2.

6
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Is the storehouse or cellular library that contains all the information required to build cells and
tissues of an organism
DNA
-Made of linear polymer composed of many monomers called nucleotides
Nucleotide
-The building block of DNA
There are 5 types of nucleotides but all of them have a common structure
Common structure
-Each have a Base linked to a pentose linked to a phosphate

Pentose:
A five carbon sugar
There are two types of pentose
Ribose
RNA
Deoxyribose
DNA
DNA Is an Acid
-Because the Phosphate group can disassociate an hydrogen Ion
Cells answer this problem by associating DNA with proteins

DNA consists of 2 associated polynucleotide strands that wind together through space to form a
structure referred to as a double helix
DNA structure:
Sugar Backbone
5 carbon sugar (pentose) is on the outside and the bases are on the inside
Because of the (-) charge of the phosphate group the sugar backbone is polar and hydrophilic
Bases
Are hydrophobic
Like to be on the inside
Hide from water

It is the Base Pairs that hold the two strands of DNA together
They are held together by the hydrogen bonds that form between the base pairs
To maintain geometric symmetry the large Purines must pair with the small Pyrimidines
Antiparallel
Sugar backbone is right side up on one side of the DNA helix and upside down on the other side
of the helix
DNA is semi-conservative = when the double helix replicates, each of the two daughter
molecules will have
one old strand, derived from the parent molecule
one newly made strand, from free nucleotides in solution

Uses parent strand as a template

and base pairing rules (A-T, G-C) to create new strands

2.7
DNA Replication
Unwinding the double helix
helicase controls unwinding of coiled DNA
Separation of the strands by helicase
helicase separates complementary strands of DNA,
producing a replication fork
single strand binding proteins keep the two strands
of DNA separate

Formation of new complementary strands by DNA

polymerase
DNA polymerase uses a single parent strand of
DNA as a template, adding free nucleotides from
solution to the parent/template strand according to
the complementary base pairing rules (A=T, G=C)
Importance of base pairing
DNA polymerase uses a single parent strand of DNA as a template, adding free nucleotides
from solution to the parent/template strand according to the complementary base pairing rules
(A=T, G=C)
the 2 parent strands in the double helix of DNA can be represented as A and A
when the 2 strands separate, each acts as a template for DNA synthesis
using strand A as a template, DNA polymerase, using complementary base pairing rules, adds
a newly synthesized A strand, thus producing A - A double-stranded DNA identical to the parent
DNA
using strand A as a template, DNA polymerase, using complementary base pairing rules, adds
a newly synthesized A strand, thus producing A - A double-stranded DNA identical to the parent
DNA
therefore, 2 DNA molecules, each A - A are produced

DNA Transcription
A. Initiation: RNA polymerase is an enzyme complex which:
unwinds and unzips DNA double strand
attaches to promoter region of gene, which marks the beginning point for transcription
B. Elongation: RNA polymerase:
uses DNA strand as a template
synthesizes a complementary RNA strand using base pairing rules
A = U, T = A, G = C, C = G
C. Termination: RNA polymerase :
reaches termination region of the gene, which marks the end of the coding sequence
terminates transcription by releasing both DNA and RNA
Triplet code
triplet code = 3 nucleotide bases code for one amino acid
codon = a group of 3 nucleotide bases
anticodon = a group of 3 nucleotide bases with complementary base pairs to the codon
degenerate: two or more codons can code for the same amino acid
universal: all living organisms use the same genetic code, indicating common ancestry; even
viruses use the same code
mRNA (codon = group of 3 nucelotide bases)
Large subunit ribosome (A site and P site)
Small subunit ribosome

tRNA (anticodon)
Amino acid attached to tRNA
Initiation:
mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome
AUG is universal start codon. tRNA with anticodon UAC and carrying AA methionine enters the
P-site during translation
tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon by complementary base pairing
large ribosomal subunit binds and produces two binding sites: P site and A site
Elongation:
tRNA with anticodon complementary to second mRNA codon binds to A site, with appropriate
amino acid attached to tRNA
Enzymes in ribosome catalyze formation of peptide bond between P site A site amino acids to
create a polypeptide
P site tRNA is separated from amino acid and exits ribosome
Ribosome moves one codon along the mRNA, thus shifting previous A-site tRNA to P-site, and
opening A-sites
Termination
When ribosomal A-site reaches a stop codon, no tRNA has a complementary anticodon.
Release factor protein binds to A-site stop codon.
Release: polypeptide, mRNA. Separate large and small ribosomal subunits
3.1 and 3.2
DNA = double stranded helical nucleic acid molecule containing genetic instructions
Chromosome (in a eurkaryotic cell) = DNA + protein (histone)
Genome = the whole of the genetic information of an organism
Gene = a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and controls a specific characteristic
Allele = one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only
Humans have diploid cells
Diploid (2n) = two sets of each chromosome (2n = 46, where n is 23)
Haploid (n) = one set of each chromosome
Arranged in pairs known as homologous chromosomes = chromosomes pairs that are of the
same length and staining pattern and possess genes for the same charactersistics at the same
length
Sex is determined by sex chromosomes, and autosomes are chromosomes that are the same in
any sex.

Karyotype:
Organization of chromosomes of a cell according to size and structure
Each human cell has 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
(22 pairs of autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosome)
Can detect gene mutations = change in base sequence of a gene (new alleles are formed from
gene mutations)
3.3
Chromatid = one of two copies of DNA
Sister chromatids = two identical copies of DNA
Centromere = region on chromosome that joins sister chromatids
Spindle fiber = microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division
Centriole = microtubule organizing center
Meoisis I
Prophase I:
chromosomes condense
spindle forms
pairing of homologous chromosomes
Metaphase I:
homologous chromosomes line up at equator
Anaphase I:
Spindle attach to chromosomes and pull homologous chromosomes to separate poles
Telophase I:
Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of cell
Spindle disappears
Meiosis II:

Prophase II:
chromosomes condense
spindle forms

Metaphase I:
individual chromosomes line up at equator
Anaphase I:
Spindle attach to chromatids and pull sister chromatids to
separate poles
Telophase I:
Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell
Spindle disappears

Genetic Variation through crossing over and random orientation: produce 4 haploid cells, each
with new combination of alleles!
Amniocentesis
Insert a needle into uterus and extract 10 mL of amniotic fluid (liquid that bathes the fetus)
Biochemical test of the fluid to identify certain chromosomal defects
Some tests require that cells be cultured (several weeks) before they can be tested
Performed 14th 16th week of pregnancy
3.4
Genotype: alleles possessed by an organism
Phenotype: characteristics of an organism

Homozogous: two identical alleles of a gene

Heterozygous: two different alleles of a gene
Dominant allele: allele that has same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the
homozygous or heterozygous state
Recessive allele: allele that has an effect on the phenotype only when it is present in the
homozygous state
Example: Earlobe attachment (alleles F and f)
Genotype: FF or Ff
Phenotype: Free earlobe
Genotype: ff
Phenotype: Earlobe attached
Punnett Square:

Test cross:
Test cross = testing a suspected homozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive
Red blood cells: transport oxygen
White blood cells: help fight infection
Platelets: help blood clot
Plasma: medium that carries these cells
Antigen = surface markers on your red blood cell (your blood cells ID)
Antibody = proteins produced by white blood cells, recognize certain antigens and trigger an
immune response