the portion
also in equilibrium.
Equilibrium involves forces not stresses. Therefore, we must convert each

stress to a force component by multiplying the stress and its corresponding
area.
The forces are then placed on a free body diagram of the stress element.
Since the stress element is infinitesimally small, we can assert that the
normal stresses acting on opposite faces are equal in magnitude.
Consequently, the forces arising from these normal stresses cancel out
each other.
The most general state of stress at a

point may be represented by 6
components,
x,y,z normal stresses
x,y,z
shearing stress
( Note: xy =yx, yz =zy, zx =xz)
Same state of stress is represented by a

different set of components if axes are
rotated.
29
Plane stress is state of stress in which two faces

of cubics element are free of stress, For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined
by x,y,z and z = zx = zy= 0.
State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate

subjected to forces acting in the midplane
of the plate.
State of plane stress also occurs on the free

surface of a structural element or machine
component, i.e., at any point of the s urface
not subjected to an external force.
1.9.2 Derivation of transformation equation
Let us assume that a state of plane stress exists at point Q (with z = zx =

zy= 0) and that it is defined by stress components x,y,z.
The element has been rotated through an angle about z axis. New x,y,
and xy present. (x,y, and xy)
30
In order to determine the normal

stress,x and the shearing stress xy,
exerted on the face perpendicular to
the x axis, we consider the
conditions for equilibrium of a
prismatic element with faces
perpendicular to the x, y, and x axes.
= 0 = x A x (A cos ) cos xy (A cos ) sin
= 0 = xy A + x (A cos ) sin xy (A cos ) cos
y (A sin ) sin xy (A sin ) cos
y (A sin ) cos + xy (A sin ) sin
Solving the first equation for x and the second for xy, we have
( 1.1)
(1.2)
Recalling the trigonometric relations

sin 2 = 2 sin cos and cos 2 = cos2 - sin2
(1.3)
and
(1.4)
We write Eq 1.1 as follows
or
(1.5)
31
Using the relations (1.3) we write Eq 1.2 as
The expression for the normal stress yis obtained by replacing in Eq

1.5 by the angle + 90o that the y axis forms with the x axis. Since cos
(2 + 180o) = - cos2 and sin (2 + 180o) = -sin2, we have
Transformations equations
x =
y =
x + y
2
x + y
2
xy =
x y
2
x y
x y
2
cos 2 + xy sin 2
cos 2 xy sin 2
sin 2 + xy cos 2
1.9.3 Principal Stresses

The previous equations are combined to yield parametric equations for a
circle
( x ave )2 + x2y = R 2
where
ave =
x + y
2
x y
2
+ xy
R =
2
32
Principal stresses occur on the principal planes of stress with zero

shearing stresses.
1.9.4 Maximum Shearing Stress
Maximum shearing stress occurs when x = ave
Orientation of element (Block rotation)
33
EXAMPLE 1.13
For the state of plane stress shown, determine (a) the principal planes, (b) the
principal stresses, (c) the maximum shearing stress and the corresponding normal
stress.
Solution:
i. Find the element orientation for the principal stresses from

2 xy
tan 2 p =
x y
ii. Determine the principal stresses from
max,
min =
x +
x y
2
+ xy
2
iii. Calculate the maximum shearing stress with

2
x y
2
+ xy
2
max =
x + y
2
34
Find the element orientation for the principal stresses from

2 xy
2(+ 40 )
=
tan 2 p =
= 1.333
x y 50 ( 10 )
2 p = 53.1, 233.1
= 26 . 6 , 116 . 6
Determine the principal stresses from
max,min =
x + y
x y
2
+ xy

2
(30)2 + (40)2
= 20
max = 70 MPa
min = 30 MPa
Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
max
s =
x y
(30 )2
2
+ xy
(40 )2
max = 50 MPa
45
s = 18.4, 71.6
The corresponding normal stress is
= ave =
x + y
2
50 10
2
= 20 MPa
35
EXAMPLE 1.14
At a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress, there are normal and
shear stresses acting on horizontal and vertical planes as shown on the stress
element below. Use the stress transformation equations to determine the normal
and shearing acting on plane AB.
Solution:
1st Step;
The numerical stress values are:
x = +40 MPa
y = -25 MPa
xy = -15 MPa
2nd Step : Find the angle,
9 Starting from x axis,
rotate 35o counterclockwise to
reach the n axis
9 Note :The sign of convention for
is as follows:
- is +ve if we rotate the x axis
in counterclokwise direction.
= is ve if we rotate in clockwise
direction to get form the x axis to
the n axis
9 So = +35o
36
1.10 Mohr circle for plane stress
With the physical significance of Mohrs circle for plane stress

established, it may be applied with simple geometric considerations.
Critical values are estimated graphically or calculated.
For a known state of plane stress x,y,z plot the points X and Y and
construct the circle centered at C.
ave =
x + y
2
The principal stresses are obtained at A and B
max,min = ave R
tan 2 p =
x y
2
+ xy
R =
2
2 xy
x y
The direction of rotation of Ox to Oa is the same as CX to CA.
37
With Mohrs circle uniquely defined, the state of stress at other axes
orientations may be depicted.
For the state of stress at an angle with respect to the xy axes, construct a
new diameter XY at an angle 2 with respect to XY.
Normal and shear stresses are obtained from the coordinates XY.
Mohrs circle for centric axial loading
38
Construction of circle coordinate

i. Establish a coordinate system to represent the axis of and . There
two choice:
a) The normal stress, positive to right and shear stress, positive
downward.
b) The normal stress, positive to left and shear stress, positive upward
39
EXAMPLE 1.14
For the state of plane stress shown, (a) construct Mohrs circle, determine (b) the
principal planes, (c) the principal stresses, (d) the maximum shearing stress and
the corresponding normal stress.
SOLUTION:
i) Construction of Mohrs circle
ave =
x + y
(50) + ( 10) = 20 MPa
2
2
CF = 50 20 = 30 MPa FX = 40 MPa
R = CX =
(30)2 + (40)2 = 50 MPa
40
ii. Principal planes and stresses
max = OA = OC + CA = 20 + 50
max = 70 MPa
min = OB = OC BC = 20 50
min = 30 MPa
40
FX
=
30
CP
2 p = 53 . 1
tan 2 p =
p = 26 . 6
41
iii. Maximum shear Stress
max = R
max = 50 MPa
= ave
= 20 MPa
s = p + 45
s = 71.6
42
EXAMPLE 1.15
For the state of stress shown, determine (a) the principal planes and the principal
stresses, (b) the stress components exerted on the element obtained by rotating the
given element counterclockwise through 30 degrees.
SOLUTION:
i. Construct Mohrs circle
ave =
R=
x + y
2
100 + 60
= 80 MPa
2
(CF )2 + (FX )2 = (20)2 + (48)2 = 52 MPa
43
ii. Principal planes and stresses
max = OA = OC + CA
= 80 + 52
max = +132 MPa
max = OA = OC BC
= 80 52
min = +28 MPa
XF 48
=
= 2.4
CF 20
2 p = 67.4
tan 2 p =
p = 33.7 clockwise
44
iii. Stress components after rotation by 30o

Points X and Y on Mohrs circle that correspond to stress components on the
rotated element are obtained by rotating XY counterclockwise through
2 = 60o
= 180 60 67.4 = 52.6

x = OK = OC KC = 80 52 cos 52.6
y = OL = OC + CL = 80 + 52 cos 52.6
xy = KX = 52 sin 52.6
x = +48.4 MPa
y = +111.6 MPa
xy = 41.3 MPa
45
TUTORIAL
1)
a)
The circular stepped steel bar in figure has a diameter of 35mm
between A and B, 60mm between B and C and 45mm between C and D. It
is acted upon by the axial forces shown in the figure. Determine the net
elongation of the steel bar. Take E = 200 kN/mm2.
b)
For the state of plane stress shown in figure below, determine;

i)
principal normal stresses and their orientations
ii)
maximum shearing stress and its orientation
iii)
stresses acting on a plane inclined at 30 clockwise from the
x-plane.
In each case, a sketch of Mohrs circle for the stress is required.

[Ans: i) 1 = 105MPa, 2 = -75 MPa, p = -10, ii) max = 90 MPa, s = -55,
iii) x = 83.5 MPa, y = -53.5 MPa, xy = 58.6 MPa]
46
2)
a)
The cinder block has the dimensions shown in figure below. If the
force P=3560N is acted at the centre of the block, determine the average
normal stress in the material.
[Ans: = 684.6kPa]
1
4
1
(all units in cm)

1
b)
The normal and shear stresses at a point in a structural subjected to

a state of plane stress are shown in figure below. Determine using
stress transformation equation or Mohrs circle.
i)
principal stresses and their directions.
ii)
maximum shearing stress and its direction.
iii)
stress on a plane making an angle of 30 anticlockwise from
plane AD.
[Ans: i) 1 = 33 MPa, 2 = -23 MPa, p = 68, ii) max = 28 MPa, s = 22.5,

iii) x = 12.5 MPa, y = -2.32 MPa, xy = 27.3 MPa]
47
3)
a)
The built-up shaft consists of a pipe AB and solid rod BC. The pipe
has an inner diameter of 20mm and outer diameter of 28mm. The rod has a
diameter of 12mm. Determine the average normal stress at points D and E
and represent the stress on a volume element located at each of these
points.
[Ans: D = -13.25MPa and E =70.8MPa]
A
4kN
C
6kN
D
b)
8kN
6kN E
An element ABCD as shown in figure below is subjected to

stresses;
x = 60MPa, y = -20MPa and xy= 24MPa. Using
Mohrs circle, determine the following quantities.
i)
principal stresses
ii)
maximum shear stress
iii)
stresses acting on an element inclined at angle = 25.
[Ans: i) 1 = 67 MPa, 2 = 27 MPa, p = -16, ii) max = 47 MPa, s = -60,

iii) x = 27.33 MPa, y = 12.7 MPa, xy = -46 MPa]
48
4)
a)
A 250mm bar of 15 x 30mm rectangular cross section consists of
two aluminum layers, 5mm thick, brazed to a center brass layer of the
same thickness. If it is subjected to centric forces of magnitude P=30kN
and knowing that EA = 70GPa and Es=105GPa, determine the normal
stress;
i)
in the aluminum layer.
ii)
in the brass layer.
(HINT: By considering the total of load P = 2PA + PB and
deformation A= B , solve the problem statements]
[Ans: B= 85.7MPa (C), A= 57.2MPa (C)]
brass
aluminum
5mm
5mm
P
30mm
250mm
b) Normal and shearing stresses on horizontal and vertical planes

through a point in a structural member subjected to plane stress is shown
in figure. Determine and show with a sketch;
i) principal stresses
ii) maximum in plane shear stress and average normal stress on the
element. Specify the orientation of the element in each case.
[Ans: i) 1 = 8.1 MPa, 2 = -2.1 MPa, p = -40, ii) max = 5.1 MPa, s = 84.4, avg = 3MPa]
2MPa
4MPa
7MPa
49
5)
a)
The statically determinate truss is shown in figure below. The load
acted in the member BD, BE and DE are PBD = 150kN, PBE = -200kN and
PDE = 225kN, respectively. Negative sign indicated the member acted in
compression. Determine the cross sectional area for these members (BD,
BE and DE) if the tensile stress not exceeded to 200 N/mm2 and
compressive stress not exceeded to 120 N/mm2.
[Ans: ABD = 750 mm2, ABE = 1667mm2, ADE = 1125mm2]
F
E
B
D
b)
From the given numbers of shearing stress, normal stress and
degree.
i)
draw the free body diagram.
ii)
determine the normal stress and shearing stress subjected to
the plane stress.
iii)
principal stresses.
iv)
maximum shear stresses.
[Ans: ii) x = 6.15 MPa, xy = -35.34 MPa iii) 1 = 40.36 MPa, 2 = 30.36 MPa, p = -4, iv) max = 35.36 MPa, s = -49]
x =
y =
xy =
=
40MPa
-30MPa
- 5MPa
40
50

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1

SHEAR AND STRAIN

1.1 Types and system of forces

Torque or torsional moment, T

1.2 Types of stresses

Stress has a dimension of Newton/m2 (or dyne/cm2; or Pascal with 1 Pa =

Generally, there are 6 independent components of stress at each point in

The magnitude of these components depends upon the type of loading

Normal stress, (SIGMA)

NORMAL STRESS is the intensity of the net forces acting normal

If the normal stress acting on dA pulls on it, then it is referred to as tensile

Normal stress includes tensile and compressive stress, the conventional

1.3 Strain, (EPSILON)

Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length due to deformation to the

The elongation or contraction of a line segment is referred as normal

The strain is;

325 + 215 + 175 = F

1.4 Normal stress and strain relationship

The stress-strain diagram can be plotted from the data test to

The characteristic stress-strain diagram for a steel specimen is shown

A stress-strain curve typical of

Offset refers to the distance between the origin of the Stress-Strain

E = 112/0.00125 = 89 600 N/mm2

yield strength is determined from the graph by using offset 0.2%

1.5 Hookes Law

E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for

Discovered by the famous English scientist Robert Hooke in 1676. Hooke

PAB = 370kN (T)

To balance, PBC=370-420 = -50

50mm square steel, A = 50(50) = 2500mm2 = 2500 x 10-6 m2.

22.17 x10 3 (7.32)

1.6 Poisson Ratio

-ve sign can be elongation or

lat = lateral contraction

When an element of material is subjected to pure shear, equilibrium

Hookes Laws defines the relationship between stress and strain in a

There are many situations in which a material is subjected to stresses from

We consider a cube of material taken from a typical structure as figure 1.6

1.7.1.2 Stress Applied at x Direction

the x direction, the element

In the y and z direction, the element contacts

Similarly, the contraction strain in the z

1.7.1.3 Stress Applied at y Direction

If a normal stress x is applied

In the x and z direction, the element

Similarly, the contraction strain in the z

1.7.1.3 Stress Applied at x and y Direction

Superimposing the strains created by both x and y gives the following

Strains x and y produce stresses in the x and y

Generalized Hookes Law-triaxial

Normal stress applied at x,y and z direction

The strain due to z :

Strains due to all stress will be summarizes as

1.7.3 Shearing Strain

Shear strain is a strain that acts parallel to

In general state of stress shearing stresses

A small deformation occurs so shearing

Shearing stresses deform a cubic

The corresponding shear strain is

- Two of the angles formed by the four faces

A plot of shear stress Vs shear strain is similar to the previous plots of

Shear in the yz plane

Shear in the xz plane

Shearing strains zx , change of