CONTENTS

PREFACE.......................................................................
............................................. 2
CONTENTS ................................................................
.................................................... 3
CHAPTER I
..............................................................................
...................................... 4
Cement ................................................................
...........................................
4
Chemical Composition of
Cement.................................................................
..
4
The Cement Manufacturing
Process................................................................
6
Types of
Cements ..............................................................
.............................
7
The Physical Properties of
Cement ................................................................
.
10
SOURCES ....................................................................
....................................................... 12

Cement

A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and

hardens as the cement dries and also reacts with
carbon dioxide in the air dependently, and can bind
other materials together. The word "cement" traces
to the Romans, who used the term opus
caementicium to describe masonry resembling
modern concrete that was made from crushed rock
with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives that were added to the
burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later
referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment, and
cement.

Function of cement :
To bind the sand and coarse aggregate together
To fill voids in between sand and coarse
aggregate particle
To form a compact mass

Types of cement normally used in building

industry are as follows:
Hydraulic Cement
Hydraulic Cement sets and hardens by action of
water. Such as Portland Cement. In other words
it means that hydraulic cement are any cements
that turns into a solid product in the presence of
water (as well as air) resulting in a material that
does not disintegrate in water. Most common
Hydraulic Cement is Portland Cement.
Nonhydraulic Cement
Nonhydraulic cement are any cements that does
not require water to transform it into a solid
product. Two common Nonhydraulic Cement
are :
a) Lime
- derived from limestone / chalk
b) Gypsum
Chemical Composition of Cement
Ingredient
%age Effect
Lime (CaO)
60-65 Controls strength and soundness
Sillica (SiO2)
20-25 Gives strength, excess quantity
causes slow setting
Alumina (Al2 O3) 4-8
Quick setting, excess lowers
strength
Iron Oxide (Fe2
2-4
Imparts color, helps in fusion of
O3)
ingredients
Magnesium Oxide 1-3
Color and hardness, excess
(MgO)
causes cracking
Na2 O
0.1Controls residues, excess causes
0.5
cracking
Sulphur Trioxide 1-2
Makes cement sound
(SO3)
Raw materials for cement manufacture

The first step in the manufacture of portland

cement is to combine a variety of raw ingredients so
that the resulting cement will have the desired
chemical composition. These ingredients are ground
into small particles to make them more reactive,
blended together, and then the resulting raw mix is
fed into a cement kiln which heats them to extremely
high temperatures.
Since the final composition and properties of
portland cement are specified within rather strict
bounds, it might be supposed that the requirements
for the raw mix would be similarly strict. As it turns
out, this is not the case. While it is important to have
the correct proportions of calcium, silicon, aluminum,
and iron, the overall chemical composition and
structure of the individual raw ingredients can vary
considerably. The reason for this is that at the very
high temperatures in the kiln, many chemical
components in the raw ingredients are burned of
and replaced with oxygen from the air. Table 3.3 lists
just some of the many possible raw ingredients that
can be used to provide each of the main cement
elements.
Table 3.3: Examples of raw materials for portland
cement manufacture (adapted from ref., Table 2.1).
Calcium
Limestone
Marl
Calcite
Aragonite

Silicon
Clay
Marl
Sand
Shale

Shale

Fly ash

Sea Shells
Cement kiln
dust

Rice hull ash

Slag

Aluminum
Clay
Shale
Fly ash
Aluminum ore
refuse

Iron
Clay
Iron ore
Mill scale
Shale
Blast furnace
dust

The ingredients listed above include both naturally

occurring materials such as limestone and clay, and
industrial byproduct materials such as slag and fly
ash. From Table 3.3 it may seem as if just about any
material that contains one of the main cement
elements can be tossed into the kiln, but this is not

quite true. Materials that contain more than minor (or

in some cases trace) amounts of metallic elements
such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, strontium,
and various heavy metals cannot be used, as these
will not burn of in the kiln and will negatively afect
the cement. Another consideration is the reactivity,
which is a function of both the chemical structure
and the fineness. Clays are ideal because they are
made of fine particles already and thus need little
processing prior to use, and are the most common
source of silica and alumina. Calcium is most often
obtained from quarried rock, particularly limestone
(calcium carbonate) which must be crushed and
ground before entering the kiln. The most readily
abundant source of silica is quartz, but pure quartz is
very unreactive even at the maximum kiln
temperature and cannot be used.
Grinding and blending prior to entering the kiln
can be performed with the raw ingredients in the
form of a slurry (the wet process) or in dry form (the
dry process). The addition of water facilitates
grinding. However, the water must then be removed
by evaporation as the first step in the burning
process, which requires additional energy. The wet
process, which was once standard, has now been
rendered obsolete by the development of efficient
dry grinding equipment, and all modern cement
plants use the dry process. When it is ready to enter
the kiln, the dry raw mix has 85% of the particles
less than 90 gm in size.

The Cement Manufacturing Process

Portland cement is the basic ingredient of
concrete. Concrete is formed with portland cement
creates a paste with water that binds with sand and
rock to harden. Cement is manufactured through a
closely controlled chemical combination of calcium,
silicon, aluminum, iron and other ingredients.
Common materials used to manufacture cement
include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined
with shale, clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand,
and iron ore. These ingredients, when heated at high
temperatures form a rock-like substance that is
ground into the fine powder that we commonly think
of as cement.
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first
made portland cement early in the 19th century by
burning powdered limestone and clay in his kitchen
stove. With this crude method, he laid the foundation

for an industry that annually processes literally

mountains of limestone, clay, cement rock, and other
materials into a powder so fine it will pass through a
sieve capable of holding water.
Cement plant laboratories check each step in the
manufacture of portland cement by frequent chemical
and physical tests. The labs also analyze and test the
finished product to ensure that it complies with all
industry specifications.
The most common way to manufacture portland
cement is through a dry method. The first step is to
quarry the principal raw materials, mainly limestone,
clay, and other materials. After quarrying the rock is
crushed. This involves several stages. The first
crushing reduces the rock to a maximum size of about
six inches. The rock then goes to secondary crushers
or hammer mills for reduction to about three inches or
smaller.
The crushed rock is combined with other
ingredients such as iron ore or fly ash and
ground, mixed, and fed to a cement kiln.
The cement kiln heats all the ingredients to
about 2,700 degrees Fahrenheit in huge
cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special
firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 12 feet
in diameterlarge enough to accommodate an
automobile and longer in many instances than
the height of a 40-story building. The large kilns
are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from
the horizontal.
The finely ground raw material or the slurry is
fed into the higher end. At the lower end is a
roaring blast of flame, produced by precisely
controlled burning of powdered coal, oil,
alternative fuels, or gas under forced draft.
As the material moves through the kiln, certain
elements are driven of in the form of gases. The
remaining elements unite to form a new
substance called clinker. Clinker comes out of
the kiln as grey balls, about the size of marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end
of the kiln and generally is brought down to
handling temperature in various types of coolers.
The heated air from the coolers is returned to
the kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases
burning efficiency.
After the clinker is cooled, cement plants grind it

and mix it with small amounts of gypsum and

limestone. Cement is so fine that one pound of
cement contains 150 billion grains. The cement
is now ready for transport to ready-mix concrete
companies to be used in a variety of
construction projects.
Although the dry process is the most modern
and popular way to manufacture cement, some kilns
in the United States use a wet process. The two
processes are essentially alike except in the wet
process, the raw materials, are grounded with water
before being fed into the kiln.
Type of Cements
Type of cements divided into five kinds. There
are portland cement, water proofed cement, white
cement, high alumina cement, and blended cement.

Portland cement

The ASTM has designated five types of portland

cement, designated Types I-V.
Physically and
chemically, these cement types difer primarily in
their content of C3A and in their fineness. In terms
of performance, they difer primarily in the rate of
early hydration and in their ability to resist sulfate
attack. The general characteristics of these types
are listed in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7. General features of the main types of
portland cement.
Classification
Characteristic
Applications
Type I
Fairly high C3S
General construction
(Ordinary Portland
content for good
(most buildings,
Cement)
early strength
bridges, pavements,
development.
precast units, etc)
Type II
Low C3A content
Structures exposed
(Moderate sulfate
(<8%)
to soil or water
resistance)
containing sulfate
ions
Type III
Ground more finely, Rapid construction,
( High early
may have slightly
cold weather
strength)
more C3S.
concreting.
Type IV
Low content of C3S
Massive structures
( Low heat of
(<50%) and C3A.
such as dams
hydration)

Type V
( High sulfate
resistance)

Very low C3A

content (<5%)

Structures likely to
be damaged by
severe alkaline
conditions like
bridges, culverts,
canal lining, siphons
etc
Type One is suitable for most basic construction
uses.
Type Two is best for structures built in hot
environments, or in soil or water high in sulfate.
Percentage of tri-calcium Aluminate (C3A) is kept
below 5% resulting in increase in resisting power
against sulphates. Heat developed is almost
same as Low Heat Cement. Theoretically ideal
cement. Costly manufacturing because of
stringent composition requirements. Used for
structures likely to be damaged by severe
alkaline conditions like bridges, culverts, canal
lining, siphons, etc.
For projects requiring strength at an early stage,
Type Three is ideal because it provides more
strength within one week than the other types.
Gains strength faster than OPC. In 3 days
develops 7 days strength of OPC with same
water cement ratio.
After 24 hours not less than 160 kg/cm2
After 72 hours not less than 275 kg/cm2
Initial and final setting times are same as OPC.
Contains more tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and finely
ground. Emits more heat during setting, therefore
unsuitable for mass concreting. Lighter and
costlier than OPC. Short curing period makes it
economical. Used for structures where immediate
loading is required e.g. repair works.
Type Four is useful in limiting heat caused by
hydration and is therefore used in massive
concrete undertakings, such as dams. Low
percentage (5%) of tri-calcium aluminates (C3A)
and silicate (C3S) and high (46%) of di-calcium
silicate (C2S) to keep heat generation low. It has
low lime content and less compressive strength.
Initial and final setting times nearly same as
OPC. Very slow rate of developing strength. Not
suitable for ordinary structures. Shuttering

required for long duration so cost will increase.

Prolonged curing is required.
When soil or water is high in chemicals, Type
Five should be used because it is manufactured
to resist chemical erosion. Percentage of tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) is kept below 5%
resulting in increase in resisting power against
sulphates. Heat developed is almost same as
Low Heat Cement. Theoretically ideal cement.
Costly manufacturing because of stringent
composition requirements.Used for structures
likely to be damaged by severe alkaline
conditions like bridges, culverts, canal lining,
siphons, etc.

Water proofed cement

It is prepared by mixing ordinary or rapid
hardening cement and some percentage of some
metal stearate ( Ca, Al etc). It is resistant to water
and oil penetration. It is also resistant to acids,
alkaline and salt discharged by industrial water. It
is used for water retaining structure like tanks,
reservoir, retaining walls, pool, dam etc

White cement
White portland cement is readily available
throughout North America. It has essentially the
same properties as gray cement, except for color,
which is a very important quality control issue in
the industry.The color of white cement depends on
raw materials and the manufacturing process. It is
the metal oxides (primarily iron and manganese)
that influence the whiteness and undertone of the
material. White cement is manufactured to
conform to ASTM C 150, Specification for Portland
Cement. Although Types I, II, III, and V white
cements are produced, Types I and III are the most
common.White cements produce clean, bright
colors, especially for light pastels. Many diferent
colors can be created by adding pigments to
concrete made with white portland cement. Two or
more pigments can be combined to achieve a wide
range of colors. White cement (or a mixture of
white and gray cement) can be specified to
provide a consistent color of choice. An even

greater variety of decorative looks can be

achieved by using colored aggregates and varying
the surface finish treatment or texture.

High alumina cement

Black chocolate color cement produced by fusing
bauxite and limestone in correct proportion, at
high temperature. Resists attack of chemicals,
Sulphates, seawater, frost action and also fire.
Useful in chemical plants and furnaces. Ultimate
strength is much higher than OPC. Initial setting
time is 2 hours, followed soon by final setting.
Most of the heat is emitted in first 10 hrs. Good for
freezing temperatures in cold regions (below
18C). Develops strength rapidly, useful during
wartime emergency. Unsuitable for mass concrete
as it emits large heat on setting.

Blended cement
Pozollan Portland Cement (PPC)
OPC clinker and Pozzolana (Calcined Clay,
Surkhi and Fly ash) ground together. Properties
same as OPC. Produces less heat of hydration
and ofers great resistance to attacks of
Sulphates and acidic waters. Used in marine
works and mass concreting. Ultimate strength is
more than OPC but setting timings are same as
OPC.
Portland Slug Cement
Produced by mixing Portland cement clinker,
gypsum and granulated blast furnace slag.
Cheaper than OPC, blackish grey in color. Lesser
heat of hydration. Initial setting in 1 hr and final
setting 10 hrs. Better resistance to soil agents,
sulphates of alkali metals, alumina, iron and
acidic waters. Suitable for marine works, mass
concreting.
Masonry Cement

Unlike ordinary cement, it is more plastic. Made

by mixing hydrated lime, crushed stone,
granulated slag or highly colloidal clays are
mixed with it. Addition of above mentioned
materials reduces the strength of cement.
The Physical Properties of Cement
Portland cements are commonly characterized
by their physical properties for quality control
purposes. Their physical properties can be used to
classify and compare Portland cements. The
challenge in physical property characterization is to
develop physical tests that can satisfactorily
characterize key parameters.
The physical properties of cement are
Setting Time
Soundness
Fineness
Strength
Setting Time
Cement paste setting time is afected by a
number of items including: cement fineness,
water-cement ratio, chemical content
(especially gypsum content) and
admixtures. Setting tests are used to
characterize how a particular cement paste sets.
For construction purposes, the initial set
must not be too soon and the final set not be
too late. Normally, two setting times are
defined:
Initial set. Occurs when the paste begins to
stifen considerably.
Final set. Occurs when the cement has
hardened to the point at which it can
sustain some load.
Setting is mainly caused by C A and C S and
results in temperature rise in the cement paste.
False set :No heat is evolved in a false
set and the concrete can be re-mixed
adding water.
Occures due to the conversion of
unhydreous/semihydrous gypsum to hydrous
gypsum(CaSO .2H O)
Flash Set: is due to absence of Gypsum.
Specifically used for under water repair.

Setting Time Test

The setting time test is conducted by using the
sameVicat apparatus, except that a
1mm
diameter needle is used for penetration. The test
is started about 15 minutes after placing the
cement paste (which has consistency) into the
mold. Trials for penetration of the needle are made.
The final setting time is defined as the length of time
between the penetration of the paste and the time
when the needle(with annular ring) no longer sinks
visibly into the paste. The initial setting time is
defined as the length of time between the
penetration of the paste and the time when the
needle penetrates 25mm into the cement paste.
Soundness
Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened
cement paste to retain its volume after setting
without delayed expansion. This is caused by
excessive amounts
of free lime (CaO) or
magnesia (MgO). Most
Portland
cement
specifications limit magnesia
content and
expansion. The cement paste should not
undergo large changes in volume after it has
set. However, when excessive amounts of free CaO
or MgO are present in the cement, these oxides
can slowly hydrate and cause expansion of
the hardened cement paste. Soundness is defined
as the volume stability of the cement paste.
Fineness
Fineness, or particle size of Portland cement afects
Hydration rate and thus the rate of strength gain.
The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface
area-to-volume ratio, and thus, the more area
available for water-cement interaction per unit
volume. The efects of greater fineness on
strength are generally seen during the first seven
days. When the cement particles are coarser,
hydration starts on the surface of the. So the coarser
particles may not be completely hydrated.This
causes low strength and low durability. For a rapid
development of strength a high fineness is
necessary.
Strength
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three
ways: compressive, tensile and These strengths can
be afected by a number of items including: watercement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio,
type and grading of fine aggregate, curing
conditions, size and shape of specimen, loading
conditions and age.

Duration of Testing
Typically, Durations of testing are:
1 day (for high early strength cement)
3 days, 7 days, 28 days and 90 days (for
monitoring strength progress)
28 days strength is recognised as a basis for
control in most codes.
When considering cement paste strength tests,
there are two items to consider:
Cement mortar strength is not directly related
to concrete strength. Strength tests
are done on cement mortars (cement + water
+ sand) and not on cement pastes.
SOURCES
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/cement
http://cescientist.com/types-of-cement/
http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Mono
graph3_8.html
https://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?
qid=20070530094241AAuoIRw
elearning.vtu.ac.in/16/.../Unit1-L3-RVR.pdf
manufacturing_of_portland_cement.pdf
www.lafarge.com/09102004-cementcement_manufacturing_process-uk