H

IL LIN

I S

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE
University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign Library
Large-scale Digitization Project, 2007.

ABSTRACT

PROGRESSIVE,
DAMAGE OCCURS

PERMANENT STRUCTURAL

IN PLAIN CONCRETE WHICH

IS SUBJECTED TO TIME FLUCTUATING

STRESSES AND STRAINS.

THIS

FATIGUE

PROCESS HAS BEEN UNDER INVESTIGATION

SINCE ABOUT 1900 WITH MOST
BEING PHENOMENALISTIC.
MORE
THE

STUDIES

STUDIES OF A

FUNDAMENTAL NATURE WHICH EMPHASIZE

INITIATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF

FATIGUE DAMAGE ARE REVIEWED.

INVESTIGATIONS OF REPEATING LOADS,
STATIC

LOADS, FRACTURE MECHANICS,

DRYING SHRINKAGE, AND EFFECT OF TIME

RATE OF APPLIED

STRESS MODULUS OF

RUPTURE ARE CORRELATED WITH A PROPOSED

FAILURE MECHANISM.

FATIGUE FAILURE OF

PLAIN CONCRETE IS RELATED TO THE

PRESENCE OF DISCONTINUITIES, THE
PRESENCE OF STRESSES,

SOME OF A

RE-

PEATING NATURE, AND THE RESISTANCE OF

CONCRETE TO FRACTURE OR GROWTH OF DISCONTINUITIES.
THE PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF
FLEXURAL FATIGUE

IS

REVIEWED WITH EM-

PHASIS ON THOSE ASPECTS WHICH HAVE

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE ON CONCRETE
PAVEMENT DESIGN.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This
under

the

Project

is the

IHR-73,

Station of

undertaken by the

the University of

tion,

Department of Transportation,
Bureau of Public
The general

L.

administrative

in

cooperation with

Federal

Theoretical

Ellis Danner, Director,

Illinois was

Highway Engineer, John E.

Engineering,

by

R. J. Martin,

Station, T. J.

Dolan,

Engineering.

Burke,

John McKay,

the Division of High-

provided by Virden Staff, Chief

Engineer of Research and

Engineer of Research Coordination.

The Project Advisory Committee which

comprised

Highway Administra-

and Applied Mechanics, and

The administrative supervision by

Development, and

the

Illinois Cooperative Highway Research

Program and Professor of Civil

State of

Illinois and

supervision was provided

College of

the Engineering Experiment

Head, Department of

in Concrete."

Roads.

Everitt, Dean of the

Director of

ways,

investigation

Engineering Experiment

Illinois,

Illinois Division of Highways, State of

U.S.

W.

summary report of the

"Mechanism of Fatigue Failure

The project was

the

final

Illinois Cooperative Highway Research Program

the following members:

served

the project

Representing

the

Illinois

John E. Burke,
W. E.

Division of Highways:

Engineer of

Baumann, Assistant

Robert E.
Representing

Dellert,

the

Representing

the

Chester P.
George M.

Liaison

Bureau of

J. L. Hirsch,

Research

and Development

Engineer of

Design

Engineer

Public Roads:

Bridge Engineer

University of
Siess,

Illinois:

Professor of

Sinclair, Professor

Civil

Engineering

of Theoretical

and

Applied Mechanics.
Clyde E. Kesler,

Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics

and of Civil

served as

Chairman of the Advisory Committee;

Research Associate,
Mechanics, served
Committee and as

Engineering, was

Investigator;

Professor of Theoretical

served as

consultant

Highways,
and

Supervisor and

John P. Lloyd,
and Applied

as Secretary of the Project Advisory

Assistant

this Bulletin:

Project

Department of Theoretical

Project

Appreciation

and Applied

to the

and Applied

L. Lott,

Mechanics,

Project.

is also extended

John

and James

E. Burke,

to the

Illinois

reviewers of

Division of

Professor John F. McLaughlin, Purdue University,

Professor John W. Murdock, University of

Illinois.

CONTENTS

I.

II.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

General

1.2

Structure of

ILLINOIS

V.

VI.
VII.

. .

. .

Fatigue Studies

2.2

Static

2.3

Fracture Mechanics

2.4

Drying

11

2.5

Relationship Between the Modulus of

Rupture and the Time Rate of
Applied Stress . . . . . . . . . . .

12

Relationship of Dynamic Properties

to Fatigue
. . . . . . . . . . .

12

Tests

Shrinkage

SIGNIFICANCE OF

13

13

14

Relationship Between the Modulus

and Rupture and the Time Rate
of Applied Stress
. . . . . . .

15

Relationship of Dynamic Properties

to Fatigue . . . . . . . .. . . . .

15

ILLINOIS

STUDIES

3.1

Mechanics of Fatigue Fracture

3.2

Drying

3.3

3.4
IV.

Concrete
.

STUDIES

2.1

2.6
III.

Shrinkage

PROPOSED MECHANISM OF

16

EXISTING
. . . . .

18

18

18

Loading

19

19

Stresses
. . . . .

5.1

Magnitude of

Fatigue Strength

5.2

Rest Periods

5.3

Range of

5.4

Rate of

5.5

Varying Maximum Flexural

and the Miner Hypothesis

5.6

Initiation of Fatigue

5.7

Relative Strains in Static

and Repeated Loading . . .

NECESSARY
REFERENCES

Loading

RESEARCH
.

FAILURE

PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
KNOWLEDGE . . . . . . . .

Failure

19

20

20

21

23

FIGURES

1.

Details of Mortar
Concrete.

Beams Used

to Model

the Structure of

2.

Qualitative Load-Deflection Curve for Test

(Reference 19).

3.

Relationship Between Rate of Applied Load and Indicated

Modulus of Rupture for Plain Concrete Specimens
(Reference 6).

4.

Relationship Between Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity,

Logarithmic Decrement, and Modulus of Rupture (Reference

Specimens

5).
5.

Effect of Rate of Loading on the

Concrete (Reference 25).

Modulus of

6.

Typical Fatigue Curve

Flexural Loading.

7.

Effect of Rest Periods on

Cycles (Reference 28).

8.

Modified Goodman Diagram Showing the Effect of the Range

of Stress on the Fatigue Strength of Plain Concrete Under
10 Million Cycles of Repeated Loading (Reference 4).

9.

Stress Histories
(Reference 28).

10.

S-N Relationships for Constant Probabilities of Failure

(Specimens Subjected to Program 3 with Lower Load 17
Percent of Upper Load) (Reference 28).

11.

Maximum Tensile Strains

for Concrete

at

Subjected

Fatigue Strength

Investigated

by

Rupture of

at

Hilsdorf and

Failure

to Repeated

10 Million

Kesler

(Reference 35).

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1

to herein,

GENERAL

jected
time
the
in

in a material

which

fluctuating

1.2

culminate

fatigue process
has

gation since about

ity of

crete under
repeated

This

observed

loading,

under

repeated

paper will

design of

produce

show that

crete

re-

plain concrete

subjected

loading,

loading

importance

in

It

is placed on

initiation and
damage, which

fatigue

are summarized

in Chapter

Mechanism of Failure.

IV,

This

Proposed

approach

subjected to

is

occurrences which
to the

relatively easy

to describe.

the

characteristic

from one

another by a

mortar.

Viewed on this

strength

of concrete derives

and

the mortar
from the

adhesion between

them.
Examination of
what may
crete.
sized

be considered small
It

sand

cement

the mortar

grains and

paste and

has

characteristics

rated from one another by

considered but only briefly

referred

the aggregate particles

binding matrix.
the

scale con-

hydrated portland
the

study.
data

reveals

is a mixture of various

reason for

the

from the

and aggregate

that

large amounts of

is sepalayer of

scale, the

the major

undertaking

is a

coarse aggregate material

each aggregate particle

cohesion of

level

the structure of con-

to fatigue of concrete was

Because of

internal

of concrete.

and mortar, having

phases

re-

is necessary to

is observed that concrete

many highway structures.

propagation of

is

it

physical

mixture of

rated

state of

fatigue mecha-

From the gross or macroscopic

tensile

loading.

the

fatigue damage

structure

reversed flexural

condition of particular

Emphasis

in con-

recent

loading,

relate the

that

consider

repeated flexural

in concrete which

of observation,

and small

experimental work

knowledge for

the

the major-

CONCRETE

To understand

work having been

search and the present

to

under investi-

repeated compressive and

also occurs

loading and

in

twenty years.

been

flexural

amounts of
it

the past

process has

occurring

1900 with

the significant

done during
This

been

nism by which damage and failure occur

peated

sufficient number of fluctuations.

plain concrete

STRUCTURE OF

stresses and strains;

changes may

cracks or complete fracture after a

The

this must be considered

report.

is sub-

to conditions which produce

structural

summary

change

structural

sive, permanent
occurring

of progres-

is a process

Fatigue

the

are sepapaste or

Direct observation of

tensile or flexural

failure surface

of mortar

reveals

that

fracture occurs

through the paste or at

between
few

the sand

and

Once

again the strength

the paste and from the adhesion

and

paste are derived

from chemical

of these reactions

may

cement.

products

be divided

into

phase, which

can be divided

interstices,

is

submicroscopic and hetero-

phase, designated as

The gel

the

microscopically amorphous
The gel

gel.

structurally
genous,

level,

phases, crystalline calcium

hydroxide and
cement

reac-

and portland

between water

the microscopic

two major

into a solid

gel

particles, and

designated as gel

pores.

particles are colloidal

in size

and have a crystalline structure which

is

similar

mineral

gel

the strength of

the paste

reasonably attributed

phase and

strength to

the

to

magnitude of

the gel

tion, Powers

to

the

The solid constituents of

At

While
can be

the
the

particle concentra-

points

out

that no

acceptable theory presently exists as

between them.

tions

in

shape.

very
the sand

through

from the cohesion of the aggre-

derives
gate

interface

paste with

failures occurring

particles.

the

may be plate-, foil-, or needle-like

to that

of

tobermorite.

the natural
The gel

particles

Superscript numbers in parentheses

refer to entries in References,
Chapter VII.

the

lates

source of strength.
that

the

strength

arises

kinds of cohesive bonds:

attraction between solid
chemical

bonds.

The

He

specufrom two

physical
surfaces

presence of

nificant surface or van der Waal

is

suggested

size of

particles;

or primary

nature of the gel,

to
van

the

existence

limited

swelling

i.e.,

the

inability

to disperse the

gel

particles.

It appears
internal

forces

bonds may be

surmised because of the

of water

sig-

by the extremely small

the gel

of chemical

and

that

the majority of

forces which enable the

the
gel

resist tensile stresses are of the

der Waal

type.

II. ILLINOIS STUDIES

Murdock

(2 )

has prepared

hensive and critical

conducted

covers

review of

in the area of

fatigue through

the historical

the

state of

Murdock noted

the

that

the

the actual

that

happenings

latter

these two approaches

even

identical

technique

Furthermore,
mate goal
studies

the

it

is true

of each of

is the

same,

the

these

the University of

in orientation.

studies

mortar beams

These beams

simplified models of concrete were used

to study

type

aggregate-mortar bond, drying

shrinkage, and

the

Two fatigue

similar

fatigue
limi-

studies,

art.

failure.
two

tested statically

applied

beams were

to define necessary

the ulti-

relationships between flexibility and

two

types of

flaw depth.

namely a more

The

difference

and phenomenological
results

remaining phases of

dynamic
be

the program

restrained shrinkage,
the

relationship

between the modulus of

of a

study can usually

directly and

to

that

The principal

the

investigated

In support of these

series of

stress rate, and

is that

studies

a fracture mechanics approach

dealth with

phenomenological

influence of the

elastic modulus of the aggregate.

are different

tion material.

research

types

inclusions.

which were assumed to be

efficient use of concrete as a construc-

between fundamental

The extent

containing various

is con-

present

Illinois

is described below.

of preshaped aggregate

recognized

the experimental

have been

recent years have been primarily

failure

in experimental

because of

tations of

in

for example, the

It should be

problem.

Fatigue tests were conducted with

gross behavior of

in philosophy, but sometimes

or

of

immediately

specific

investigations which

fundamental

is con-

fatigue response of a particular

of specimen.

in

in-

store of knowledge

to any

conducted at

and phenom-

former

this case, while the

or,

The

which can be

the mechanism of

cerned only with the

total

the behavior of the material

applicable

differences

that

the material

that time.

from two view-

enological

in

crease the

without necessarily being

fundamental

material,

study may be of a type which would

about

designated as

the

a fundamental

results obtained,

between these approaches

cerned with

results of

the

background,

The essential

is

while

the fatigue of con-

crete can be studied

points.

research

1960's, which

art at

problem,

some particular practical

conrete

the early

problems encountered,
and

a compre-

rupture and

properties of concrete.

Because of the diversity of

immediately to

various

the

studies,

the

this chapter will

con-

sider

the

rately;
the
in

findings of

the

results
light

each

study sepa-

following chapter will

together and

of other

discuss

recent

tie

them

investigations.

the

models

dimensional.
shape,
the

FATIGUE

Figure

location,

inclusions

series

2.1

were assumed

STUDIES

la

to be

two-

shows

the size,

and orientation of

in

the

beams.

are designated as

- plain mortar

II

beams with

The four

follows:
beams

a circular

in-

clusion
2.1.1

General
Eight

series of mortar beams

taining various arrangements of

shaped aggregate
control
were

containing

designated as
All

depth;

plain mortar

the

inclusions were

The

resulting

loading

two-point

displacement

a constant

loads were

in a 10-in.

constant moment

This portion of

of beams.

bond

influences of

failure on

the exception

With

of plain mortar

specimens contained
inclusion within
The

beams,

a single

the constant

inclusions were

having an elastic modulus

the mortar;
tended

because the

the entire

investigate

behavior.

because of the

was

properties of the mortar and

inclusions,

an

from

specimens with
Figure

various

as

other

results obtained
reduced

lb

cross

shows the

inclusions

three

the

designated

provided a high

the

with

comparison

sections.

to the

restraint but permit-

ting

location
speci-

in the

series which are

follows:

- beams with unbonded aluminum

cylinders

VI

- beams with

VII

- beams with

The

third and

moment

limestone,

in

actually a cylindrical

void providing no

bonded granite

cylinders

limestone

in elastic

deformations

respect

restraint;

degree of

aggregate

beam and

in-

cylinder, had high

therefore,

and,

types of

on

to provide varying

Two of the

bonded granite

of one

stresses

aluminum cylinder and a

unbonded

all

inclusions ex-

similarity

Three

to shrinkage

the mortar.

mens of

to

shrinkage

clusions were used

similar to

width of a

irt-

the model

influence of

of the

had earlier suggested might

critical.

region.

evaluate

which Murdock and

fatigue response,

series

the model

conducted to

investigation was

be

in-

consisted of four series

vestigation

(4 )

the model

a diamond

second phase of

"inclusion"

The first phase of

Kesler

the

mortar

region.

the

beams with

elastic moduli with

from either support

in.

in-

was designed

restraint

sub-

span and

study

fatigue
and a

simply

specimens were

fatigue machine.
applied 15

The
The

models of concrete.

to symmetrical

supplied by

square

c Ius ion

beams

fatigue loading.

supported on a 40-in.
jected

IV

beams with a
clusion

pre-

specimens had a 2-in. width

4-in.

inclusions and one

series of

tested under

beams

III
con-

model

final

investigation

influence of

cylindrical
phase of

voids
the

studied the

aggregate modulus on

fatigue behavior.
series which were

The beams of
subjected

one

to drying

shrinkage

contained a

granite cylindrical
constant

moment

inclusion was
limestone.

limestone and a

inclusion

region.

rigid

A preference

the

influence

the rigid or

of

elastic modulus.
other
wet,

in

the

diameter.

location

of

two

the

Figure

inclu-

inclusions

for

follows:

to 61

limestone

specimens and
Fracture occured

in the

failure.

a minimum of

II were air

environment for

six months prior

The

fatigue strength at

cycles was equal

static ultimate

these beams with

inclusions

was

I.
between maximum

relationship

can be determined

it

failure

cycles to

to

identical

specimens.
to

is very difficult

the

location of

prism

fracture, and

(a) "Socket"

type of

failure

usually normalized for

ture which

is determined

tests conducted
specimens.

(b) fracture within

the

of

has

been

used

diametrical

(c) a failure partially through

and partially

around

the aggregate
failure of

prism.

However, only one

each of

the last two types occurred

rup-

the 23

from static

on "halves"

intact;

prism approxi-

is

fatigue

This ratio, designated

level,

analysis of

reason;

stress

beam's modulus of

divided by the

stress

this

the maximum applied

in which

the aggregate prism remained

plane;

are

three general

failure were obtained:

mately through a vertical

fatigue data

Series

restricted the

sufficiently alike to
Concrete

of

the static ultimate

fabricate concrete specimens which are

be considered

The

inclusions

mortar beams of

The aggregate

10

66 percent

strength.

circular

87 percent of

types of

fatigue

by conducting

a group of

Unfortunately,

i.e.,

to

average static ultimate strength

applied stress and

identical.

constant

no cracking visible

in a laboratory

million

results

of the

Results

tests on

the static

Specimens of Series
dried

in the

data from virtually all

fatigue specimens.

I, no cracking

could

visually prior to

as

Specimens
minimum age of
of

the

to

This fatigue

region with

strength of

The

of

inclusions

cylindrical

2.1.2

percent

random locations

to

10 million cycles

from similar

prior

prior

and granite cylindrical

- beams with three granite

IX

at

obtained

at

Series

test data yielded a

agrees with earlier

testing.
both

- beams with

beams of

strength

the

in beams

series which are designated as

VIII

The

ultimate strength.

moment

region.

Ic shows

inclusions

in

laboratory environ-

loading conditions.

contained

constant moment

testing.

equal

influence of

clear spacing between the

was one

the

the

in a

fatigue strength

continuously

bonded granite cylindrical

sions
The

flexible

attributed

The specimens

plain mortar

were air dried

ment a minimum of five months

specimens of the

thus minimizing

three

the

the aggregate's

The

series were kept

shrinkage.

The

for failure

inclusion would have been

to

than

concrete fatigue studies

recent years.

the

The granite

much more

to occur at either

in

plain

test.

As

in

in Series

be detected

fatigue failure.

of Series

III

one month at
Unlike Series

had
the

time

I and

II,

in which runout was

defined to

million

of

load,

runout

was defined

to be

five

Series

repetitions
III

be

a specimen,

10
in

little growth could

in

the fatigue

history.

million repetitions.

The fatigue

the

crack

strength extrapolated

to

10 million

the

width of the

the

ing pulsation as

cycles was 62
strength.

percent of

The average

strength of

these beams with

inclusions was

strength of

beams of

I.

Series

included

faces of the

ultimate

mortar

The failure section

one of

the vertical

square aggregate

prism.

Although no visible cracking was

served

prior to

did not
this

failure, some

be explained by

the

ob-

specimens

completely fracture at

may

failure;

fact

load was applied by

a constant

placement machine.

At

that

dis-

and associated

deflection occurred

to

cally

the specimen.

load

from

Specimens of
at

Series

least one month

testing.

Like

defined to be
of load.

remove

Series

practi-

IV were

old at

the

III,

five million repetitions

to

10 million cycles

percent

of

the

extra-

was

static strength.

average static ultimate strength

these beams with

strength of
I.

diamond

percent of

was 53

The

curredin

the

plane of

failure

the region of

always

from the aggregate's vertical

by approximately 3/8

beams of

this

cracking at
prior

series

in.

detected early

in

level
by

was not

the

found

that

like of

variation.
in

that

influenced
it was

both the

Murdock and

the

in

stress

the static

beams.

stresses occurring

of

the aggre-

influenced

the

with aggregate

Although

terms

fracture and

strength of

the

not a statisti-

inclusions,

inclusions

cient

is

the presence of

location of

in

The

66 percent of

statistically

aggregate

nominal

the

specimens

inclusions were suffi-

to cause failure

between the mortar and

of

the

bond

the aggregate

material.
The
the

results

model

from

the second

investigation

in

various

the

fatigue strength

conditions of

shrinkage,

providing

analyzed

in

However,

the

out any
660 psi.

for

the

restrained

the

stress

static strengths

influenced

by

level.

were

shrinkage.

rupture of beams with-

inclusion was
beams

of

contained an unbonded

approximately
Series V which
aluminum cylinder

had an average modulus of

520 psi.

differ-

results were

terms of

The

phase

indicated

there were no statistical

ences

diagonal

a crack was

the fatigue

significant

and

fatigue strength

The modulus of

showed visible

When

the

laterally

the extreme tensile surface

to failure.

cally

specimens
study.

10 million cycles

strength which

61

definitely

The

all

static

that

the aggregate

displaced

for

between

of

oc-

immi-

25 percent of

the model

fatigue strength at

of

of Series

increas-

became

load was

varied

The

inclusions

mortar beams

failure

load

phase of

63

the static ultimate

prism and often was

plane

also

runout was

polated

crack showed

Kesler (3 ) noted

time of

The fatigue strength

this

gate

failure,

sufficient cracking

all

The lower
the maximum

the
the

After mid-life,

lengthened and widened and

nent.

square

63 percent of

static ultimate

always

static

static

be

detected until approximately mid-life

Beams

of

rupture of

Series VI,

contain-

ing

bonded

granite

average modulus
and

the beams

ing

cylindrical

modulus of

of

voids,

rupture of
and

stress

the program.

55

in

selection
tions,

have
of

two

shown.

the

possible

have

that

little

the measured flaw depth.(7'8,9)

were

series lO'll)

static test

Two

of

loca-

behavior

the flexural

and strength

plain concrete members containing

types

various

the

such an

information concern-

to obtain general
ing

of

the primary goal

A secondary objective was

approach.

flaws.

of

Of

Since 33

series of

inclusion

clearly defined

37 percent

trend existed.

clear spacing

of one

which

interaction between the

inclusions.

load-induced

different fashions;

there-

relationship

flexibility and flaw depth

the

notches and

influences

produced

load-induced cracks

separately.
A plurality of

macrocracks can develop

concrete, may have minimized

tests:

stress region of a

development of a

(b)

in

two

the measured flexibility

influenced

between

by

diameter

is greater than would occur

tensile

should consider

How-

the

beam

flexural

notches or

Sawn

in a

fore the

no

ever,

cracks

in distinctly

the middle

percent would

locations,

static

(a)

a random selection of

represented

results and

conclusions were obtained from the

87 breaks which occurred

IX,

following

The

also

strengths

the breaks occurred at

the three

is

two aggregate

the

beams of Series

inclusion.

it

Results

2.2.2

influence on

bond

by different

materials.

the

between a measure

determining the suitability of

any clear trend was

associated with

actual

to deter-

While the aggregate modulus

restrained shrinkage,

have

been

higher modulus was

the

of

for

A common

the distortion or flexibility of a

beam and

conducted with

a random

inclusion

in fact

in the

of

Since 50 per-

may

masked

terms of

occurred at

no strong preference

aggregate with

mine a relationship

two phases

represented

the

fatigue

of Series VIII,

inclusion.

the granite
cent would

beams

the onset

before

growth has

stable crack

breaks which

the breaks

of

percent

the other

depth

rapid crack propagation.

approach to estimate the amount of

phase of

in

to

cracks can propagate slowly

a significant
of

In fatigue

in Section 2.3.

discussed
tests,

fatigue strengths

Of 71

the

570 psi
contain-

provided

yielded

in agreement with

an

460 psi.

when analyzed

level,

occurred

VII,

had

had an average

final

investigation

data which,

of

rupture of

of Series

The third
model

inclusions,

moment

load-induced
in a constant

region of an unnotched

This suggests

that

beam.

the accuracy of

relationship between flexibility and

2.2

flaw depth

STATIC TESTS

for unnotched beams will

compromised by
2.2.1

of flaws

General
The

fracture mechanics

flaw depth, must

parameter,

be considered

certain methods of

present

be

number and severity

in a particular

Flaw depths

fatigue specimens

in

analysis as will

(c)

the

greater accuracy

be

present

beam.

in

can be predicted with

if both

the

flexibility

of

the fatigue specimen and

flexibility-flaw depth
based upon

relationship

the relative change

flexibility.

This

to minimize the
parameters which

are

are not

related

to

the

flaw depth of a specimen.

(d)

For a given

the normalized

specimen geometry,

flexibility-flaw depth

relationships appear

to be dependent

on certain, and presently

undetermined,

(e)
beams

initiates at
than

less

Stable crack growth

in

notched

loads significantly
the

the ultimate capacity of

the Griffith

fracture

for materials

In ductile materials
associated with

often exceeds

the

is

of the stress and

the onset

fracture mechanics was developed

for

an

ideally

Griffith(

12

ductility,

no procedure was proposed

the

concept

,13)

as concrete.
use of fracture

glass

fracture of

propagation of
the energy
small

resulted

flaws

from the
to glass;

inherent

to

The Griffith method

over

found

World War

II.

at

that

the

is

recog-

The concept

inelastic deformations occur

region

if

however,

crack tip;

the

When

a good approximation.

field

the

large,

inelastic region becomes

to

compared

is small

the elastic stress

flaw size,

in

the

this analysis.

Because of
ness

the

apparent brittle-

of portland cement

and concrete,

it

to study

failure
that

in

the first

little

that

concretes was made

frac-

by

use of

mortars and

Kaplan,

investigated one mortar and

cretes.

that

have been used

these materials.

It appears

in welded

paste, mortar,

is natural

fracture mechanics with

Since

the stress

of

fracture.

it

rather,

onset

materi-

200 catastrophic

brittle fractures occurred

ships during

real

received

and consequently

attention until

was

It

present at-a crack tip at the

ture mechanics concepts

surface

be unsuitable for most

als,

little

the only energy re-

quirement considered was

the description of

involves

flaw

exhibits

Since glass

ductile behavior,

energy.

a failure criterion;

sidered

extension of a flaw would

extension.

the use of

inelastic deformations must be con-

release accompanying a

furnish the energy demands for

involves

field

the

the

that

suggested

to polyphase

intensity factor concept.

inelastic

elastic material.

having some

extended to material

nizes

concept of

An energy

of fracture.

fields

displacement

region of a flaw at

in the

analysis

an

Although

fracture mechanics concept was

is not

Fracture mechanics

by

surface energy

the

orders of magnitude.

mechanics normally

General

near a crack tip

plastic deformations

a stress
2.3.1

exhibit

that

the energy demands

Presently the
FRACTURE MECHANICS

, 1 7)

ductile behavior.

materials such

2.3

theory of

modified

to extend

beams.

the method.

and Orowan(0

Irwin(14,15)

several

concrete parameters.

vessels have caused much

to be devoted to

attention

flexibility

airplane cabins

in pressurized

as

such

and pressure

in

normalization tends

influence of

of brittle fracture

time other cases

the

The two concretes

who

two condiffered

in

water-cement ratio, coarse aggregate

and

percentage, and coarse aggregate

microcrack region causing the formation

material.

of

Kaplan compared

strain energy
lated

release

the

critical

rate, G ,

by an analytical

and

method for a number of

calcu-

conditions.

Slow crack propagation prior

to failure

was neglected.

than

that of

studied
on

Kaplan,

investigation

Lott and

influences of various

the value of critical

sity

factor which

grow

has

in

limiting

energy

by

problem
stress
crete

it

was

the

is

derived from

fracture

fracture.

stages are

schematically

intento

Final
of

crack arresting

coarse aggregate material

concrete was

to the

load-

curve for any given speci-

load

material

simply resists

versible

elastic manner;

cracking

stage, where a

is trying

the material,

the

rapid

These

in a re-

the micro-

the main crack;

where the

the

the

to propagate
thus consuming
drive

slow cracking

main crack begins

stage,

to grow

fatigue failure.
fracture

the on-

is a case

the

Therefore
critical
reveal

is applicable to

Glucklich

mechanics

extended

to mortar under

and

loading,

peated

Neal,

and Lloyd, et al.,

re-

et al., (8,9)

applied

Glucklich's approach to concrete.

Glucklich suggested

the study of

parameter ao2c

the nominal

and c
This

is the

(a is

critical

parameter

is

flaw depth).

the fatigue

stress applied

to a specimen.

results

be

life or the
Unlike

fracture mechanics with

loading where the amount of

crack growth

is small,

repeated

be ignored.

For

slow

loading

in appreciable slow crack

which cannot
reason

to G

constant, would

independent of

static

the
stress

proportional

if a material

growth

this

relationships between flexibility

and flaw depth were determined experi-

critical

G
is the determination of G at
set of rapid crack propagation.

or

fracture mechanics

mentally and used

G is the release of energy AE supplied
by a virtual extension AC necessary to
furnish the energy requirements of the
crack surface AC as AC approaches zero;
i.e.,
G
lim
AE
AC-0 AC'

in Figure 2.

fatigue failure

crack propagation.

the use of

tip of

the energy which would otherwise

if

four

c
intensity factor might

stress

which,

region of

microcracks form around the

through

in

fracture

the linear stage, where

crack, which

the

in

proposed which gave four

reasonably distinct parts

deformation

the
and

mechanism due to

A mechanism of

concrete.

the

critical

the mortar

the

the main

shown

plain con-

the

causes

plete

two sources,

resistance of

to the

parameters

Kesler(

treatment of

intensity factor for

region

to com-

stress

shown that

in

9)

is proportional

analytical

which

size and any

supplied

the load

the

and the fracture

the microcracking

reached a

additional

size;

consideration of
In the

through

crack to grow spontaneously

men:

general

specimen

In a more extensive

tip moves

new microcracking regions

stage where

by a direct

test

the crack

2.3.2

flaw depth

indirectly.

Results
The

indicated
mix

to estimate the

results obtained by
that

Gc

proportions,

was

Kaplan

influenced

beam cross

by the

section,

and the
Kaplan

location

of

recognized

the applied

that

loads.

some slow crack

and

also for various

propagation often occurred prior to

instability,

but

(b)

no method existed to

The

factor was

critical

the crack

gate percentage

growth.

the slow crack

the

neglect of

propagation resulted
of G

and

in smaller values

might have had a significant

c
effect on Kaplan's

existed at

the

An analytical
a beam

time of

point

of

the Kaplan study.

expression developed for

loaded with

applied to beams

was

difficulties

loading.

pure couples was

with centerWhile

accurate for

loading

it was

the center-point

use

recently and their

apparent variations

The method

requires

of applied

loads.

.related compliance
applied loads

to the magnitude of

obtained

Nevertheless,

lan's

represent

Kap-

signifthe first

fracture mechanics

to

The critical

and

investigation conducted

deformation curves
the

(a)
variables
stress
of

the

values of

subjected
about

to

7.5 percent

between the

beams

loading

than

static

tests.

obtained by

Gc

(Section 2.2)

those

Neal,

large discrep-

values

beams.

sub-

yielded G

higher

for notched

Later

static

revealed

by Lott

in addition to
of

parameters that were

intensity

stress

Kesler yielded,

above,

If

that

this

discrepancy arose from additional

concrete.

factor

beams

indicated a

and unnotched
tests

for

agreement with

However,

from the

et al.,
ancy

ignored,

in good

repeated

The results

the

between G

the notched

10 percent

findings are especially

application of

loading, while

values

deflection

indi-

those obtained from static

However, Kaplan

and the deflection of

they

than

results

static beams.

loading were

to

at midspan.

in that

for unnotched

lower

is

Kaplan.

jected

beams

icant

invalid.

unnotched

are also

repeated

that compliance be

magnitude and

to the

related

results
those of

beams

found

than that

the same water-cement

slow crack growth

the third-points was

greater

Glucklich obtained

stress

and fine aggregate content.

for

Kaplan's

analysis for

.direct method of
loaded at

in G c .

for a mortar with

loading.

reduces

fine

for concrete was

20 percent

notched and

the

coarse

The critical

cating close agreement

both

intensity

the

ratio and

not

have been developed

conditions

loading

intensity factor

the case

techniques of analysis

Better

aggregate content.

ratio

the expression

a good approximation for

third-point

and third-

stress

for concretes with

same water-cement

to be about

aggre-

ratio.

factor varied directly with

the

intensity

three mortars with

The critical

aggregate content

results.

Certain analytical

for

same water-cement
(c)

stress

the.

same.

independent of fine

determine the extent of

The

concretes where

aggregate percentages were the

the

type described

the ranges of the

investigated,

the critical

intensity factor was

water-cement

ratio for

flaw depth-flexibility
Lloyd,

load

following observations:
For

the

independent

three mortars

found

et al.,

notched

from a final

beams,

the

that when

was applied

series of

results contained
Much of the

appreciable

scatter.

scatter can

be attributed

culty

relationship.

found

a more accurate expression

to the data

to affect

in determining

to

the diffi-

the flexibility at

2if

Series

Series

II

21]

Series

Series

(a) Series

III

IV

I- IV
FIGURE 1.

DETAILS OF MORTAR BEAMS USED

21

Unbonded
Bonded

Series:

Inclusions:

Types of

V
VI
VII

Aluminun
Granite

Void

(b)

Series

V-VII

2[!'

Types of

Series

VIII

Series

IX

Granite

Inclusions:

(c) Series

VIII a IX

TO MODEL THE STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE.

Limestone

tage
ge

FIGURE 2.

QUALITATIVE LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVE

FOR TEST SPECIMENS

(REFERENCE 19).

Deflection, Ap

Rate
FIGURE 3.

of Loading ,

psi/sec

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RATE OF APPLIED LOAD AND INDICATED MODULUS OF

RUPTURE FOR PLAIN CONCRETE SPECIMENS (REFERENCE 6).

8.0 x

7.0

" 6.0
o

Lu
0

5.0

4.0
E

3.0
0.020

FIGURE 4.

0.030

0040
Logarithmic

RELATIONSHIP

LOGARITHMIC

DECREMENT,

0.050
Decrement,

0.060

0.070

BETWEEN DYNAMIC MODULUS OF ELASTICITY,

AND MODULUS OF RUPTURE (REFERENCE

5).

0.

; 700
3
0l.

600
50

-0

500

Rate of Stressing
FIGURE 5.

Extreme Fiber of Concrete, psi per min

EFFECT OF RATE OF LOADING ON THE MODULUS OF RUPTURE OF CONCRETE

(REFERENCE 25).

C0
0

-j

I)

0
0

10

FIGURE 6.

102

10
Cycles to Failure,

I04

I05

106

107

TYPICAL FATIGUE CURVE FOR CONCRETE

SUBJECTED TO REPEATED FLEXURAL LOADING.

0
0

FIGURE 7.

5
Duration

10
of Rest

15
Periods ,

20

25
min

EFFECT OF REST PERIODS ON FATIGUE STRENGTH

AT 10 MILLION CYCLES (REFERENCE 28).

30

FIGURE 8.

MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE RANGE OF STRESS

ON THE

FATIGUE STRENGTH OF PLAIN CONCRETE UNDER 10 MILLION CYCLES

OF REPEATED LOADING

(REFERENCE 4).

Time
(a)
Stress Increased
Program I

FIGURE 9.

Once

Time
(b)
Stress Decreased
Program 2

Once

Time
(c)
Stress Increased and
Alternately
Decresed
Program 3

STRESS HISTORIES INVESTIGATED BY HILSDORF AND KESLER (REFERENCE 28).

10'

10 3

102

104

105

Cycles to Failure, N
FIGURE 10.

S-N RELATIONSHIPS FOR CONSTANT PROBABILITIES OF FAILURE

(SPECIMENS SUBJECTED TO PROGRAM 3 WITH LOWER LOAD 17 PERCENT OF UPPER LOAD)

(REFERENCE 28).

"IA

3UXIU

SAv

0
CO.,~
Ave. from

Fatigue

0-O

Tests
0

0c

-Ave.

from

Static

~~0*
)
a

Tests

L
I06

Cycles
FIGURE 11.

to Failure ,

MAXIMUM TENSILE STRAINS AT FAILURE (REFERENCE 35).

incipient failure.

greater shrinkage.

The applicability of fracture

mitigate

Creep acts

shrinkage deformations

mechanics techniques to concrete under

resulting

service conditions

between the two phenomena.

present

state of

is

the

limited by
art.

The

the

of obtaining

the

is a present

difficulty which must

resolved

size of

internal

flaws
be

before fracture mechanics can

supply quantitative answers.

in

In a

necessity

a complex

recent

free and

Kung and

a number of

2.4

DRYING

along

SHRINKAGE

ratios,

General
The

of

and

the

strains

binding matrix.

in the

aggregate

the phenomena

the macroscopic level

is possible

Studies at

is

equal

to

rod which was

the restrained

stress

in

the

rod.

was

thus possible to determine the

From static equilibrium it

in the mortar.

Free

shrinkage of the mortar.

loads,

there

is

or

Since
stress

total

no direct

these methods

difference between
and

to failure.

a study of the deformations

restrained

assumed

that

and

component of
to

gives an

insight

into the

phenomena.

loss of water
The

in the

is produced

by

the

It was

strain due

to

into elastic

components.

The elastic

strain was assumed equal

the average stress

divided by

Drying shrinkage

thus

be separated

inelastic

shrinkage

total

The

shrinkage

to stress.

this

stress could

the free

the

shrinkage was

strain due

and cracking associated with drying

in

the mortar

the sonic modulus of

elasticity.

paste matrix of

shrinkage deformations

paste are restrained

addition,

shrinkage, per-

mitted the calculation of

specimens provided

reasonable accuracy.

particles and

assumed

potential

not available,

concrete.

the

predicting

application of

of

provided

time-dependent deformations

quantitative description of

However,

prisms

shrinkage

produced by drying, applied

the

axis of 1-by

mortar

the shortening of the

average stress

have supplied

methods(20) of quantitatively

both with

three

rods cast

shrinkage occurred,

restraining

Only a qualitative

the microscopic level.

the average,

Steel

longitudinal

measurement of

paste

induce complex and varying

description of
at

As

time-dependent deformations

stresses and

two water-

restraint.

creep and shrinkage of

matrix

1 ) considered

restraint, and

humidities.

the

(2

Kesler

three times of curing,

I-by 11-3/4-in.
2.4.1

shrinkage of

parameters:

two degrees of
relative

interaction

investigation of the

restrained

mortar,

cement

to

by aggregate

reinforcement.

large internal

2.4.2

In

relative

Results
It was

found

that for specimens

cured a minimum of seven days

prior to

humidity gradients produce differential

drying, the elastic cracking strain,

shrinkage

which was

regions

strains which allow moist

of a member to

restrain adja-

cent regions which have experienced

assumed critical,

approximately
sults

130 p

indicated

that

in./in.

was
Test

the lime of

re-

cracking

for the

weaker mortar mix was

influenced by the
such a trend

was

stronger mix.
produced
given

period

Lower

restrained

It

is not

shrinkage

phenomenon, since

it

strain at
surprising

each complex

sonic method

the

immediate advantage of yielding

estimate of strength

direct

minimizing or eliminating the need

that

control

Additional

the

inter-

shrinkage and
right.

which are

specimens

evaluation or

possible

the

prediction of

the

a member under

Because of the

meaningful

possibility that

application could

parameter

tion of experimental
well

as

in

results

the

the

time rate

modulus

of

between

1 and

were used

'

an

to a proposed

existing structure

500

in the

service con-

indicated

to

Results
results

shown

rupture

in

and the

ordinate and

rates

and

it was

strength,

Figure 3.

by entering

decrement

abscissa,

by projecting

into a family of
static strength

on

two

strength

This

portland cement

General

in
of concrete,

The dynamic properties

logarithmic decrement were

the modulus of
fatigue

rupture; (5,

related
2 2

to

separate

investigations had previously

defined the

relationship

between modu-

in

theory of

in an

increase

decrement.

and an

the
increase
results

in the

dynamic modulus

in

logarithmic

It was

a few exceptions,
predicted

the

hydrated

paste,

the

since

greater

the volumetric concentration

and a decrease

sonic modulus of elasticity, and

dynamic

is as expected

the strength,

The

logarithmic

volumetric concentration of

greater
2.6.1

parameters

increases with

strength states that the

RELATIONSHIP OF DYNAMIC
PROPERTIES TO FATIGUE

the

curves.

the classical water-cement

2.6

the

respectively,

these

modulus and decreasing

decrement.

investigations

The modulus of

the dynamic modulus and

logarithmic

stress

rates produced

of these

Figure 4.

is obtained

figure with

stress

per second which

stress

are

the

between

investigation,

that higher

higher

psi

2.6.2

The

were conducted

For

condition.

the

application of

of applied

rupture.

be

be a

interpreta-

relationship

the ambient
it might

the adequacy of

fatigue data as

rational

studies

investigate

found

the

to concrete under

ditions,

the

in

Thus

fatigue

possible to determine

loading

rate of stress

strength.

work with nondestructive

might make

service conditions.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MODULUS OF
RUPTURE AND THE TIME RATE OF
APPLIED STRESS

for

normally

to provide an estimate of

testing

thus

any

response of

2.5

has

nondestructive

involves

their own

behavior.

The

used

in

fatigue

rupture and

is a very complex

action of two phenomena,

creep,

the

relative humidities

higher elastic

time.

of wet curing;

not found for

lus of

the

found
the

that with only

strength could

within 10 percent

of age, mix, or curing.

be

regardless

III. SIGNIFICANCE OF ILLINOIS STUDIES

3.1

MECHANICS

OF FATIGUE

The objectives of
tion were

this

fundamental,

portion of

the

significance.

on

FRACTURE

but

investiga-

practical

By approaching

inclusion models,
the

it was

the

In the first
vestigation,

phase of

the constant

mortar beams reduced

the

tensile
span of

13 to 4 7 percent

severely restricted the plane of

failure.

However, when

behavior was

expressed

static strength, no

mortar

statistically

beams with
the

material

and

developed

initiated

fatigue failure

bond between

On the

hypothesis was

in

the

noticeable effects which

attributed

modulus of the
did

the mortar
the speci-

third phases of

the study considered

aggregate modulus and

the
the

the modulus and drying

concluded

hypothesis that

influence of
interaction
shrinkage

the

the results

initiates

the coarse

static test

permit a

results

approach to fatigue

The results

indicate

that

failure.

the fatigue

damage exists on the macroscopic

as

in

aggregate

the use of a fracture

study of

mechanics

elastic

the mortar matrix.

and

critical

the

in

failure mechanism

failure

the bond between

stresses

in

inclusion;

not contradict

level

slow and stable propagation of one

There

a surface crack produced

shrinkage.

fatigue

indirect

was

failure could

The

bearing on the
second and

plain

could be

to the shrinkage

evidence that

men.
The

the

no

the mortar matrix and

through

for

various models of

static strength there were

or more cracks.

then propagated

static

investigators

the coarse aggregate

matrix to produce failure of

of

The

the

terms of

The

results of this phase of

the study, the

the same

beams and the

material

beams and

inclusions.

strength

in

in behavior

between plain mortar

basis of

that

the fatigue
in terms of the

significant difference
existed

the

fatigue behavior

the mortar or variations

the static

strength of specimens
and

in

lime-

moment

lower than

in terms of

concrete.

the

static

that when fatigue results were expressed

the in-

single preshaped

restricted by
the

strength was
mortar

fatigue behavior,

inclusions placed

region of

to

Although the

inclusion and

plain mortar, the

expressed

influence of a number of

concrete parameters on

stone

possible

failure was

strengths were
of

fatigue of concrete with mortar-

study

plane of

presence of

a large

results have

fatigue behavior.

initiate at

by drying

results had a direct

interpretation of the

studies employing

a fracture

mechanics concept.
Several
demonstrated

series of concrete
that

beams

a fracture mechanics

analysis can
method

concrete to
studying
crete

provide both an alternate

of predicting

the

fracture and

the

fatigue studies,

result of

the various

"fatigue damage"

is

loading.

It

fatigue damage occurs

the

growth.
scopic

form of

Less

is

level,

damage and

now known

at

the

the

repeated

and

that even

ditions

encountered

in service

static

strength was

been determined

the

the

in earlier

in a 50 per0
70 F environ-

relative humidity,

within

two weeks

of drying

elastic strains of

by

to

60 to

and at

105

cent

is also

24 )

Shrinkage

substantiated

beams cured

of

the

at

an early

cracking

the

the
time

increase again.

early

reduction

in the

formation of microcracks

to the

the

subsequent
healing

to autogeneous
that

may originate

a maximum

for a period of
to

paste and

speculated

investiga-

t ions .

per-

0
70 F without

Thereafter

then started

covery

had

50 to 65

mortar specimens was

age.

10 days

elastic modulus

The sonic

modulus decreased

in

the

at

relative humidity at
curing.

in./in.

.i

shrinkage cracking

loading

Blakey.

modulus

fatigue

The

followed by drying

Blakey attributed

same as

in.

seven days of wet

Cracking occurred most often

and

be

in terms of

behavior expressed

6 by 40

ment.

wet

to

severe con-

than would normally

cent

by

received

in mortar

matrix

the variables

presented more

considered

of restrained shrinkage

occurred within approximately

significance

some of

though

largely

loading.

is of practical

curing

prior

the micro-

concrete

response of

specimens

formation.

Polivka(23) utilized

The existence of

description of

the mortar

coarse aggregate and

It

structural

Bond between

matter of conjecture.

static

that

stable crack

strength remains

affects the

under

is

known at

where

no

for a phenomenon

causing the weakening of concrete

in

to crack

In a study
of concrete,

environmental

simple phrase

to which the

can contribute

for

specimens 4-7/8

Largely as a

level

the extent

a method

conditions.

repeated

consider

self-restraining action of a member

influence of various con-

parameters and

longer a

to

resistance of

the

re-

and

induced cracks

load

as a reopening of

shrink-

age microcracking.
The
3.2

While drying
tant

in

shrinkage

its own right,

limited here

Kesler(

shrinkage

to

its

is

2 1 )

is

influence on crack

considered

in a mortar.

were primarily

designed to

tests

study the

re-

straining action of a coarse aggregate

particle on
and cracking

the shrinkage deformations

occurring

ing mortar matrix.

It

in

the surround-

is also possible

such

the

cracks

to "free"
damage may

also occurred

in

used to model

the structure

or

the restrained

Their

subjected

shrinkage suggests

impor-

consideration

The observations of Kung

formation.
and

in specimens

SHRINKAGE

DRYING

detection of shrinkage

fatigue

have

specimens
of concrete

in mortar or concrete specimens

used

in most fatigue

studies

is probable such damage

to date.

It

did

in many fatigue

exist

however, the
cracks or

specimens

presence of

stresses

the strength
and

conducted

shrinkage

apparently reduced

of both
the

studies;

the

static control

fatigue specimens

to a

similar degree and masked

of

the

influence

shrinkage.

stud led.
stress rate may also

The effect of

3.3

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MODULUS

AND RUPTURE AND THE TIME RATE OF
APPLIED STRESS
It was

flexural

found

strength

rate of applied

reduced

by

the nature of the

It

is known

up to about

is

the ultimate strength.

sensitive to

loading.

The

the

results

shown that

Since

The sensitivity to

fatigue strength as a

would

loading

result

in

stress
lower

than are currently

increasing

equal

to

the

Kesler(2
fatigue

in

) found no

strength

influence on

for cyclic

load

This observation, which

was made for a range of loading

than one order of
invalid

magnitude;
practical

application
speed of
practical

be

load

closely linked with

vehicular traffic, there

limits

to the

of

in highway

Since the rate of

is

latter

is

portion.

repeated

loading

slightly

response portion of
not

likely that

the

is seriously affected

loading.

rate of

nondestructive sonic
in

are

loading,

this

fabrication of

techniques

phase provide the

reliable prediction

of flexural

the present time.

flexural

specimens which are nearly

fatigue
Identical

is

extremely difficult

even under careful

laboratory control;

the- prediction of

strength with
the

OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES

strength available at
The

orders of

it would not

significance

structures.

strength
rate of

considered
most

rates

magnitude,

for several

however,

is

RELATIONSHIP
TO FATIGUE
The

per minute.

less

in

the

between 70 and 440 cycles

might be

it

the

rate

these curves

fatigue strengths

reported

frequencies

of

the curve,
fatigue

has

fatigue studies would normally

linear

3.4
6

in

in the

magnitude of

beyond the

by

rate, which

literature.

the

used

portion of

than

the

Ru'sch(27)

the effect of load

initial

far less

percent of

40 to 60

strain the concrete only

the static strength ob-

having a stress rate

repeated

load rate

it would be more accurate

tained with a monotonically

load

loading.

linear

Figure 5.

of

repeated

the load-deflection

for concrete are approximately

the

function

that

curves

agree qualitatively with those

presented by McHenry and Shideler,(25)

suggests that

investigation

in a fatigue

be

that the measured

obtained

to express

the range

in

generally fall

which

will

the method

permit screening

unsuitable specimens
studies.

considered here

and rejection of
in future

fatigue

IV. PROPOSED MECHANISM OF FAILURE

The

fatigue

is complex and

failure of concrete

is

strongly related

four parameters:
stress

the presence

of

regardless of origin or

variations;

the

some stresses;

the

presence of

and

resistance of concrete to

the

are probably

fatigue behavior;
ly affect

they direct-

parameters

and have

secondary effects on fatigue.

Internal

flaws

large compared
the matrix.

structure of

flaws act

raisers, and minute volumes

matrix are

stressed

strength of the
stress

to the

as
of

stress
the

the average

from shrinkage,

tem-

perature differentials or applied

is much

less

strength.
high

than

The

near

regions

which then

high stresses

at

The stability of
cannot always

more

alone;

macrocracks will

resistance of

is

the

although the

is at

tension field

then

load

pointed

stress much

larger
simply

One may
that

will

level

inwhich

importance
the

range
However,

out

that for
occurs,

the

concentration

with a flaw
result

in a

in a mean

than would

be

from the nominal

conclude

fracture at

involves

the

the

growth

of a major crack or cracks through

concrete to

are

the

to the

with confidence

level

can

failures.

reversal

the mechanism of

macroscopic

short-

levels

recognized.

stress

the

the

present unclear.

related

presence of a stress

the

form or

fatigue

mean

Glucklich( 7 ) has

load

material

load

importance of

stress was

stress.

by

the

If

of

considered of great

calculated

propagate.
The

was not

the macrocrack tip.

formation of microcracks
one or

creep

existing

macrocracks

creep.

significance of creep on

Perhaps

unstable

of a static

Such

factor associated

can form

relieve the

be accomplished

strength,

failure mechanism

in

the

time-dependent

known as

to failure.

cases where
of

the tip of

These stresses

microcracks,

load

potential

critical

stress occur

macrocracks.

this

The

stable

reached.

the action

time static
creep

Repeat-

formation of

is 70 percent or more

fluence of

ultimate

paste while

resulting

is

Under

load

field.

of macrocracks until

condition

the

stabilize

cause a slow,

within'the range of

in concrete are

to the gel

These

growth

to

modify the

deformations
to

through

in a stress

concrete undergoes

such as

important

however,

the above

developed

stresses

heterogeniety;

Other parameters

environment

ing

discon-

and structural

is

microcracks and

microcracks, macro-

cracks,

fracture

ability of microcracks
macrocracks

time

repeating nature of

tinuities such as

fracture.

to

paste matrix and paste-aggregate

the

the crack or

interfaces with
feeding

upon

ahead of
can be

internal

a crack tip.

damage found

the

because of

microscopic

structure and behavior at

scopic level

appears

to the

the

to be directly

bonds

bonds would tend

present

in the

Upon application of

to a specimen,

some

to fail

surface bonds would

the

stressed with

increasingly
permitted
ures.
primary

by the

With

the

to restore

the

imposed

load,

remained

the

intact

time,

tend

structure to

its original

configuration and

recovery would explain

This

the beneficial

loading would
in an

the movement

state.

-- and

state

of

passage of
internal

the

become

secondary bond failremoval

bonds which

would, with

The

immediately --

with the

order of magnitude stronger

least an

than

are

The primary bonds which

secondary

effort to arrive at an energy

most compatible

level.

the micro-

interaction of the pri-

paste structure.

reform

that

failure at

mary and secondary

possibly

simply

a lack of knowledge of

The mechanism of

related

level

loading.
at

Less confidence

placed on a mechanism hypothesis

based at

load

cracks

and

effects of

fluctuating

rapid

rest periods.

nature of a repeated

allow a more extensive

readjustment of

bonds than would

static

energy

loading.

internal

be possible under

V. PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

Up
has

to this point major emphasis

been given

mental
which

nature --

particularly those

have been conducted at

University of

Illinois.

state of knowledge will

reviewed,

considering

certain aspects which

significance.
of

flexural

the

be

existence of
than

10 million

maximum length of
The

fatigue

10 million cycles

a value

frequently refer
for purposes of

often used

intended

the application of

in design,

crete

parameter.

con-

to

to

results

5.2

REST PERIODS

illusimply
are

Service conditions
characterized
spersed

to such structures.

in

by rest

Kesler(

are often

periods

the loading

Hilsdorf and

of rest
MAGNITUDE OF
Under

strength at

loading the

is reduced and

capacity.

of similar flexural
jected

to repeated

reduction

is

proportional
cycles to
the

28

loading,

the first

any

are sub-

the strength

6.

the

rest

No difference

effect of a five-

period and

longer rest

terms.

periods was varied

the effect of

period,

periods did

but the onenot have as

great effect as

longer rest periods.

normally found to be

The rest

raised

to the

logarithm of the

strength at

For example,

to 68

if

stress

level

relationship

Investigations

will

result

similar to

conducted

in

period

in

percent in

in

mum

recent

on test

The

from 62

strength
fatigue

rest

periods was

62

this case

because the

mini-

load was

of the

the static

in Figure 7.

strength for no

Figure

the fatigue

10 million cycles

percent of

as shown

loading continuously

the fatigue data expressed

terms of
graphic

found between

minute

influence

in quantitative

length of rest

minute rest

fluctuates between zero and a maximum

value,

periods

inter-

history.
) were

from one to 27 minutes.

was

less

If a group

specimens

failure.

repeated

strength

the

failure may be much

than the static

The

FATIGUE STRENGTH

repeated

of a specimen

static

independent of virtually any con-

investigators to describe the

5.1

is

of the

the following

such structures

restricted

less

approximately 55 percent

importance
in

the

laboratory tests.

and

discussion will

that

the

strength,

Because of the

is not

at

load,

in most detail

fatigue behavior

this

limit

cycles of

strength at

briefly

shown

a fatigue

most

The present

have not

have a practical

crete pavement design,

tration;

years

to studies of a funda-

an appreciable percentage

maximum load.
results

design based

obtained with

continuously

repeated

loading

is con-

servative.

stress and

fluctuating stress under

which concrete will

number of

load repetitions

the diagram
5.3

RANGE OF
In

on

and Brenner(

the effects of

the compressive

2 9

range of

fatigue

stress

5.4

OF LOADING

RATE

strength of

The

influence of the rate of

loading was

Goodman diagram which graphically ex-

Results

presses combinations

of mean and

for

fluctuating stresses

a material

several

series of

tests.

With

which

ratio of

was

the

found that

10 million
this

(3 1

'3

tests,

used

in

load

fatigue

has

It
at

influenced by
and the

the

stress rates used

load will

the

low

per minute,

periods after

be
in

similar to
laboratory

frequency of loads

pavements, normally

cycle

It

the stress

in a pavement during any

cycle of

on

70

rate of

concrete.

that

one

studies, and

between
the

negligible effect on

strength of

rate occurring

of the modified Goodman

diagram shown

basis of

comparison

which are

expressed

strength.

With

been

less than one

results from rest

each cycle of

load.

for various

results

in

static

terms of

the use of

shown that

this diagram

the flexural

at

is

55 percent of

the

if

the minimum stress level

It has

virtually
fluences
million

10 million cycles

been

no concrete

static strength
is equal

shown that
parameter

cycles -- providing, of

results are

interpreted

strength.

The

in

in10

terms

benefits of

a design aid are

fairly obvious;

the diagram graphically

all

combinations

types of
load

1),

tests

levels.

creased

as

of mean

Kesler(

The

load was

decreased once
or

of

test

stress cycles
the

same

the low and high

The

histories are

illustrated

results
that

in-

(Program

repeatedly changed so

(Program 3).

indicated

either

the test

each block having

The

) used three

during the

to form "blocks"

with

28

in a study of varying

once during

(Program 2),

course,

this diagram as

presents

Hilsdorf and

of cycles at

the fatigue behavior at

of static

VARYING MAXIMUM FLEXURAL STRESSES

AND THE MINER HYPOTHESIS

a standard

fatigue strength

to zero.

5.5

in Figure 8.

This diagram provides

that

indicated that

Clemmer,(30)
and Crepps ( 3 3 ) permit the

2 )

construction

it has

applied

Kesler.(26)

results of

earlier
Hatt,

by

loading

should be made clear

constant.

These results

of

fatigue

fatigue strength

cycles was

ratio.

life.

the minimum load

load was

frequencies

the

pattern was

to the maximum

these tests

conducted

each series of

loading

the

flexural

of

investigated

and 440 cycles per minute

can

for a specific fatigue

Murdock and Kesler

repeated

for which

is constructed.

) con-

concrete and established a modified

withstand

the

LOADING

1934 Graf

sidered

withstand

various

number

levels

loading
in Figure 9.

of Programs

1 and

specimens subjected

a very brief

period of high maximum

stress

followed

level

level

to failure

fatigue life

than

2
to

by a lower stress

have a greater
specimens subjected

to a

lower stress

Conversely,
mum stress

level

stress

level

result

in

if

level

a brief

continuously.

period of

followed

until

by a higher

failure occurs can

shorter fatigue

the higher

low maxi-

stress

lives than

level

had been

of the upper

load.

and because of
their

study,

careful
were

to

not

For

the

limited

Hilsdorf and

point out

reason

range of

Kesler were

that their

suggested as

applicable

this

being

results

directly

to design.

applied continuously.
The results of
were compared

Programs I and

to the commonly used

Miner hypothesis,
linear

Miner hypothesis

was

subjected

stress
level

to

those at

increased.

The

as

fatigue

These

the

results

stress levels and

crete

fatigue damage

in fatigue

is

a method of adjusting
which permitted
hypothesis.

the

This

their

results

in which

the average
Figure

lower

and

the

et al., (ll)
cracks

shrinkage

binding
suggested

contributed

of multiple

to

cracking

static

loading,

suggested by

A general

hypothesis of
failure should

importance of bond
internal

flaws

deteri-

such as

cracks.

load was

RELATIVE STRAINS
REPEATED LOADING

5.7

limiting tensile

static and

However,

made.
the

repeated

failure

greater

Hilsdorf and Kesler(

that

concrete under

specimen,

35

static

at failure was

the fatigue

Figure

11.

loading.

) also noted

tensile strain

independent of

that

is significantly

than that under

the

to

strain under

been shown

strain for

loading

repeated

attempts

loading have been

it has

10.

17 percent

IN STATIC AND

Numerous unsuccessful

results

diagram was based on tests

the

between coarse

beams under

the

measure a

illustrated

use of the Miner

loading,

consider

in con-

An S-N diagram based on a

constructed from

bond

initiation of fatigue

linear

probability of failure concept was also

of Program 3

in

in-

even

false.

Kesler

formation

Blakey.(2

investigation
preshaped

supported an earlier

a hypothesis also

the

the

in maximum

demonstrate con-

Hilsdorf and

shrinkage

oration and

indicated the com-

the assumption of

accumulation of

of

FAILURE

that failure originates

Lloyd,

detected

the

plexity of fatigue behavior under

clusively that

matrix.

the

increased.

a semi-random variation

hypothesis

high

low stress

between

clusions(3,5,'

the

a maximum stress

levels was

results

mortar beam with

6)

that

fatigue strength

the difference

two stress

the

The
using

OF FATIGUE

aggregate particles

load

found to decrease as

also decreased for

level

the

the

the number cycles at

level

INITIATION

as a failure of

to Program 2.

repeatedly varied,

strength was
ratio of

non-

subjected

I and conservative for

With Program 3, where

was

The

found to be

conservative for specimens

specimens

5.6

which assumes

accumulation of damage.

to Program

life of a

VI. NECESSARY RESEARCH

The

difficulties

preceeding discussions point

out

that although considerable

has

been

ful

from a phenomenological as well

performed which has

research

been useas

preparation and

results currently

point of view, accurate

may

assessment of

the

has

degrees

by

to varying

would

suffice

to qualitatively examine

flaws

induced

during

incomplete knowledge of the

bond,

the nature and

internal

and

damage.

the origins

During

of

the

the use

scope

furnished considerable
about the

Additional

It

to study the

in-

is

gel

at

the

interface of aggregate

particles.

in developing

explanation of

the origins of

in

electron microscopes will

to those

the very basic aspects of

concrete.
performed
using

However,

probably

be

interested
behavior

in
of

is

region of

high-power

light microscopes
the practical

be greatly

though a number of

increased.

technical

been given

To

researchers

cracking

or

failure

shrinkage or applied

phenomenon of
for

and direct

tension.

and

beneAl-

strains,
and

equipment

is needed.

interested
produced
loading,

there

study of

is

the

rupture -flexure

Further study

of

loading

in

inelastic
history,

fracture.

recent development

of

capable of applying
load

in

by drying

elastic and

influences

any desired

in a

provide much basic

the mechanism of
The

The ability

property

conditions of

could

to

but present

lack of
stress

especially

this area

be

an average charac-

the material

information about

in conjunction with studies

X-ray techniques,
fits would

the future with

if this work

by drying

loading would

to evaluate a specific

a discouraging

obtained

of most benefit

sonic tests,

methods obtain only

Such

to

interest.

Much attention has

small

bond strength.
Results

produced

teristic of the material.

important to

also highly desirable

structure of

the damage

the microcracking zone ahead

special

various

work would
rational

of

setting, curing,

and ambient conditions.

of macrocracks

this area may

study of gel

be of value

mix parameters

shrinkage or applied

structure of cement
in

present techniques

loading and correlate

Study of

reference to parameters

considered

strength.

past

the electron micro-

work

the detailed

structures with

and

propagation

few years

normally

these difficulties.

been hampered

of

permit

some of
that

use of

further work

It appears

of

gel.

the

from basic

cement gel,

has

hinder

results

structure of

formation

resolve

specimen

interpretation of

microscopic examination,

a fundamental

studies

associated with

testing
virtually

to a specimen will

allow

investigations

in which

the

range of

held constant but

is varied

to

fatigue stress

is necessary

is

This

to understand the

the mean

stress

research

though

the

in-

mechanics

on fatigue

of

phenomenological

vestigations might profitably

to determine the
stress,

temperature
ditions,
random

in-

be con-

influences

of

severe moisture and

gradients,

basic
appear

on the

fatigue

and

behavior

rational

suggested

almost entirely experimental

above

is

in nature;

fracture

in nature,

the method
such

Al-

to a

as concrete

approximations.

This

approach makes application of results

difficult.

The development

techniques of

real

material

but would
parametric

of concrete.
research

requires many

approach.

concepts of

application of

of

analysis would

some compromise

curing con-

corrosive environments,

loading

The

the

mechanics,

from a combined experi-

polyphase material

A number

biaxial

study, fracture

profit

and analytical

behavior.

ducted

area of

would
mental

the average stress

independently.

fluence of

one

be conducted

new

require

between concrete as

and an analytical

help the

researcher

in basic

studies and also bridge

gap between experimental

practical applications.

model

the

results and

VII. REFERENCES

1.

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2.

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3.

*Murdock, J. W. and C. E. Kesler,

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7.

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6.

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,___
"Seventh Progress Report,
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First International Congress for
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22.

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and C. E. Kesler, "First Progress Report.
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23.

Polivka, M., "Effect of Type of

Aggregate on Shrinkage and
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1962.

24.

Blakey, F. A., "Discussion of

'The Effect of Coarse Aggregate
on the Mode of Failure on Concrete in Flexure' by R. Jones
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25.

McHenry, D. and J. J. Shideler,

"Effect of Speed in Mechanical
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26.

Kesler, C. E., "Effect of Speed

of Testing on the Flexural
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27.

Rusch, H., "Physical Problems

in the Testing of Concrete,"
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28.

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"Fatigue Strength of Concrete
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29.

Graf, 0. and E. Brenner,

"Versuche zur Ermittlung der
Widerstandsfahigkeit von Beton
gegen oftmals wiederholte
Druckbelastung (Studies of the
Resistance of Concrete to Frequently Repeated Compressive
Loads)," Bulletin No. 76,
Deutscher Ausschuss fur Eisenbeton, 1934.

pp. 55-63.
14.

Irwin, G. R., "Fracture Dynamics," Transactions, American

Society of Metals, 40A (1948),
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15.

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First Symposium on Naval Structural Mechanics.
New York:
Pergamon Press (1960), pp. 557-

591.
16.

Orowan, E. 0., "Fundamentals of

Brittle Behavior of Metals,"
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New York:
John Wiley & Sons,
pp. 139-167.
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Fracture," Welding Journal Research Supplement, 34 (1955), pp.
197S-160S.

__

18.

Kaplan, M. F., "Crack Propagation and Fracture of Concrete,"

Proceedings, American Concrete
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19.

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"Crack Propagation in Plain Concrete," TAM Report No. 648,
Department of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois,
August, 1964; also Ph.D. thesis
by J. L. Lott.

20.

21.

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Ph.D. thesis by E. M. Wallo.
Kung, S. H. L. and C. E. Kesler,
"A Study of Free and Restrained
Shrinkage of Mortar," TAM Report
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thesis by S. H. L. Kung.

30.

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crete," Proceedings, American

33.

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22:11 (1922),
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31.

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"Fatigue of Concrete,"'

Miner, M. A., "Cumulative Damage

in Fatigue," Transactions, American Society of Mechanical Engineering, 67 (1945), pp. A159A164.

Proceedings of the Fourth Annual

Maeting of the Highway Research
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32.

__
_ , "Researches
in Concrete,"
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55.

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SocietX for Testing Materials,
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35.

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