Storyboarding & Cinematography

STORYBOARDING
&
CINEMATOGRAP
HY
Unit - 1
32E - MSc Multimedia
Storyboarding & Cinematography
INTRODUCTION TO BASIC STORYBOARD TECHNIQUES

Developing video or multimedia projects without storyboarding is like trying
to go some place you have never been without directions. Storyboarding is
an essential tool for planning any multimedia (including Website design) or
video production. Using a storyboard will reduce production time and
frustrations. Storyboards are like blueprints for your movies. In addition, the
bigger your production, the more important they become.
As Christopher Columbus once said, Making a movie without a storyboard
is like throwing your money into a bottomless pit. Storyboarding is one of
those aspects of filmmaking that takes your film from the deep, dank, and
dark recesses of your imagination and brings it to life in the here and now.
WHAT IS STORYBOARD?
Think of the storyboard as a visual script, which acts as a blueprint for the
look of the completed project. What will you see on the computer screen or
on a television? A storyboard shows not only the individual shots (in the case
of a video) or screens (for computer-based multimedia), but the sequence as
well. Storyboards come in many shapes and sizes, depending on the project
requirements, the director, and the storyboard artist.
WHY CREATE A STORYBOARD?
While working on film, video, multimedia projects storyboard serves two
basic purposes. First, it acts as a process tool. That simply means that the
process of creating the storyboard helps visualize the final product. It allows
us to work out visually as how shots are framed in a video, or the layout of
elements in multimedia. This is also an opportunity to work out the precise
sequencing of your shots. It is much easier (and less expensive) to try out
alternatives, and develop your project in this preproduction stage than it is
during production (that is, during shooting).
Second, is to act as a communication tool. Since even small video or
multimedia projects usually involve teams of people, and often clients or
producers, we need some way to convey the look and sequencing of a
project to many different people. Like scripts, storyboards often undergo
significant revisions as a project evolves, and as various specialists offer
feedback. In film or video, a finished storyboard provides cinematographers
and lighting specialists a crucial guide. In multimedia production, the
storyboard communicates important information to computer graphic artists
and programmers. Of course, changes inevitably occur during the production
stage, but a project that is well planned in the pre-production stage will go
much smoother and faster in the production stage.
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IMPORTANCE OF STORYBOARDING
A well-defined storyboard helps to ensure that everyone understands the
goals of the project and how the video and audio footage should work
together. With the storyboard in place, it will take less time in setting up
shots because, it shows exactly what scenes need to shoot, and where to
shoot them from. Storyboarding is especially useful for planning complex
sequences of events, saving us from shooting footage we cannot use or
missing footage that is essential to the plot.
1. A storyboard saves you time: The first and foremost thing is that it
saves time. Not only will it save our time by making it easier to explain
the vision to the people we are working on the video with, but also by
providing a solid shot list that will make the creation process go more
smoothly.
2. A storyboard is the best way to share your vision: A visual aid
makes it much easier for us to share and explain our vision for the
video with others. We have all had experiences where we were trying
to explain something to another person and they just did not get it -they could not see our vision. When you have a storyboard, you can
show people exactly how your video is going to be mapped out and
what it will look like. This makes it infinitely easier for them to
understand your idea.
3. A storyboard makes production much easier: When we
storyboard our video we are basically setting up a plan for production,
including all the shots that we will need, the order that will be laid out,
and how the visuals will interact with the script. This really comes in
handy when we are making the video, as it ensures that you will not
forget any shots. It also comes in handy during editing, as it serves as
a nice guide for the editor so they can piece together the video
according to our vision. This will also prevent you from requesting
multiple revisions from our editor, saving our time and money.
FORMULATE STORY IDEAS
TYPES OF SCRIPT
Script comes from the Latin scribere, meaning, "To write," and all its
meanings have to do with something written. A script is a document that
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outlines every audio, visual, behavioral, and lingual element required to tell a
story. A script is almost never the work of a single person. Instead, it will go
through revisions and rewrites, and ultimately will be interpreted by the
producers, directors, and actors.
Script format may seem strange. Like any profession, a convention must be
learned as part of the trade. After some practice, it will become second
nature. When writing a feature script, you must use proper formatting if you
hope to sell it. This cannot be overemphasized. The industry is very
meticulous about this, and it is used as a decisive test for a screenwriter's
professionalism. There are different types of script formats.
SPEC SCRIPT
Spec scripts are scripts written on the speculation of a future sale. They are
written in the present tense using master scene format. This format uses,
scene headings
narrative description
dialogue blocks
These are discussed in detail below. There is absolutely no technical direction

for camera, sound, music, and editing. Technical and artistic directions are
implied through creative writing. Master scene format makes the script as
easy and inviting to read as possible. The following example is a sample
script page from The Godfather, which can use as a reference
SHOOTING SCRIPT
Shooting scripts are scripts used during production to shoot the movie. They
are written with much more detailed than spec scripts and may include,
among other things, scene numbers, editing transitions, and camera
angles. Shooting scripts are a great source of confusion for novice writers
because they seem to break all the formatting rules. Since shooting scripts
are used in production, they are formatted to include any helpful information
that the director may request. Shooting scripts are difficult to read and will
turn off prospective investors. Only use this approach when the script is
going directly into production.
MASTER SCRIPT
This format was required by the motion picture industry for modern
screenplays before they are green lit for production. The master scene script
is distinct from the shooting script in that it does not include camera
direction. It is to the master scene script that the director adds camera
direction to create the shooting script. While the master scene format
enables the screenwriter to focus on the literary, his work provides merely a
blueprint for the director; whose role is calling the shot now extends to
changing whole scenes. One advantage of the master scene script is that it
gives producers a reader-friendly screenplay to show investors.
TWO-COLUMN CONTENT
The left-hand column of a two-column script includes all the visual aspects of
the production, including the content of each shot. Abbreviations describe
the type of shot, such as "CU" for "close-up," "MS" for "medium shot," "INT"
for "interior" and "EXT" for exterior. The visual column also includes
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descriptions of any special effects. The right-hand column contains the audio
portions of the production, including dialogue, sound effects and music. The
content of the columns should be synchronized; so that the dialogue in the
right column matches the shots in the left column.
WRITING SKILL AND THE SCRIPTING PROCESS

One of the most important filters of creativity is the script--the written
document that defines the video's sequence of sights and sounds. Scripting
is not difficult; in fact, it makes the work easier and more effective in long
run. A good script lends seamless continuity to the video. It also acts as a
precision-ground lens, just like the one on the front of the camera. It allows
us to focus the creative energies into a video presentation that is both
smooth and understandable.
WHATEVER WORKS IS RIGHT
Before teeth clench with anxiety over the prospect of learning somebody
else's system of scripting, just relax. There is only one correct way to script
the video: the way that works for it. If the abbreviation "CU" for "close-up"
does not look right, change it. If two columns distract the overall feel of the
script, go to a different format and feel free to adjust that format if it makes
the script easier to understand. Use what works. This project and the script is
simply a mechanism to make your job easier, so experiment with it until it
feels right.
Some video makers swear by the two-column format because it clearly
specifies which components of the work are visual and which are auditory.
Others maintain that single-column formats force the writer to create audio
and video simultaneously. The contention is that two-column scripting
creates a temptation to write all of the audio first, then come back and write
all of the video. There are some truths to this the problem with writing all the
audio first is that to make the audio do too much work. The power of video is
in color and motion, so it is important to have visual demonstrating concepts
whenever possible rather than describing them with narration or dialogue.
THE PROCESS OF WRITING A SCRIPT
The steps involved in the writing of a script vary widely from one project to
the next and from writer to writer, but a few truths are common to the
creation of most scripts. For example, no matter how complicated or simple
the script, it is difficult to write down every good idea on the first draft. A
good start is to go at it with broad-brush strokes. Write down a rough
sequence of scenes, including any specific ideas that come to mind for each
one. Do not worry about it making sense to anyone else; you will probably do
a lot of fine-tuning before you show it off.
This approach has a couple of advantages. For one thing, it gets started,
which is usually the hardest part. In addition, by working from the very
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beginning to the very end on this and successive drafts, it maintains a bigpicture image of the script, rather than bogging down in isolated pockets of
detail. The little things will fill out during later drafts, after the script has
taken on an overall shape with a solid framework. As it works by the way
from one scene to the next, keep asking yourself these two questions: What
will this look like? What will this sound like? This constant attention to both
audio and video will ensure a finished product that weaves the two
components into a single creation. A real headache many video makers face
after the cameras start rolling is the discovery of "dead spots" in their
scripts. These are areas where the narrative and music push majestically
ahead for long periods while the video just lays there. When writing an audio,
constantly ask, "What's happening on-screen now?" When making video
notes, the points to be noted are, "What's the sound doing here?" In this
way, it can eliminate those awkward stretches of sleepy video.
The viewer had to watch a two-minute close-up of an actor holding a piece
of pipe he had just unthreaded, while the narrative droned on and on about
the merits of the pipe-thread lubricant that the tape advertised. It was not
the fault of the actor or director. The script simply failed to match the
duration of the narrative to the duration of the video.
ELEMENTS OF GOOD WRITING
Any script is better than no script, but a few simple tricks can help this
valuable document do its job better than ever:
Make the script fits the production level. A good script for home video might
be a simple shot list with some strategically placed lines of voice-over. At the
other end of the spectrum, a good script for a Hollywood feature film would
define every camera move, transition and facial expression on a minute-byminute basis. So where does the project fit in?
The answer depends on the needs. Will this be a solo production, just the
director and the camcorder? If so, how much written direction will it need? If
someone else will direct it, how much creative license will he or she need to
do good work? What about the camera operators? The camera operators
themselves often create truly spine-tingling shots and camera moves on the
spot.
If the project involves other professionals, try to let them make decisions on
matters where their expertise is great. Do not write a script that inhibits the
talents of the crew. If it is working with good people, use them well by going
light on specific directives.
On the other hand, if it is working with less experienced people or if they are
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doing all the work by themselves, it is a good idea to identify exactly what
each shot should look like.
Shows do not tell. This is an important axiom for writers of all kinds, and
scriptwriters are no exception. As they think through the content of their
video, think visually. Do not write a line of dialogue where Mary says, "I'm so
angry!" Instead, write an acting cue, such as "MARY'S EYES NARROW, HER
JAW CLENCHES and HER HANDS SLOWLY WAD THE INVOICE INTO A TIGHT
BALL." Or, if the actress playing Mary has some talent and you trust her to do
it well, simply MARY LOOKS ANGRY." Another example: rather than scripting a
narrative line, such as "These mighty machines cut through cylinder walls of
the biggest engines on Earth, throwing sparks the size of pencil erasers,"
describe the same scene for shooting from a strategic angle that graphically
and dramatically shows those details.
Be a good reporter. Journalists write around a framework of the famous "five
W's." As a scriptwriter, they should do the same (well, sort of). Their
description of each scene should include some or all of the following
components, depending on which ones are relevant: who is in it, what scene
it is, when it takes place and where it takes place. In lieu of the classical why,
we are more concerned with which props and costumes they will need. They
will question themselves like, which of the following five (W's) apply each
time they begin setting a scene.
Fill in the gaps. Complete the knowledge of the kind of scripts they want to
write. If their work will be primarily dramatic in nature, they read everything
they can find about screenplays, plotting, dialogue and general storytelling.
Pick up a writers' magazine at the newsstand to learn about some of the
excellent computer programs available to help you create the plots of your
stories.
If your niche is instructional videos, read about technical writing. If television
production is their game, they read everything they can find, on the type of
work they want to become involved with. Many books are available on
general writing skills and will improve a scriptwriter's ability. Again, do not be
caught up in being a great writer; your job is to communicate ideas, not to
pen immortal poetry.
PROCESS OF WRITING A SCRIPT
The script writing is an important step in the production of any television
programme and the producer should choose such an author having the
knowledge of writing a screenplay. The subjects for the TV production should
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be one not treated in book. The writer should have the mental images built
on remembrance of scenes and experience that help to visualize and create
the scenery. He or she must have "eye of mind" and be capable of making
mental pictures.
THE PLOT OF ANY STORY, DRAMA, NOVEL, OR PLAY HAS FOLLOWING
BASIC INGREDIENTS
Introduction: beginning
Complication: development of complications
Culmination: climax of conflict
Solution: resolution of issues
Conclusion: ending
The writer should keep in mind that the characters must be intensely human,
close to real life and day- to-day situations. More universal the theme,
greater is the audience. A good author has a study of lives of those who will
be the audience so he or she should develop the ability to write dialogue by
listening to the conversation of those particular people
Most screenwriting professionals follow these five steps to write a screenplay.
CRAFT YOUR LOGLINE
A logline is a one-sentence summary of the story, and they are primarily
used as a marketing tool. When a studio executive asks to give him the best
pitch, the logline is the first thing they will mention. Loglines also function as
a helpful guide to focus the writing on the most important aspects of the
story. In other words, loglines help the story stay on track. Loglines generally
contain three elements: a protagonist, a antagonist, a goal. It is also helpful
to put a summarizing adjective in front of the characters to give a sense of
their personalities. For example, the logline of Star Trek might be: A
headstrong orphan and his Vulcan nemesis must save the Federation (and
themselves) from a revenge-seeking Romulus from the future.
WRITE A TREATMENT: YOUR FIRST SKETCH
Also primarily a marketing document, treatments give executives an idea of
whether the story is worth their money. However, like the logline, it also
serves as a helpful tool for the writer, a kind of first sketch of the story. For
most of the history of art, paint was prohibitively expensive, and so before
Monet or Picasso would attempt a full-scale painting, they would do a
study, a sketch of their subject (artists do this today, too, of course). If a
sketch was not coming together, they might save their paint and not make
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the painting, or else revise the study until it looked worthwhile. In the same
way, a treatment is like a first sketch of a film. Treatments are generally two
to five page summaries that break the story into three acts. Here are the
three main elements of a treatment: title of the film, logline, and synopsis.
STRUCTURE THE SCREENPLAYS OUTLINE
In this step, we look into the structure of the story. As Wilder said, the most
important element a screenplay is, STRUCTURE! STRUCTURE! STRUCTURE!
the screenplays outline is the first step completely focused on creating. Most
feature films have forty scenes, and the job in the outline is to map out the
setting and major events of each scene. It might include major dialogue as
well. Just remember the screenplays outline is primarily. Write as much or as
little as it will need to.
WRITE A FLASH DRAFT
This is the fun part on first real draft, and the same guidelines apply here as
to the fiction writing:
Write quickly
Dont think too hard
Dont edit
EDIT
As per the screenwriters, they recommend doing at least three drafts. After
they finish their first draft, they read it through without editing. In the second
draft, it can focus on major structural changes, including filling gaping holes,
deepening characters, removing characters that do not move the story
forward, and even rewriting entire scenes from scratch. In the third draft, it
can focus on polishing, specifically, on making the dialogue pop.
INSTANT SCRIPT PREPARATION
Every story has three parts: a beginning, middle and an end. In live theater,
these parts are called "acts." Each of these parts has an important function:
The beginning serves to introduce the characters and establish the problem
the hero must solve.
The middle is the most involved, and usually the longest part. The hero must
overcome increasing difficulties. Just when it looks like the antagonist is
going to win, we have...
The end in which the hero puts out a supreme effort and reaches his or her
goal - usually. Most stories have happy endings. The audience does not want
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to cheer for a hero through all her trials only to see her go down in flames at
the end. If the story has an unhappy ending, the hero (or at least the
audience) should gain something, like a better understanding of herself or
the world. It is often heard that a story requires conflict. This does not
necessarily mean gunfights or fisticuffs. "Conflict" is another name for the
difficulties that the hero has to overcome. "Boy meets girl, boy courts girl
and boy gets girl" may be the way it usually happens in real life, but
audiences do not watch videos to see the kind of life they are already living.
Storytellers learned long ago that "boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy gets
girl" is more interesting.
The Plot Kit:
Having observed how stories are constructed, they can easily put together
one of their own. Below are some elements that they can adapt to make a
story:
Beginning:
Here they have infinity of choices. Some of them are:
1. "Once upon a time," still a good way to start the telling of a fable or any
story set in an indeterminate time.
2. Dawn or the beginning of someones day.
3. Boy meets girl.
4. Someone commits a crime.
5. A ghost appears and demands revenge for his murder. I know, I know, this
one has been used already. Nevertheless, Shakespeare was not the first to
use it, nor the `last. It is perfectly acceptable to take an existing story line
and put your own spin on it, the very best have done so.
Middle:
Here are some ways to keep your story exciting and moving forward:
Use a "Rule of Three." As in the story of the Little Pig, the hero tries two
things that do not work before figuring out one that will. Three seems to be a
magic number; more failures make the hero look like a real loser, fewer do
not build up sufficient tension. The hero continues to fail until he hits bottom;
then begins with small successes to work for himself back up to where he
can take on the villain once again. Alternatively, the hero loses the big battle,
and then retires to lick his wounds and prepare for the final confrontation.
Some examples of things that keep the plot moving are:
1. The protagonist goes to an unfamiliar place.
2. A natural disaster occurs.
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3. The hero gives in to some temptation.

4. A mysterious stranger appears.
End:
1. Here are a few choices for endings:
2. The hero triumphs and lives happily ever after. This is the most common
and generally the most satisfying ending.
3. The hero fails to achieve the goal but gains some valuable
understanding.
4. The hero dies, perhaps after achieving the goal, perhaps after failing. A
tragic ending takes real skill to keep it from being depressing.
5. The twist or surprise ending. If you use this ending, make sure that the
surprise is based on the material that went before. If it is totally unrelated
(i.e., the killer is someone we never heard of) your audience will boo.
After solving the problem, the hero rides off into the sunset (on his horse,
bike, or skateboard).
All successful stories have common characteristics. They show someone,
that we care about, striving against difficulties to achieve a worthwhile goal.
The way to organize your story is to give it a proven beginning, middle, and
end. The beginning introduces us to the main characters and what they are
after. The middle shows the heroes progress against whatever threatens to
keep him from the goal. The end shows how the hero finally triumphs. By
organizing the videos storyline around these elements, they will understand
the secret formula to good story writing and it will keep the audiences
interest to the very end.
PROPOSING AND DESIGNING A STORYBOARD:
While planning a video, the first step in the process is to make a storyboard
so it can bring your script to life and present it to other people. A storyboard
is a series of thumbnails that show the breakdown of the video, illustrating
the key scenes how the setting will look, who will be present, and what
actions will take place. Its often used as a mock-up for movie scenes, music
videos, TV production, and more, and can be created by hand or using a
digital medium. Read on to learn how to map your story, illustrate the key
frames and fine-tune your storyboard.
STORY WORK:
1. Establish a timeline: Establishing the parameters for when and
where the story takes place, and deciding in which order the events of
the story happen chronologically, is the best way to organize the story
so it can begin bringing it to life. If the story is not linear (e.g. there are
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flashbacks, flash-forwards, shifting perspectives, alternate outcomes,

multiple timelines, time travel, and so on), it can still create a narrative
timeline. Make a list of the main events of the story in the order they
will be told. This is how they will appear on screen. If storyboarding for
a commercial, establish what scenes will occur and in what order.
2. Identify the key scenes in your story: A storyboard is meant to
give its viewer the gist of how the story will translate to film. The point
is not to try to recreate the entire experience in a flipbook, but to
demonstrate important key parts that will draw the viewer in. Think the
story through and brainstorm a list of the key moments that they want
to illustrate on storyboard. I) Pick scenes that show the plot developing
from start to finish. II) Turning points are important to show. Any time
there is a plot twist or an important change; include it in the storyboard
to move the story along. III) It may also want to depict changes in
setting. If the story begins in one city and moves to another, make sure
that will be clear in the illustrations. IV) Storyboarding for a
commercial, the process is no different: pick key images that will
represent the flow and direction of the film from start to finish. As a
general guideline, keep in mind that for a typical 30-second
commercial, a storyboard should have no more than 15 frames. Factor
in two seconds per frame on average.
3. Decide how detailed to get: A storyboard can be incredibly
detailed, with illustrations depicting every shot. If it is in the
preliminary stages of a feature-length film, it has too much ground to
cover to get this detailed just now. However, it might eventually want
to break the film down into individual scenes, with a separate
storyboard for each one. This allows us to create a very detailed
representation of the progression of individual scenes and is helpful
when it comes to staying organized during filmmaking.
I)
If it is for working on a film and breaking it down shot by shot,
creates a shot list. For each shot on the list, it will need to think
about the shot's composition and other details involving how it
will actually be filmed.
II)
Remember that the point of the storyboard is to provide visual
clarity and keep everyone on the same page. It is not supposed
to be a work of art in and of itself. Take a practical view when it
comes to the level of detail that was chosen for the storyboard. It
does not want the viewer to get lost in trying to interpret the
illustrations instead of seeing the bigger picture.
III)
A good storyboard will be easily understood by anyone viewing
it. Potentially, a director, cinematographer, scene selector, or
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even a prop specialist may refer to the storyboard for reference,

guidance and direction.
4. Write a description of what each cell will show: Now that we
know what main scenes we want to show, think about how to depict
the action in each illustration. Go down to list of scenes and write a
description of the most important elements of each one. This will help
to determine what exactly to draw for the storyboard. For example, we
might want to have a cell that depicts a conversation between two
main characters. What needs to be conveyed in this image? Are the
characters fighting, smiling, or moving toward a destination? Some sort
of action should take place in each drawing. Consider the setting as
well. Is it important to have a certain view in the background behind
the characters?
DESIGN:
1. Decide what medium to use for your template: we can draw a
basic storyboard template by hand, simply dividing a poster board into
empty frames of the same size using a pencil and a straightedge. The
setup should look similar to that of a comic book, with rows of square
cells that show how the scene will look on a screen. If they prefer, they
can use Adobe Illustrator, Microsoft PowerPoint, Amazon's Storyteller,
or InDesign to create a storyboard template in vertical or horizontal
format.
2. Sketch your thumbnails: Start bringing the scenes to life by drawing
the sketches that were mapped out into the template you designed.
This is just your rough draft, so do not try to make it perfect. As sketch
each scene, tinker with the following elements, erasing and redrawing
as often as necessary: Composition (lighting, foreground/background,
color palette, etc.) Angle from which the camera is shooting (high or
low) type of shot (wide shots, close-ups, over-the-shoulder shots,
tracking shots, etc. Props (objects in the frame) Actors (people,
animals, cartoon talking couch, etc.: anything that can act rather than
be acted upon) Special effects.
3. Add other important information: Next to or below each cell, fill in
the description of what is happening in the scene. Include dialogue
that will take place. Add information about the length of time the shot
will take. Finally, number the cells so they are easy to reference when
they discuss the storyboard with others.
4. Finalize the storyboard: once it has been identified, the key points
of the subject and work out a design for each frame, review the work,
and make final changes. Be sure that each cell portrays the action they
want it to portray. Tweak the descriptions and dialogue if necessary. It
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is a good idea to have someone else review the storyboard to make

sure it flows well and is not confusing. Consider adding color. If they
are creating an advertising storyboard, this will help the ideas pop.
Remember that it is not necessarily important that the drawings look
realistic or perfect. Depending on the viewing audience, simple stick
figures might suffice. In most cases, storyboards do not need to be
perfect; they only need to make sense to the team.
FINE TUNING:
1. Think in three-point perspective: While the storyboard illustrations
do not need to look like a professional artist created them, there are a
few artists' tricks you can use to make your images look more like
movie scenes. This is not mandatory, but it can help the people you
are working with visualize the shot more clearly. Instead of drawing, all
of your characters as though they were standing on the same
horizontal line, put them in perspective. Have some standing a little
further from the camera and some standing closer. The ones standing
further from the camera should appear smaller, with their feet higher
up on the page, and the ones standing closer should appear larger,
with their feet lower on the page. When it is time to translate the
storyboard to film, you will have a much better idea of how to direct
the shot.
2. Be motivated for the cuts: As the storyboard for the film, think
about the reasons for making each cut to a new shot. Advancing the
story is about more than just hopping to the next plot point; they need
to give a reason for why the characters do what they do. Storyboarding
the motivations for the cuts will help to figure out how to build tension
and keep the stories moving when it comes to making the film. For
example, if they want to cut from one room to another, have a
character in the first room look toward the door because they hear a
noise. This helps the story's continuity and keeps the viewer engaged.
3. Let the storyboard morph as you go: The storyboard can be an
extraordinary tool to have at the disposal when we are setting up the
shots and directing film. However, relying heavily on the storyboard
might end up being too confining. As they make the film, they are
bound to come across ideas for shots they did not think of before.
Allow to drift from the board, or at least revise it, so that the
filmmaking process is a bit more organic. Remember to accept others'
input as it goes along, especially if it is working with a talented film
crew. A storyboard is meant to be edited and changed. It can often be
improved by ideas they might not have thought up on their own. Most
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film directors have a different style when it comes to storyboarding.

Some map out every detail, while others use it as a loose guide.
CRITIQUE AND EVALUATING A STORYBOARD
The Evaluation is the chance to claw back any marks it may have lost in the
storyboard: it can turn a negative into a positive by being self-critical. In the
Evaluation, they have the opportunity to discuss the intangible elements of
what they have done and what they have learned. They gain marks by
showing us, the aware of the limitations and strengths. They can also point
out the challenges they have faced and say, how they feel about the
difficulties they have overcome. PREPARATION does not simply rely on tutor
feedback to write the Evaluation. Firstly, re-read the work and reflect on what
it feels. Then show the work to others to get some real responses. Try to get
a variety from peers, from people of different ages, from friends,
acquaintances. It is useful to get responses from people who might be the
target audience for the film. Note down the responses. Try to be objective.
Was it understood? Agreed with? Provoking? Did it create a desired
response? It might even have a list of questions to ask each person, the
answers to which will form an important part of the evaluation.
This entails a clear understanding of the conventions and practical aspects of
film story telling. This means focusing on any edit transitions in the
storyboard, use of camera angles, movement or sound etc. they might also
consider how appropriately they have used these conventions to reference
genre or provoke such knowledge in the spectator. An understanding of the
practical issues associated with being creative and drawing on influences.
This could also cover the practice of avoiding copying too much from films.
An understanding of the challenges and problems associated with (1) using
film as an expressive medium and (2) adopting tone of address to chosen
target audience (discuss real responses here?). How successfully do they feel
they produced meaning(s)? (3) Also what were the problems of addressing
the non-targeted audience (say, non-Sci-Fi fans viewing your Sci-Fi inspired
storyboard)?
VISUAL STORY TELLING
Visual storytelling is the art of conveying a message with the visual images
of a story. Because people are uniquely wired to receive stories, it is
important to understand this art. With it, we can help impact people with our
videos. Without it, we can take away from the message we want to send. Our
brains instinctively try to put images together to make sense of what we see.
The art of visual storytelling is the ability to use images to convey a certain
19
message. Video, being a visual medium, is one of the supreme storytelling

formats. If they want productions that will stay in the audience's mind, must
tell a story. This is true of the news, sitcoms, business presentations and
wedding videos. People may become interested by their stunning visuals and
graphics, but the story is what will remain in their mind. On the other side,
the visuals can also contradict in storytelling. Using the wrong framing,
lighting or music can actually send the wrong message.
Additionally, the ability to tell the story visually, without dialogue, can open
up the entire non-English speaking world. Learning the art of visual
storytelling can help to communicate the message to a new audience. The
key to learning visual storytelling is to observe how this is being done all
around. For example, large corporations often use the same advertising
around the world by simply changing a few graphics.
Understanding visual storytelling
To begin understanding visual storytelling, try this exercise: Turn the
television to a drama that they have never seen and turn the sound off.
Without hearing a single word, can they tell what is happening? They may
not be completely correct, but their mind will want to make sense of the
story. How quickly do you begin to tell them the story? Continue watching
until they can tell who the villain is and who the hero is. How can they tell
the difference? Is it a matter of lighting? Is there a difference in the framing
of the shot? Start watching TV and movies in this way; watch for the visual
story.
ONE LINE SCRIPT: LOG LINE

The one line script is also known as logline. A logline is a one-sentence
summary of the script. The short blurb in TV guides tells them what a movie
is about and helps to decide if they are interested in seeing it. The grabber
excites their interest. The logline answers the question: What is the story
about? Friends and others probably ask this question when they tell them
they are writing a screenplay or that they have already written one. We need
to be able to state the main concept of the story in one concise sentence.
They must learn to express the story concept in one powerful sentence if
they want an agent or producer to read the screenplay, for that reason,
the logline is also step number one of planning in screenplay. Before they
20
even begin to write, they must write down this one key sentencethe
logline. Keep it in front of it while writing the script. It will keep focused on
the story when they stray.
How does a logline help you sell your screenplay?
When the screenplay is ready to sell, the query letter to agents, producers,
and directors must contain a logline. Sometimes, they do not read past the
logline. Therefore, if they do not grab them with their logline, they will not
have any chance of getting them to read the entire screenplay. If they speak
to a producer, director, or agent, that person will ask: "What is the script
about?" it will have 30 seconds to describe the plot in a captivating way.
How do we write a logline that will interest a producer, director, or
agent?
Writing something short and exciting is never easy. It takes practice. A lot of
it Read and study professionally written loglines in TV guides, newspapers,
Variety, Internet film reviews anything they can that will help in express
story concept in one sentence. Your logline will usually start out as more than
one sentence. It may even be far too long and complicated. That is okay.
Leave it alone for a day or two. Then go back, look at it, take a pencil and
cross out all the words that do not contribute to the main action or the heart
of the story. Soon, they will have pared the logline down to one sentence that
captures the essence of your story. Read it to your friends, your family,
fellow writers. Find out if they are intrigued by the logline and want to know
more. Getting feedback from others is important. It tells if it is on track or if it
has to go back and rewrite.
Here
1.
2.
3.
are three questions to ask yourself as you write your logline

Who is the main character and what does he or she wants?
Who (villain) or what is standing in the way of the main characters.
What makes this story unique?
WRITING SCREENPLAY
So why should we concern ourselves with how to write a screenplay?
Because a time may come when we have to get ideas from paper to video,
and we need to explain to a financial backer, crew and cast how we idea
plays out.
Many of us working in industrial and corporate video may already be very
familiar with scripting. Today many TV shows are written like mini movies but
some, like news shows and advertising still use the split page format, also
21
called A/V (audio, visual) format. This divides the page into two columns, one
describing the visuals, and the other with sounds such as dialogue, effects,
etc. TV dramas typically use the screenplay format, which is written like a
play action is described and dialogue written in a single column.
Here is an example from an episode of Frasier, Fool Me Once, Shame on

You. Fool Me Twice..., written by Christopher Lloyd in 1995.
Notice that only the character movements important to understanding the

dialogue are mentioned Eddie (the dog) looks at Frasier, and people
entering the room. All the rest of the blocking is left for the director. Do not
worry though about having to figure that all out right away, there is lots of
software to help you, we will look at that next.
22
While our story may be complicated, we need to be able to explain our plot
very simply; which means we must know how to write a good script, and how
to get people interested in reading it which means, at the beginning, telling
our story in a single paragraph. Condense our story into the broadest
strokes. From there, write an outline of the script and include the major plot
points. We will then use this outline to create our treatment which is a
description of the plot, usually around four pages long. It will not include any
dialogue, and will simply, though grippingly explain what happens.
SCENE AND SHOT SPLIT UP
A scene is generally thought of as the action in a single location and
continuous time. Due to the ability to edit recorded visual works, it is
typically much shorter than a stage play scene. Because of their frequent
appearance in films, some types of scenes have acquired names, such as
love scene, sex scene, dream scene, action scene, car chase scene, crash
scene, etc. There is usually an opening scene and a closing scene. A scene is
a part of a film, as well as an act, a sequence (longer or shorter than a
scene) and a setting (usually shorter than a scene). A shot is a single run of
the camera. The length of a shot depends upon its purpose. It could be to
establish a place, or show action or reaction. Think of a shot as a sentence.
SPLITTING A SCENE AND SHOOTING
This is critical to ensure everyone understands the nature of the scene and
the director's goal. Think of this meeting as being the 30,000 ft overview.
Given that the proper preparations have been done shots were planned,
actors were rehearsed, the department heads had a chance to visit each
location to determine the shots and lighting, locations were dressed, parking
and transportation had been set-up and the cast and crew are on their way,
the process of shooting the movie begins. Once the crew arrives on set, the
grip, lighting trucks have been parked, and the location manager has made
contact with the location owner, the crew will generally make a beeline for
the craft services table to grab a cup of coffee and a bagel. Professional
crewmembers arrive early to set, well before their call time so they can eat
and be ready to begin work exactly at call time. Shooting a scene involves
five steps.
Step 1: Block
Once the production team begins a new scene, the very first step is for the
first Assistant Director to bring all essential cast and crewmembers to the set
so we can walk through the entire scene. During this walkthrough, block the
actors, or determine their position and movement within the set. Usually, you
23
should have spent significant time on set before the shoot to determine the
blocking, although sometimes if a location is not available, you may figure to
out the blocking the day of the shoot. Ideally, storyboards have been created
which illustrate the actors movements.
The blocking process includes:
Determining the starting and stopping points for each actor. The
second Assistant Cameraperson will use paper tape to set marks on
the floor to designate the exact positions for the actors, enabling the
camera crew to set focus marks, the gaffer to focus the lights on the
right spots, the DP to choose the correct lens and the Production
Designer to dress the appropriate parts of the set.
Determine the camera coverage. During the blocking process, the DP
will work with whom to determine the placement of the camera and
frame size. Usually this will work out in advance for example, a
simple dialogue scene may consist of a master shot, close-up coverage
of each actor, and any necessary inserts. Scenes with more elaborate
blocking may require more intricate camera moves, so work through
each camera position with the DP to ensure proper coverage of the
scene.
Determine the lighting. During the blocking process, the DP is
discussing the lighting requirements with the gaffer and key grip
figuring out where to place the key light, accent lights, and hair lights
and broadly designing the cinematic look of the scene.
Dressing the set. Once the production designer understands the
blocking, she will begin determining which parts of the set need to be
dressed for each camera angle.
Step 2: Light
It is important for the DP to communicate clearly with the first assistant
director when giving time estimates for lighting a scene. Most often, the
days production schedule has already developed accounting for the time
needed to light each scene. Although pre-planning is important, factors such
as weather, unknown locations, changes in blocking and scheduling issues
sometimes force the DP to change his lighting plan. Therefore, it is extremely
important to give the 1st AD accurate estimates so the 1st AD can
coordinate with all the other departments.
Stand-ins Ideally, while the DP is lighting the scene, the crew will need to
see the actors in position so they can focus and tweak the camera angles
and lighting. Because the actors are in hair and make-up, studying their lines
24
and preparing for their upcoming shots, stand-ins (people who bear a similar
height, skin tone, hair color and look to the main actors) are used so the DP
can continue working. Low budget movies may require the actor to return to
the set and stand in position. This can be both fatiguing and frustrating, as it
prohibits him from doing his work. Try to avoid using your actors on set to
stand in whenever possible.
Rehearse moves During this process, the DP will have the stand-ins walk
through the blocking so the dolly grip and camera operators can rehearse
the shot, working out any problems that may arise.
Step 3: Rehearse
Once the set is lit, the camera is in position and the actors are ready, they
are brought back on set to rehearse the intricacies of the scene. Whereas the
scene was roughed in during blocking, the rehearsal phase gives the director
and actors a last-minute opportunity to work through emotional details of the
scene. Usually most of this emotional work has happened weeks before the
shoot, but given this is the first time the actors have seen the location, they
need a little time to adapt their performances to the real space of the set.
Always rehearse the scene with the camera crew to ensure the focus, dolly
moves, lighting, boom position and set dressing are correct.
Step 4: Tweak
During the technical rehearsal of the scene, the director may make last
minute adjustments to the actors' performances; the DP is carefully watching
the scene to ensure the lighting is correct, the camera operator minds the
frame, making small adjustments to the elements in the frame to ensure
ideal composition. The tweak stage is the final opportunity to fine-tune every
aspect of the frame before rolling a take. During the scene, the director and
director of photography are always at video village watching the take. The
director is watching for the actors' performance while the DP is watching the
frame.
Step 5: Shoot
Now that the scene has been rehearsed, lit and the cast and crew are all
clear on what is happening in the shot, it is time to roll the camera. The first
assistant director will call for quiet on the set and will give the command to
roll camera, roll sound, and mark the shot. After the second assistant camera
operator marks the shot with the clapboard, you are free to call action.
25
Be sure to let the camera run for a few moments before calling action and
after calling cutthis extra footage will provide pad for the editor to work
with when cutting the film.
During the take, watch the performances carefully on the monitor and look
for authenticity, realism, and emotion from the actors. Be aware of how the
actors move around the frame and how well all the technical elements play
together. Does the moment feel real? Are the actors over- or under acting?
Does the blocking seem real and motivated? Is the scene full of subtext,
character, and driving story elements? Watch carefully and make mental
notes of what to change or adjust for the next take.
BREAKING DOWN THE SCRIPT:
Breaking down the script involves four steps. They are:
STEP ONE: Read the Script
The first thing we need to do is actually read the script. Do not make notes.
Do not think about things too much. Just read it and try to enjoy the story. We
will end up reading the script through many more times, so this initial
reading should be for fun. Keep the technical issues for the next step.
26
STEP TWO: Marking the Script

The next step is to go through the script and start making the notes. We will
want to start thinking about each scene and how we are going to shoot it. A
good method is to use different color pens and/or highlighters to signify
various aspects of the scenes. An example color coding scheme:
Yellow Highlighter: Characters
Pink Highlighter: Locations
Orange Highlighter: Stunts
Items underlined in Black: Props
Items underlined in Red: Set Dressing
Items underlined in Blue: Wardrobe
Items underlined in Green: Transportation
Notes in pencil: Special Equipment / Crew
Of course, we can come up with our own scheme or circle items instead of
underlining. The importance here is to do something consistently so you will
know at a glance that a particular issue or item is present in the scene. Your
script will look messy - but that has to be expected.
We may ask ourselves, 'Why not just start inputting the breakdown info
directly into the scheduling program? Well, we could, certainly. There is
nothing fundamentally wrong with that. This read-through of the script allows
us to think in more detail and not worry about filling in blank fields on the
computer. You will then be able to quickly go back and enter everything into
the breakdown software. Besides, this is only the third time we have re-read
the script - there will be more times to come.
Line Producers create a schedule in order to get a more accurate feel for the
number of items to be shot, characters, prop and many other issues. One
major piece of information gleaned from a rough schedule is the proposed
number of shooting days. OK, once we have determined how we are going to
note things; you start with the fun stuff. Page one, scene one and breaking
down the script one line at a time...
Where is the scene?
Not just where the script says it is, but where in the real world we may be
able to shoot this. Much of this will be in the lap of the Location Manager, but
we will want to start forming some ideas. A field of grass on the surface of
27
Mars Now, asks if this can be a practical location or will we need to build a
set. Both types of locations have their pros and cons. If we build a bedroom
on a stage, we could make the walls wild. This could also allow us to shoot
late into the night and/or not worry about neighbors or allow for shooting
Day-for-Night. Still - we will need to actually build it. Where are you building
the room? What will it take to dress it and have it feel 'real'? Do not forget to
factor in the time to get the walls up and prep the room to shoot in. A built
set could be lit early and wait for the shooting crew to come, whereas a
practical location may need to be lit on the day of shooting while the rest of
the crew waits. Pause a moment now...
Take a moment to imagine the scene. Really, get detailed in our mind. Are we
moving the camera? What time of day is it? What or who are our characters
interacting with? What do we not see that we might have to insinuate the
idea that it is just off screen? What are the characters wearing? Starting with
these basic questions and others, we start to form a picture in our mind of
the scene. Pulling the descriptions off the page and letting them soak in your
creative juices. Now comes more detail...
What cast members will be needed?
Of course, we will most likely need all the cast who work in that scene, but
this may not always be true. There may be a time that we can shoot a
reverse angle and only need one or a limited number of actors. Assuming we
need everyone, think then to the next step
What does having the actors mean to me?
We could be lucky and able to carry a stable of crew and equipment for the
entire show, but chances are we will need to wisely choose the dates we will
need to bring in items to accommodate an actor. This could mean bringing in
the actors "team", which means an actors preferred hair, make-up and/or
wardrobe person or even an assistant. If we are shooting at a location, which
is not the actors hometown, we may need to bring this team in as well. Does
this mean that we may need more rental cars, bigger trailers or more heads
to feed at catering? Yes, perhaps all of that and more.
Script Breakdown
Scheduling and budgeting are true art forms. Have no doubt in our mind that
the process is not for the weak-of-heart or the organizationally challenged.
We need to constantly review the script, talk to the director, mediate
28
between creative and technical forces and nurture the crew to bring out the
best for the project.
This section is aimed at the process of breaking down a script, highlighting
considerations we should make and moving forward to the budgeting
process. While here, we will only talk about abstract and overarching topics.
There is no way a book, or even this website, could give all the 'secrets' we
need in order to do the job as a Line Producer. We gain this knowledge
through experience. Simply put, we need to see it done and do it yourself in
order to apply previous experience on our current project. However, with the
help on this page, we will know what to be looking for.
STEP ONE:
Read The Script The first thing we need to do is actually read the script. Do
not make notes. Do not think about things too much. Just read it and try to
enjoy the story. We will end up reading the script through many more times,
so this initial reading should be for fun. Keep the technical issues for the next
step.
STEP TWO:
Marking The Script The next step is to go through the script and start
making our notes. We will want to start thinking about each scene and how
we are going to shoot it. A good method is to use different color pens and/or
highlighters to signify various aspects of the scenes. An example color
coding scheme:
Yellow Highlighter: Characters
Pink Highlighter: Locations
Orange Highlighter: Stunts
Items underlined in Black: Props
Items underlined in Red: Set Dressing
Items underlined in Blue: Wardrobe
Items underlined in Green: Transportation
Notes in pencil: Special Equipment / Crew
Of course, we can come up with our own scheme or circle items instead of
underlining. The importance here is to do something consistently so we will
know at a glance that a particular issue or item is present in the scene. Our
script will look messy - but that has to be expected.
29
We may ask ourselves, 'Why not just start inputting the breakdown info
directly into the scheduling program? Well, you could, certainly. There is
nothing fundamentally wrong with that. This read-through of the script allows
us to think in more detail and not worry about filling in blank fields on the
computer. We will then be able to quickly go back and enter everything into
the breakdown software. Besides, this is only the third time we have re-read
the script - there will be more times to come.
Line Producers create a schedule in order to get a more accurate feel for the
number of items to be shot, characters, prop and many other issues. One
major piece of information gleaned from a rough schedule is the proposed
number of shooting days.
OK, once we have determined how we are going to note things, we start with
the fun stuff.
Page one, scene one and breaking down the script one line at a time...
Where is the scene? Not just where the script says it is, but where in the real
world we may be able to shoot this. Much of this will be in the lap of the
Location Manager, but we will want to start forming some ideas.
A field of grass on the surface of Mars Now, asks if this can be a practical
location or will we need to build a set. Both types of locations have their pros
and cons. If we build a bedroom on a stage, we could make the walls wild.
This could also allow us to shoot late into the night and/or not worry about
neighbors or allow for shooting Day-for-Night. Still - we will need to actually
build it. Where are we building the room? What will it take to dress it and
have it feel 'real'? Do not forget to factor in the time to get the walls up and
prep the room to shoot in. A built set could be lit early and wait for the
shooting crew to come, whereas a practical location may need to be lit on
the day of shooting while the rest of the crew waits.
Pause a moment now... Take a moment to imagine the scene. Really, get
detailed in our mind. Are we moving the camera? What time of day is it?
What or who are our characters interacting with? What do we not see that we
might have to insinuate the idea that it is just off screen? What are the
characters wearing?
Starting with these basic questions and others, we start to form a picture in
our mind of the scene. Pulling the descriptions off the page and letting them
soak in your creative juices. Now comes more detail...
30
What cast members will you need? Of course, we will most likely need all the
cast who work in that scene, but this may not always be true. There may be
a time that we can shoot a reverse angle and only need one or a limited
number of actors. Assuming we need everyone, think then to the next step
What does having the actors mean to me? We could be lucky and able to
carry a stable of crew and equipment for the entire show, but chances are we
will need to wisely select the dates we will need to bring in items to
accommodate an actor. This could mean bringing in the actors "team", which
means an actors preferred hair, make-up and/or wardrobe person or even an
assistant. If we are shooting at a location, which is not the actors hometown,
we may need to bring this team in as well. Does this mean that we may need
more rental cars, bigger trailers or more heads to feed at catering? Yes,
perhaps all of that and more.
What props, set dressing or wardrobe might I need? When imagining the
scene in our mind, we need to ask ourselves many questions, which will later
be fleshed out by a director. Let us take, as an example, that our set is a
bedroom. It is morning and our hero character is getting up. The script calls
for him to waken and toss the alarm clock - smashing it against the wall.
What special equipment might I need? Special equipment is any piece of
hardware or otherwise, which we do not normally have from day-to-day in
our package. This could be a 24 frame sync box for shooting a CRT TV, the
actor's triple pop-out trailer, an additional camera or as in our example lighting. Remember earlier when we talked about practical locations? Well,
let us say we need this location to be practical for whatever reason. We need
to get light from our 12K into the room. This means that the location may not
realistically be on the 20th floor of an apartment building. If it is down lower,
will you have to close off traffic on a street to mount your light in the right
position? Where is the generator for this light?
Will we need any special or additional crew? Sometimes we will have the
need to bring in a specialist for a shot or additional crew to augment our
regular crew. We should have an idea while doing the breakdowns as to when
and where these people may be needed.
STEP THREE: Enter the Breakdown Details into a Scheduling
Program
Now that we have done all the questioning of the scenes, we are ready to
open our preferred program and enter the information. Be methodical. Enter
31
everything we can think of and made notes for. Do not assume that other
people will understand anything. This step is covered with more detail in
"The Breakdown Sheet".
STEP FOUR: Schedule Your Project
Now we can go through the process of moving scenes around into a shooting
order. Many decisions about order will depend on locations, actors and other
things that are - for the moment - completely unknown and out-of-yourhands. Therefore, the only thing we can do is group like-scenes or locations.
Do not fret too much - the only time we will have a locked schedule is after
we yell, "Wrap!" on the last day of shooting.
STORYBOARD DRAWING:
Before we actually draw our storyboards, we need to create a space for them
to call home. The shape and dimensions of our storyboard panels will be
determined by whether your film is going to the TV screen or the theatrical
screen. These two different dimensions affect how much information is drawn
into our storyboards and what will ultimately be seen on the appropriate
screen. A storyboard panel is just a box containing the illustration of the shot
we envision for our film. We can purchase pads of storyboard panels in
different format sizes at many art and business stores. If we don't want to
spend extra dollars on a pad of professional storyboard paper, we can draw
our own panels four to six on a regular 8-1/2 x 11 piece of paper (keeping
them at a legible size), or we can even print blank storyboard panels using
our desktop computer. Here are some quick steps to design our own
storyboard panels:
Decide which shape and size of panel to use: A television storyboard
panel, like the screen on our television set, resembles a square, only slightly
wider. Theatrical feature-film storyboards are rectangular, almost twice as
wide as a television screen. Many filmmakers hope for a theatrical release
and like the picture information available with the larger, rectangular
storyboard panel, but shooting a happy medium between the two is safer.
We are more likely to end up on TV and we do not want a lot of our picture
information lost on both sides of the image.
Draw the shape of the panel and add a thick black border
(approximately 1/2 inch in width) around the square or rectangle:
Placing a border around each panel helps us to see each panel as a definitive
separate shot, and subliminally creates the illusion of a TV or darkened
32
theater around our shot, giving us an idea of what that individual image will
look like. With theatrical panels we may want to avoid the thick border to
save on page space.
Create a description panel by drawing a 1-inch empty box just below
the bottom of the frame panel: Use this box to write down important
information that describes in detail what the illustration does not show or
enhances what is drawn in the frame above. For example, include any
important dialogue, camera directions, scene numbers, or special-effects
instructions.
GENERAL TIPS:
1. In the end, take a chance to look back through our storyboard. At this
stage, we should realize what needs to be changed.
2. Facial details are not important in storyboard, leave this to the artists.
3. Study the shooting location thoroughly beforehand. We will find it
easier to compose shoots within our storyboard if you have done this.
4. Think through our scenes before storyboarding.
5. Do not be afraid to scratch out. Storyboards are there to make the
mistakes beforehand.
6. Drawing storyboard before our shoot a scene is usually preferred.
Drawing our entire film in one setting never works.
7. Do not forget to enjoy it, if it is a burden it will not be great at all.
DEFINING CHARACTER IN A SCRIPT
Character development is essential to a good story. Characters should enter
the story as dimensional, non-stereotypical characters, and become more
dimensional as the story and other characters act upon them. They should
be big as life; capable of developing and being transformed. We should see
different sides of them, understand how they think and act, learn about their
philosophies and attitudes. We should be aware of their emotional make-up
through their responses to their surroundings, to others with whom they
interact, and to events, which occur. If our characters do not come alive in
the script, they will not come alive on the screen.
33
Answer these questions, as we characterize the protagonist and other

characters within our storyline: what is this character's goal or motivation,
why does he or she want to achieve this goal, who or what is trying to stop
this character from reaching this goal and why, what strengths or
weaknesses of this character will help or hinder in the pursuit of this goal?
Characters have emotional lives, which define the character just as their
attitudes define them. Their emotional responses expand this definition. It is
the emotional response to events and to other people in the story that
makes the character understandable and believable. How she/he feels
creates sympathy in the audience, and creates identification with the
character, wherein we experience vicariously the character's journey through
the emotions and the story.
Each character feels the influence of the other, and responds through new
actions and new emotions. The story influences the character and the
character influences the story. Creating dimensional characters demands
close observance of real life: noticing the small details and character traits
and listening for character rhythms, and utilizing a broad range of thoughts,
actions and emotions. The character of the individual should be expressed in
a screenplay through actions rather than merely through dialog/talk. Action
details will help expand and reveal characters, while still focusing on the
necessary actions to advance the story; the film becomes more dimensional
because of the dimensional character.
DEFINING CHARACTER
In order to create a character, the writer must have a character to express.
The process of identifying the character inevitably requires identification with
and an awareness of that character. You must discover the personal
boundaries and singular identity, which separate the character from his or
her fellow man. Clarify your perceptions; eliminate the ambiguity,
vagueness, misconceptions and illusions. Do not construct a mannequin or
dummy with an assortment of attributes attached to him or her like stick-on
labels. In characterization, present not a puppet, an automaton, a
generalized abstraction, a flat, one-dimensional figure, a cardboard cut-out,
but a rounded, individualized, three-dimensional figure. The character must
come alive for us as well as for the audience. Realize our character with all
six of your senses, react to him or her with our emotions, and be able to
follow the character with our mind. Fully breathe life into characters by
covering their ancestry, past life, environmental influences, occupations,
future aims, physical appearance, emotional drives, and basic unique traits.
Get inside his or her skin; become the character. Know what the person's
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face is really like, as well as hair, eyes, facial expressions, how hands and
feet are used, gestures, how does the person walk and talk, what are the
mannerisms, urges, aversions, body language. Realize the character's inner
feelings. Observe physical details, inclinations, tastes, interests, habits,
ambitions. How does our character treat and react to others?
Often, characterization can be further enhanced by the use of a metaphor,
which can give visible shape to a character. A woman feels unloved, ugly and
unhappy, she goes to a mirror, looks at herself, and bangs her head on the
glass, shattering it. We see her distorted image as the camera lingers on the
mirror, and she and we realize that it is she herself who has made herself
ugly, outside and in. Another, perhaps more subtle method of defining
character to the audience, is by the use of symbolic objects in proximity to
the character, or by the manner in which the character is placed in the
frame. The figure may be placed alone in the frame, or at a distance, to
convey his or her feelings of abandonment or loneliness. A character may be
ascending a staircase, passing dark portraits of his or her ancestors;
glowering down in a seemingly judgmental manner; he or she pauses at a
brightly sunlit window and looks out at a winding road, perhaps to freedom.
Film is a visual medium, which is particularly capable of revealing insights
that cannot be verbally expressed, and can be especially meaningful when
associative, unconscious innuendoes are utilized. Words and incessant verbal
dialog, by its very nature, often arrest and paralyze thought instead of
permitting it and fostering its development. The frequent absence of dialog
heightens the hypnotic power of the visuals. Story structure and character
are interlocked. The event structure of a screenplay is created out of the
choices that characters make, and the actions and reactions they manifest
on the screen. Deep character and the relative complexity of character must
often be adjusted to genre. Action/Adventure and farce usually demand
simplicity of character because complexity would distract from the actions of
the character. Dramatic stories of personal and inner conflict require
complexity of character because simplicity would rob the audience of the
insight into human nature requisite to that genre.
Characterization is the sum of all observable qualities of a human being,
everything that is knowable through careful scrutiny. The totality of these
traits makes each person unique. This singular assemblage of traits is
characterization, but it is not character. True character is revealed in the
choices that a human being makes. The screenwriter must strip away the
mask of characterization, and peer into the true, inner natures of their
characters. The revelation of true character, in contrast to characterization,
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is fundamental to creating real and memorable characters who not only are
driven by the story, but who themselves drive the story.
TYPES OF CHARACTERS
The Eight Character Roles describe what function each character serves in
the story. They are similar to archetypes, but with less importance on how
the character behaves as a person and more importance on what each
character do for the story. Character roles are not interested in how the
character approaches the job, just that the job is fulfilled. A story may have
more than eight characters, but all characters (including groups of people or
the storys setting) can serve a particular role.
Protagonist: the character responsible for handling the main problem and
the one most in need of change, emotionally.
Antagonist the primary bad person, the character that opposes the
protagonist outright on all counts, physically and emotionally.
Mentor the protagonists conscience and the prevailing side to the
thematic argument. The mentor voices or represents the lesson that must be
learned by the protagonist in order to change for the better and achieve the
goal. (Note: Be mindful of creating a mentor who is as perfect and principled
as humans can be, for doing so will make the character seem inhuman.
Instead, flaw let the mentor, like all us humans.)
Tempter the right-hand to the antagonist. The tempter does not need to
know the antagonist, but they both stand for the same thing: stopping the
protagonist from achieving the protagonists goal. The tempter tries to
manipulate and convince the protagonist to join the dark side. However, in
the end, the tempter can change his/her mind and realize the benefit of
joining the good people.
Sidekick the protagonist unconditionally loves friend. This character can
get frustrated with the protagonist and have doubts, but will always stand by
the protagonist in the end. Typically, the sidekick embodies the theme
without even realizing it. (The mentor can explain the theme, while the
sidekick just does it without thinking and cannot explain it they just do it).
Skeptic the lone objector. The skeptic does not believe in the theme or in
the importance of achieving the protagonists goal. Without loyalties, the
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skeptic is on his/her own path. The skeptic may like the protagonist and want
the protagonist to succeed but not at the cost of the skeptics goals.
However, the skeptic may reconsider by the end of the story.
Emotional this character acts according to their gut and let us motions
fuel decisions. Impulsive, Reactive, Sometimes the emotional character is
right and succeeds in ways that a thinking person would never have even
tried, but sometimes the character finds trouble by not thinking before
jumping.
Logical the rational thinker who plans things out shoots for logical
solutions and gives reasonable, matter-of-fact answers to questions.
However, sometimes the head needs to listen to the heart to work at its best.
ANALYZING FILM CONTINUITY
Shooting a movie over a period of days, weeks or even months can be a very
difficult task - especially when it comes to maintaining continuity. When
everything in the shot, scene and movie is consistent, then you have
succeeded in maintaining continuity. If an actor picks up a cup with her right
hand, the cup has to be in her right hand in the next shot, to stay consistent
and maintain fluidness and continuity. When a feature film is shot, there is
usually only one camera and the scene is done many times. The director will
usually want to shoot the scene a variety of ways. Shooting a scene from
various angles and shot sizes is known as coverage. The more coverage, the
more options the editor and director have during the editing process.
However, the more we shoot a scene, the greater the risk is that we will have
lapses in continuity. Think about it. Actors have to do the same movements,
wear the same costumes and move the same places, all over many hours
and usually days of shooting. How can you possibly maintain continuity?
The continuity report provides a detailed record of the day's shoot, including
crew list, camera settings, weather and the acting, audio and picture quality
of each shot. The continuity report also describes in detail the action that
occurs and any possible continuity problem areas. The assistant will take
pictures of costumes, hair and makeup, set dressings, actor positions and
props to compare when setting up later takes of the scene. This report helps
cut down on the continuity errors, which, if caught early enough, can be
fixed, but only through an expensive reshoot. Yes, today filmmakers can fix
some errors through digital touch-ups, but that too is very expensive and
usually beyond the financial and technical abilities of the typical video
producer.
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Costumes, Makeup and Jewelry: To illustrate how difficult it is to maintain

continuity, let us look at some movie examples and talk about how to
prevent continuity problems. Keep in mind; movies are shot over a series of
days, weeks and even months. Maintaining continuity is very difficult when
working on a massive project, and sometimes things are missed. Let us start
with a classic, The Wizard of Oz. When Dorothy and the Scarecrow are
fighting the trees, the Scarecrow taunts the trees and is hit with many
apples. The next shot, Dorothy is wearing black shoes instead of her Ruby
slippers. This very quick but obvious continuity error is easily explained and
prevented. Always check your actors' costumes to make sure they are
correct and in the same position. Watch for straps, buttons, zipper placement
and other parts of the costume that may change. In Lord of the Rings:
Return of the King, Frodo has a wound on his lower right cheek near his chin.
Later in the film, it flips to his left cheek. When Sam cradles his head while
sitting on the slopes of Mount Doom, the scar has obviously changed
positions (or the film was flipped). When working with makeup and hair,
make sure you take Polaroid or digital pictures, so that you can duplicate the
look days later. Watch for pieces of hair getting into the actor's face or the
style falling or slightly changing between takes. If the hair is wet, makes sure
it is wet in all subsequent scenes until given a chance to dry. Do not let an
actor go underwater without having his hair wet in the remaining close-ups!
Settings and Action: A director will often shoot a wide or cover shot of an
action and then shoot closer shots to bring the audience into the action. This
can create continuity headaches. In Batman, the Joker's henchmen are
throwing colored paint all over invaluable masterpieces. At one point, there is
a medium shot of paint being thrown all over a large painting. In the next
wide shot, the painting is pristine without a drop of the damaging paint. If
our script calls for a wide shot after pieces of the set or props have been
altered, and if you are unable to supply numerous copies of various set
pieces for our actions, shoot the close-up actions first and then match them
with a cover shot. This way, we can avoid using a clean master shot after a
portion of our set has been destroyed.
In Spiderman, the web-slinger comes to the rescue of Mary Jane, who is
being mugged by four men. Spiderman throws two of the men through two
windows behind Mary Jane. When we next see Mary Jane, the windows
behind her are unbroken. This continuity problem can be eliminated by
carefully maintaining a photographic record of the set. This will help you
make sure that, when you shoot out of sequence or are doing singles of your
main characters, the setting matches the look for that part in the sequence.
Obviously, the two shots of Mary Jane were shot at the same time. Someone
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forgot that Spiderman throws the people through the window behind her.
Blocking action is often a difficult continuity problem, because the shots have
to match so precisely. Moving from an interior to an exterior can be
especially problematic. In Night at the Museum, when Larry asks her to go so
he can lock up, Rebecca leaves through the middle, rotating door. Yet in the
exterior shot, she is leaving through the door on the right. These shots were
probably shot days, if not weeks, apart, and the correct door was forgotten.
To prevent this, write out blocking notes and be as specific as possible. Use
diagrams or photos to maintain the proper screen direction, as well as
entrances and exits.
Props: Props are perhaps the most difficult pieces of the continuity puzzle.
Carefully work with your actors to make sure they handle the props exactly
the same way every time. Make sure the props department records which
props are used during which scenes. Again, in Lord of the Rings: the Two
Towers, Gandalf and company enter King Thodens chamber. As Gandalf
walks toward the camera, he holds his wizard's staff vertically. In the rear
angle shot, however, he is holding it horizontally. At the next cut, the staff is
now upright, and at the following cut, the staff is horizontal again. During
every take, the action must be the same. Make sure your actors know what
movements they are making during the lines they are speaking. They must
maintain these movements for every shot. This can be difficult because the
cover shot - or wide shot - might have been taken hours, if not days, before
the closer shots. A continuity note should be made, so that the actions can
be duplicated.
Final Report: Maintaining continuity can be a difficult task. However, if we
maintain a detailed record of every scene, with supporting pictures and
script notes, we should be able to avoid family, friends and clients pointing
out the little continuity problems that can creep into our production. Just
keep our eyes open for the little things.
PLANNING BUDGET FOR YOUR MOVIE
Although sometimes the most creative part of a film, a carefully crafted
budget provides the pivotal roadmap for the entire film project. The budget
will be dictated by choices that may change dramatically depending on
locations, size and prominence of cast, stunts, and the effects needed both
during and after principal photography. For independent and guerrilla
filmmaking, the key is to identify the cornerstone elements of the film and
build the budget around those items. If a particular location must be used to
tell the story, a particular cast member becomes essential to the financing,
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or a special effect defines the story, then that element should be identified
and its costs determined. Thereafter, the remainder of the budget can be
structured to keep the production in harmony with that item. The budget
process runs from inception of the project through the completion of the
finished negative. Neither the prints used to show the film theatrically nor
the advertising and promotional budgets are included in the budget numbers
used for production. For studio films, prints and advertising often equals the
costs of the film production and, for an inexpensive film, may greatly exceed
that cost.
Purpose and Usefulness of the Budget: The budgeting process has a
number of important internal and external purposes. It sets the framework
for all the decisions regarding the film. For example, if an independent film
will be made on a minimal budget, then certain items must drop close to
zero. The movie will be filmed locally or in areas that can double for other
locations simply because the budget cannot accommodate travel expenses
or other costs that will not ultimately appear on the screen. The science
fiction genre has become so effects-laden that low-budget science fiction
films have nearly disappeared.
Despite the importance of a budget, a planning tool may be changed often
during the planning stages of the project. For an independent filmmaker,
there may be a variety of budget scenarios, based on best-case financing
and worst-case financing. Certain scenes may be noted for possible revision
based on the budget consequences. Like modern theatrical writing, the
filmmaker writing a low-budget film must treat the financial limitations as a
structural framework into which to construct the story. If no flashback to the
Eiffel Tower is possible, a close up of a toy replica in a store window might do
the trick. Once the financing begins in earnest, however, the role of the
budget changes. Ultimately, the budget plays a pivotal role in identifying the
costs of every element of the project to the financial participants of the
project. This includes the investors, the lenders, the completion bond
company, and the unions. Once a commitment has been made, there can be
few significant changes without approval. No matter how artistically
compelling, a filmmaker may not unilaterally decide to film for an extra two
weeks to capture the light. Nor can he drop a name star to pay for those
weeks, unless he has permission of the lender or completion bond company.
Such a change might upset even investors, so the documents must be very
explicit regarding which decisions are subject to change and which are not.
In addition to the cost associated with the mechanical process of the
filmmaking, certain expenses are part of the risk management for the
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production. Except for the tiniest of productions, each film company must
carry a variety of insurance, including as workers compensation insurance,
cast insurance, liability insurance on the negative and videotape, sets,
equipment, and property, and errors & omissions insurance to cover
problems with the script such as defamation or copyright infringement. The
budget should have a contingency amount, typically of 10 percent of the
total budget.
Finally, for many films, the project must be protected with a completion
bond. The completion bond company agrees to pay those fees in excess of
the ten percent contingency. The cost for this insurance is expensive in both
financial and practical terms. The completion bond company retains veto
control over cast and crew, and can take over the production if either the
shoot begins to fall behind schedule, or re-shoots are necessary. The concern
is focused on the budget, so an aesthetically bad but efficient production has
little to worry about. To obtain a completion bond, the production company
must have full financing, complete, unambiguous ownership of the story and
script rights, full insurance of the production, agreements for use of the
primary locations, and a feasibility study or coverage showing that the script
and budget balance. The steps necessary to obtain a completion bond make
it significantly less likely that it will be needed, so the process serves as a
good exercise in planning for many film projects.
SCHEDULING THE SHOOT:
Every director should have the capacity for spontaneity, the ability to deal
with the unexpected during a shoot. On-the-spot ingenuity, however, is not
enough. It will greatly improve your chance of success - and save time,
money and energy to boot - if we use the pre-production phase to construct
a detailed plan of attack. If you take the time to create an accurate shot list,
consider details like location availability, and fashion a shooting schedule
accordingly, our shoot will go much faster and smoother - and your cast,
crew and client will thank us for it.
No exact formula exists for creating an effective shooting schedule. Every
project has different parameters and considerations. For instance, we might
need less time to shoot an hour-long corporate video, which consists of
interviews and demonstrations in a studio, and then we'll need to shoot a
four-minute music video that requires lip-synching and varied locations. So,
before plunging into a scheduling frenzy, we must first consider what footage
we need in order to complete the project. To figure out how long it could take
to shoot our entire script, consider that, on average, one page usually equals
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one minute on-screen. Of course, the exact timing depends on the exact
nature of the project. Dialogue-heavy scenes, for instance, tend to go faster
than those filled with action.
From here, consider how long it might take to prepare each scene, including
lighting, equipment and set arrangement. The key is to be realistic, not
overly ambitious. Though shorter schedules are often less expensive requiring less money for renting equipment, purchasing food and
compensating our cast and crew - it has far better to overestimate how much
time you will need than to rush the production. So, allow some extra room in
the schedule, and be honest with our client about our expectations. No
matter how complicated a shoot seems, it will be infinitely easier if we plan a
reasonable shooting schedule beforehand. You will be far less stressed - and
so will our cast, crew and client - if we consider the project scope, location
requirements and talent needs before the shoot. It is also a good idea to
exhaust troubleshooting concerns ahead of time. For instance, we should
have alternate talent and locations in mind - just in case there is a lastminute cancellation or weather concern. Of course, these are not the only
considerations. Sometimes, we have to schedule around special events,
complex stunts, seasonal concerns and other unique issues. No matter how
tedious planning might seem, having a plan and effectively communicating it
to your cast, crew and client - will ensure that our shoot happens on time and
on budget.
COSTUMES:
So we are getting ready to shoot our big interview or scene, and our oncamera talent looks us straight in the eye and asks, "What do you want me
to wear?" This is not a silly question. What our talent wears while on camera
is very important, and there are some cardinal rules you should follow when
establishing the wardrobe of the day. In this column, we will look at the do's
and don'ts of clothing, jewelry, hair and makeup for the camera. While
today's video technology is a lot more forgiving than the video of the past,
we still need to be careful when making a wardrobe selection for your oncamera talent. There are four major areas of concern when dealing with
clothing and other accessories: pattern, contrast, color and shape.
The clothing's pattern can be a big problem. Close, high-contrast pin stripes,
corduroy and herringbone all create a wavy rainbow-colored pattern called a
moir effect on television. High-contrast clothing is another major problem.
Video cameras cannot handle high contrasts between bright and dark
objects, and this includes skin tone and clothing. Dark-skinned people should
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avoid wearing white or very light colors. If they do, their shirts will glow when
you set the camera to expose the face properly. Extremely light-skinned
talent should avoid black or very dark clothing. A black shirt will become a
formless hole in the video, because it will have to be very dark if you set the
camera so that the skin tone is properly exposed. Reds and oranges have a
tendency to glow on camera. Yes, there are some television talent who insist
on wearing red or orange on camera, but unless it is a deep, dark red, it
probably glows in the television lights. Cameras have a hard time recreating
the red and especially red/orange colors, and thus you should avoid them if
possible. One of the major considerations when choosing an on-camera outfit
is its shape and fit.
Video does tend to make people look at least ten pounds heavier. Think
about it. When you look at people, you see not only them but also the world
around them, and that has a tendency to make them look smaller than they
actually are. In the video monitor, you see only the talent. There is nothing
else to make them look smaller, so they tend to look bigger. For this reason,
it is very important that you make sure your talent is wearing something that
will emphasize shape, emphasize a waist and give a taller look, not wider.
Shapeless clothing will make the talent look bigger and lumpier on camera.
Clothing Do's and Don'ts: Now, walk to our costume closet and remove
anything with close, high-contrast pin stripes, like white shirts with closely
placed black or navy stripes. Toss out any herringbone or corduroy and many
busy plaids. We can keep the white shirts, but only if they are going to be
worn under a darker jacket. Anything orange or reddish-orange should be
tossed in the burn pile. Blues, greens, grays and earth tones all work great
for video. For men, a shirt with some type of collar looks better than a t-shirt,
unless of course the character would always wear t-shirts. Jackets also look
very good, especially with good tailoring to emphasize the talent's waist.
The jacket can be a solid color or have a faint low-contrast pin stripe or
pattern. A light blue, pink, cream or burgundy shirt will usually look a lot
better under the jacket than a pure white shirt. If your talent were very fairskinned, a light-colored jacket, such as a soft gray, would look best. We will
probably want to avoid vests because they are too constricting and look very
formal. A tie is a great accessory, and here you can get away with red,
although you should still avoid the reds that lean towards the orange side of
the spectrum. For women, avoid the same color and pattern problems as the
men, but add to the list bright, huge, flowery patterns and your favorite red
power suit (unless it is a very deep red). Avoid drab earth tones, because
they have a tendency to blend into the background. You can spice up any
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outfit by adding a scarf. However, we still want to avoid reds, oranges and
stripes.
Jewelry: Video needs light to make a good picture. Light reflects off shiny
objects. Jewelry contains shiny objects. Therefore, we should be very careful
about the type and amount of jewelry our talent wears during a shoot. Unless
the character requires it, our talent should avoid wearing anything large and
sparkling. This includes large rings, bracelets, dangling earrings, necklaces
and pins. Simple and tasteful are two key words in video. Pearls and small
neck chains with cameos or colored stones look best. Watches should be as
non-reflective as possible. If possible, spray them with hairspray to cut the
shine a bit.
Hair: While the character will most likely dictate the talent's hair, always
remember we are working with bright lights and always have to worry about
flyaway hair and the weird (occasionally downright surreal) shadows cast by
big hair. Both men and women should have nicely styled hair, with shorter
styles being more appropriate for professional interviews. Braid longer hair or
tie it up in a ponytail to prevent the hair from flying in the talent's face. We
want to avoid wispy flyaway hair that will catch the backlight. As with the
jewelry simple and tasteful are the key.
Makeup: Gone are the days when both men and women had to wear heavy
makeup to look alive on television. Today's cameras are very sensitive and
generally recreate color very well. Makeup is primarily a means by which the
talent can even out skin tone and add a bit more color to the face. Men can
use a light base coat a shade darker than normal skin color, to even out skin
tone and reduce the shine on cheeks, forehead and nose. A good shave
before going on air will prevent or reduce the look of the five o'clock shadow.
Any facial hair should be neatly trimmed - again, the character dictates this.
For women, normal street makeup is fine. Women do want to avoid dark reds
and maroon-colored eye shadows, lip gloss and rouge, because the camera
has a tendency to accentuate the blues in these colors, which will in turn,
become darker and be overly emphasized. Always make sure our talent
wears makeup that is not only appropriate for the character, but also for
their particular skin tone and natural coloring.
Final Dress: Always keep our talent's character in mind when making
clothing and accessory decisions. Use the guidelines above to make our
talent look great and our video production look very professional. Have fun
searching the closet!
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UNIT 2
WHAT IS A LENS?
Lenses determine what cameras can see. They are classified by focal
length, which is a technical measure of the distance from the iris inside the
lens to the plane where the projected image is in focus. This measurement
assumes that the lens distance calibration is set at infinity (). This distance
is normally given in millimeters (mm); thus, a still camera can have a 24 mm
or a 200 mm lens. Lenses can also be classified by how wide a view we get
from a specific camera position. A wide-angle lens (short focal length) gives a
relatively wide vista. A narrow-angle lens (long focal length) gives a relatively
narrow vista with the background greatly magnified. A lens works by
refraction: it bends light rays as they pass through it so they change
direction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LENSES:
Lens speed
This term refers to how much light can pass through a lens to the imaging
device. A fast lens can let a relatively great amount of light to pass through;
a slow lens is more limited in how much light it can transmit. In practice, a
fast lens allows us to produce acceptable pictures in a darker environment
than does a slow lens. Fast lenses are therefore more useful than slow ones,
but they are also larger and more expensive. A lens that transmits relatively
little light at the maximum iris aperture is called a slow lens. Range
extenders render the zoom lens inevitably slower.
Field of View
Field of view refers to how close the object seems to the viewer, or how
much of the field, or scenery, in front of us is in the shot. When organized
by how close we see the object, there are five field-of-view designations:
extreme long shot (ELS or XLS), long shot (LS), medium shot (MS), close-up
(CU), and extreme close-up (ECU or XCU). FIELD-OF-VIEW DISTANCE STEPS:
The field-of-view distance steps are relative and depend on how a long shot
or a close-up is visualized.
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Extreme long shot (ELS)
Long shot (LS) or full shot
Medium shot (MS) or waist shot
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Close-up (CU)
Extreme close-up (ECU)

Sharpness
Sharpness is arguably the most important photographic image quality factor
because it determines the amount of detail an imaging system can
reproduce. Sharpness is a subjective quality attribute of an image or a lens.
Sharpness indicates the visually perceived quality of details of an image or
details reproduced by a lens. It is associated with both resolution and
contrast of reproduced details (within an image or by a lens). Sharpness is
defined by the boundaries between zones of different tones or colors. It is
illustrated by the bar pattern of increasing spatial frequency, below. The top
portion is sharp; its boundaries are crisp steps, not gradual. The bottom
portion illustrates how the pattern is degraded after it passes through a lens.
It is blurred. All lenses, even the finest, blur images to some degree. Poor
lenses blur images more than fine ones.
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Bar pattern: Original (top); with lens

degradation (bottom)
Distortion
Distortion in a photograph is caused by either a characteristic of the lens or
the position of the camera in relation to the subject. In photography, there
are two types of distortions: optical and perspective. Both result in some kind
of deformation of images some lightly and others very noticeably. While
optical distortion is caused by the optical design of lenses (and is therefore
often called lens distortion), perspective distortion is caused by the
position of the camera relative to the subject or by the position of the subject
within the image frame.
1) Optical Distortion
In photography, distortion is generally referred to an optical aberration that
deforms and bends physically straight lines and makes them appear curvy in
images, which is why such distortion is also commonly referred to as
curvilinear (more on this below). Optical distortion occurs because of
optical design, when special lens elements are used to reduce spherical and
other aberrations. In short, optical distortion is a lens error. There are three
known types of optical distortion barrel, pincushion and mustache /
moustache (also known as wavy and complex).
Barrel Distortion: When straight lines are curved inwards in a shape of a
barrel, this type of aberration is called barrel distortion. Barrel lens
distortion is an effect associated with wide-angle lenses and, in particular,
zoom wide-angles. This effect causes images to be sphere-ized, which means
the edges of images look curved and bowed to the human eye. Barrel lens
distortion that occurs because the magnification of the image decreases the
farther the object is from the optical axis of the lens. Therefore, the portions
of the image that are at the edges of the frame are more susceptible to
barrel lens distortion with wide-angle lenses. Some lenses, such as fisheye
lenses, actually attempt to take advantage of lens barrel distortion by
creating a photo that is intentionally curved.
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As the effects of perspective on the lens cause distortion, the only way to
correct for barrel lens distortion in camera is to use a special "tilt and shift"
lens, which is designed for architectural purposes. However, these lenses are
very expensive.
Pincushion Distortion:
Pincushion distortion is a lens effect, which causes images to be pinched at
their center. Pincushion distortion is the exact opposite of barrel distortion
straight lines are curved outwards from the center. This type of distortion is
commonly seen on telephoto lenses, and it occurs due to image
magnification increasing towards the edges of the frame from the optical
axis. This time, the field of view is smaller than the size of the image sensor
and it thus needs to be stretched to fit. As a result, straight lines appear to
be pulled upwards in the corners.
Mustache Distortion:
The nastiest of the radial distortion types is mustache distortion, which I
sometimes call wavy distortion. It is a combination of the barrel distortion
and pincushion distortion. Straight lines appear curved inwards towards the
center of the frame and then curve outwards at the extreme corners as
shown below:
This is the reason why mustache distortion is often referred to as complex
distortion, because its characteristics are indeed complex and can be quite
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painful to deal with. While this type of distortion can be potentially fixed, it
often requires specialized software.
Perspective Distortion:
Another distortion type that is often seen in images is perspective distortion.
Unlike optical distortion, it has nothing to do with lens optics and thus, it is
not a lens error. When projecting three-dimensional spaces into a twodimensional image, if the subject is too close to the camera, it can appear
disproportionately large or distorted when compared to the objects in the
background. This is a very normal occurrence and something we can easily
see with our own eyes. If you take a smaller object like our mobile phone,
then bring it very close to our eyes, it will appear large relative to say our big
screen TV in the background). The same thing can happen when
photographing any subject, including people.
Camera Aperture:
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The aperture is a hole in the lens that light passes through to reach the
cameras imaging sensor. Apertures role in this mix is to control how much
light reaches the sensor. With the exception of a very few fixed aperture
mirror lenses, all camera lenses allow us to change the size of this hole so
that more or less light can pass through it. Aperture refers to the opening of
a lens's diaphragm through which light passes. It is calibrated in f/stops
and is generally written as numbers such as 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11 and 16.
The lower f/stops give more exposure because they represent the larger
apertures, while the higher f/stops give less exposure because they
represent smaller apertures.
Camera Shutter Speed:

A camera control will reduces the blurring of bright fast-moving objects. The
higher the shutter speed, the less blurring occurs but the more light is
needed. Shutter speed, also known as exposure time, stands for the length
of time a camera shutter is open to expose light into the camera sensor. If
the shutter speed is fast, it can help to freeze action completely. If the
shutter speed is slow, it can create an effect called motion blur, where
moving objects appear blurred along the direction of the motion. This effect
is used quite a bit in advertisements of cars and motorbikes, where a sense
of speed and motion is communicated to the viewer by intentionally blurring
the moving wheels.
Shutter speeds are typically measured in fractions of a second, when they
are under a second. For example, 1/4 means a quarter of a second, while
1/250 means one two-hundred-and-fiftieth of a second or four milliseconds.
Most modern DSLRs can handle shutter speeds of up to 1/4000th of a
second, while some can handle much higher speeds of 1/8000th of a second
and faster. The longest shutter speed on most DSLRs is typically 30 seconds.
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Depth of field:
Depth of field is the amount of distance between the nearest and farthest
objects that appear in acceptably sharp focus in a photograph. Depth of Field
(DOF) in photography refers to the area in front and behind the subject in
your photograph that appears in focus, while all other areas appear to be out
of focus or blurred. Photographers to create a more dramatic effect in their
pictures use DOF.
Functions of photographic lens:

The most important part of a camera is its lens since the quality of an image
is so dependent upon it. The most basic camera body fitted with a good lens
can make a good picture, but the best camera body in the world cannot
make a good picture if its lens is of poor quality. If the image or parts of it are
not in focus or if an inadequate amount of light for proper exposure reaches
the film or the sensor in a digital camera.
HOW DOES A LENS WORK?
Light strikes the front surface of the lens and passes through the glass
element. Since light rays bend when they enter glass at any angle other than
90, they change direction. This effect is called refraction. By employing
various glass shapes - forms, really - in their design, lenses are able to
channel the light in a specific direction. Focusing occurs because the lens is
able to precisely control this direction so that the light rays converge on one
point, exactly where the film is located in the camera.
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A photographic lens is composed of lenses (ground and polished pieces of

formed optical glass) assembled and fitted together in a tube (usually made
of metal) called a "lens barrel". The individual lenses are known as
elements when they are in a photographic lens.
WHAT DOES A GOOD LENS DO?

A good lens allows enough light to pass through it to produce properly
illuminated and sharply defined images on film with short exposure times.
There are varying degrees of good lenses - sort of a good, better, best
range. Sharp lenses that are very fast, for example, generally cost much
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more. When we say a lens is fast, it is a reference to its largest aperture, or

widest possible opening. A fast lens has a very wide maximum opening,
allowing more light to pass through the lens, therefore permitting the
photographer to use faster shutter speeds or to shoot in dimmer light.
Generally, the larger a lenss maximum aperture, the more expensive the
lens is. If we are using a digital camera, you are advised to select the best
quality lenses for it that you can afford, since image sensors respond to light
in a different manner than film. The grain in film is of differing sizes, but
pixels are all the same size. Light directly striking an image sensor is
recorded slightly differently than light striking it an angle, which causes a
small loss of sharpness, which can be especially noticeable at the edges of a
digital image when using a wide-angle lens. A quality lens can help to reduce
this lack of sharpness.
Types of lens:
Camera Lenses come in a variety of types. Although there are different types
of lenses, they all perform the same function. They capture the reflective
light from the subject and focus it on the image sensor. The point where they
differ is in the way they transmit the light
Telephoto Lens:
A telephoto lens is a lens with a long focal length that magnifies the subject.
This is especially useful when we cannot get close to our subject or we
prefer not to. There are two main reasons to use a telephoto lens. The first is
for the compressed perspective they provide to pick our subject out of the
background. Portrait and fashion photographers often use them for this
reason. The other is that we need a telephoto because you are
photographing something that we cannot get physically close to. This
includes subjects like wildlife and sports. The primary drawback of a long
lens is that most (but not all) such lenses have a smaller maximum aperture.
This may force us to use a slower shutter speed. In addition, since a long lens
magnifies movement, just as it magnifies the subject, you may also have to
use a tripod instead of handholding the camera.
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Wide-Angle Lens:
Wide-angle lenses are typically used when the subject is in the extreme
foreground and the photographer wants the background in focus as well. This
property can be used to create a dramatic effect and change the perspective
in your images as objects very close to the camera loom much larger than
those farther in the background. They are useful for landscapes and for
getting in nice and close to subjects still fitting a lot of them in. they can also
be used for interesting portraits where we want to place a subject in a
situation. Just be careful not to distort faces unflatteringly by shooting too
close.
Zoom Lens:
A zoom lens has the mechanical capacity to change its focal length.
A zoom lens can be extremely convenient, because many zoom lenses can
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change their focal lengths from wide-angle to standard and from standard to
zoom. This eliminates the need to carry and change multiple lenses while
shooting a subject or project. There are two types of zoom lens.
Optical zoom: If taking many photos from far away subjects is important to
you, be sure that the camera you buy has an optical zoom. An optical zoom
is a true zoom lens, like the zoom lens we would use on a film camera. They
produce much better-quality images.
Digital zoom: Digital zoom is a function of a digital camera used to make

the image seem more close-up. Digital zoom on a digital camera works the
same as cropping and enlarging a photo in a graphics program. This type of
zoom will result in a loss of quality and image resolution because the image
is simply being enlarged without any extra details or pixels being added. Due
to the quality of photos taken when using the digital zoom function, these
photos may not be of good enough quality to print images.
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Because of the movement between focal lengths, the f-stops are not always
entirely accurate when using zoom lenses, which are one of the major
drawbacks of this lens type. In addition, a zoom lens requires additional glass
elements to correctly focus the light at different focal lengths. (It is desirable
to have the light pass through the least amount of glass in order to obtain
the highest-quality image possible) This makes zooms camera lenses
generally be bigger and heavier.
Prime Lens:
For those of who unfamiliar with the term prime lens lets start with a
simple definition. A prime lens is one that has just one focal length only (in
contrast to a zoom lens that covers a wider range of lengths). One of the
biggest arguments used by prime lens lovers is the speed that prime lenses
are able to offer. Portrait photographers primarily use fixed lenses.
Traditionally prime lenses are known for their advanced optics and quality.
They generally have less moving parts and so manufacturers are able to
concentrate their efforts on adding quality glass.
Marco Lens:
Marco lenses or lenses with a macro mode are used for close up photography
of insects or flowers. They have similar properties to a normal lens, but they
are able to focus a lot closer to the subject. Many lenses and cameras come
with a macro setting but true macro lenses will produce images that are life
size and that enable you to get in incredibly close from the subject you are
shooting.
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Fish-Eye Lens:
A fisheye lens, also known as an "ultra wide" or "super wide" lens, is a type
of wide-angle lens, which can capture an extremely wide image, typically
around 180 degrees. The images they produce are highly distorted, giving
them a dynamic, abstract feel. Fisheye lenses are popular for photographing
extremely wide panoramas of landscapes and the sky, and for shooting
close-up subjects such as crowds, interiors, and architecture. They are also
commonly used to photograph action sports such as skateboarding,
snowboarding, and surfing. There are two types of fish eye lens.
Circular Fisheye Lenses:
A circular fisheye lens is one, which captures a full 180-degree view in all
directions. This results in a circular image, with the edges of the frame being
black. These extreme fisheye lenses tend to be used for artistic purposes
such as skateboard photography or for shooting unusual landscapes and
cityscapes.
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Full-Frame Fisheye Lenses:

A full-frame fisheye lens only captures a 180-degree field of view along its
diagonal. The horizontal and vertical sides of the image are less than 180degrees (typically around 150-degrees horizontal and 100-degrees vertical).
Although they do not cover such a wide angle, photos taken using a fullframe fisheye lens are rectangular and do not have black edges. This makes
them more suitable for practical purposes such as traditional landscape
photography and shooting building interiors.
Standard / Normal lens:

A standard lens, also known as a "normal lens", is one, which produces an
image that roughly matches what the human eye sees, and which looks
natural to the viewer. It sits between the telephoto lens and the wide-angle
lens, which produce unnaturally zoomed-in and zoomed-out images
respectively. Normal lenses make great general-purpose lenses, and can be
used to photograph everything from close-up portraits to landscapes. They
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tend to be very "fast" lenses (i.e. they have a wide aperture), making them
great for indoor and low-light photography.
GUIDELINES FOR CHOOSING A LENS:

The almost sentence-long collection of letters and numbers on the side of a
lens barrel can tell you all sorts of things about a lens. However, the details,
which you should probably pay the most attention to, are those, which detail
the focal length, maximum aperture and lens, mount and format type.
FOCAL LENGTH: Focal length is expressed in mm and a higher number
means a bigger zoom, while a lower number mean the lens can be used for
wider shots. As a rough reference, the human eye is said to see about the
equivalent of 30-50 mm on a full frame camera (more on that later). A
number lower than 30-50 mm will take in a bigger view than you naturally
see, while higher numbers mean focus will be on a smaller aspect of your
view.
MAXIMUM APERTURE: Maximum Aperture is shown in a number of ways, but
whether it's F/2.8 or F 2.8 or 1:2.8, it all means the same thing and refers to
the maximum amount of light which the lens can gather. Lenses with larger
maximum apertures are capable of gathering more light. Some zoom lenses
have a variable maximum aperture meaning that it changes depending on
focal length.
LENS MOUNT: It is understood that you want to buy a lens that will attach on
your camera, and this is known as the lens mount. Camera manufacturers
generally make lenses with proprietary mounts, which will only fit their
devices, sometimes having multiple lens mounts for different camera lines. It
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is important to know which mount your camera uses before heading out to
buy a lens.
FORMAT: In addition to being able to mount the lens on your camera, you
need to be sure it will produce an image big enough to cover the image
sensor. Because different cameras use different size sensors, manufacturers
produce specific lenses to work with them.
SHOOTING SHARPER IMAGES: If you are after sharper images, you can often
get better results with a special lens that was designed to produce sharper
images. You might look into buy a close-up lens that is optimized for macro
photography and produces especially sharp images at distances of a few
inches or so.
SHOOTING WIDER ANGLE SCENE: Using a wide-angle lens lets you take in a
broader field of view, which can be useful when there is not enough room to
move farther away from your subject.
SHOOTING FARTHER AWAY: A telephoto lens allows us to bring distant
objects, closer to the camera and makes it especially useful, when we cannot
get close to our subject.
SHOOTING CLOSER: An interchangeable lens we buy may be able to focus on
subjects a lot closer to the lens, giving us valuable close-up or macro
capabilities.
CONSUMER CAMERA:
A consumer video camera may serve the same function as a professional
video camcorder, but many differences exist between these cameras, both
in use and in output. A consumer camcorder simply captures moving images
and plays back video. On the other hand, a professional video camera has
more settings and features that will ensure our final product looks sleek and
professional. Here are the key differences we can find between a consumer
and professional camcorder.
1. Size and Weight
Most consumer cameras go for smaller and more compact. They are often
referred to as handy cams because you can hold them with one hand.
Professional video camcorders are heavier and bulkier and are designed for
shoulder-mount. This helps make the shots steadier.
2. Lenses
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Consumer video cams have very simple lenses that are designed simply to
capture moving images and nothing more. Most professional video
camcorders allow for interchangeable lenses with the help of an adaptor. We
can also attach different filters and sun shields on them. This helps in
capturing in macro, wide angle and more. In addition, the high-grade lenses
allow for a deeper depth of field, resulting in a more professional and film
look.
3. Manual Controls
Consumer video cams are made for point and shoot. Just press the record
button and you are good to go. With professional video, we need to adjust a
number of manual settings. There is the White Balance, to make sure that
the light registers properly. We can also adjust the opening or Aperture, to
control the amount of light that goes in. There are also speed settings,
manual focus, audio adjustment and more.
4. Resolution and Quality
One of the most obvious differences in the final output between consumer
and professional cameras is the image resolution and quality. Aside from
having a higher resolution, pro video cams often also have 3 CCDs or
Charge-Coupled Devices. This means that they register the primary colors
separately. This results in crisper, broadcast-quality images.
CHOOSING A LENS
There are several steps to focus on when it comes to choose about lens.
Professional photographers treat lenses like golf clubs, carrying around a
bagful and pulling out the right one for each shot. Some of the key points we
should note before choosing lens are:
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Focal Length: Take a close look at the barrel of a lens and we should see a
measurement, or range, such as 1855 mm. That is our lens's focal length
the distance from the lens to the sensor. Different sensor sizes can skew the
math a bit, but in general longer focal lengths work like telescopes (to focus
on objects in the distance), while shorter focal lengths are used for wideangle photography (to take in as much of a scene as possible). Zoom lenses
offer a range of focal lengths.
F-Stops: Also printed on the barrel of every lens is the f-stop rating (e.g.,
f/3.5). F-stops refer to the diameter of the lens aperture, which determines
how much light enters the camera. F-stops seem counterintuitive at first
the lower the number, the wider the apertureuntil you realize that they are
not a direct measurement but denote the ratio between the lens's aperture
and its focal length. The number printed on the lens is the lowest possible fstop, or widest aperture, for that lens. On consumer zoom lenses, the
maximum aperture is noted as a rangesuch as f/3.55.6 because, as you
zoom, the focal length changes along with the maximum f-stop.
ZOOM: Zoom lenses come in a variety of configurations that overlap
considerably with other lens categories. Wide-angle zooms can cover focal
lengths from 10 mm to 24 mm. Telephoto zooms can cover 55 mm to 200
mm, or 200 mm to 400 mm. You can even get a super-flexible zoom lens that
ranges focal lengths from 28 mm to 300 mm. At its shortest focal length, 18
mm, it is a relatively wide-angled lens, good for shooting scenery and groups
of people; at its longest, 55 mm, it serves as a portrait lens, allowing you to
pull in close to the face of your subject from several feet away. The beauty of
a zoom lens is that you can adjust it from wide to telescopic with the turn of
a dial.
Anti-shake: Some lenses feature anti-shake facilities, which allow us to
typically handhold at shutter speeds three to four times slower than normal.
This will not stop a moving subject from blurring, but it can greatly reduce
the effect of camera shake. Lens-based anti-shake systems all work in the
same way by detecting wobbles and adjusting a special optical element
inside the lens to counteract them in real-time. The benefit of fitting it inside
the lens is we will see the stabilizing effect through an optical viewfinder,
which can be very reassuring, especially at longer focal lengths.
Aperture and depth of field: One of the most important specifications in
choosing a lens is its aperture and depth of field. This refers to how much
light it can gather. The bigger the aperture, the more light it can capture, and
the better it can work in dimmer conditions. This is important because if the
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lens can't get enough light to the sensor to make a normal photo, the
camera either has to use a longer exposure (increasing the risk of camera
shake or motion blur), or increase the ISO sensitivity (reducing the image
quality). However, if a lens has a bigger aperture, it can maintain faster
exposures in lower light (thereby better freezing fast action or avoiding
camera shake), or employ lower ISO sensitivities (to deliver better image
quality).
PERSPECTIVE AND DEPTH:
Perspective refers to the relationship of imaged objects in a photograph. This
includes their relative positions and sizes and the space between them. In
other words, perspective in the composition of a photograph is the way real
three-dimensional objects are pictured in a photograph that has a twodimensional plane. In photography, perspective is another illusion we use to
produce photographs of quality composition. When you are making pictures,
the camera always creates perspective. Perspective is a part of geometry
teaching how to render a three-dimensional figure on a two-dimensional
surface, so that, looking at the representation, we have the same impression
that we have with the real figure. Therefore, it is easy to see that perspective
is very important in photography. This is particularly true in landscape
photography. A photographer should know how perspective works and how
to exploit it to render reality as he or she desires.
In order to play with depth of field, we need a scene with a defined
foreground and a background. Whereas the background is usually a given, a
lot of images lack foreground which makes an image appear flat and boring.
Choosing a defined foreground will enable us to actively compose an image
and become creative. Once you have chosen a background and a foreground
you like (ideally both complementing each other), you have to find the right
position for you and your camera in order to combine both for an appealing
overall image. To find the right position, you should try different angles,
move around, get low to the ground and do not solely rely on your zoom. By
using a large aperture (small f-stop number) and a selective focusing, we can
isolate the foreground from the background by making the foreground
objects sharp and the background blurry (or vice versa). This will convey a
sense of depth and three-dimensionality.
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This image (above) of one of the ancient tombs around Hue, Vietnam looks
flat. There is no depth, no three-dimensionality and it lacks a clear
composition. Because a foreground is missing, the image is too busy and
distracting.
Above, we can see an image of the same subject but with a much better
composition. The focus is on the eye of one of the dragons, making it our
foreground. The rest of the tomb is our background, slightly blurred and
nicely separated. It generates a sense of depth and appears much calmer
and structured than the first image. The viewer is being led into the picture.
We can use this technique when photographing very popular places like for
example the Eiffel Tower, Angkor Watt or other monuments. Instead of taking
the same shot as every other tourist, experiment with different backgrounds
and foregrounds, get creative, move, and I am sure we will end up with an
original and authentic image.
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Leading lines for a sense of perspective: Of course, depth of field is not

the only means to create a sense of depth and three-dimensionality. The
concept of leading lines is another one of those building blocks that you can
apply. The viewer of a photograph usually associates diagonal lines, which
are leading into an image, to a vanishing point perspective. This means that
objects, which are farther away, also appear smaller. This context
automatically and unconsciously gives the viewer an impression of threedimensionality.
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UNIT III
CAMERA DISTANCE - EXAMINING A SHOT

Camera distance is nothing but the distance between the camera and its
subject, which can determine how emotionally involved the audience
become with the character. The human body is the measure of subjectcamera distance. What matters are the expressive results of camera distance
on screen? Based on the camera distance, there are different types of shots.
SHOT TYPES
A camera shot is the amount of space that will see in one shot or frame.
Camera shots are to demonstrate different aspects of a film's setting,
characters and themes. As a result, camera shots are very important in
shaping meaning in a film. There are different shot types.
EXTREME WIDE SHOT: (EWS)
In the extreme wide shot, the view is so far from the subject that is he is not
even visible. The point of this shot is to show the subject's surroundings. The
EWS will often used as an "establishing shot" - the first shot of a new scene,
designed to show the audience where the action is taking place. It is also
useful in scenes where the action was spread out. For example, in a war
movie an extreme wide shot can show the scale of the action.
VERY WIDE SHOT: (VWS)
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The very wide shot is much closer to the subject than an extreme wide shot,
but still much further away than a wide shot. The subject is visible here but
only just. The emphasis is very much on placing him in his environment. This
often works as an establishing shot, in which the audience is shown the
whole setting so they can orient themselves. The VWS also allows plenty of
room for action to take place, or for multiple subjects to appear on screen.
WIDE SHOT: (WS)

In the wide shot, the subject takes up the full frame. In this case, the girl's
feet are almost at the bottom of frame and her head is almost at the top.
Obviously, the subject does not take up the whole width and height of the
frame, since this is as close as we can get without losing any part of her. The
small amount of room above and below the subject can be thought of as
safety room you do not want to be cutting the top of the head off. It would
also look uncomfortable if his feet and head were exactly at the top and
bottom of frame. As with many shot types the wide shot means different
things to different people. However, the wide shot seems to suffer more from
varying interpretations than other types. Many people take the WS to mean
something much wider than our example, i.e. what we would call a very wide
shot.
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MID SHOT: (MS)

The mid shot shows some part of the subject in more detail, whilst still
showing enough for the audience to feel as if they were looking at the whole
subject. In fact, this approximates how they would see a person "in the flesh"
if they were having a casual conversation. No one would be paying any
attention to his or her lower body, so that part of the picture is unnecessary.
The MS is appropriate when the subject is speaking without too much
emotion or intense concentration. It also works well when the intent is to
deliver information, which is why television news presenters frequently use
it. You will often see a story begin with a MS of the reporter (providing
information), followed by closer shots of interview subjects (providing
reactions and emotion). As well as being a comfortable, emotionally neutral
shot, the mid shot allows room for hand gestures and a bit of movement.
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MEDIUM CLOSE UP SHOT: (MCS)

Between a close up and mid shot of a person, this camera shot shows from
the mid-chest up to the top of the head. This shot shows the face more
clearly, without getting uncomfortably close.
CLOSE UP SHOT: (CU)

In the close up shot, a certain feature or part of the subject takes up most of
the frame. A close up of a person usually means a close up of their face.
Close-ups are obviously useful for showing detail. A close-up of a person
emphasizes their emotional state. Whereas a mid-shot or wide-shot is more
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appropriate for delivering facts and general information, a close-up

exaggerates facial expressions, which convey emotion. The viewer is drawn
into the subject's personal space and shares their feelings.
EXTREME CLOSE UP SHOT: (ECU)

The ECU (also known as XCU) gets right in and shows extreme detail. It
would normally need a specific reason to get this close. It is too close to
show general reactions or emotion except in very dramatic scenes. This type
of shot creates an intense mood and provides interaction between the
audience and the viewer. This technique is quite common in horror films.
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CUT AWAY SHOT: (CA)

A cutaway is a shot that is usually of something other than the current
action. It could be a different subject. A close up of a different part of the
subject or just about anything else. The cutaway is used as a "buffer"
between shots or to add interest/information.
CUT-IN SHOT: (CI)

A cut-in shot is a close-up shot of something visible in the main scene. Like a
cutaway, but specifically refers to showing some part of the subject in detail.
It can be used purely as an edit point, or to emphasize emotion etc. For
example, hand movements can show enthusiasm, agitation, nervousness,
etc.
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TWO SHOTS
Two-shots are good for establishing a relationship between subjects. If two
sports presenters standing side by side facing the camera, it gets the idea
that these people are going to be the show's co-hosts. As they have equal
prominence in the frame, the implication is that they will provide equal input.
Of course, this does not always apply, for example, there are many
instances, in which it is obvious one of the people is a presenter and the
other is a guest. In any case, the two-shot is a natural way to introduce two
people. A two-shot could also involve movement or action. It is a good way to
follow the interaction between two people without getting distracted by their
surroundings.
OVER THE SHOULDER SHOT (OSS)

This shot is framed from behind a person who is looking at the subject. The
person facing the subject should usually occupy about 1/3 of the frame. This
shot helps to establish the position of each person, and get the feel of
looking at one person from the other's point of view. It is common to cut
between these shots during a conversation, alternating the view between the
different speakers. In older 4x3 framing, the person facing away from the
camera would typically be cut off just behind the ear. In 16x9 and other
widescreen framing, there is more width available and more of this person
can be shown. This shot can be varied quite a bit to include the shoulder or
back of the person facing the subject.
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NODDY SHOT
Common in interviews, this is a shot of the person listening and reacting to
the subject. In fact, when shooting interviews with one camera, the usual
routine is to shoot the subject (using OSS and one-shots) for the entire
interview, and then shoot some noddies of the interviewer once the interview
is finished. The noddies are edited into the interview later.
POINT OF VIEW SHOT: (POV)

A scene that shows the specific view from one character point of view, are
usually edited in such a way that it is obvious whose POV it is.
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WEATHER SHOT:
In this type of shot, the
subject is the weather. The
sky takes up at least 2/3 of
the frame. This type of shot
is common in television
programs where the
weather is of particular
interest, e.g. sports shows.
Although the usual purpose
of this shot is to show the weather, it is also useful as an establishing shot,
for setting the general mood or for overlaying graphics. A weather shot does
not have to show the sky. Other shots often used to illustrate weather
include:
Puddles drain spouts or any example of rainwater flow
Trees or anything else blowing in the wind
People sunbathing
Snowmen, snowball fights, snow sledding, etc.
CAMERA HEIGHT:
The vertical position of the camera, known as "camera height," can have a
significant impact on audience because it helps shape their reaction and
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interpretation of the unfolding screen story. For example, a low camera angle
can make a subject appear dominant or menacing, while a high camera
angle can have the opposite effect. Camera height is an important variable
in effective camera placement, yet it is a variable that is neglected by the
budding film director. Too often camera height is determined by the position
that is most comfortable for the camera operator or the position that
provides an interesting composition. The latter is obviously important,
especially in terms of aesthetics, but height should never be arrived at
without considering the dramatic and psychological implications of the shot.
EYE LEVEL CAMERA ANGLE

The eye-level camera angle is the most commonly used camera angle of
them all! This angle is the "personal view" and shows the subject as we
expect to see them in real life. This is the most common view, being the realworld angle that we are all used to. It is a fairly neutral shot. It is the "usual"
or standard camera level of someone, who is shooting while standing up. It is
thought to be "standard" because it is shot usually somewhere in-between 4
to 6 feet off the ground, which is the view that you would see if you are
standing facing a subject or object at a normal distance away.
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HIGH ANGLE
A high angle shows the subject from above, i.e. the camera is angled down
towards the subject. This has the effect of diminishing the subject, making
them appear less powerful, less significant or even submissive. An extreme
high angle would be an extreme variant.
LOW ANGLE:
A shot looking up at a character or a subject often making them look bigger
in the frame, it can make everyone look heroic and/or dominant. Also good
for making cities look empty. These increase height (useful for short actors
like Tom Cruise or James McAvoy) and give a sense of speeded motion. Low
angles help give a sense of confusion to a viewer, of powerlessness within
the action of a scene. The background of a low angle shot will tend to be just
sky or ceiling, the lack of detail about the setting adding to the disorientation
of the viewer. The added height of the object may make it inspire fear and
insecurity in the viewer, who is psychologically dominated by the figure on
the screen.
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BIRDS EYE ANGLE

The scene will show from directly above. This is a completely different and
somewhat unnatural point of view, which can be used for dramatic effect or
for showing a different spatial perspective. In drama, it can be used to show
the positions and motions of different characters and objects, enabling the
viewer to see things the characters cannot. The bird's-eye view is also very
useful in sports, documentaries, etc.
SLANTED OR DUTCH ANGLE
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Also known as a DUTCH tilt, this is where the camera is purposely tilted to
one side so the horizon is on an angle. This creates an interesting and
dramatic effect. Often used as a subjective shot to indicate stress, such as
when a character is drunk or drugged.
OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE CAMERA WORK

By using objective and subjective camera angles, it can do one thing that
every film or video maker wants to do with his audience Grab and hold the
audience's attention! It can create impact and real emotional reaction in
audience just by your choice of camera positioning and placement. By using
different camera angles, it can set a mood or tone that will help the viewer
better understand and feel a part of the emotional environment presented to
them from one scene to another.
THE OBJECTIVE VIEW
The objective view (angle) is the most common view you will see in a movie.
This is the exterior "observers" point of view. This angle gives your audience
a viewpoint of being in the scene as though they were part of the action but
also are "safely removed", as though they were there "invisible". The illusion
is that the audience is like a "fly on the wall" and that the characters cannot
see them. This illusion is maintained as long as the actors never look directly
at and/or directly speak to the camera lens. If an actor were to do this (called
in acting breaking the "fourth wall"), then the audience is no longer an
exterior observer watching the scene from a distance but are now "in" the
movie themselves and part of the scene. This is not to say that there are
some filmmakers, who have not done this for effect.
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THE SUBJECTIVE VIEW

In the subjective view, the audience sees the scene as though they were
looking through the eyes of the subject. This device gives the audience the
illusion that they are the character in the scene and not just looking at it
from an exterior view. They are now not only part of the action they are the
character in the action! Being in the subjective view means the audience is
not able to "know" or see "everything" that is happening in the scene (as
they are in the objective view) which can create mystery, danger and/or
tension for the audience.
The subjective view is used much less than the objective view as this view
can be disorienting to the audience if it is not used and edited correctly.
Nevertheless, if it is used correctly, it can be a powerful plot device. Horror
films make great use of this device to build anxiety and tension. It can be
used to shock or disorient the audience by rapid intercutting with objective
shots.
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POINT OF VIEW SHOT

The point of view, often simply referenced as POV, is an important approach
of the movie that it might not think about, but it can strengthen the overall
story telling aspect. This shot is when the camera is positioned so that it
shows exactly what the character in the film or video would be seeing from
his perspective however, the shot may show some part of the subject or the
camera may be positioned so that the audience view is that they're
standing" alongside" the subject. In this shot, the audience is put "into the
head" of one of the actors and sees, exactly what the actor sees in the scene
but from a slightly more objective view. When using this camera angle the
other actors the scene may look directly into the camera to create the
illusion that the audience is now the character.
Sometimes, a point of view shot is shared and represents the joint point of
view of two or more characters making them even a little more objective and
subjective. The point of view shot many times actually falls between the
objective and subjective shot as the angle of the shot gives the impression
that the viewer (audience) is standing "cheek to cheek" with the subject of
the shot. It is as if the viewer is standing alongside the subject but still sees
exactly what the subject sees. This view is also used in interviews. As with
the objective and subjective views, the point-of-view shot if not expertly
planned and edited can disorient the audience and break the continuity of
the film or video.
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CAMERA BLOCKING
Blocking was originally a theater term that refers to the positioning and
movement of the actors in the stage. In cinema, camera and lights are added
to the equation. Blocking is an essential part of rehearsal because doing it in
advance will speed up principal cinematography as the actors and camera
operators will know how they will move on the set. Blocking a motion picture
involves deciding where and how actors will move and which line of dialogue
they will deliver where. Some of these may be suggested in the script, but
the director has freedom to alter and augment the original text. The more
trained actors are during blocking, the faster principal the scene will be.
There are two ways in blocking. They are sketch the scene and body
language.
SKETCH THE SCENE
One way to block actors and camera is to use drawings and diagrams to
quickly show what runs in mind. Hand-drawn pictures are fine, although
many computer programs make the job easier. Floor plans and storyboards
are often combined because together they help the crew visualize everything
needed. Floor plans are a good way to see the overhead layout of a scene
with actors and camera positions. Floor plans are quite convenient when
shooting a scene with an elaborate setup with many actors and movements.
Storyboards are also common. They are a collection of frames that tells the
story visually. The frames illustrate the more important shots in the movie.
Storyboards are quite convenient when the director is explaining exactly
what type of composition he desires.
ATTENTION TO BODY LANGUAGE
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Deciding where the actors and camera should go is only the first step of
blocking. It is also a good idea to talk about body language posture. A
director must pay close attention to how actors use their bodies and what is
signified by their postures and gestures. Though characterization should
define posture, the director has to approve what actors come up with and
change accordingly.
For example:
In the frame above, you can see two actors with contrasting postures.
Angelina Jolie, impeccable, holds herself straight, with air of nobility. Her
back does not touch the chair. Her hands are held in front of her bosom we
can tell this is not comfortable.
At the opposite end of the spectrum, we have Johnny Deep, slouched in his
chair, legs crossed, supporting his arms. He looks tired and uncouth. But not
Angelina. She is refined, elegant, sophisticated Lot information is conveyed
by posture. Keep that in mind.
HERE ARE FIVE IMPORTANT BLOCKING TIPS
1. Having a shot list will help you during the blocking process. The shooting
list is like a map: it gives you a path to your destination but you do not
always have to follow it
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2. Let the actors show you what they want to do first, then, when you make a
suggestion, it is based on something you have already seen
3. Where the camera is placed is determined primarily by what is important
in the scene.
4. Blocking is like a puzzle: directors need to keep working at it until the
whole scene works.
5. In Television and low budget films, speed is essential, story and block
some scenes so that your action takes place in one direction (to avoid
turning the camera around for reverses.)
SHOT COMPOSITION
Composition refers to the organization of pictorial elements in a frame. Every
image should have a single story to tell. The purpose of composition is to
direct the viewer's eye to the central point or "story" in the scene.
Regardless of the particular subject, composition of the frame is important. If
they want to present a picture to the audience that is unified, shows the
relationship between the elements in the frame, and is aesthetically
pleasing. Everything in a frame is important, not just the subject! In
cinematography, composition refers to the frame of the image and how the
elements of the particular scene appear in it. Composition guidelines must
be observed when telling stories visually, as in filmmaking.
THERE ARE 5 BASIC RULES OF COMPOSITION
1. Simplicity: Do not place your primary subject against a busy or
congested background. Each scene should have a single story to tell.
To simplify the shot, it may need to alter the camera position, alter the
size of the image, or select the right background.
2. Rule of Thirds: Mentally divide the viewfinder into thirds horizontally
and vertically. Place the primary point of interest on the intersection of
two lines. Lines of interest should occur at 1/3 or 2/3 of the way up (or
across) the frame, rather than at the center. In shots of people, the
main line of interest is the imaginary line going through the subject's
eyes. So try to place the eyes about 1/3 from the top of the screen.
3. Framing: Look for natural "frames" within the scene. Also, beware of
horizontal and vertical lines in the frame (edges of buildings, counter
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tops, picture frames, and so forth). Make sure the horizontal lines are
level and the vertical lines are straight up and down.
4. Leading Lines: Direct the viewers' eyes with leading lines. Use
leading lines to direct them to focus on the main subject of the shot.
The direction of the dominant lines in a picture has psychological
connotations.
5. Balance: There are two main forms of balance: Symmetrical balance
creates a formal appearance. Asymmetrical balance creates a feeling
of movement and suggests a creative and dynamic mood. Use the
form of balance that is most appropriate for the subject. For example, a
shot of the state Capitol may call for symmetrical balance, whereas, a
shot of the county fair would be more interesting with asymmetrical
balance.
180-DEGREE RULE
In filmmaking, the 180-degree rule is a basic guideline regarding the onscreen spatial relationship between a character and another character or
object within a scene. An imaginary line called the axis connects the
characters, and by keeping the camera on one side of this axis for every shot
in the scene, the first character is always frame right of the second
character, who is then always frame left of the first. This rule is also known
as line of crossing.
1. The rule states that the camera should remain the same side of the
imaginary line.
2. The line is drawn perpendicular to the cameras viewpoint in the
establishing shot of the scene.
3. The rule enforces continuity of the film.
4. An example is the car chase scene, if the car is travelling from right to
left, the next shot must also be the shot from the same side, meaning
the car has to enter the frame right to left again.
5. The same applies for the football and other sports.
6. The rule should never be broken.
7. Only defense for breaking the rule is for effect.
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8. Breaking the rule will confuse the audience, especially in the scene of
chase, conversation, and sports.
9. Camera must always be on the side of the line.
10.
Crossing the line when filming over the shoulder shots shifts the
persons eye line, meaning the actors eye line do not match.
11.
The two people should always be on the same side of the frame.
12.
Breaking the rule will result in confusing the audience, audience
lose focus, become disoriented, and miss vital parts of the film.
13.
The only way to cross the line without disorienting the audience
is to show the camera movement.
14.
It cannot cut across the line or the viewer will not be oriented.
15.
Once the line has been crossed and movement shown, it have to
stay on the side of the line, unless it show the movement back over it.
30-DEGREE RULE
The 30-degree rule is a basic film editing guideline that states the camera
should move at least 30 degrees between shots of the same subject
occurring in succession. If this rule is not followed, a jump cut occurs and
there is a risk that the audience starts focusing on the filming technique
instead of the story that is being narrated. This change of perspective makes
the shots different enough to avoid a jump cut. Too much movement around
the subject may violate the 180 rule.
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As Timothy Corrigan and Patricia White suggest in The Film Experience, "The
rule aims to emphasize the motivation for the cut by giving a substantially
different view of the action. The transition between two shots less than 30
degrees apart might be perceived as unnecessary or discontinuous--in short,
visible." Following this rule may soften the effect of changing shot distance,
such as changing from a medium shot to a close-up.
THE RULE OF THIRDS

The rule of thirds is a concept in video and film production in which the frame
is divided into nine imaginary sections. This creates reference points, which
act as guides for framing the image. The intersections of the lines are points
of interest, where important objects are often placed. These points of interest
are comfortable to the eye, thus the middle portion of the frame are kept
"empty" or clear. The basic idea behind the rule of thirds is to break down
the frame, or image, into vertical and horizontal thirds
Much like the Renaissance painters discovered, studies have shown that the
human eye naturally sees one of these four intersecting points (highlighted
in green) first before anything else. Naturally, it only makes sense to place
the subject at one of those four points. While photographing, keep this grid in
mind and you can identify the four important parts of the frame following the
rule of thirds.
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The Rule of Thirds is not really based on any sort of scientific finding (despite
a spate of studies that have been done recently), but stems from a more
general sense of aesthetics. Artists once began to notice that if they placed
the subject of their painting or photograph slightly to the left or to the right,
it would look a little better and a bit more visually pleasing than if they just
stuck it dead center. Hence, The Rule of Thirds was born. Left, right, or
center. It is that simple.
CLAP BOARD
It is used for operating the clapboard at the beginning of a shot. The
clapboard (AKA clapperboard) was originally designed as a way to provide a
reference for synchronizing audio and vision. Modern technology has made
this unnecessary but it is still used extensively. The clapboard is still useful
for providing reference information.
First, you use the clapboard or film slate to identify the shot you are
shooting. This will include the information for the scene, take and roll. While
roll is used to identify the film roll that is in the camera, todays filmmakers
and Videographers shooting on digital media, roll is now used to identify the
digital media card or digital video tape that is being used for the shot. The
digital slate is the more modern form of the clapperboard. The tape
recorder contains a time code generator. The time code is recorded
continuously on a special track on the tape, and the time code is displayed
continuously on a large LED display on the digital slate. By showing the
digital slate to the camera before the action starts, the editor knows exactly
what the tape's time code is and can synchronize it with the film. Sometimes
a digital slate contains a clapper, but generally, it is not needed. The digital
slate normally has a slate area, because identifying each shot is still
extremely important during editing.
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The reason the clapping part of the board exists is to allow the sound editor
to use that sound to synchronize the audio that is recorded via boom mics
and what not for that particular scene. They typically include the date, the
production title, the name of the director, the name of the director of
photography (DP) and the scene information.
EDITING REPORT
Editing report is the clap after shooting of shot and will be used in various
situations. At the time of emergency where the roll or can or film in the
camera is about to complete or is about to exhausted. On the other hand, at
the time of extreme long shot. Editing report should be written on each shot
during production. In the case of end clap, below the production, banner,
title, end clap should be written in red mark. For TV, tape count recorder
(TCR) shot ending time. The following table is the format of editing report.
PREVIEW MONITOR
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A preview monitor used for inspecting a picture source before it is switched

to transmission. When selecting a preview monitor there are several factors
to consider size, features, resolution and color reproduction. The last two are
the most important. If the editor editing in 1920 x 1080, we will need a
preview monitor that is 1920 x 1080.
Additionally, a good preview monitor can reproduce at least 100 percent of
the NTSC color space. How they set up their external monitor is going to
depend on the editing software, the computer, and the type of preview
monitor. The camera operator wants to start by checking to see what types
of external monitoring the editing software supports. This information is
usually found in the documentation that came with the editing software.
Next, it needs a way to get a video signal from your computer to the video
monitor. There are a number of types of signals and connector types to
choose from depending on your budget and the types of videos been edited.
If working in HD it connects to the monitor digitally via HD-SDI.
HD-SDI offers the ability to monitor uncompressed HD. This is the best way
to view footage without color loss. It is the standard for feature film and
broadcast work, but video cards and interfaces with HD-SDI connections tend
to cost several hundred dollars. This puts them out of the price range of
many video editors. HDMI is an affordable, common connector type used in
both professional and consumer video equipment. Many computers already
have an HDMI connector that can use to attach an external monitor. After the
monitor is connected, it needs to calibrate the color to ensure the brightness,
and contrasts are accurate. Most preview monitors are calibrated manually
while some like the LaCie 324i or NEC MultiSync PA271W can be calibrated
automatically. This convenient feature is something to consider when
purchasing a preview monitor.
Monitors can be manually calibrated using color bars, which are included in
most editing software. The process is simple and does not take very long.
Apple has a useful guide to calibrating external preview monitors using color
bars.
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ALTERNATIVES TO A PROFESSIONAL PREVIEW MONITOR

Even if they do not have the budget for a professional monitor, they can use
a standard computer monitor to preview video from the editing software and
get much of the same functionality. There will be some performance
limitations, but the benefits still outweigh the total absence of a preview
monitor. Most computer monitors will only reproduce about 80 to 90 percent
of the NTSC color space; whereas, many professional monitors can reproduce
more than 110 percent of the NTSC color space.
Despite the differences, it can calibrate the color of the monitor so that what
to see is as accurate as possible. To calibrate a computer monitor to simulate
a professional monitor, it needs to use an HDMI video output from your
computer using one of the methods we already discussed. We can use an
LCD monitor with a resolution of 1920 x 1080.
The resolution is important to ensure that no scaling occurs and that can see
the HD signal pixel for pixel. If the monitor has an HDMI port, then it ready to
go; if it only has a DVI port, then it need an HDMI to DVI adapter, or need to
run a HDMI to DVI cable from the computer or interface to your monitor.
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Once the preview monitor is hooked up and it sends video from the editing
software, the editor can able to see the footage that he is cutting in full HD.
However, what about the safe zone markers and color calibration?
Well, we can toggle safe zone markers on and off from the monitor controls
within the editing software. As for color calibration, we can set brightness
and contrast manually using color bars. Unfortunately, getting proper
chroma calibration manually with the limited adjustments of most computer
monitors may be difficult if not impossible.
Depending on how the monitor is connected, there may be some additional
solutions for calibration. The video interface or video card may have software
to aid in calibrating your monitor; check the manufacturer's documentation
or website. We can also use an automatic calibration tool to calibrate your
monitor. It connects to the computer via USB and runs software that alters
the color of the video going to the monitor. Regardless of how it calibrates
the monitor, remember that if the ambient light in the room changes it will
need to recalibrate. If your editing room has many windows, some blackout
curtains would be a good addition.
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CAMERA MOVEMENT TYPES

Every time we learn a new craft or skill, we need to learn the basic moves or
techniques that define that function. Here are some terms we will hear as we
develop the skill. Beginning to learn to shoot video, whether for a hobby or a
budding business, requires some knowledge of the basic moves that define
good video shooting practices. A camera exists in a three-dimensional world
and can move anywhere along the XYZ axis.
This means it can move up, down, left, right, as well as forward and
backward. So that the director and camera operator can effectively
communicate, there are names for each of these moves. This means the
director can give a series of verbal instructions, and the camera operator
knows exactly what to do without anybody having to get out and draw
diagrams.
PAN SHOT
Panning is a camera movement technique that involves moving the camera
horizontally to the right or left. With this technique, we can track an object or
follow any type of movement. Be very careful with jerky action though. We
can do the pan shot hand held but we highly recommend using a tripod. The
tripod head is the part that moves up and down and left to right. Some
tripod heads are better than others are. We need to look for one which can
be secured (for when we want to stop all movement) and have the capability
to be loosened so we can move the camera around with as little shake as
possible. These types of shots are great for establishing a sense of location
within the story.
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TILT SHOT
The tilt shot is similar to the pan shot, but the tilt shot moves vertically
instead of horizontally. Like the pan shot, the tilt shot can be done hand held
or with a tripod with a good head. Tilt shots are often used to show the
vertical significance of something.
For example, imagine being at the bottom of a building and then tilting the
camera upwards to capture the entire building structure. These shots are
popular when introducing a character, especially one of grandeur, in a
movie.
TRACKING SHOT
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Roughly synonymous with the dolly shot, but often defined more specifically
as movement, which stays a constant distance from the action, especially
side-to-side movement.
Tracking shots are widely used in Hollywood features but with a little bit of
money or simply a little creativity can duplicate the look of these shots in the
own production. Tracking shots involve the use of dollies to pull the camera
around a scene. A tracking shot can be done hand held, using a steady cam,
but they are more commonly shot with dollies.
PUSH IN SHOT
A push in shot is sometimes also referred to as a zoom in shot. The camera
physically moves towards the subject in the film, getting closer to them and
tightening in on the subject and the scene. This can also be done with
certain lenses instead of moving the camera.
PUSH OUT SHOT

A push out shot is also called a pullback shot or a zoom out shot. The camera
physically moves back, or a special lens does, from the subject. The push out
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is used to reveal a larger picture for the audience. Both push in and push out
shots can be used to convey emotion.
CRANE SHOT
Crane Camera Shot is a film technique where the camera takes a shot from a
crane. A crane enables the camera to traverse great distances up and down,
as well as forward and backward and from side to side, while flying high in
the air. Crane shots are often long or extreme long shots that often give the
viewer a feeling of omniscience over the characters. Crane shots work best
when it has foreground objects parallaxing in the frame. The visual
phenomenon of parallax is when objects in the foreground travel across the
field of view faster than objects that are in the background. A crane shot is
achieved by a camera mounted on a platform, which is connected to a
mechanical arm that can lift the platform up, bring it down, or move it
laterally across space.
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HAND HELD SHOT

A handheld shot is one in which the camera operator or woman holds the
camera and moves through space while filming. Hand-held camera shots
often result in an image that is perceptibly shakier than that of a tripodmounted camera. Purposeful use of this technique is called shaky camera
and can be heightened by the camera operator during filming, or artificially
simulated in post-production. Hand held shots serve to create a more home
made or dramatic feel to a shot. There is a difference between hand held
shots and steady cam shots. We would like to discuss various ways to
achieve the best hand held shots possible.
Since most video cameras are set up with hand inserts on the side, which
allow to easily access things like the record or Zoom button, most people use
that option to capture footage. However, as we will soon point out this is not
the best method for shooting hand held shots? The problem with the method
mentioned above is that our bodies are constantly engaged in a variety of
small movements. For example, when we breathe our chest naturally moves
in and out, which can cause our shoulders to move slightly, which in turn,
can cause our arms to move which causes our hands to move. Not only that,
but as our heart beats, it causes blood to flow through our body (including
our hands). Each pulse, combined with small movements in our body from
simply breathing create the smallest camera shake. Many new cameras
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have camera shake minimizes but even with these features turned on, the
camera shake is noticeable when enlarged to fit on a television screen.
Camera shake becomes even more noticeable when it zoomed in on a
subject.
STEADICAM SHOT
Operating a Steadicam is one of the most difficult jobs on a movie set, but
perhaps one of the most rewarding. For a typical Steadicam shot, a camera
operator must follow a predetermined path, while simultaneously adjusting
the camera and avoiding any obstacles, all the while supporting more than
70 pounds (32 kilograms) of camera equipment. The job requires a good deal
of physical stamina, technical skill and a good sense of shot composition.
The director plans the shot, but the Steadicam operator makes it happen.
One of the most common uses of the Steadicam is to track actors as they
move around obstacles or rough ground. Typically, the operator will walk
ahead of the actors, shooting them from the front as they walk and talk. For
this sort of shot, the operator may walk backward through the scene, with
the help of other crewmembers. Alternatively, he or she may walk forward,
with the camera pointing behind him or her. Alternatively, heck, he or she
may hop on a Seaway traveling at a good clip, dismount, sprint up a ramp
and then do a 360 around the point of interest. For these shots, and most
any other, the director, the crew and the operator will all work together to
figure out the best approach.
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ARIEL SHOT
An aerial shot is typically made from a helicopter or created with miniatures
(today, digitally), showing a location from high overhead. This is often used
at the beginning of a film, in order to establish setting and movement. A
helicopter is like a particularly flexible sort of crane - it can go anywhere,
keep up with anything, move in and out of a scene, and convey real drama
and exhilaration so long as you don't need to get too close to your actors
or use location sound with the shots.
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STATIC SHOT
As a cinematographer, it is easy to be caught up in using fancy camera
moves with jibs and sliders. Depending on the content of the scene, an
elaborate camera move would only be distracting and pointless. That is why
its important to remember the little guys; the static camera shot. A static
shot is a shot that does not have any tilts, pans, dollies, or trucks.
Sometimes, we forget how important a simple camera shot can be. If used
correctly, the static shot can be very powerful. This is the shot that stands
still while characters and objects move through and about in it, thus being a
sort of reverse of most tracking shots. It gives a prominence to setting,
almost making setting a character, and reduces the prominence of each of
the individual characters. It also brings an increased prominence to
changing compositions. This can be both a purely aesthetic or narrative
function. One of the neat elements of the static shot with movement is that
the setting becomes the focal point of the camera and not the characters.
Instead of a camera following a moving character, keeping the character
relatively in the same place as the settings move and change about them,
the setting is held in place as characters move through it. Instead of a
character moving through settings, it is a setting with characters moving
through it. It is the inverse relationship of a tracking shot.
SIGNIFICANT CAMERA MOVEMENTS
Camera movement has the potential to function in many different ways, such
as to direct the viewer's attention, reveal off-screen space, provide narrative
information, or create expressive effects. The camera most frequently moves
when an object moves within the frame, initiating reframing or a following
shot. Reframing involves slight pans or tilts designed to maintain the balance
of a composition during figure movement.
A camera operator will reframe when a sitting person stands up, for instance,
to keep the person in the frame and allow for appropriate headroom.
Reframing helps to fix the viewer's eye on the most important figures within
the frame and is so common it is often unnoticed. The camera itself
accompanies the movement of an object during a following shot. A track,
crane, or hand-held shot can lead a moving figure into space, pursue a figure
from behind, or float above, below or alongside.
Intricate following shots may be motivated by the movements of more than
one figure, such as during the ball sequence of The Magnificent Ambersons
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(1942): as the last guests say goodbye, the camera pans and tracks to follow
characters from the stairs to the foyer to the front door, producing a series of
deep space compositions that fore-shadow the rekindling of an old romance
and the development of a new one. Not all camera movement responds to
motion within the frame; the filmmaker may direct the camera away from
the dominant action for other purposes. Such camera movement draws
attention to it and is typically used sparingly to emphasize significant
narrative details. For example, when Judy (Natalie Wood) stands up to exit
the police station in Rebel without a Cause (1955), the camera pans and tilts
down to frame the compact she left behind, highlighting an important motif
that will bring the protagonists together.
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UNIT IV
LIGHTING
Lighting is a very important aspect for shaping meaning in films. What kind
of atmosphere is created in a room lit by candles? Have ever heard of mood
lighting? A room that is brightly lit by neon lights might seem to be sterile or
a shadowy room might be eerie or scary. The lighting technicians in a film
crew have the task of creating lighting to suit the mood and atmosphere of
each scene in a film. Remember that lighting is used in still image visual
texts as well as in films.
Film lighting has three main purposes. The first is clarity of image. It is
important for viewers to be able to discern all the important elements in the
frame. These might range from facial expressions and physical gestures to
the presence of significant props. In early cinema, this was the sole purpose
of lighting, but around 1905 other factors came into play. Lighting's second
purpose is a quest for greater realism. Films began to introduce visual
schemes that suggested that the lighting came from logical sources within
the world depicted. The use of "effects lighting," as it was known at the time,
paved the way for the third purpose: the creation of atmosphere or
emotional effect. The development of lighting technique as a significant
element of mise-en-scne became an important tool for manipulating
audience responses to characters and narrative events. Increasingly, a
repertoire of standardized lighting techniques came to be used for particular
dramatic situations and particular lighting styles came to be strongly
associated with film genres.
MOOD OF LIGHT
One scene shows different types of moods. Let the lighting do the work. The
next time go to a movie or rent a video, pay close attention to the way the
director uses lighting to help create the mood in a scene. Good lighting
designers work very closely with directors to build a lighting scheme that
adds to the drama of a scene and intensifies the emotions we often just
attribute to the actors or the action. Lighting can make a scene feel happy,
sad, mysterious or even dangerous.
Light Quality: To master the art of altering mood with lighting we have to
remember a few basic principles. The hardness or softness of light effects
mood dramatically. The more diffused the light is, the softer and smoother it
will look. To remember this more easily, look at a shadow cast by the sun. On
a bright sunny day, the shadow is dark and the edges are very sharp
because the sun is a strong, intense light. We call this hard lighting. On an
overcast day, the shadows have very little definition and are soft at the
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edges. This is because a huge diffusion layer of clouds covers the sun. We
call this soft lighting.
Controlling Mood: The quality of the overall lighting scheme and its effect
on mood is often dependent on the relationship between the key and fill
lights. If they are about the same intensity, the scene will be perceived as
bright and happy. As the fill becomes less and less intense, the scene
becomes more dramatic. The back light also plays a role. The more intense
the back light, the more dramatic the effect.
SETUP ONE:
Emotionally Neutral Lighting: The first setup will be a basic emotionally
neutral setup. This is what we call a high key setup. This type of lighting is
commonly used in news, game shows and sitcoms. The lighting casts very
few shadows and makes everything seem bright and happy.
Place the lights in standard three-point lighting positions for one camera with
the key and fill spread enough to cover both participants. Set key lights
approximately 45 degrees above the subjects. The key light for the person on
the left will be the fill light for the person on the right and vice versa. Add an
extra back light so that they each have their own back light. Make sure all of
the lights are the same intensity and soft. We can use tough spun diffusion
material in front of the instruments to soften them a bit. Now let us change
the lighting set up to create another mood.
SETUP TWO:
Dramatic/Serious Lighting: For Setup 2 We will need to add some flags. A
flag is a movable flap placed in front of a light source for casting shadows
and preventing light from spilling onto areas where you do not want it. For
this setup, each of the talent will be lit by a key light, but the fill light will be
somewhat reduced. Flag the key and fill lights so that the spill does not fall
on the other person.
In addition, flag the backlights to make sure their spill does not hit the other
person. The effect should get from this setup is one with a little more
emotional tension. There will be shadows on the fill sides of the talent and
the lighting will appear a bit more dramatic. This type of lighting implies that
the actors are discussing a serious situation. Let us add more drama.
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SETUP THREE:
Strong/Emotional Lightings: For Setup 3, take the diffusion material off
the front of the lights to increase their hardness. In addition, move the key
and fill further apart so there is more separation of their beams. These
simple changes will achieve a dramatic effect. The light falling on the talent
will create a hard shadow line and, if properly flagged, should create a
feeling of dark, strong emotions. We should, still be able to see the
background. This gives the audience a feeling of normalcy because they
have reference objects they can hang onto. Let us change that.
SETUP FOUR:
High Intensity Lighting: Setup 4 introduces a style called cameo lighting.
Raise your key lights so they are sixty degrees above each of the talent. Flag
the lights so that there is absolutely no spill reaching the walls. We should
focus and flag the backlights so that they are only hitting your subjects. We
will also want to move the backlights further away or diffuse them so they
are less intense. The result should be a dramatically lit scene where we see
the talent suspended in a space with no walls. This should create a feeling of
high drama, an intensity of mood, of either deep love or deep terror. Without
the reference point of the walls, the audience is drawn closer to the talent
creating a strong emotional bond. Directors often use this type of lighting to
intensify scenes and create a feeling of impending doom or dramatically
increased emotion.
SETUP FIVE:
Intrigue Lighting: By placing a single back light high above and between
the two talents, we create yet another mood. Again, the mood of loneliness
or danger can be portrayed or perhaps even forbidden love. The single light
acts like a streetlight in some lonely corner of the world. If we add some fog
to the mix, you will have a decidedly powerful lighting setup.
SETUP SIX
Silhouette Lighting: Taking the theme we have created one step further,
think silhouette. This adds a sense of danger, forbidden romance or
maintaining a secret identity. For this setup to be effective, you have to make
sure that no spill light is reflected onto the talent. Point a single light at the
set behind the talent, lighting the background while leaving them in shadow.
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Light it Right: Whether we are shooting for the happy, high-key lighting as
if we find on game shows, or the dark and mysterious lighting of a murder
mystery, we can use the principles we describe here. Work with them to
create their own special lighting signature. The most important thing to
remember is that lighting is more of an art than a science. It is a powerful
tool can communicate different moods of the same scene. So next time we
light the set, increase its emotional intensity with a dramatic lighting set up.
THREE POINT LIGHTING
The Three Point Lighting Technique is a standard method used in visual
media such as video, film, still photography and computer-generated
imagery. It is a simple but versatile system, which forms the basis of most
lighting. Once you understand three-point lighting are well on the way to
understanding all lighting. The technique uses three lights called the key
light, fill light and back light.
Naturally, we will need three lights to utilize the technique fully, but the
principles are still important even if we only use one or two lights. As a rule:
If we only have one light, it becomes the key.
If we have 2 lights, one is the key and the other is either the fill or the
backlight.
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Key Light
This is the main light. It is usually the strongest and has the most influence
on the look of the scene. It is placed to one side of the camera/subject so
that this side is well lit and the other side has some shadow. It is placed
about 45 degrees to the subject, either left or right, usually above and aimed
down between 30 and 45-degrees. It is the dominant light. Position this light
as we would if it were the only light you had.
Fill Light
This is the secondary light and is placed on the opposite side of the key light.
It is used to fill the shadows created by the key. The fill will usually be softer
and less bright than the key. To achieve this, you could move the light further
away or use some spun. We might also want to set the fill light to more of a
flood than the key.
Back Light
This is also known as Rim light. The back light is placed behind the subject
and lights it from the rear. Rather than providing direct lighting (like the key
and fill), its purpose is to provide definition and subtle highlights around the
subject's outlines. This helps separate the subject from the background and
provide a three-dimensional look.
EFFECTIVE USES OF THREE POINT LIGHTING
Like many other clichs, three-point lighting became widespread because it
was so useful. The idea did not start in photography, but in theater, where
shadows on stage actors make their faces hard to see. Furthermore, shallow
sets spread performers out into two-dimensional tableaux. To fix the first
problem, lighting designers invented warm-side/cool-side lighting, placing
yellowish gels over the lights aimed from one side and bluish gels on lights
aimed from the other.
Since our brains assume that direct lights are from either warm sun or light
bulbs, they accept the warm-side lights as "light" and the cool-side lights as
"shadow," even though a light meter may show little or no difference
between the two sides. Together, warm and cool lights deliver facial
modeling without sacrificing detail. To counter the apparent lack of depth on
stage, designers placed a third light above and behind the performers, to
dust hair and shoulders with a rim of light. This accent separates the
performer from the background and adds visual depth to the stage picture.
Unlike the other styles, naturalism works by mimicking actual light conditions
as closely as possible, which is a very popular look for feature films
nowadays. Naturalism often relies on very large lighting instruments like
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fluorescent pans to deliver ultra-soft, single-source illumination that seems to

wrap around the subject.
The closely held secret is that three-point lighting can also achieve a
naturalistic look. In this scheme, try using soft lights for both key and fill. The
key light will deliver the natural window light effect we want. To enhance the
illusion, lower the light almost to subject eye level. Move the large-source fill
light away until only the lightest parts of the shadow areas are readable in
the reference monitor. We may also want to pull the fill light around to the
nine o'clock position, the result should look to the civilian eye as if there
were no fill light at all.
LIGHTING ANALYSIS
Since we knew who our target audience were, our genre, purpose and the
story line, we were able to make some judgments on the lighting and props,
particularly due to the fact we had gained Lukes comment about the film
Scream. We discussed mis en scene before this stage, in minor detail, such
as when we were compiling a storyboard, and in our research.
In our preliminary, we did not go into detail about the props we used, and
therefore we did not use many. In film and television, lighting is used to
create the atmosphere for the current setting, and set the tone for what the
audience is about to see.
It is important for us to grasp the key lighting so that when it comes to
filming and editing, we know exactly what will appeal to our target audience
to make our music video stand out above the rest and therefore achieve a
more immersive and visually stylish piece.
Cinematography is the professional term to describe the use of lighting and
camera choices in a film. Lighting is very important when it comes to filming,
as it can change the tone of a scene, and it can set the atmosphere, which is
vital for the audience as they need an idea of the setting straight away to
keep them intrigued. The type of lighting can differ from character to
character and from scene to scene as we noticed through watching many
films under the Action/Thriller genre.
Using the film The Dark Knight for inspiration to base our theme of lighting
around, we found that lighting could be used to both highlight the good in
the protagonist, or the bad in the antagonist.
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In the picture to the left, the Joker from The Dark Knight is half in light, and
half of his face is heavily shaded. This use of lighting in conjunction with
the poise of the character causes the audience to understand the specific
role of this person which he is the antagonist, and he will cause something
bad to happen. I think that we could incorporate something similar to this for
our antagonist, as it would further reflect our genre, and let the audience
understand about the relationship between the characters in order to tell the
narrative.
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The second image of Batman or rather, Bruce Wayne to the

right, expresses how lighting can be used for the opposing purpose. We
found how the light on his face was even and fairly bright which enhances
his heroic role, giving the audience no reason to fear him and more reasons
to side with him. This would benefit us from using the lighting in a similar
way with our female victim character, as it would suggest to the audience,
that there is nothing to fear about her, as she is still innocent and youthful
underneath, which leads audiences expectations towards the thought that
something bad could happen to her.
We may not expect it but even lighting can add to and create meaning in a
film. Horror movies, for instance, are known use lighting to create the mood
a lot. Most importantly, they use a lot of shade to create the setting and the
atmosphere. They are codes of meaning. Certainly, you will never see horrortype lighting in a romantic movie, as it does not fit the setting.
PRACTICAL LIGHTING APPLICATIONS
The main difference between straight and artistic video lighting is mood.
Mood setting moves beyond technical competence and into lighting design.
It is not hard to do if we know how to control three basic lighting
components: key, contrast and color. First, of course, we need to be clear
about exactly which mood you are after sunny, dreamy, macho and scary or
any of a score of other emotional states.
For instance, midnight lighting is equally dark, blue and contrast for both
strolling lovers and lurking vampires. Beyond the basics, though, romantic
and horrific are different animals. So let us see how to paint emotional light
pictures, using contrast, color and, first, key. As used here, "key" does not
mean the main light on the subject, but the proportion of light to dark in the
image. We will work indoors, where we normally do most of the lighting and
have the most control.
High Key: High-key images are light-toned with darker accents. This does
not mean low contrast; a good high-key lighting design includes a full range
of tones from white to black. Usually, high-key lighting feels warm, cheerful,
expansive and energetic.
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Low-Key: Low-key lighting produces mainly dark images accented by

lighter areas. The basic flavors of low-key lighting are dramatic and powerful.
To set the mood, work as much as possible with spots, softening fill lights
with screens or spun glass sheets. Backlighting is important, both for the
light accent it provides and to separate subjects from the backgrounds. The
real secret of low-key lighting is in those backgrounds. Keep furniture and
other objects partially in shadow, and do not wash the walls with light.
Instead, use controlled patches and shafts of light to create patterns on the
background. To look realistic, these light areas should be motivated, that is,
there should appear to be light coming from windows, doors or practical
lighting fixtures.
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Contrast: The range and gradation of the tones from black to white in an
image determine the contrast. A wide brightness range (often called a long
gray-scale), means that every level from dead black to pure white is present
in the image, though this can be harder to see in color than in black and
white. Generally, a long gray-scale is preferred, but to create a soft, passive
or misty atmosphere, we sometimes want to avoid black and white extremes
and confine the tones to the midrange. To do this, make sure we have plenty
of fill light on subjects and broad, even background lighting. Here again, soft
lights work best because they deliver naturally low-contrast lighting.
Color: There is nothing like color to influence mood, whether hot reds,
sunny yellows, soothing blues, living greens or violent purples. The
production design usually sets the color, but we can enhance it with colored
gels over your lights. Again, warm firelight is the obvious example. Subtler
effects include very pale warm gels to give a feeling of glamour or a hint of
blue in the backlighting to suggest romantic moonlight. Moreover, do not
forget the emotional effect of off-camera lighting effects. The ghastly yellow
of the bar neon or hotel sign can be truly unpleasant. The revolving red
squad car light says danger-danger-danger.
Moody Blues: To sum it all up, first decide what mood we are shooting for,
and then decide whether to go high key or low. Fine-tune subjects and
backgrounds to achieve the right feeling, then use contrast and color for the
final changes. Do not confuse mood with style. Where mood is the emotional
cast of the image, style is the esthetic approach to it. Lighting styles fall into
four basic type:
Naturalism imitates real-world illumination as closely as possible.
Realism employs subtle techniques to enhance its effects, though it still
looks natural to viewers. Realism is typical of TV dramatic series.
Theatrical realism is still accepted as real, although it uses more assertive
techniques like rim lighting and wall patterns. This is the Classic Hollywood
style. Expressionism frankly strives to convey strong feelings, whether the
result looks real to viewers or not.
LIGHTING THE FACE
We will want to modify or just ignore them to suit the needs of individual
faces. In lighting individual performers, we need to account for four things:
gender, facial shape, skin condition and features. Despite slow advances in
gender equality, people still tend to equate feminine with soft and delicate,
masculine with hard and tough. To soften a face, use a large-source key light
with strong diffusion and place all your lights to model the face subtly. (In
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low-key lighting, this can be quite a trick.) To ruggedize a face, go the

opposite route: pick a small-source, directional key light to throw features
into sharp relief. Adjust key and fill intensities to accent the eyebrow and jaw
lines. Faces come in three main shapes: round, square and long/thin. Use
broad front light on a round face and we will turn it into a beach ball.
Sidelight a long face and you will make it as thin as a pencil. Actually, we
often do want to front light a round face. The trick is to restrict the key to a
narrow vertical band and let the sides of the face fall off into shadow. The
slimming effect can be dramatic. With a too-thin face, place both key and fill
lights well around to the left and right, so the sides are actually brighter than
the front. Calling attention to the cheeks and ears makes, they seem more
prominent.
However, before we move lights around to the side, consider skin problems.
Pimples, facial scars and wrinkles are all emphasized by side or backcross
lighting, which throws them into relief. Therefore, if you have a thin face with
skin defects, a frontal lighting scheme may be the lesser of two evils. As for
aging subjects, we can simultaneously minimize baggy eyes and sagging
necks by using a low-key light and masking it off the neck with a flag or barn
door. If we are working in a more naturalistic style, a very large diffused key
light tends to wrap around facial nooks and crannies, to minimize the relief
map effect.
Noses often give lighting problems and the solutions are as varied as the
noses. In general:
Avoid key lights so high and so frontal that the nose throws a lip
shadow like a Hitler moustache.
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Use side lighting to emphasize a fine nose. The profile of a noble beak
can be even more impressive if the fill is from the camera side and the
opposite key light turns into a rim light.
CONTRAST AND AFFINITY

Contrast of tone means two shades of grey that are as different in terms of
brightness as possible. Any grey tones next to each other on the grey scale
have affinity. The greater the contrast in a visual component, the more the
visual intensity or dynamics increases. The greater the affinity in a visual
component, the more the visual intensity or dynamics decreases.
Here is a scene from Barefoot Gen. This is the scene where the audience is
first introduced to Gens family, here they have been in hiding from the air
raids and it is just being announced that the air raid is clear and it is okay to
come out of hiding. The contrast in this scene is very high, all the characters
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are black silhouettes with a white outline and the light from the sun is bright
white and has a sharp effect. This could be to emphasize that the characters
may have been in hiding for a long time. The same effect can be achieved
by turning the light on in the middle of the night, our eyes are not used to
the light and it causes us to squint, until we get used to it. This could be used
to show that the characters have not been used to be out in broad sunlight
for a while due to the air raids.
In this scene Gen and Shinji are helping their father on the wheat fields, they
are having fun, and we see Shinji and Gens relationship with their father,
they are playing around and an having fun, we can see that they have a
happy and healthy family life. This scene is calm; there is greater affinity
than the scene shown above, there is no sharpness to this image, we see two
boys laughing, running having fun, the weather is a sunny, and there is a soft
blue sky. This scene looks child-like, as if it had been made for the specific
audience of young children; this style is not carried out throughout the whole
film, the style changes when dealing with subjects that are more sinister.
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This is the scene were the atomic bomb hits the town of Hiroshima we can
see that there is a lot of contrast in this scene, the land is all white with a
black outline and the red is the atomic bomb going off. The red contrasts the
almost white background. Using the colour red as the colour of the bomb
going off could be to indicate blood, and the death of the many people that
the atomic bomb will murder and leave the city devastated.
Here are the images of when the bomb hits Hiroshima, the colour fades out
of the images and we see the black and white harsh images. This effect adds
intensity to the scene, and the audience is aware that something terrible is
happening.
HOW DOES LIGHT HELP TO TELL A STORY?
Imagine light as being your paintbrush and your scene as your canvas. How
heavy or soft you "paint" that light determines the dramatic focus of your
canvas. Understand lighting cinematography for a pleasing "painting." The
word "videography" is derived from the word "photography" which is defined
as the art or process of producing images by the action of radiant energy and
especially light on a sensitive surface. The two key components for producing
images is a sensor, which is your camera and radiant energy, which, for our
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purposes, is "light". If you have ever been on a film set you will surely have
noticed just how bright film lights are. To an untrained eye, mainstream film
sets look drastically over-lit. Why are lights used in filmmaking? Surely if we
want the film to look, natural we should just turn up on location, set up the
camera and shoot. The reason for which lights are necessary in filmmaking is
that film, and largely video, does not respond to light the same way our eyes
do. Specifically, film and video see things in a much more contrast way. If
you shoot a scene without artificial lights, either the shadows will go
completely black or the highlights will go completely white. All of this means
that if you want a scene to look natural, ironically the only way to do that is
to have enough light to make film see the scene the way our eyes see the
scene.
In any case, there is more to cinematography than simply making the actors
visible and photographing them. For top results, the mood of the film must
be carefully crafted with lighting, amongst other things. Not to mention the
fact that there are many situations in which natural light will not result in
exposure at all. For example, there is no way you can do an exterior night
shoot without lights, even if there is a full moon. For example, it has been
noticed by many filmmakers and filmgoers that the best films present a
heightened interpretation of reality; in other words, films that touch our
hearts tend to offer a world that is more real than real. This is simply a way
of saying that they are not bland. Presenting an enhanced view of reality
involves using highly stylized lighting.
The next time you have the pleasure of visiting a film set remember that
things look flat and over-lit because they were lit for film, not for the human
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eye; the image will have much more texture, depth and contrast when you
see it on celluloid on the big screen.
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UNIT- V
WHAT IS EDITING?
At the end of the 19th century, during cinemas infancy, films had no cuts or
editing whatsoever. The camera ran for as long as the film reel was. During
screening, the 1-minute footage was shown in its entirety to a paying
audience. Soon, viewers got bored. The static image was tedious. Editing
was the solution. Video editing is a process. It is a combination of various
technical functions, sequenced together to achieve an aesthetic goal. The
stages of video editing are ordered to help keep the video editor on track and
to help postproduction remain organized. Film editing determines pace and
structure; it is a vital component to tell stories efficiently.
DIFFERENT STAGES IN FILM EDITING
Classical film editing has developed a methodology, which structures the
work process into precise stages a methodology that is very similar in
every country around the world. Each stage has its own procedure and order:
Logging
The dailies or rushes are sorted and labeled in bins. Each take can contain
extra notes from the director or the cinematographer. This is the first time
the editor sees the film, and since it is shot out of sequence, it is out of
context of the story. A good editor views the rushes and looks for fluidity of
movement and nuances that will later be incorporated into the film.
First Assembly
The editor considers all the visual and audio material collected on the shoot
for each scene and then re-orders it in the way to tell the story best. In the
scene above, the editor may decide to open with an aerial shot of Central
London and then track in to Buckingham Palace. The next shot might be a
close-up of the hands followed by a dissolve shot to the hands of the hobo
playing the banjo. There are dozens of possible combinations the editor can
chose for this one simple sequence, each of which create a different mood
and tell a different story. Editing on a large budget feature usually
commences as soon as the film starts shooting. An editor will work on the
rushes and assemble scenes for the director and producer to view. Often at
this point, the editor and director will decide that additional footage of key
moments is necessary in order to make more editing choices available during
the edit.
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Rough Cut and Variations

The rough cut can take up to three months to complete. Each editor works
differently. Sometimes the editor works alone and shows the day or weeks
work to the director and producer, Sometimes the editor and director work
together, discussing every nuance. In the rough cut, the scenes are placed in
order and checked for continuity. This all-important step in the editing
process allows for revisions and new ideas to be tried and tested.
First Cut
The first cut is the rough cut that is accepted by the editor, the director and
the producer. Selection and sequence are fixed, although changes can still be
made. The later film is visible. Detailed fine cut starts out from its
proportions, structures, rhythms and emphasizes them.
Fine Cut
The fine cut no longer focuses on the entire film, but on the details of every
cut. The fine cut emphasizes and strengthens the rhythms and structures
identified in the first cut.
Final Cut
When a fine cut has been agreed with the editor, director and producer, the
sound designer, music composer and title designer join the editor. Sound
effects and music are created and added to the final cut. When everyone has
agreed with the final cut, the Edit Decision List is sent to the lab where a
negative cutter conforms the negative to the EDL in order to create a
negative that is an exact copy of the final cut.
IMPORTANCE OF EDITING
Editing is one of the vital aspects in the process of film production. In
general, editing is done to provide coherence and continuity to a film. Editing
is the part of postproduction of filmmaking. Good editing can make bad
production look good and bad editing can turn a good production into bad.
Through editing, shots are combined in accordance with the script to create
finished movie. A shot must be short enough to fulfill the purpose. It should
not be too long.
Cutting or the "dicing and slicing" of a movie. A good movie will change cuts
every 10 to 12 seconds and that is why editing is very important. The cut of
a frame can make or break a movie. Is there a Dutch pan (Tilted shot)? Is
the movie an action or horror movie, does its use of jump cuts effectively
drive the show or are they in the way or superfluous, does the cut list work or
is more footage needed. Does the scene call for a clean shot, did the
director want a dirty shot, or are the frames out of focus and muddy to form
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a cacophony number of cuts to indicate a Point Of View of a fight scene, such

as in the movie, Rocky, when he almost gets knocked out? Is the footage in
focus, purposely out of focus, or did someone just have a bad day of
shooting and shot almost nothing that is usable and if it is badly shot what
can be done in post to rescue or save as much as can be saved.
Color
What is shot on one camera may not be color aligned or balanced properly to
match another camera or even previously shot footage shot on a previous
day, therefore an editor is need to give it a professional edge. Color
corrections might be as easy as lightening a frame or two, or it can be a very
time consuming and expensive color edit, requiring everything from color
matching, lightening, balancing the background, stepping up the image and
re-digitizing after the bump.
Sound and Music: Sound is very important, it must be crisp, sound effects,
if used to draw attention to a turning point in a movie, such as a backfire
from a car or a crashing sound of metal on metal when a sequence calls for a
car crash. It must only draw a temporary focus to them, but then must
quickly return the story to its driving element, usually the characters moving
the story. Sound is more important overall as the comfortable background
noise running under the scene. Audiences hate silence. Music editing, while
most people are aware of the Title song, if it is sung and or played by a
popular musician, but the background music, that is played underneath to
draw a certain emotion into the scene. It is equally, if not more so, important
to the film and it must be edited in such a way where it is seamless and does
not interfere with the audiences enjoyment of the movie.
Postproduction is very important. It is the final step in the filmmaking
process. It is the magic and seamlessness of sound and image bits, shot and
running simultaneously, that form the smooth flowing visual story presented
to an audience.
WHAT IS DUBBING?
The term dubbing has several meanings in the video world. In general, it
means transferring media - audio in this case - to another medium or format.
For our purposes, we will define audio dubbing as the practice of replacing or
augmenting audio recorded during the original shoot. Audio editing has
become faster since the analog days. Before digital technology, the only way
to replace audio recorded with the video was to simply record over it.
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RE-RECORDING
The preparation of the final sound track of a film or video production
including the mixing of sound effects and dialogue, the recording of
additional dialogue and the addition of music. Re-recording is done using rerecording mixer.
Re-recording mixer
Re-Recording Mixers, formerly known as Dubbing Mixers, work with all the
sound elements (dialogue, automated dialogue replacement, Foley, sound
effects, atmospheres, and music), and mix them together to create the final
soundtrack for a film or television production. They are primarily responsible
for ensuring that film sound is correct both technically and stylistically.
Setting the relative volume levels and positioning these sounds is an art form
in its own right, requiring the skill and aesthetic judgment provided by
experienced Re-Recording Mixers.
Re-Recording Mixers' first task on films is usually mixing the soundtrack for
audience previews. Typically, this involves an intense period of time (up to
three days) spent in the dubbing studio, where the they work at large mixing
consoles, mixing and smoothing out (cross fading) the sound, often adding a
temporary music soundtrack prepared by the music editor.
Re-Recording Mixers must work quickly, to extremely high standards. ReRecording Mixers must have an excellent knowledge of acoustics, sound
recording and postproduction processes (analog and digital) and all the
relevant technical knowledge of sound mixing for feature films. The main key
skills for a re-recording mixer include:
Ability to manipulate and work sound for the moving image

Excellent aural skills
Ability to work efficiently under pressure
Excellent communication skills
Good organizational skills
Ability to work to strict deadlines
Knowledge of the requirements of the relevant health and safety
legislation and procedures.
WHAT IS VISUAL EFFECT AND ITS IMPORTANCE

We might have seen films with heavy visual effects and heard people say
The visual effects were amazing!, but what exactly are visual effects and
how do they work? Visual effects (commonly shortened to Visual FX or
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VFX) is the term used to describe any imagery created, altered, or enhanced
for a film or other moving media that cannot be accomplished during liveaction shooting.
In other words, much of the art of visual effects takes place in postproduction, after primary image capture is complete. Visual effects can
be added to live-action, captured through techniques such as matte painting;
rear- and front-screen projection; miniature or forced perspective sets;
computer graphic objects, characters, and environments; and compositing of
images recorded in any number of ways.
Therefore, anything thats difficult to film then we use visual effects to
achieve it. For example, aliens attacking the earth is impossible to film so
we use visual effects for all the alien creatures to destroy the city. This is a
very obviously example of visual effects. A lot of time, we use visual effects
in more subtle areas.
For example, if there is a scene in the story that needs to be in another
country, an imaginary location or a city in the future/past. It is just
inefficiency to go to another country or build a set. Visual effects in these
situations are helpful. These are the some examples for visual effects.
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Since that time, visual effects have been used frequently and not just for
special purposes. Some movies used matte paintings to add ceilings that
were non-existent on the sets. Visual effects continued to evolve and provide
sights not viable to actually film. Their style tended to be in keeping with the
film styles of the day (shooting outdoor scenes on sets, rear projection, etc).
However, visual effects were not without their limits. Camera moves and
other restrictions were simply due to the limits of the technology at that
time. With the advent of digital and computer graphics as tools for visual
effects, artists are now able to have full control over their images in a way
not possible before. These are in addition to their toolbox of previous
techniques including models and miniatures when desired.
With the advent of digital and computer graphics as tools for visual effects,
artists are now able to have full control over their images in a way not
possible before. These are in addition to their toolbox of previous techniques
including models and miniatures when desired. Almost all films coming out
of Hollywood use visual effects to some extent and even many independent
films have visual effects. Keep in mind that visual effects are not just for
science fiction and fantasy films. They can be used extensively in period
films and even in present day comedies.
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Five-Year Engagement used visual effects. War Horse used visual effects
extensively including some of the field shots, leaping horse, etc. Forrest
Gump showed an actor missing a leg. The visual effects team works closely
not only with the director but also the cinematographer. Working with the
production designer, we can expand the sets that are built or build sets that
would be impossible to build for real. Working with the stunt team, we can
remove their rigs (car ramps, wires), help to provide the visuals needed while
trying to maintain reasonable safety and can extend or create a stunt if it is
not possible. Working with the special effects* team we can hide their rigs if
required and expand and enhance what they are able to provide. Working
with the wardrobe department, we can expand the capabilities of their
costumes when required (Iron Man, Black Swan, etc) each of these
departments is very helpful in providing visual effects with what we require
to get the best material.
WHAT ARE SPECIAL EFFECTS?
'Special effects' are often referred to as 'FX'. Special effects are used when a
sequence or scene in a film cannot be achieved through the usual
techniques. Examples where special effects are used are when Superman
flies or when an explosion is too big or expensive to be filmed in reality.
Advances in computer technology have made special effects an integral
(central) part of many modern films. Two of the more common types of
special effects that are used today are outlined below.
Computer generated imagery (CGI) is three dimensional (3D) computer
graphics that are used to produce special effects for all types of film. Some
famous examples of where CGI has been used include Shrek, Ice Age and for
Gollum from The Lord of the Rings. It is important to note that CGI is not
only used to construct virtual characters but can also be used to alter colour
and lighting. Where a director feels that there is not enough colour in a
scene, CGI colour grading can be used to brighten it up.
Blue screens in many circumstances have been replaced by CGI. You will
still see examples of special effects using blue screens used every day. The
blue screen is an actual object. Actors are filmed acting in front of a blue
screen and then, during editing, the background is replaced. This is how the
original Superman films created the effect of superman flying. Television
weather presenters use a blue screen.
Sound, Soundtrack and Music
133
The sound, soundtrack and music in a film are very important to the impact
of films and play a major role in shaping meaning in the text. Next time you
view a film try to imagine a suspenseful scene without the music. Does it
have the same effect? There are a number of factors to consider when
analyzing sound in a film.
Diegetic sound is sound that occurs in film that is natural. These sounds
include doors opening and closing, footsteps, dialogue (the voices of the
actors if they are talking on screen), any music that comes from radios in the
film or played on musical instruments, thunderstorms, tyres screeching and
explosions. Any sound that is caused by actions or actually happens in the
course of the film is diegetic sound. Imagine that the film is real. If you could
hear that sound in real life, it is diegetic.
Non-Diegetic sound is sound that is added to the film during editing. These
sounds include music and songs that are added to the film, music that sets
mood for films (such as screeching violins at suspenseful moments),
narration (voiceovers) and sounds added as special effects, especially in
slapstick (comedy using exaggerated physical violence) sequences.
The difference between sound, soundtrack and music is as follows.
Sound is generally referred to as diegetic sounds.
Soundtracks are any songs used during the film.
Music is the incidental mood music known as the film score.
Think about the influence sound has on the impact and meaning of film.
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32E - MSc Multimedia