Lec 4 ELG4179

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.
Loyka
Indoor Propagation Models

Outdoor models are not accurate for indoor scenarios. Examples
of indoor scenario: home, shopping mall, office building,
factory.
Ceiling structure, walls, furniture and people effect the EM wave
propagation. Large/small number of obstacles, material of the
walls etc.
Modeling approach: classify various environments into few
types and model each type individually. Generic model is very
difficult to build.
Key Model
The average path loss is
d
LA ( d ) = L0 = const d ~ d
d0
(4.1)
or in dB:
d
LA ( d )[dB] = L0[dB] + 10 lg
d0
where L0 is path loss at reference distance d0 .
Lecture 4
23-Sep-15
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ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka
Variations (fading) are accounted for via log-normal

distribution:
L ( d )[dB] = LA ( d )[dB] + X
(4.2)
where X is a log-normal random variable (in dB) of standard

deviation [dB ].
Variations on the order of 2[ dB ] should be expected in
practice.
"Empirical Rule" by Dan Kernler.
Site-specific models will follow this generic model. Additional

factors are included (floors, partitions, indoor-outdoor
penetration etc.).
Lecture 4
23-Sep-15
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T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002
Note: n = is the path loss exponent; f = 914 MHz.
Lecture 4
23-Sep-15
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Lecture 4
23-Sep-15
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Lecture 4
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ITU Indoor Path Loss Model1

The model is used to predict propagation path loss inside
buildings.
The average path loss in dB is
LA ( d ) [ dB ] = 20 lg f + 10 lg d + L f ( n) 28
where:
f is the frequency in MHz;

d is the distance in m; d > 1 m;
is the path loss exponent (found from measurements);
L f ( n) is the floor penetration loss (measurements);
n is the number of floors (penetrated);

Limits:
900 MHz f 5200 MHz
1 n 3
d > 1m
Recommendation ITU-R P.1238-8.
Lecture 4
25-Sep-13
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Table 4.1: path loss exponent factor 10 in various

environments
Table 4.2: Floor penetration loss L f ( n) in various environments
Log-normal fading should be added as well,
L ( d )[dB] = LA ( d )[dB] + X
Lecture 4
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(4.2)
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Lecture 4
25-Sep-13
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Lecture 4
25-Sep-13
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Ericssons Indoor Path Loss Model

(900 MHz)
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Log-Normal Fading (Shadowing)

Reminder: 3 factors in the total path loss,
(2.5)
Siwiak, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications, Artech

House, 1998
LP = LA LLF LSF
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Log-Normal Fading (shadowing): this is a long-term (or largescale) fading since characteristic distance is a few hundreds
wavelengths.
Due to various terrain effects, the actual path loss varies about
the average value predicted by the models above,
L p = L p + L
[ dB]
(4.5)
where L p is the average path loss , L - its variation, which can

be described by log-normal distribution.
Overall, L p becomes a log-normal RV,
( )
Lp =
1
e
2
( Lp Lp )
2 2
(4.6)
where L p and L p are in dB, and is the standard deviation (in

dB as well).
Physical explanation: multiple reflection/diffraction + the central
limit theorem.
Shadowing: due to the obstruction of LOS path.
The semi-empirical models above can be used together with the
log-normal distribution.
Reasonable physical assumptions result in statistical models for
the PC. This approach is very popular and extensively used
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Log-Normal Fading: Derivation
Rx
Tx
Assume signal at Rx is a result of many scattering/diffractions:

N
Et = E0 i ,
(4.7)
i 1
i =1
Total Rx power:
2
Pt Et = E0
or
i =1
N
Pt = P0 i
i =1
(4.8)
PdB = P0,dB + 20 lg i
i =1
If i are i.i.d., then PdB ( P0,dB , dB )

Log-normal distribution works well for i.i.d multiple reflections
/scatterings ( N 5 ) and is used in practice to model large-scale
fading (shadowing).
Lecture 4
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Small-Scale (multipath) Fading Model

E2
E3
E1
E5
E4
Rx
Many multipath components (plane waves) arriving at Rx at

different angles,
N
Et (t ) = Ei cos(t + i )
i =1
N
(4.9)
= Ei cos i cos t Ei sin i sin t

i =1
i =1
This is in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) representation

Et (t ) = Ex cos t E y sin t = E cos(t + )
where
E = Ex2 + E y2 envelope
N
(4.10)
I : Ex = Ei cos i , Q: E y = Ei sin i
i =1
i =1
Assume that Ei are i.i.d., and that i [0,2] are i.i.d.

By central limit theorem, Ex , E y (0, 2 )
Lecture 4
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E is Rayleigh distributed with pdf
x2
( x) = 2 exp 2 ,
2
x0
(4.11)
where 2 is the variance of Ex (or Ey ),

2
E x2
1 N
= Ei2
2 i =1
(4.12)
which is the total received power (for isotropic antennas).

For this result to hold, N must be large ( N 5 10 ).
Rayleigh PDF
0.8
PDF
0.6
0.4
0.2
5.
x/
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25-Oct-12
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Outage Probability and CDF

Outage probability = CDF is
x
F ( x ) = (t )dt = Pr( E < x)
(4.13)
Rx operates well if E Eth the threshold effect.

If E < Eth , the link is lost -> this is an outage.
Lecture 4
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Rayleigh Fading
For Rayleigh distribution, the outage probability is
x2
F ( x) = Pr( E < x) = (t ) dt = 1 exp 2
2
0
x
(4.14)
Introduce the instantaneous signal power P = x 2 / 2,

P = P = 2 = the average power, then
Pout = Pr {SNR < }

,

P
= 1 exp = 1 exp = F ( P)
P

(4.15)
so that normalized SNR ( / ) or power ( P / P ) PDF and CDF:

f ( x ) = e x , F ( x ) = 1 e x
(4.15a)
and asymptotically,
P P Pout = F ( P)
Note that
P
=
P
(4.16)
P
= , where is the SNR.
P
Note in (4.16) the 10db/decade law.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Example:
Pout = 103 P = 103 P , or 30dB w.r.t. P
i.e. if Pout = 103 is desired, the Rx threshold is 30dB below one

without fading (the average).
Rayleigh CDF
Outage probability
0.1
0.01
1 .10
1 .10
40
30
20
10
10
20
.
/ , dB
Complex-valued model:
N
Et (t ) = Eie
ji jt
(4.17)
i =1
results in complex Gaussian variables.

Propagation channel gain simply normalized received signal,
has the same distribution.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Rayleigh Fading Channel

SISO 1x1
10
10
20
30
0
100
200
300
400
500
Received power (SNR) norm. to the average [dB] vs distance

(location, time)
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Lecture 4
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Measured Fading Channels
T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
21(32)
LOS and Ricean Model

There is a LOS component -> the distribution of in-phase and
quadrature components is still Gaussian , but non-zero mean
N
Et (t ) = Ei cos(t + i ) +E0 cos(t + 0 ) (4.18)

i =1
Both E0 and 0 are fixed (non-random constants).

Et (t ) = ( E x + E x 0 )cos t ( E y + E y 0 )sin t
E x = E y = 0, and
E = ( Ex + E x0 ) + ( E y + E y 0 )
(4.19)
Pdf of E has a Rice distribution ( x = E , x0 = E0 ) :

x 2 + x 2 xx
0
( x) = 2 exp
I 0 20 ,
2
(4.20)
Note that if x0 = 0 , it reduces to the Rayleigh pdf.

Introduce K-factor:
K = x02 / (2 2 )
(4.21)
where x02 / 2 is the LOS power, it is called LOS (steady or

specular) component, 2 is the scattered (multipath or
diffused) power, it is called diffused component.
K tells us how strong the LOS is.
Total average power = x02 / 2 + 2 = 2 (1 + K )
Lecture 4
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PDF of E becomes
x2

x
( x) = 2 exp 2 K I 0 2 K
2

(4.22)
Rayleigh & Rice Densities
0.8
K=0
pdf
0.6
K=1
K=10
K=20
0.4
0.2
10
x/
Note: normalized to the multipath power only.
Q: do the same graph if normalized to the total average power.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Rice CDF
10
1
Outage probability
0.1
K =0
0.01
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
K =1
K = 10
K = 20
40
30
20
10
10
/ , dB
Q.: find the CDF of Ricean distribution as a function of K and

total (LOS + multipath) average power or SNR.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Applications of Outage Probability

1) Fade margin evaluation for the link budget:
1
Pout ( th / 0 ) = F = 0 / th = 1/ Pout
()
2) Average outage time:

Tout = PoutT
2) Average # of users in outage:

N out = Pout N
To be discussed later on:
level crossing rates (# of fades per unit time)
average fade duration
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Nakagami Distribution
Originally developed to fit measured data (HF channel fading).
Provides better fit and is more robust.
The PDF of the envelope is
2
( x) =
m 2 m 1 mx
2m x
2
e
2m
(m)
, m 1/ 2 .
(4.23)
where 2 = x 2 = E 2 ,
( m ) = t m1e t dt
(4.24)
is the Gamma function, ( m ) = ( m 1)! for integer m, and

2
( ) (x
m= x
It can model fading that is more or less severe than Rayleigh

one:
For m = 1 -> Rayleigh distribution.
For m = 1/ 2 -> single-sided Gaussian.
For m -> delta-function (no fading).
Normalized SNR ( / 0 ) or power ( P / P0 ) PDF and CDF:

m 1 i
x m 1 x
x
x
f ( x) =
e , F ( x) = 1 e
( m 1)!
i!
i =0
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
(4.25)
26(32)
Nakagami distribution can also approximate the Rice

distribution:
m2 m
K =
, m >1
2
m m m
K + 1)
(
m=
2K + 1
(4.26)
Nakagami distribution is better for analytical analysis since there

is no Bessel function in it.
Rayleigh distribution requires the same RMS values of various
multipath components. Nakagami one does not. Physically, it
can be justified by clustering of multipath waves (in time).
Lecture 4
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Nakagami CDF
1
0.1
Outage probability
0.01
m =1
3
1 .10
1 .10
m=2
5
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
1 .10
m=3
40
30
20
10
10
/ 0
Pout = 10 3 :
m = 1 F1 = 30dB ,
m = 2 F2 = 13dB ,
m = 3 F3 = 7dB .
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
28(32)
Suzuki Distributions
While small-scale fading (Rayleigh) and large-scale fading (lognormal shadowing) are caused by different physical
mechanisms, they occur at the same time.
Composite distribution: includes both effects. Small scale fading
Rayleigh dist., its local mean log-normal RV.
Small-scale:
x ( x ) =
x2
2
e 2
(4.27)
Log-normal:
1
e
2
() =
2
ln M )
(
2 2
(4.28)
2
where M = ln , and 2 = ( ln M ) .
The composite (unconditional) distribution is
x ( x ) = x ( x ) ( )d
(4.29)
The model is sounder theoretically, but the pdf is not available in

closed-form difficult for analytical analysis.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
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Physical explanation: strong wave with log-normal distribution

(due to multiple reflection/diffraction) is composed of individual
identically distributed waves.
Note: if L p = LR LLN , where LR is a Rayleigh fading factor, and
LLN is a log-norm fading factor then it can be shown that L p
has Suzuki distribution.
Many other models are available see the reference list.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
30(32)
Monte-Carlo method is a powerful simulation technique to

solve many statistical problems numerically in a very efficient
way. You should be familiar with it. Detailed description of the
method and many examples can be found in numerous
references, including the following:
[1] M.C. Jeruchim, P. Balaban, K.S. Shanmugan, Simulation of
Communication Systems, Kluwer, New York, 2000.
[2] W.H. Tranter et al, Principles of Communication System
Simulation with Wireless Applications, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, 2004.
[3] J.G. Proakis, M. Salehi, Contemporary Communication
Systems Using MATLAB, Brooks/Cole, 2000.
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
31(32)
Summary
Indoor propagation path loss models.
Log-normal shadowing.
Small-scale fading.
Rayleigh, Rice, Nakagami and Suzuki distributions.
Physical mechanisms.
Reading:
o Rappaport, Ch. 4.
References:
o S. Salous, Radio Propagation Measurement and Channel
Modelling, Wiley, 2013. (available online)
o J.S. Seybold, Introduction to RF propagation, Wiley, 2005.
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU_model_for_indoor_attenua
tion
o Other books (see the reference list).
Note: Do not forget to do end-of-chapter problems. Remember

the learning efficiency pyramid!
Lecture 4
25-Oct-12
32(32)

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ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.

Indoor Propagation Models

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Variations (fading) are accounted for via log-normal

where X is a log-normal random variable (in dB) of standard

"Empirical Rule" by Dan Kernler.

Site-specific models will follow this generic model. Additional

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Note: n = is the path loss exponent; f = 914 MHz.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

ITU Indoor Path Loss Model1

f is the frequency in MHz;

n is the number of floors (penetrated);

Recommendation ITU-R P.1238-8.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Table 4.1: path loss exponent factor 10 in various

Table 4.2: Floor penetration loss L f ( n) in various environments

Log-normal fading should be added as well,

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Ericssons Indoor Path Loss Model

T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall, 2002

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Log-Normal Fading (Shadowing)

Siwiak, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications, Artech

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

where L p is the average path loss , L - its variation, which can

where L p and L p are in dB, and is the standard deviation (in

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Log-Normal Fading: Derivation

Assume signal at Rx is a result of many scattering/diffractions:

If i are i.i.d., then PdB ( P0,dB , dB )

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Small-Scale (multipath) Fading Model

Many multipath components (plane waves) arriving at Rx at

= Ei cos i cos t Ei sin i sin t

This is in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) representation

Assume that Ei are i.i.d., and that i [0,2] are i.i.d.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

E is Rayleigh distributed with pdf

where 2 is the variance of Ex (or Ey ),

which is the total received power (for isotropic antennas).

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Outage Probability and CDF

F ( x ) = (t )dt = Pr( E < x)

Rx operates well if E Eth the threshold effect.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

Introduce the instantaneous signal power P = x 2 / 2,

Pout = Pr {SNR < }

so that normalized SNR ( / ) or power ( P / P ) PDF and CDF:

Note in (4.16) the 10db/decade law.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka

i.e. if Pout = 103 is desired, the Rx threshold is 30dB below one

results in complex Gaussian variables.

ELG4179: Wireless Communication Fundamentals S.Loyka